ABSTRACT THE NATURE, EXTENT AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION AND SEDINENTATION IN AN URBANIZING WATERSHED IN WESTERN LOWER MICHIGAN by Terry Allen Ringler Urban growth and hinterland sprawl is rapidly moving across much of lower Michigan with little regard to soil and water resources. The rate at which these changes are occurring make it difficult to segregate rural and urban land use and management planning. Soil erosion and the resulting sedimentation, regardless of source, is one of the most important conservation issues that face "water wonderland". Soil erosion control is not limited to the rural setting. Land areas exposed to the elements during urbanization are ‘yielding some of the highest soil losses in Michigan. It is becoming increasingly important to plan our metropolitan regions and state as a whole and not attempt to plan and manage rural areas apart from urban areas . Terry Allen Ringler The study area, Plaster Creek Watershed, is in the southwestern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan. It lies entirely within the County of Kent and consists of 38,100 acres (59.5 square miles) which is about seven per cent of the total county area. Plaster Creek drains directly into the Grand River within the City of Grand Rapids. Approximately a third of the watershed is in established urban use. Another one-third is undergoing suburban development and the balance is in agricultural use. Idle and undeveloped land is distributed throughout each of these areas. The stream pattern, surface geology, soils and climate are typical for western lower Michigan. The developing urban pattern in the Plaster Creek watershed is producing a change from agricultural to urban in a short period of time. This shifting land use has substantially increased erosion and sediment problems on the land and in the waters of the watershed. Sediment resulting from soil erosion has become one of the major sources of pollution in Plaster Creek watershed. This study was designed to determine the nature and extent of the erosion and sedimentation on the various land uses as the watershed evolves from predom— inately agricultural to urban. Erosion rates were estimated, points of initial deposition of sediment were noted and the kinds and amounts of erosion control practices needed were estimated for four primary land Terry Allen Ringler use categories and eleven sub-categories. The data and conclusions reached in the first part of the study form the basis for the last part, that of analyzing existing legislation and programs for erosion control. Recom- mended changes in legislation are made to more nearly accomplish the "needs" as identified in the study. Computed annual erosion losses varied from 0.01 to 29.9 tons per acre and can be attributed largely to ground cover, soil erodibility and slopes. The highest annual average erosion loss for a primary land use category was 8.A8 tons per acre on land undergoing urban development. The lowest annual loss of 0.83 tons per acre was on established urban land. Agricultural and idle land had average annual losses of 1.11 and 3.44 tons per acre. Seventeen per cent of the watershed was in the idle land category from which thirty—four per cent of the total soil loss occurred. Under existing conditions the estimated total annual soil erosion was 1,150 tons per square mile. With an estimated delivery ratio of fifty per cent this represents over 3A,000 tons of sediment reaching the Grand River annually from Plaster Creek. Over eighty per cent of all erosion in urban areas and on devel— oping land goes directly into streets and open channels. The predominant problem of soil erosion originates with the absence of proper conservation practices on the Terry Allen Ringler non—agricultural lands in the watershed. Attempts to deal with non—agricultural erosion on a piecemeal basis have proven costly and generally ineffective. An urgent need exists for local governments and state agencies to adopt and implement sediment control programs for all public and private land undergoing changes in use. A review of natural resource legislation indicates that the basis for such programs should be a state-wide sediment control law assigning local Soil Conservation Districts the responsibility for furnishing technical assistance in the planning and application of conservation measures. In order to best fulfill this responsibility two important changes need to be made in the Soil Conservation Districts Law. First, all District boundaries should be adjusted to coincide with those of one or more counties and include all lands within. Second, District Directors should be elected on a non- partisan ballot in the general election. Under these proposed changes the governmental entity or agency responsible for issuing permits for _construction or for regulating sediment producing activities would determine on the basis of size, topog- raphy, soils, other erosion hazards or previously agreed upon factors relating to sedimentation which plats and plans would require intensive erosion control planning and treatment. All levels of local and state government Terry Allen Ringler could require approved erosion control plans prior to the issuance of a permit when in their judgment such a plan is necessary. Local priorities and plans would determine at what stage and in what detail sediment control plans should be prepared and submitted to Districts for approval. Operating policies and staff determinations would govern how much assistance in plan preparation and installation of practices would be available from a given District. Using available resource data, permitting local governmental units and state agencies to determine when and where control is needed, and arranging for assistance through Soil Conservation Districts would provide the necessary flexibility for local program development and implementation while accomplishing statewide objectives. THE NATURE, EXTENT AND CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION AND SEDIVENTATION IN AN URBANIZING WATERSHED IN WESTERN LOWER MICHIGAN by Terry Allen Ringler A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department Of Resource Development le KO (7\ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Opportunities provided this student by the Department of Resource Development and the Michigan State Office of the U. S. Soil Conservation Service made the completion of this thesis possible. It is with a deep sense of appreciation that the interest of several gentlemen in each of these agencies are acknowledged. First appreciation to Professor Barlowe, Chairman of the Department of Resource Development, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, for granting me a research assistantship, and Professor Humphrys, my major professor, for his meaningful guidance. Secondly, much credit is due Verne Bathurst, former State Conservationist for SCS of Michigan, for providing guidance in the selection of a subject worthy of study for providing funds that made it possible to 'complete this study on schedule. The continued support and personal interest in the subject by Arthur Cratty, the present State Conservationist, is appreciated. Standing above the many individuals at all levels that have contributed information and guidance during ii the course of this study is James Thompson, Geologist for the River Basin Planning Section of SCS in Michigan. He is truly a gentleman and a scholar, but first a friend. And finally I recognize the support and willing sacrifice of my wife, Fayre, and our children Joseph and Jennifer. Their contribution to this year at M.S.U. is known only to Him for whom all strength comes. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION Land Use Trends Previous Studies Purpose of Study Definition of Terms II. STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION Location and Size Early History Drainage Pattern Surface Geology Soils Climate III. DATA COLLECTION METHfDS Sample Selection Land Use Categories Erosion Equations . Sediment Deposition Points Erosion Control and Sediment Reduction Practices Erosion Control Legislation iv. ii iv vi vii viii }_: OKOU'IR) ll 15 17 18 22 25 31 31 36 140 “5 51 VI. DATA ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . Nature and Extent of Erosion Nature and Extent of Sedimentation Types and Amounts of Conservation PractiCes Needed . . Erosion Control Legislation . . . Analysis of the Soil Conservation Law Other Legal Approaches to Sediment Control CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Erosion and Sedimentation . . . Erosion Control and Sediment Reduction Practices Conclusions Recommendations SUMMARY . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES 53 53 57 61 72 78 80 81 83 BA 87 93 96 103 Table LIST OF TABLES General Land Use and Population Statistics for Michigan, Kent County and Plaster Creek Watershed . Area Distribution by Municipality Range and Average Annual Soil Losses Types and Amounts of Erosion Control Practices Needed 1“ 6O 67 Figure l. 11. l2. 13. 114. 15. 