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ABSTRACT

THE EFFECT OF SOME MANAGEMENT FACTORS AND
IIIUHOGLOBULIN LEVELS 0N CALP MORTALITY
IN MICHIGAN DAIRY HERBS
By

Theodore A. Ferris

Two trials in the I.S.U. herd plus studies involving
30.lichigan dairy herds were designed to determine if
illunoglobulin levels as measured by the sinosulfate
turbidity test (ZS!) are influential upon neonatal calf
nortality. Further to examine Ianagenent practices and
environmental situations that might influence innunoglobulin
levels and the nortality rate.

line Holstein calves in the M.S.U. herd were allowed
to relain with their dun for 36 hours postpartul. and another
nine calves were separated one-half hour after birth and
hand-fed 1“ lb. of their dalls colostrum during 36 hours.
Forty-eight hour serum samples for calves left with the dam
were not significantly higher than calves hand-fed. 13.h12.83
vs 8.73:l.62 ZS! units. ZS! levels at 2# hours significantly
increased fron.12 hours in hand-fed calves due to the second
feeding of Q lb. at 12 hours.

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Theodore A. Ferris

Thirty-two Holstein calves were removed from their dam
at one-half hour and fed 1 or 3 lb. of pooled colostrum
initially at 1. 2. 6 or 12 hours. Thereafter 4 lb. of
colostrum was fed every 12 hours within 38 hours post-
partum. Calves were also blocked for two genetic groups
within the I.S.U. herd and blocked for two calendar dates
between January and May 1973.

Calves hand-fed 1 1b. of colostrum initially. increased
only slightly in ZS! units by 12 hours but had a six-fold
increase between 12 and 2“ hours due to the 4 1b. of
colostrum fed 12 hours after the first feeding. Calves fed
3 1b. initially conversely increased significantly by 12
hours and had only a two-fold increase to 24 hours due to
the second feeding of 4 1b. The 12 and 24 hour zsr values
were affected by the initial feeding level. P <=.001 and
P <=.005 respectively and the an hour zsr values were also
negatively influenced by the interval to first colostrms
(time). P <.025.

Neither #8 hour ZS! values nor “8 hour serum galla-
globulin levels (g/100 ml) determined by electrophoresis
and total protein analysis were significantly affected by
the initial feeding level or the interval to the first
feeding. An interaction for #8 hour 28! values between
genetic groups and the interval to the first feeding occurred
(P <=.025). Covariate adjustment using grams of gamma-
globulin fed within 38 hour/kg of birthweight did not
significantly change the results. The covariate. however.

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Theodore A. Ferris
approached significance P <=.l. The fact that calves
received three to four feedings within 38 hours varying
from only 9 to 15 lb. could be responsible for non-signifi-
cant differences in 48 hour serum values.

Thirty lichigan dairy herds were divided into a high
( =’15 per cent) or low (<:10 per cent) mortality group
based on the 1972 calendar year data. Mortality was
calculated as the per cent of calves that were born alive
which died within two months of age. The correlation
coefficients between time to first colostrum and #8 hour
ZST units for calves sampled were .01 in nine high herds
and .07 in low herds recording this information. The
coefficient between time to first colostrum and mortality
was .35. (P <:.05) in four high mortality herds. The
correlations between hours the calf remained with the dam
and ZST units were .13 (NS) for nine high herds and .30
(P <=.05) for 11 low herds. The average ZST values were not
significantly different between 13 low and 17 high herds but
there was considerable herd variation within.mortality
groups. The average ZST values for surviving calves was
significantly higher than for calves dying within two
months postpartum (7.75:,53 vs 5.691,53. P <:.05) and more
calves with low levels died in high mortality herds
indicating that ZST levels were related to mortality in
each group but interacted more with the ”environment” in
the high mortality herds.

Average ZST levels were highest in herds where calves

Theodore A. Ferris
typically remained with the cow for more than 2% hours. A
group of herds with slightly lower ZST levels usually
removed calves from the dam before 12 hours and assumed
that most of them received colostrum for the first time
when they were hand-fed. Finally herds with significantly
lower average ZST levels were those where calves were
generally left with the dam up to 12 hours and dairymen
believed more than 50 per cent of the calves nursed the
cow before they were hand-fed.

Ieaningful and significant relationships between the
previous years mortality rate and parameters measured in
this study were 1) bedding dry matter per cent in the
maternity areas r'8 -.67, P <=.001s 2) number of cows in the
maternity area r I .“9. P <=.013 and 3) square feet per
animal in the calf barn r - -.37. P ::.05. Herd sise was
not correlated to mortality. r n .05.

The number of cows in the maternity area and the
maternity area dry matter per cent were also significantly
related to the mortality rate of the calves sampled during
the four'months of this study. Herds using box stalls had
lower’mortality (P <=.001) than herds calving cows in groups
of three to 60 cows for both the previous year and during
the study (9.6 vs 2h.9 Per cent and 5.5 vs 28.6 per cent).
All low’mortality herds were using box stalls and 13 of the
high mortality herds were calving cows in groups.

nerds using specialised calf housing and herds using
make-shift facilities in old barns had similar'mortality
rates in 1972.