16. LIST 0 ’1] O I J H GURE U) Plaster Creek Drains into the Grand River Within the City of Grand Rapids . . . . Grand River Basin, Michigan Plaster Creek Watershed: Boundary Plaster Creek Watershed: Stream Pattern Plaster Creek Watershed: Surface Geology General Soil Map . . . . . . The More Intense Storms occur during the Construction Season Total Rainfall-Erosion Index . . Much of the Watershed is Urbanizing Sample Description . . . . . . . . Rapid runoff occurs when large areas are Sealed Sediment Damages Streets and Stormdrains Watershed Area and TOfal Erosion by Land use Categories Average Annual Erosion Rates by Land Use Points of Initial Deposition of Eroded materials . . . . . . . . . . . Per Cent of Land Needing Treatment by Land use Categories . . . . . . l2 13 1n 19 26 29 30 3A 35 39 ”7 5A 58 63 66 LIST OF ARPENDICES Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . Supplementary Tables . . . . . . . . . Soil Conservation Districts Law . . . . . Revised Northeast Kent Soil Conservation District Program . . . . . . . . . . Basic Principles Involved in a Local Sediment Control Program . . . . . . . . . . viii 122 127 K 3 J: "'0 t 3 .8 +—-{ IKTRODVCT ON Erosion and sedimentation are natural processes that have existed throughout geologic time. It has been since the advent of Man and his insistence on changing the surface of the land that the acceleration of soil erosion over geologic norms has occurred. He has depleted and removed the natural protective vege— tation, altered and destroyed the natural profile of the soil and created and exposed a land surface susceptable to accelerated erosion. At the same time highways, parking lots, buildings and other artifacts having "sealed" surfaces have been built creating runoff from areas where formerly the rainfall perco— lated into the soil. With increased population and more intensive land use come greater concentrations of people demanding more buildings, more highways, and more urbanization. The result is more runoff, greater soil losses from erosion and more sediment. .J Pl) Land Use Trends Michigan, the Grand River Basin, Kent County, and the Plaster Creek watershed are all becoming less rural and more urban every year. At the turn of the century sixty per cent of the people in Michigan were scattered through the country side where they lived and worked, the rest were urban dwellers.l In 1960, seventy—three per cent of Michigan's population of 7.8 million people lived in urban areas with a large proportion of the remaining people in suburbia and in communities along highways where they enjoyed easy access to the urban amenities. The study area of this thesis, Plaster Creek watershed in Kent County, has had an eighty-four per cent increase in population in ten years. Population densities are increasing rapidly while the proportion of land in farms decreases annually. The bulldozer and concrete truck are literally taking over from the plow and wagon in much of Michigan. Urban growth and hinterland "sprawl" is rapidly moving across much of lower Michigan with little regard to soil and water resources. The rate at which these changes are occurring make it increasingly difficult to segregate rural and urban land use and management 1Bureau of Business and Economic Research, Michi an §tatistical Abstract, Michigan State University, 1968. 7. 'U LO TABLE l.-—General land use and population statistics for Michigan, Kent County and Plaster Creek watershed. Michigan Kent Plaster County Creeka Total Population, 1960 7,823,19u 368,187 51,3u9 Population Increase Since 1950 (%) 22.8 26.0 8u.o Land Area (square miles) 56,817 857 59.5 PeOple per square mile 138 42A 862 Total number Farms, 1954 93,50A 2,U22 60 Acreage in Farms (thousands) 13,599 276 15 Proportion of All Land in Farms 37.3 50.0 39.8 Source: U.S. Bureau of Census, County and City Data Book, 1967 (Government Printing Office: Washington, D. c. 1967) pp. 172-180. aFigures based on actual measurement on base map and upon per cent of civil land area in the Plaster Creek watershed. planning. Soil erosion and the resulting sedimentation, regardless of source, is one of the most important conservations issues that face "water wonderland". Soil erosion control is not limited to the rural setting, land areas exposed to the elements during urbanization may yield some of the highest soil losses in the state.2 In the future it will become increasingly important to plan our metropolitan regions and state as a whole and not attempt to plan and manage rural areas apart from urban areas. Recently this idea has been stated as follows: Conservation was once primarily a country matter. Today, the concern for a quality environment has expanded to include our great urban complexes. With seventy-five per cent of the people living in cities and more on the way, the term environment has come to include life and its surroundings.3 One must recognize that there is a sense of urgency about this business of "planning our total environment." Changing land use and the care of the soil during the change is sometimes unplannei but more often inadequately planned. 2J. H. Schmidt and A. W. Summers, ”The Effect of Urbanization on Sedimentation in the Clinton River Basin" University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967. 3U. S. Department of Interior, Conservation Yearbook No. 3, The Third Wave (Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1966) p. 7. Previous Studies Early erosion research efforts, in the 1930's, were concerned with soil erosion and land deterioration resulting from agricultural tillage and management practices. Held and Clawson report that the earliest federal appropriations made specifically for soil conservation were in 1928. These funds that became effective for the 1930 fiscal year "were explicitly concerned with research on soil erosion and its pre— vention."u This early research consisted largely of trying to measure soil losses under experimental conditions. With the passage of the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 emphasis shifted from experimental research to surveys to determine the seriousness of soil erosion watershed basis. Under the leadership of Hugh H. Bennett the Soil Conservation Service conducted a series of Regional Reconnaissance Erosion Surveys. These were followed by a series of reservoir sedimentation studies that equated sediment and erosion with land use and management.5 In each instance it was recognized that urban uses and lands I “R. Burnell Held and Marian Clawson, Soil Conser— vation in Prospective (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1965), p. 59. 5Natural Resources Council, "Sedimentation Studies by the Soil Conservation Service, l9A0—19Al" Comprehensive Sedimentation Report, 19A2, Exhibit D, pp. 26-33} in transition contributed sediment but the per acre losses were estimated only for agricultural and forest areas. Erosion was viewed largely as a farmer—land problem rather than a man-nature issue. With the urbanization that followed the Second World War, conservationists and engineers were alarmed by the soil losses resulting from the construction techniques being used on the east coast. Much work was then directed to the investigation of sedimentation of waters in these urban fringe areas. Guy and Ferguson studies the impact of urban growth on sedimentation in the Washington, D. C. area.E Keller determined sediment transport rates in streams draining urban areas compared to those draining rural areas.7 In 1959, the U. S. Geological Survey, in cooperation with the U. S. Corps of Engineers, made a reconnaissance of the sediment in the Potomac River.8 Each of these studies showed, among other things, that erosion rates on construction sites 6H. P. Guy and G. E. Ferguson, "Sediment Deposition in Small Reservoirs Resulting from Urbanization.” American Society of Civil Engineers, Hydraulics Division Proceedings, 1962, Vol. 88. 7F. J. Keller, "Effect of Urban Growth on Sediment Discharge, Northwest Branch Anacostia River Basin, Maryland” U. S. Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1962, Art. 113. 8J. W. Wark et a1, "Reconnaissance of Sedimentation arm.Chemical quality of Surface Water in the Potomac River IBasin," U. S. Corps of Engineers Potomac River Basin fieport, 1961, Appendix H, Vol. VII. Tare often two hundred to three hundred times those on agricultural and forest areas. These studies were conducted in a region having more erosive rainfalls and more erodible soils than in Michigan. The signif— icance of these studies to local conditions is in the relative rates of erosion on the various land uses and not in the absolute losses per unit area. During the early 1960's several erosion, sedimen- tation and stream flow studies were initiated in Michigan. A U. S. Forest Service study by Striffler published in 1964 employed modern sampling techniques while following the pattern of early USDA studies in site selection and data analysis.9 Suspended sediment and stream discharge was analyzed from twenty sample watersheds in an agricultural—forestry region in northern Lower Michigan. It was found that cultivated and pastured land yielded large amounts of sediment and exhibited wide variation in stream flow, while forest and wild land yielded small amounts of sediment and had comparatively stable flow. There were no urbanizing areas in the study region. As a result of Interstate highway construction methods resulting in sedimentation of the Red Cedar River a study of the effects of sediment upon aquatic life of the river was initiated by the Institute of 9David W. Striffler, "Sediment, Streamflow, and Land Relationships in Northern Lower Michigan." U. S. Forest Service Research Paper, LS-l6, 196A. £2 ) Water Research.10 Damage to the biotic community of the river is amply documented in this study, however, no attempt was made to estimate total physical quantity of eroded material deposited in the river from the primary erosion site. Another recent study which also considered erosion on a site by site basis was conducted by a team of University of Michigan researchers in 1967.11 Their study was the first attempt to estimate erosion and sedimentation in Michigan based on soil and cover characteristics and climatic records. Estimated annual soil loss from nine sites in four urbanizing land use categories ranged from 17 to 5A0 tons per acre. No estimates were made for agricultural land or idle land. Other studies and "cases" have revealed the extent of damage to streams and lakes and the legal and ethical "maize" encountered in attempts to achieve corrective action.12 10Darrell L. King and Robert C. Ball, "The Influence of Highway Construction on a Stream.” Research Report 19, Agriculture Experiment Station, Michigan State University, 196A. llJ. H. Schmidt and A. w. Summers, "The Effect of .6 Urbanization on Sedimentation in the Clinton River Basin," 1 .gUniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967- 12R. Verne Righter, et al, V. Pulte Land Company, et a1, Circuit Court for the County of Oakland (Michigan) Case No. 21A38, (1968). Purposes of Study Early erosion research efforts were agriculturally oriented with little regard to other land uses. More recent studies have focused upon urban soil erosion and sedimentation. It behooves us today, however, to consider the full spectrum of land uses, from agricultural to. established urban and the various stages of transition. One should not become unduly occupied with either agri- cultural or urban problems to the extent that he overlooks the inter—relationships involved in the use and management of all soil and water resources. This approach is employed in this study in an attempt to achieve a mean— ingful appreciation of the nature and complexity of the erosion-sedimentation problem and how it can be best met. This study was designed to objectively determine in an urbanizing small watershed: l. The nature and extent of soil erosion and initial deposition of the resulting sediment from various land uses. 2. The kinds and amounts of erosion control and sediment reduction practices needed to hold soil losses at an acceptable level. 3. The suitability of existing legislation, the need for its revision or the development of new laws to effectively accomplish the needed erosion control and sediment reduction identified in this study. IO Definition of Terms Much of the terminology used in this thesis has acquired various meanings and definitions depending largely on the research group, agency or special interest group using them. It is well at the outset to define those several terms and words that appear throughout the study. Erosion, unless specified otherwise is used to mean rainfall induced accelerated soil erosion. Ugbgg- ization means that characteristic of becoming more city— like and less rural. Sediment is used to mean the rock and soil materials that are dislodged, transported and deposited as the result of erosion, and sedimentation is simply the deposition of sediment in or by water. Watershed is used to mean the land area from which runoff water drains to a certain point. Unless otherwise stated, watershed will refer to the PlaSter Creek watershed, which is the 59.5 square miles of land that drains to the point where Plaster creek enters the Grand River. Other terms used in the description of the study area and the analysis of data that require precise definition are given in a Glossary of Terms in the Appendix. CHAPTER II STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION Location and Size The Plaster Creek watershed, a part of the Grand River Basin, is in the southwestern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan.1 It lies entirely within Kent County and consists of 38,100 acres or about seven per cent of the total county area. Plaster Creek drains directly into the Grand River at a point one-half mile north of the I-A96 bridge over the‘river. The land area or watershed draining to the creek includes the northern third of Gaines Township, the western edge of Caledonia and Cascade Townships and to the north, a small part of Ada Township and the City of East Grand Rapids. The southern part of the City of Grand Rapids and the northern one fourth of the city of Wyoming drain into Plaster Creek.2 A About a third of the watershed is in established urban use. Grand Rapids and East Grand Rapids; about lSee Figures 1 and 2. '2See Figure 3. ll l2 Figure l.—-Plaster creek drains into the Grand River within the City of Grand Rapids. The silt laden runoff from 59.5 square miles of land enter Plaster Creek and its tributaries. l3 GRAND RIVER BASIN-MICHIGAN MAP g MICHIGAN W PLASTER CREEK if ‘L /( 0 IO 20 30 40 l 1 1 1 J SCALE IN MILE! Figure 2 114 .23s32' / ,‘ i I :I/A"! EM. 5 fl" .4“’("az -~«~?:..”-;~:-~ RAPIUS‘ ‘ '[ij HALL ‘1' xx .2 _ - 57‘ ‘cz ”iv 5 5" ”I" St 3 ll U E o > . " 1- <1 3; Lu ' " m 3 ST .3: ‘~ 1* m III-III... II ‘TY , l ”\y’ i; ‘ 4 32?: , Sr 1.4 L 5 i mi 3 1' - . . I 3' ‘ o ' ' ' ., . _3._x, a s ,1. :‘i’ 20 \mzz s 9.? 931*? § " . x I? T_,.\'.:__ _,' -‘I-i __ I . I! w I'F“ ' lT‘ Ia—y‘ w r\ ‘3 ' ‘8? \ L8 . FOE bl... PLASTER SK WATERS HE D Keur COUNTY MIC”. SCALE 0 I 2. Mutts — 27 K 'IIFIR 7:6' I 1- 26 “9’5 ' I ,fih ' “Wm ' ‘t WING AV gymoon one-third is "urbanizing" land and another third is in agricultural use. Idle land is distributed throughout each of these areas. TABLE 2.--Area distribution of municipality Plaster Creek watershed. if 11 Watershed Area Municipality Area Municipality Acresb %0 Total Acresa % in W/SC Ada Township 274 0.74 24,340 1.12 Caledonia Twp 1,165 3.05 22,394 5.20 Cascade Twp 3,394 8.91 22,344 15.18 East Grand Rapids City 834 2.18 2,179 38.27 Gaines Twp 8,662 22.73 23,196 37.34 City of Grand Rapids 8,326 2 .85 30,179 27.58 Grand Rapids Twp 2,074 5.44 10,299 20.13 City of Kentwood 9,167 24.06 12,455 73.60 City of Wyoming A,2ou 11.0A 15,715 26.75 Totals 38,100 100.00 —- —— aData Profile, Grand Rapids Metropolitan Area Kent County Planning Commission, Table 32. bPlanimetered on a USGS Quadrangle Map of the Plaster Creek Watershed. CCalculations based upon a and b above. Early History The first permanent settlement made in the watershed was in 1833, less than ten years after the American Fur Company established its first trading post in what was to 16 become Kent County.3 These first settlers, the Burtons and the Guilds, built the first log houses in Paris ”u Forests were cleared Township "near Plaster Creek. for farms, homes were built on the farmland, and bus- inesses were established beside the most traveled roads and streams. Thus four years before Michigan became a state ”urbanization" had begun in Plaster Creek watershed. In the next ten years many other settlers, most of them from New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, arrived in the area. About this same time several industries were introduced. The flowing waters of the creek were harnessed to power a grist mill and several saw mills. History records that "four dams were constructed at different times, but carried away" as the result of high water.5 The next significant event was the devel- opment of gypsum (plaster) quarries and mills from which the creek derived its name. The clear spring water of Whiskey Creek, a tributary of the Plaster, supported another early industry. In 1842 a leading citizen of the area wrote, "This with our inexhaustible quarries of gypsum, our fertile soil, beautiful springs, valuable timber, great water 3Robert Hilton, et a1., History of Kent County Michigan (Chicago: Chas. C. Capman and Company, 1881) p- l 3 “Ibid., 1291. 5161d. 17 power, steamboat navigation above and below Grand Rapids, ought to be sufficient to insure a rapid increase of population whenever the advantages become known."6 With such illustrious recommendations and Horace Greeley's advice to young men the area did grow and has continued to grow, with the exception of the mid 1920's, up to the present time.7 Along with the increased population, increased concentration of people, and the shift of land use from forest to agriculture to urban, the watershed has acquired increasingly complex land and water management problems. It is because of one segment of these problems, begun 136 years ago with the first settlement, that this study was undertaken. Drainage Pattern The drainage pattern of Plaster Creek and its tributaries are largely the result of the surface geology and topography. The topography is gently rolling to moderately steep. Height above sea level ranges from 596 feet near its junction with the Grand River to 840 feet at the southern boundary in Gaines Township.8 This 6Ernest B. Fisher, ed., Grand Rapids and Kent County Michigan (Historical Account of Their Progress From First Settlement to the Present Time) (Chicago: Robert 0. Law Company, 1918), p. 112. 7See Table 1, Appendix B., Population of Civil Units Comprising Plaster Creek Watershed and Estimated Population of the Watershed. 8U. S. Geological Survey, ”Grand Rapids Quadrangle," (Washington, D. C., uses, 1950). l8 distance measured in a straight line is only ten miles, however, the length of the main channel is almost twenty- six miles. The two primary tributaries draining the northern part of the watershed are Whiskey Creek and Little Plaster Creek.9 Both enter the Plaster within the City of Kent— wood. Four un—named tributaries drain the southeast part of the watershed. There is a lack of flowing streams west of the main stream, which is due largely to the surface geology and soil textures in the area. The watershed lacks any lakes of significant size. Most of the small lakes are in the northeast portion, however, the drainage divide skirts around Reeds Lake, one of the county's largest lakes. Surface Geology The surface geology of the Plaster Creek Watershed is the result of continental glaciation. Huge ice masses moved across this area from the north, crushing and mixing the rock and soil materials in their paths. The foundation rock, primarily limestone, is generally buried many feet below the unconsolidated glacial debris. A ledge of this limestone approximately one mile upstream from the confluance of the Plaster Creek with the Grand River forms the "grand rapids." 