THE EFFECT OF SOME HANAGEIENT FACTORS AND
IIIUNOGLOBULIN LEVELS ON CAL? MORTALITY
IN MICHIGAN DAIRY HERDS

By

Theodore Ameerris

A THESIS

Submitted to
Iichigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

EASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Dairy Science

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. J. W. Thomas for his
advice and guidance throughout this graduate program and for
his interest in this thesis research project. I also wish
to express appreciation to the members of the guidance
committee. Dr. C. E. Meadows. Dr. D. A. Morrow and Dr. J. A.
Speicher for their help and interest in this study.

The author is thankful for the assistance of Dr. J. L.
Gill and Dr. R. R. Neitsel for their assistance in evaluation
of the data. Thanks is extended to Dr. R. W. Erickson and
those at the dairy center who helped when experiments were
conducted in the M.S.U. herd.

A special thanks to the 35 dairymen who generously
cooperated during the field study. The author is grateful
to Mr. John Hoina for his assistance in the laboratory
evaluation of samples and to Dr. W. D. 0xender for obtaining
financial support through the calf mortality project funds.

The author wishes to thank Hrs. Josie Maybee for her
help in editing and typing this manuscript.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Literature Review. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calf Mortality Statistics. . . . . . . . .

Influences of Calf'hortality on Replacing
Conmnnirynordleeeeeeeeseee

Discussion of Diarrhea in Young Calves . .
Historical Perspectives of Immunoglobulins
Iethods of Detecting Blood Levels of

Immunoglobulins...............

Protection Offered by Immunoglobulin Presence
in th. our. 0 O O O O O O O O O l O O O O O 0

Levels of Immunoglobulins round in Calves. .

Process of Absorption and Closure. . . . . .

Factors Affecting Levels of Immunoglobulins

mnc'bomcuVOBeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Annual Behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ianagmment and Environmental Factors . . .
Chapter III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
latarial and Methods . . . . . . . . . . .

ii

Page
iv
ix

UUWHH

10
16
28

29

31
37

50
62
66
81
81

Chap

ADpe
Bibl

Experhental Plan - Trial 1. . . . . . .
TrialII................
Treatment of Calves. . . . . . . . . . .
Colostrum Feeding. . . . . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Serum for Immunoglobulin
LOVOIB e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Analysis of Protein and Immunoglobulins
1n 001°.tru. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Field Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Results and Discussion . . . . . . . . .
Trial 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trial 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Field Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . .
Appendix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bibliogr‘phye e e e e e e e e e e e s e e e e

iii

Page
81
82
83
83

85

89
90
95
95
95
103
118
151
160
169

Tabl

 

10

11

12

Table

10

11

12

LIST OF TABLES

Representative dairy calf losses in the
United States. for Experhment Station
operations. by state and period. . . . . . . .

Relationship between herd size and calf
mortality prior to weaning in 379 Michigan
dairy flrlae e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Effect of herd size on calf mortality. . . . .

Relation of dairy herd housing to extent
Of 081: nort‘litye e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Relation of dairy herd housing to extent
or onlf'mortality. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Relationship between type of calf housing
and calf mortality prior to weaning on 3 7
MIChIS‘n d‘iry f.r-B e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Annual rates of removal reported in the
11t.r‘tur. O O O O O O 0 I O O O O O O O O O 0

Data from annual summary of lichigan Dairy
Herd Improvement Records. showing distribution
of animals leaving the dairy herd. . . . . . .

Fecal and urinary water and electrolyte
10.... e e e e e e e ... e e e e e e e e e e e

lean amounts of the major constituents
excreted in normal and securing feces for
calves on artificial diets . . . . . . . . . .

lean amounts of’mineral elements lost in the
feces of normal and scouring calves. . . . . .

Number of calves and mortality within four or

five ranges of immunoglobulin levels. estimated
by "tiou. tQChniquoae e e e e e e e e e e e e

iv

Page

11

12

2h

26

26

Table
13

1h

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

22.

25

26

27

Relationship between colisepticemia and
b100d mmOSlObulin 1".18e e e e e e e e e

Comparison of ZST units in calves left
with dam vs separated calves . . . . . . . .

The effect of place of birth on mortality
and immunoglobulin levels. . . . . . . . . .

The duration of initial licking of calves
byduauterbirtheeeeeeeseeeee

Time for calves to stand after birth, by
mup'Ofdeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Interval from birth to first suckling time
for calves from their groups of cows . . . .

Relationship of mortality to heated and
unhe‘th calf hOUCmge e e e e e e e e e e e

Effect of type of pen construction on scour
meid.n°.0 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O

Weaning age of calves in 515 Pennsylvania
dairy herds and the per cent calf mortality
byweaningage...............

The use of colostrum in raising calves and
its effects on survival. . . . . . . . . . .