9See Figure 4, "Stream Pattern Map." l9 PLASTER CREEK WATERSHED KENT COUNTY, MICH. ~ \ . \ \VI'LAV/ \\ :3 ] ADA \ \J‘ \ > a (ICASCADE \ .7 k \ no :04- 4. 3“ cu\- S \, 28 "l. \ A i / l ‘ ‘U \ \ 44 m. Divisnon St V / J I KENTWOOD l ‘; “)601h ll. 5 (l / . / 1) / sane ' o | , 2 ‘3 ’84th.St. muss ‘\ l " \ /“V/m 4‘ ~ < (9 STREAM PATTERN MAP Figure 4 20 With the exception of a narrow band of waterlaid deposits, formed as the glaciers melted, along the Grand River, the surface geology of the drainage basin is glacial till and outwash plains. These materials, deposited more than 10,000 years ago, form the parent material from which the geologically "young" soils were formed.10 The geologic and topographic nature of these materials determine in large measure the kinds of soil and land management problems, such as soil erosion, that are present today. Four different types cf glacial features are described below and depicted on the Surface Geology Map.ll Moraines consisting of unsorted glacial debris ' such as rocks, soil and vegetative material were laid down along a halted ice front. This type of steeply rolling formation is found in the western part of the watershed between Breton and Eastern Avenues. Ground Moraines were formed as the glaciers receded. Soil and rock materials carried in the ice were deposited in broad undulating plains. Practically - 10E. P. Whiteside, 1. F. Schnider, and R. L. Cook, Soils of Michigan, Agricultural Experiment Station, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1968, p. 13. 11Department of Conservation, Geological Survey Division, Publication 49, 1955, See Figure 5, "Surface Geology." w w v... .....u........ ..... .1. O K m ...............n ..............H..o......nuu .. u 2 C... E U .................".n.mu 6 pm— 0 monoooooooooooooonon ouo o no G o ooooooo o oo ooooo o oooooo o E C . C R a /. .. o ....... ......O 0...... . ....... .000... O O O 0.... ........... oo o ooooouoo 0. .O. .O... .O. . .. no... 0 o ooooooo . .00. I I} lllllll all of the eastern half of the watershed is located on this type of glacial deposit. Lake Beds and sand, surface geology form, formed when the glaciers melted is found in a belt along the Grand River in the most westerly part of the watershed. They form the parent material for sandy textured, easily managed, but sometimes droughty soils. Outwash plains resulted from melt water flowing out of the glaciers bringing silt, sand and gravel with it. These materials were deposited, larger particles first, then silt and clay, as the water slowed. Glacial channels were formed by melt water streams and with the disappearance of the ice became broad, flat floored valleys. That part of the City of Wyoming that drains to the Plaster Creek is on this type of formation. It is significant to note that most drainageways in this area are dry except when accommodating rapid runoff waters from storms.l2 Soils The soils of Kent County have been classified into eleven General Soil Areas.13 Five of these eleven are found in Plaster Creek watershed. 12See Figure 4, "Stream Pattern Map." 13K. E. Pregitzer and James Feenstra, "The Soils of Kent County Michigan" USDA, Soil Conservation (Mimeo- graphed 1967). 23 General Soil Area I——Sandy and Gravelly Plains Soils of this area are predominantly well drained sands, loamy sands and gravels on nearly level to gently sloping topography. Agricultural productivity is gener- ally 1ow due to the low inherent fertility and doughtiness of the soils. Engineering properties include low Shrink- swell, good shear strength and bearing capacity. They are well suited for winter grading and provide good subgrade material for highways. Some areas provide a Suitable source of sand and gravel for construction purposes. Soils of the Plaster Creek watershed in this group are Montcalm and Fox. General Soil Area II—-Sandy and Gravelly Hills and Plains Intermixed These soils consist of sands and gravel with some scattered areas having clayey surface textures over sands. They are generally well drained and occupy gently sloping to steep areas, with a slope range of 7 to 25 per cent. Depressional areas with high water- tables and containing dark colored mineral soils or mucks occur in this area, otherwise the watertable is generally deep. Cutting and filling is usually required to accommodate urban development due to the topography. Montcalm is a representive soil in this area. 24 General Soil Area VI——Gently Sloping to Rollinngeavy Clay Uplands The soils in this area occupy gently undulating to rolling topography. The more hilly areas are mod- erately well drained while the nearly level areas and drainageways are somewhat wet. Steep slopes hinder construction and the erosion hazard is severe. Internal drainage is restricted because of slow permeability which in turn contributes to high runoff and erosion. Foundations, streets and septic tank tile fields are subject to damage due to a high watertable in the spring and frost heave. Drainage ditches and stream 'channels suffer severe damage from sedimentation. Soils in this area are Kent and Nester. General Soil Area VII-~Rolling to Rough Heavy Clay Hills The several soils in this area occupy moderately sloping to very steep landscapes. Internal drainage is restricted by the slow permeability of the clay textured materials throughout the soil profile. Severe limitations for foundations, septic tank tile fields, drives and walls result from the large shrink-swell characteristic of these soils which is caused by the heavy clay content. A severe erosion hazard limits the agricultural use of steeper areas and creates water disposal problems in urban areas. Soils in this group are Kent, Nester and in wet areas, Silkirk. General Soil Area VIII——Gently Sloping to Rolling Heavy Clay Hills These are generally clay soils intermixed with lwet sands over clay subsoils occupying gently undu- lating to rolling uplands. Permeability is generally very slow with the watertable near the surface during early spring and late fall. They are poorly suited for agricultural purposes. Allendale is a typical soil in this area. The proceding soil descriptions are given to indicate in a general manner the relative erosion and management hazards of the various parts of the water- shed. These descriptions and accompanying map are not applicable to any specific tract of land for detailed use. A more detailed soils maplu and current inter— pretative data to determine soil types and erodibility was used in the estimation of annual soil loss and for determining suitable conservation practices.15 Climate Lake Michigan thirty miles west of Grand Rapids greatly modifies the climate of Plaster Creek watershed 1“U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, Soil Survey of Kent County, Michigan, by Robert Wildermuth and L. Kraft, Report No. 10, Series 1926 (Washington D. C., Government Printing Office, 1926). 15U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva— tion Service, Technical Guide (For Michigan) sections III and IV (Mimeographed, East Lansing, Michigan, 1964). 26 GENERAL SOIL MAP PLASTER CREEK WATERSHED KENT COUNTY, mcn. /\ I / PLASTER CREEK WATERSHED \m \ GENERAL SOIL AREAS ' I I - Sandy and Gravelly Plains / II - Sandy and Gravelly Hills ‘0 and Plains Intermixed / VI - Gently Sloping to Rolling I m ( Heavy Clay Uplands VII - Rolling t0 Rough \ Heavy Clay Hills / 1 VIII - Gently Sloping to / Rolling Heavy Clay Hills miloo kV/\ Figure 6 27 by reducing extremes in temperature and by influencing annual precipitation. Temperatures range from a low of —24OF to 103CF with a mean annual temperature of 47.8°F. The mean temperatures are 24.4OF for January and 71.9°P for July. The maximum growing season extends 170 days with the average date of the last freezing temperature in spring being April 25 and the average date of the first freezing temperature October 12. This growing season is over two weeks longer than in the northeast portion of Kent County which provides for later establishment of winter cover crops. The average annual precipitation of 32.85 inches is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year with the more intense rainfall occurring during the summer months.16 Soil erosion losses were found in a recent Agricultural Research Service study, to be directly proportional to the maximum thirty minute rainfall intensity times the total kinetic energy of the storm.17 Data gathered at the Kent County Airport which is in the study area and similar data from 2000 other loca- .tions in thirty—seven eastern states were used to 16Appendix Table "Precipitation Records for Grand Rapids, Michigan”. 17w. H. Wischmeier and D. D. Smith, Predicting Rainfall--Erosion Losses. develop an lso-Erodent map.18 Lines joining points with the same erosion index value, which implies equally erosive average annual rainfall, are called iso—erodents. This erosion index value, 100 for the Plaster Creek Water— shed, is the value of the rainfall factor, "R", in the Rainfall——Erosion Equation used in this study.19 Climate is therefore, an important faCtor in both total erosion and distribution of erosion during the year. Studies Show that over 70 per cent of the rain— fall with potential for causing erosion is likely to occur during the period May through August.20 The monthly rainfall totals do not vary greatly but the rainfall erosion index values are many times greater in summer than winter. This period of high erosion coincides with the period of greatest residential con- struction ”starts" for the area. 18Ibid. p. 7. 19Appendix B, Figure l, ”Iso—Erodent Map of Michigan". 20See Figure 8., "Total Rainfall——Erosion Index for Plaster Creek Watershed". Figure 7.—-The more intense storms occur during the construction season. Climate is an important factor in both total erosion and distribution of erosion during the year. ' INCHES 1 30 TOTAL RAINFALL - EROSION INDEX T h> -b RAINFALL I EROSION zo-E . m3? 2 i Z 5- é J . Jan Feb Afar Apr flay Jun Jul' Aug Sep 06’ Nov Dec Figure 8 NOTES: Inches represents the total average monthly rainfall. Per cent represents the per cent of the annual erosion index occurring each month. SOURCES: W. H. Wischmeier and D. D. Smith, Predicting Rain— fall - Erosion Losses, United States Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Service (Washington, D. 0.: Government Printing Office, 1965), p- 25. U. S. Department of Commerce, Climate of Michigan. U. S. Weather Bureau, Lansing, Michigan.' CHAPTER III DATA COLLECTION METHODS Sample Selection The subject of erosion and sedimentation, and its control has become of great interest and genuine concern in recent years. A particular interest in the effects of urbanization has arisen since evidence indicates that accelerated rates of soil loss occur in these areas. Much of what has been reported is based upon data from other parts of the country and from "case studies" in Michigan. Any soil-water study is best conducted on a hydrologic area or watershed basis and should consider the entire area or an unbiased Sample of the area to result in meaningful data and conclusions. Plaster Creek watershed was selected for this study because of the following characteristics: 1. It is located in the Grand River Basin where there is a concern for soil eroSion and sedimentation as evidenced by reports, investigations and agency activity.1 k 1Grand River Basin Council committee activity, 'Trd—County Planning Commission soil survey and erosion 31 32 2. Detailed soil, topographic, geologic and climatic data were available to enable acceptable erosion prediction methods to be used and to permit the study to be completed in one year. 3. The natural and social characteristics of the area are typical to southern Michigan, thereby permitting inferences to be made from data collected for a large part of the state. 4. It is a small watershed undergoing urbanization and has relatively equal areas of agricultural, urbanizing and established urban necessary to achieve the objectives of this study. The data and conclusions in this study are based upon data collected, analyzed, and expanded from a five per cent randomly selected sample of land within the watershed. To provide an unbiased sample the watershed was first divided and stratified into three general land use areas. These areas, agricultural, urbanizing and urban, were based upon Kent County Planning Commission Reports.2 They reflect both population density and predominent land use. Each of these strata were then divided into forty acre units. This was done by super- control guidelines, Federal—State Inter- -agency study (Type II) of the Grand River Basin and Soil Conservation Districts Programs. 2Kent County Planning Commission, A Data Profile: Grand Rapids Metropolitan Area (Kent County Planning Commission, 1967.) imposing a grid upon a USGS topographic map of the watershed. Since Michigan is surveyed in a rectangular system, the forty acre units represented one—fourth of a quarter section of land.3 These "sample units" were easily identified on maps and photos as well as on the ground. The stratification of the watershed "population" and random selection of sample units insured against any bias or "seeking out" of grosSly eroding sites for study.LI Actual selection of the sample was accomplished by numbering each sample unit consecutively north to south, east to west within each strata and selecting five per cent of the units using a random number table.5 A sample of 1,920 acres was selected from the 38,100 acre watershed, this represents 48 sample "units" or a 5.03 per cent sample.6 Data collection from each of the forty acre units making up the 'sample" was accomplished in two steps. 3See Figure 10, "Sample Description" and Table 3, Appendix B, "Location and Description of Sample." “Stratification insured that the units making up the sample were thoroughly spread over the entire water- shed. 5George W. Snedecor, Everyday Statistics (Dubuque, Iowa; William C. Brown Company, 1950) pp. 260—261. 6U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, "Elementary Statistical Methods for Foresters," Agri— cultural Handbook No. 317, 1967, p. 14. Figure 9.—-Much of the watershed is urbanizing. Over thirty per cent of Plaster Creek watershed is slated for development in the next fifteen years. Another one- third is presently in urban use. 35 SAMPLE DESCRIPTION / / / / / ——— f ) \ 3 I0 I? I5 IO 20 22 30 29 27 3| 32 /o Towns/up / ' NE V4 NW / '4 sz/4 SW I4 400:. sud/4 se'/4 \ sw'/4 se'u a Quarter Section uw V4 NE V4 sw I/., saw. IGOoc. o Section / / \ Fi / / / SAMPLE UNIT 40 AC gure 10 one Quarter of o Quorfor Soar/on 36 First, all derived data, that from published sources, was compiled. This included topographic, geologic, soils and climatic data. Secondly, field observations were made at each of the 48 units to confirm the soils and slopes and to determine land use, management, damages from erosion and sediment, and the treatment needed. Soil, Slope and land use boundaries were then plotted on base maps that had been prepared for each forty acre unit. Acres per land use, sheet erosion, gully erosion, total erosion and points of initial deposition were observed, calculated and recorded. Type and amount of erosion control practices were determined at the site. I Acreages, erosion rates and ranges were determined for the watershed from a compilation of this data. A detailed account of the technique and procedure used in each step of data collection follows. This includes erosion prediction and estimation equations, definition of land use categories, sediment deposition points, erosion control and sediment reduction practice descrip- tions, and methods and procedure used in analysis of pertinent legislation. Land Use Categories Land use was determined for all the land in the sample. This information was plotted on maps of each unit upon observation in the field. The several variables to «J in this study were observed and calculated for the following land uses.7 Agricultural All lands used primarily for the production of agricultural crops and livestock are included in this category. It was further broken down into the following sub-categories: Cropland.——Land used for the production of field crops such as corn, small grains and hay. Also included are fruit and vegetable proiuction. IPasture.-—Land in gra s of other long term forage growth used primarily for grazing of livestock. Woodland.——This includes foreseland, tree planta— tions and unmanaged farm "waodlots." Idle land All vacant, idle or unused land, such as vacant subdivided lots, idle farmland, unused urban land, unmanaged woodland in urban areas and other undeveloped tracts are included in this category. Urbanizing land Lands undergoing development for non-agricultural purposes including reconstruction activities involved 7American Institute of Planners, Land Use Classi— fication Committee. "A Proposal for a Standardized Land Use Classification System." Raleigh, North Carolina, 1959- LA. CS in land use changes are included. For the purposes of this study the category is divided into the following sub—categories: Residential.——Includes those areas where one or more families or households will have their dwelling, including single and multiple family structures, and mobile homes. Commercial and industrial.—-These two basic types of land are combined for this study because land develop- ment and site preparation for each is similar and the amount of each is too small in this area for meaningful comparison with other categories. Commercial includes retail and wholesale trade, personal, professional, business and financial services, as well as commercial recreation enterprises. Industrial use includes resource extraction, manufacturing, fabrication and assembly. It includes the manufacture of both durable and non-durable goods, including but not limited to furniture, wood products, stone, clay, glass, machinery and chemicals. Transportation and utilities.--This category involves systems for the conveyance of passengers, freight and distribution and collection systems for communications, water and sewage as well as associated storage and transfer points. Transportation includes public routes such as streets, roads, highways, and railroad construction areas. Farm lanes, alleys, other 39 . L. _ Figure 11.-—Rapid runoff occurs when large areas are sealed. Water disposal problems, erosion and sedimentation exist at the edges of this parking area. 40 private roads and parking areas are considered a part of the primary land use. Treatment plants, pumping stations and storage areas under construction as well as excavations for pipelines and other utilities are in this category. Public and quasijpublic land.-—This category includes those lands used by governmental and insti— tutional bodies for social, cultural and governmental purposes. Management and land treatment decisions are made by units of government, their agencies, Boards of Directors or Trustees rather than private individuals. Schools, colleges, churches, golf courses, parks, public health facilities, hospitals and cemeteries are included. Established Urban Land Encompasses lands that are developed to and used for the following purposes: Residential, Commercial and Industrial, Transportation and Utilities, Public and Quasi-Public use. Use definitions are the same as those used in the classification of urbanizing or developing lands. Erosion Eguations Since the first erosion research began in the United States there have been many advances in using “this data to develop mathematical equations that would 41 predict soil loss under a wide variety of conditions.8 However, the first real breakthrough in interpretation of this data came in the 1950's with the introduction of computers in conservation research. Data from more than 10,000 plot years of erosion studies at forty- seven research stations was assembled at the Agricultural Research Service's Runoff and Soil Loss Data Center at Purdue University. This data served as the basis for the develOpment of the sheet and rill erosion prediction equation used in this study.9 This equation, the Universal Soil Loss Equation, takes into account the energy and intensity of rain when it hits the ground, the effect of length of slope, per centage of slope, erodibility of the particular soil and different ground covers or absence of cover. The Sheet Erosion Prediction Equation is: R K L S C P in which: '> II A = The estimated sheet and rill erosion per year. R = The rainfall factor which represents the erosiveness of rainfall striking the soil. It is a function of total kinetic energy of 8G. W. Musgrave, "The Quantitative Evaluation of Factors in Water Erosion——A First Approximation," flournal of Soil and Water Conservation, Volume 2, Ifiumber 3 (July 19477 pp. 133—138. 9W. H. Wischmeier and Dwight D. Smith, Predicting Eiainfall—Erosion Losses From Cropland East of the Rocky Iflpuntains, Agricultural Handbook No. 282 (Washington D. C. Government Printing Office, 1965). 3 42 a storm times its maximum thirty-minute intensity. This measure of rainfalls capacity to produce erosion has a value of 100 for the Plaster Creek Watershed. K = The soil erodibility factor refers to the various soil properties that influence its erodibility by water. The relative erodibility of the different soil in the watershed are given in the Appendix.191 Sites with several soils of different "K" values were assigned a value based on the per cent of each soil on the site. L = The slope length factor is the distance from the point at which overland flow begins to either of the following: a. the point where deposition begins, or, b. the point where runoff enters a constructed or other well defined channel. Distances were determined in the field by actual measurement or by scaling observed distances on sample map. S = The slope—gradient factor is a measure, in per cent, of the steepness of the slopes.11 This was determined tentatively from topographic lOSee Appendix B, Table A, "Soil Erodibility "K" Values . " 11See Appendix B, Table 5, "Topographic Factors." 43 maps and confirmed or corrected in the field upon observation and measurement.12 C/e The cropping—management factor represents the ratio of soil loss from an area with observed cropping and management to that from fallow or . bare land, which has a value of 1.0. Values for those cropping and management systems in Plaster Creek were taken from technical reports for Kent County and are listed in Appendix.13 P = The erosion control practice factor is the ratio of soil loss with certain erosion control practices to that of soil loss without con- servation practices which has a value of 1.0. This factor was used to determine what con— servation practice or combination of practices were needed to reduce soil loss to an acceptable level. The primary reason this soil loss prediction equation was selected over others for use in this study was that it is the most widely used equation and it has a relatively sophisticated factor dealing with rainfall that was calculated for Grand Rapids which is in the study‘area. l2Topographic data for the study was obtained from U. S. Geological Survey Quadrangle Sheets with a contour interval of 10 feet and Scale of l: I24,000, Series V862, 1967. 13See Appendix B, Table 6. "Management Factors". 44 1 Soil losses from Gully or Channel Erosion were estimated by computations based upon methods and tech- niques developed by the Soil Conservation Service for watershed planning purposes.lu This involves essentially a computation of the total void of a channel or gully and the conversion of this volume to cubic yards or tons of soil removed. The estimated annual loss was then based upon the total void and age of the gully. It was assumed that gullies that did not appear on aerial photographs in 1967 had developed within the last two years and the annual loss was estimated to be one—half of the total void.15 Those that appeared on aerial photographs in 1967 were measured on the photo and the length measured in the field. Lateral growth (head migration) was assumed to be proportional to total void. Therefore, annual migration and annual soil loss were assumed to be prOportional. Estimations were based upon these assumptions. Predominant soil types in the watershed are loams and sandy loams with a natural bed weight of 3200 lbs. 1“U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva- tion Service, Engineering Division, Geologic Investigations for Watershed Planning, Technical Release No. 17, 1966. 15U. S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Stabilization And Conservation Service, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Aerial Photographs, Flight; Summer, 1967, Scale l:l3,500. per cubic yard.l6 This is equal to 115 pounds per cubic foot and 0.058 tons per cubic foot. This density figure was used in estimating the tons per acre soil loss from gullies. Sediment Deposition Points A part of the first objective of this study is to determine the points of initial deposition and relative amounts of sediment resulting from soil erosion. Three categories were selected and a determination made for each land use category within a forty acre sample unit as to the primary point of initial deposition of sediment. When two or more points were observed as receiving sediment, the one having the greatest quantity was designated as "the” point. The three categories are: streets and storm drains; overland deposition, which includes depres- sional areas; and channels, both natural stream channels and drainage ditches. These categories were based upon type of damage, management, and maintenance factors. Erosion Control and Sediment Reduction Practices The second objective of this study is to determine the type and amount of erosion control and sediment reduction practices needed in the Plaster Creek watershed. 16w. H. Spindler, ed., Handbook of Drainage and Construction Products, (Chicago: R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company, 1955), p. 508. 46 A conservation practice was determined "needed" when the estimated annual soil loss from sheet and rill erosion exceeded two tons per acre or when there was evidence of active gully erosion.17 Two tons annual soil loss per acre is considered the soil loss tolerance value for the soils in Kent County.18 This level represents the amount of soil loss from accelerated as well as geologic erosion that can be tolerated without loss in productivity or excessive damage from sediment. Because of the nature and timing of this study pre—planning and site planning as a means of avoiding and minimizing erosion on urban sites could not be evaluated. The author assumed the role of a profes— sional conservationist in recommending corrective action "after the fact."19 This approach is logical in evaluating the present situation since there are 17The term conservation practice will be used interchangeably with erosion and sediment control practices in this paper even though drainage and other practices are not considered. 180. S. Soil Conservation Service, Technical Guide, 1965. 19The author served as District Conservationist with the U. S. Soil Conservation Service in Maryland for five years immediately preceding this study, and as District Conservationist at Grand Rapids, Michigan, at the completion of the study. 47 Figure l2.—-Sediment damages streets and storm drains. Over eighty per cent of all material eroded from construction sites was initially deposited in streets and storm drains. Its removal becomes a social cost. 48 ”no mandatory controls and few assists in practice application in Plaster Creek watershed.20 Since the design criteria and not the definition. or purpose of a practice changes for different land uses, there is no distinction made between agricultural and urban soil erosion control practices. The practices considered in this study and their definitions came from various sources. I Practices generally recommended on "agricultural" lands are based upon Soil Conservation Service standards for engineering and agronomic practices and current Extension Service recommendations. Practically all are currently a part of the Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) of cost—sharing as administered by the ASCS County Committee in Kent County. Other practices are those recommended by the ad hoc urban erosion committee of the Grand River Basin Council, interim standards developed by the SCS State technical staff in East Lansing and other sources as noted. The following practices are considered. Gressed Waterways Natural or constructed watercourses graded and established in suitable vegetation, either by seeding 2OPersonal interviews with representatives of lixtension Service, Soil Conservation Service, Agricul- tndral Stabilization & Conservation Service, and Soil Coniservation Districts in Summer and Fall, 1969. or sodding, for the safe disposal of runoff water. Diversions Channels constructed across a slope or at the top of a cut or fill with a supporting ridge on the lower side to drive water from areas where it is in excess to sites where it can be disposed of safely. Diversion channels are normally seeded to permanent vegetation to prevent erosion at the design velocity. Stripcropping Stripcropping is the farming of sloping land in alternate strips in intertilled row crops and grass or hay across the slope. Pasture Management This involves the prOper treatment of pastureland, including adjusting the stocking rate, fertilization and rotation grazing to provide soil protection and reduce runoff and erosion. Livestock Exclusion Excluding of cattle and other livestock from Iwoodland areas to permit natural vegetative growth to prxrvide soil cover and protection from erosion. 50 Ponds This involves the construction of farm ponds for the impoundment of water, the trapping and storing of sediment and stabilizing channel grades. Temporary Vegetation The establishment of vegetation to protect an area from erosion for a period of one year or less. Permanent Vegetation The establishment of vegetation to protect an area from erosion for longer than a year. Mulching This involves the application of straw or other suitable materials, not produced on the site, to the surface of the soil for the purpose of conserving moisture, reducing runoff and erosion, and in estab- lishment of plant cover. It may be applied without a seeding, for protection against erosion. Grade Stabilization Structures Structures made of concrete, metal, pipe, or other suitable materials installed in a watercourse Ito stabilize the gradient. Channel Lining This consists of the construction of channels 51 having a lining of concrete designed to carry runoff water at high velocities. Sediment Basins Structures created by the construction of a dam across a drainageway to trap and store sediment from erodible areas in order to protect properties and stream channels below the installation from excessive siltation. It is generally a temporary measure used only until areas above the structure can be permanently stabilized.21 Sodding The establishment of cut sod on areas that can not be adequately protected by standard seeding and mulching techniques. Steeper slopes may require pegging to prevent slippage and failure. Erosion Control Legislation The third aspect of this study, that of determining what changes or additions may be needed in Michigan laws to better achieve erosion control on all lands, is based upon two components. First the nature and extent of the ,problem and the control as identified in this study and secondly a search and analysis of legislation dealing 21Montgomery County Soil Conservation District, Maryland. "Sediment Basin Design Standards and Specifi— cations.” 1967. with natural resource conservation, water pollution and urban development. This section is based upon the premise that voluntary programs have not proven adequate for control of erosion and sedimentation on all land uses. Individual instances are encouraging but these are insignificant when a watershed or basin wide sedimenta- tion rate is considered. Action must take the form of "regulation and ordinance abetted by community service."22 That existing legislation that shows the most promise will be examined in detail and recommendations will be made concerning its adaptation to the problem. Should any applicable legislation be lacking, some ideas will be put forth as to what should be considered in drafting entirely new legislation to deal with the issue as it is identified. 22Soil Conservation Society of America, "Conser— vation Problems in the Urban—Suburban Environment." (A Position Paper) Journal of Soil and Water Conser— vation, Volume 22, No. 3 (May—June, 1967), 124. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS Mature and Extent of Erosion The discharge of sediment into the drain channels and streams was once considered to result primarily from erosion on farmlands. Today however, land uses other than agricultural are the major contributors of eroded materials to channels. This study indicates that 24 per cent of the total erosion occurs on just 5 per cent 1 Second of the land-~1and undergoing urban development. in total annual erosion to this "urbanizing” land is the idle land being held for future development. Over 68 per cent of the total annual erosion occurring in the Plaster Creek watershed is from these two land—use categories. Agricultural land contributes less than one—fourth and established urban less than one—fifth of the total annual soil loss.2 1See Figure 13. 2Acres and per cent of land and erosion rates for all categories and sub-categories are given in Table 7 of Appendix B. 53 54 WATERSHED AREA AND TOTAL EROSION BY LAND USE CATEGORIES IN PLASTER CREEK WATERSHED 50n .b O L 01 C) 1 20* Percent of To/a/ for Wafers/led P NOTE: 340 I 7.9 ‘ -1 4 % AGRIC. ' IDLE LAND LAND- 137.2 233 / 15.: % DEVEL. ESTB. URBAN URBAN I. and Use Category Figure 13 TOTAL WATERSHED LAND AREA = 38.100 acres TOTAL WATERSHED ANNUAL EROSION = 68,200 tons Sheet erosion accounts for 92 per cent of the annual soil loss from the watershed. Gully erosion appears to be the major problem only on developing land. Gullies account for 39 and 51 per cent of the total erosion on developing commercial—industrial and transportation—utility sites respectively. Thirty-one per cent of all idle land requires erosion control treatment. This disproves the often stated "fact" that the critical time for erosion begins with the clearing of the landscape for construction. The critical time in this watershed begins when land goes out of agricultural production with little or no provision made for protective ground cover. It is often assumed that land being held for speculative purposes has adequate cover from the preceding agri- cultural use. Most idle acres in this study had been in clean tilled row crops prior to abandonment and the only vegetation in most cases was that which nature had provided among the corn stubble. There are 1.8 acres of idle land needing treatment to every acre of agricultural land with excessive erosion. In addition to the fact that most idle land is ngreceded by cleaned tilled agricultural use and lacks :adequate vegetative cover, is that generally the first land to go out of agricultural production is land having adverse soil and slope conditions, and with few, if any conservation practices being established or maintained.3 As might be expected the developing land required the greatest amount of protection from erosion. The major factor contributing to higher erosion rates during residential, commercial and industrial development is the extent and duration of bare soil exposure. Even when soils and slopes remained relatively unchanged and ground cover was removed erosion increased eight fold over agriculture use. Development cost and time limitations often cause developers to clear large tracts of land, and leave it bare for extended periods of time. Severe erosion (as much as 30 tons per acre) occur with the resulting sediment going into streets, storm drains and open channels. Erosion continues in newly developed residential areas after the houses are completed because the establishment of lawns are left to the new owners. These sheet erosion problems are often compounded by successive runoff from roofs and streets. As much as 80 per cent (average 50 per cent) of total erosion is 'from gullies created by this concentrated runoff and disposal problem. 3The Kent County ASCS Committee has adopted a policy of not sharing costs of conservation practices under the ACP, on land that is expected to go out of agricultural use in the near future. 57 As urban areas become established, erosion becomes a minor factor, with soil loss less than the average for the watershed and only one-fourth of that on developing land. The major erosion problems in established urban areas are from high runoff rates, from the "sealed sur- faces" and improper design and installation of control structures. Annual soil losses ranged from a low of 0.01 tons to 29.9 tons per acre with an average loss for the water— shed of 1.79 tons per acre. (See Table 3) Annual per acre losses for primary land use categories ranged from a low of 0.86 tons on established urban land to 8.A8 tons on developing urban. From Figure 1A, it is clear that erosion increases rapidly as land goes out of agricultural use to idle and losses more than double as idle land is developed. But with continued urbanization, erosion rates decline to the low of less than one ton per acre per year. Nature and Extent of Sedimentation Most of the soil eroded from agricultural and idle land is deposited initially overland or in Open channels. .Most of the sediment from developing and established Ixrban areas goes into streets and stormdrains. Data Inepresented in Figure 15 indicates that nearly three— <1uarters of all the observed erosion was deposited as sexiiment directly into streets, stormdrains or in open 58 AVERAGE ANNUAL EROSION RATES BY LAND USE OJ has 3w JL 6 . Ewes Ste E E .3 3 % 0 , m7///// Exes mass is mag . 4 . $53 3% “V/ / 2E3 Sets: m7////, T m _ _ _ — d 00 .hv AW 0c nu 3520523 82m 2285 LAND USE CATEGORIES Figure 1A channels, and much of the overland deposition may eventially reach a watercourse.u Thus most of the 70,000 tons of soil eroded annually become the source of "water pollution.” Damage not only occurrs at these points of initial deposition but the sediment carried out into the Grand River causes damage all the way to Lake Michigan where it comes to rest in the ship channel. In addition to damage to aquatic life and lowering values of adjacent properties, six other kinds of damages are generally associated with the deposition of sediment in streams. "These include (1) stream deposition and consequent overflow, (2) turbid waters unsuited for municipal use, (3) turbid waters unsuited for industrial use, (A) failure of pumping equipment, (5) clogging of drains, (6) uglification of recreation areas."5 The eroded materials carried out of the watershed into the Riverenwacalled the sediment "yield." The ratio of this yield to gross erosion is called the delivery ratio.6 The delivery ratio of most southern Michigan ”For a Breakdown of Points of Deposition for each sub—category see Table 8 in the Appendix. . 5M. Gordon Wolman, "Problems Posed by Sediment Derived from Construction Activities in Maryland," (Annapolis, Maryland: Maryland Water Pollution Control Commission, 196A). p. 60—61. 6U. S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook of Aggdculture, 1955 (Washington, D. C., Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 183. 00.0m H0.0 0N.H 0>.mH 00.0 0H.0 0H.NH H0.0 :0.H I amzmmme<3 d<909 05.0 mm.0 HN.H 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 mm.0 HN.H 0:0 .0:p:0 0m.m mc.c oc.fl 0u.0 00.0 m:.0 mm.m 00.0 ~0.H HHpDImCMLE m0.H 00.0 cm.c mm.0 00.0 20.0 00.0 00.0 mm.0 mSUCHIEEoo 00.m 00.0 0m.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.m 00.0 00.0 Hmflpcmufimom 00.0 m0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 ma.0 05.0 00.0 00.0 20000 .mamm 0m.fi 0m.0 m0.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 0m.H 0m.0 mm.0 2:0 .aiosm 00.0fl (0.0 so.ma mc.m 00.0 ~0.H 00.:H 00.: 0fi.m Hflppnmcmpe cm.a 00.0 Cfi.HH 00.: 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 um.: mSUCHIEEoo 00.00 m0.0 00.0 r>.mH 00.0 00.0 0H.NH m0.0 0m.w Hmflpcovfiwom 00.00 0m.c rm:.mwt 00.0H 00.0 :w.m 0H.~H mm.0 00.0 02H0000>00 fl0.0fi 0m.0 ::.m :0.0 00.0 00.0 NH.0H 0m.0 mm.m 0200 mqu 00.0 wc.0 03.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 H0.0 01.0 Ucwflnooz H0.H rm.0 0.0 0c.0 :c.0 00.0 H0.a wm.0 mm.0 ogzpmmg He.e ez.o ae.H ea.c co.c mc.c o:.~ 03.0 s0.H eemflaope Hm.> H0.0 . HH.054 um.0 00.0 fl0.0 03.0 H0.0 0H.H q\¢go<\mcoa Lwow\oho<\mcoe mm: 0cmq coflmomm Hence :oflwopu maasc :oflwopm pmocm E—a 61 streams is reported to be 50 per cent.7 Therefore, 50 per cent of all materials deposited in streams and channels remains in the watershed to cause drainage and flooding hazards. \ It is well to note at this point that soil deposited as sediment is less dense than it was in place on the land. A cubic foot of soil becomes l.A3 cubic feet of sediment.8 This means that the 61,000 (cubic yards of soil washed off the land annually becomes 87,000 cubic yards of "mud". Tvpes and Amounts of Conservation Practices Needed As summarized in Table 3 and Figure 16, sixteen per cent of the watershed land "needs" erosion control practices to reduce annual losses to an acceptable level of two tons per acre. Developing-and idle land require the greatest amount of treatment while less than 20 per cent of the agriculture land needs erosion control. "The best Protection for soil against erosion is good vegetative cover"9 This short statement by the 7J. H. Schmidt and A. W. Summers, ”The Effects of :Urbanization on Sedimentation in the Clinton River Basin." University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1967. 8U. W. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, "Sediment Storage Requirement for Reservoirs," Technical Release No. 12 (Rev.) January 1968. 90ecil H. Wadleigh, "The Application of Agricul— tural Technology." Soil, Water and Suburbia, (Washington, D. C., 1968), p. 27. head of Conservation Research in the USDA sums up the erosion control needed in the Plaster Creek watershed. Erosion control on ninety per cent of the land needing treatment in the watershed involves the establishment or maintenance of vegetative cover. This includes the establishment of vegetative cover on 112 acres of gras- sed waterways and on 129 acres of diversion, assuming the average width to be seeded is forty feet for each. Vegetation is effective in that it dissipates the energy of falling rain, mulches the surface, and holds the soil in place while providing conditions for maximum infiltration. Agricultural conservation and land management practices, such as crop rotations and fertility programs are generally well accepted. Idle land needs more I erosion control and sediment reduction than generally believed. A great amount of both sheet and gully erosion damage occurs on land being "urbanized". Much of this damage could be reduced by temporary vegetation and more thoughtful site planning, however, some erosion appears to be unavoidable and required the trapping of the resulting sediment. Other than in this stage of development, many of the erosion problems can be per— manently solved by the application of methods and techniques utilized in rural areas. This includes the installation of temporary diversions (sometimes called POINTS OF DEPOSITION LAND USE CATEGORIES 63 POINTS OF INITIAL DEPOSITION OF ERODED MATERIALS T T T T Agn'cul/um/ ld/e [and . Dew/0,0109 Urban .' \ / [me ”Med Urea/7 1 70/0/ Wafers/led o T T 20 4‘0 I 6'0 88 PER CENT W Streets and Stormdroins - Overland '/////A Open Channels and Ditches 7 \ Figure 15 IOO 6A berms) to divert water from areas under construction and cut or fill areas to point of safe disposal. Mulching, temporary vegetation, and early estab- lishment of permanent vegetation are also important practices on developing land. When land is developed, infiltration is reduced and runoff is increased thus it is important to locate and establish grassed or sodded waterways early in the construction period when possible. Establishment of water disposal systems, such as waterways, become more difficult after construc— tion is completed and higher runoff velocities begin to occur. The objective of this researcher in determining needs was to determine the adequate control methods rather than sediment reduction. The trapping of runoff water and settling out of suspended sediment should generally be the last resort. Erosion control was approached as a land use and management problem, not a water pollution issue. Most erosion observed could be "controlled" thus reducing the need for sediment catching practices. Sediment basins and in some instances farm ponds were -considered to be sediment reducing practices. Approx— imately half of the ponds needed would serve primarily as grade stabilization structures and the other half as sediment traps, however, both objectives would generally be realized regardless of primary purpose. It was determined that 189 "sediment traps" (sediment basins plus half the ponds) were needed. This represents approximately three per square mile. Most are needed on idle and developing land where the greatest percentage of erosion occurred. Erosion Control Legislation The scope, strengths and shortcomings of several of the many natural resource related laws and associated services in coping with the problems identified in this study are stated below. This is followed by a detailed analysis of those that seem most applicable to the situa— tion. Act 2A5 of the Public Acts of 192910 as administered by the Water Resources Commission is primarily a water quality control act.ll Control of erosion using this would have to be based upon the fact that sediment becomes a water pollution as it enters a stream and it should be 12 abated. A representative of the Commission summarized the act's suitability for sediment control this way, "The loMichigan Compiled Laws, Annotated (West, 1967) , Volume 16, p. A. 11U. S. Army, etal, Appendix N, "Grand River Basin (Comprehensive Water Resource Study." Detroit, 1967- 12State of Michigan, Laws Relating to Water, Pre— gnared by the Joint Committee on Water Resource Planning 13y62he Legislative Service Bureau, Lansing, Michigan,. 19 . LAND USE NOTES: AGRICULTURAL Cropland Pasture Woodland IDLE LAND DEVELOPING Residential Comm-Indoor Trans -UtII Pub- 0. Pub ESTB.URBAN Residential Comm—Indust Trans -UHI ALL USES 66 PER CENT or LAND NEEDING TREATMENT BY LAND USE CATEGORIES ”L2 Hi6 20 40 so 80 I00 PER CENT NEEDING TREATMENT Figure 16 Comm-Indust represents a land use category which includes both industrial and commercial development. Trans-Util represents a land use category which includes both transportation uses and utility uses of land. Pub-Q, Pub represents a land use category which includes both public and quasi-public land. 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