Relationship between persons car for
calves and calf mortality on 378 I chigan
d‘mfmaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Amounts of colostrum and times for colostrum
feedings within each treatment combination .

Questionnaire for calf mortality study -
Jmum1973eeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

The estimated immunoglobulin levels in
newborn mothered and separated calves at
it‘dth33w3tpme e e e e e e e e e e

Estimated immunoglobulin levels for nine
calves separated from dams and fed fixed
amounts of colostrum at fixed times
paltpmmeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Page
#3
59

61

6b

65

65

68

72

7h

75

80

86

92

96

98

Tab.
28

29

3O

31

32

33

35

36

3?

38

39

Table
28

29

30

31
32
33

3#

35

36

37

38

39

Page

One way analysis of variance for immuno-

globulin levels in.mothered and non-mothered

calves at #8 and 72 hours and two weeks

DOCtp‘rtUIe e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 100

Allocation of calves by treatment combination
with two blocks for seasons and two genetic
map. 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O O O I 0 O O O O 1 0“

lean #8 hour serum immunoglobulin levels for

calves fed first colostrum at l. 2. 6 or 12

hours after birth. Two levels were fed at

th... t1‘... 1 ‘nd 3 lbs e e e e e e e e e e s 105

Analysis of variance of ZST values at #8
hours for 32 Holstein calves in Trial II. . . . 105

Analysis of variance of ZST values at 12 and
2# hours for 32 Holstein calves in Trial II . . 107

Analysis of eight colostrum batches used
in Trial II 0 O O O O O O O 0 0 O O O O O O O O 109

Analysis of variance of serum gamma globulin

levels (g. §:./100 ml serum) at #8 hours

postpartum. 32 Holstein calves in

Tri‘l IIe e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 110

Analysis of variance for #8 hour Znsos

turbidity values when covaried on total

grams of gammaglobulin fed within 38 hours

per kg or birthnisht O O O Q Q o O O Q Q Q Q Q 113

Analysis of variance for #8 hour serum
gammaglobulin levels when covaried on total
gammaglobulin fed within 38 hours postpartum
expressed as gram per kg of birthweight . . . . 116

Analysis of variance for calf’mortality of

30 lichigan dai herds. Herds were assigned

to L (low) or’R high) category based on rate
OfCIlf-Ortllityinl972...g.g.....119

leans for #8 hour ZST units in three herd
grou s and in surviving and dying calves in
30lchigandairyherds.....o...... 121

Least squares analysis of variance for

immunoglobulin levels in 30 lichigan dairy
hora. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 122

vi

Table
no

31

#2

i3

“5

’4?

#8

SO

51

Table Page

#0 Raw mean values. standard errors and ranges
for calves that lived and died in each of
thIUC herd erUPCe e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 123

#1 Correlation coefficients for time to first
colostrum or hours with dam with mortality
r‘t. in ficld Study. 0 O O Q Q Q . O o O Q Q Q 125

#2 leans and correlation coefficients for time
to first colostrum and hours with dam with
ZST value for calves from field study herds. . 127

#3 Average ZST units and colostrum feeding
data for 30 lichigan dairy herds grouped
by method of feeding colostrum to newborn
3.17.. O O O O O 0 e O O O O O O O O O O O O O 129

## Correlations between estimated amounts of
colostrum hand-fed in 36 hours postpartum
and the average ZST units for each of
.Ov.r.1 hCPd CCtCEOrACCe e e e e e e e e e e e 13"

#5 Correlation coefficients between several
sets of variables relating to calf’mcrtality.
population density and maternity areas in
30 lichigm d‘iry hCrdCe e e e e e e e e e e e 136

#6 Number of herds us box stalls and group
calving area in 30 l chigan dairy herds. . . . 139

#7 Analysis of variance relating two types of
maternity calving areas (box stalls vs.
group or loose) in 30 lichigan dairy herds . . 139

#8 Analysis of variance for dry matter of
maternity area bedding to mortality group
and type of calving area in 30 lichigan
dairy herds. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 1&1

#9 loan values for low and high calf mortality
groups as related to population density in
calfbarnandmaternityarea. . . . . . . . . l#3

50 Ileana and analysis of variance for variables
relating to population density in 30 lichigan
dairy herds divided in herds having low or
high.ort‘11tyeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 1M

51 lean mortality categorized according to type
of calf barn. type of stalls and bedding . . . l#5

vii

Tabl
52

53

Appe
Tat

Table Page
52 Average temperature and relative humidity
in calf barn and maternity areas in 30
“101113"! dairy hardse e e e e e e e e e e e e e 1“?

53 Stratification of mortality. herd size and
population density by personnel feeding the
young calves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Appendix
Table

1 Serum immunoglobulin levels (ZST) for
various hours postpartum Trial II . . . . . . . 160

2 General information on calves in Trial II . . . 162

3 General information about 30 lichigan dairy
herds participating in field study. . . . . . . l6#

viii

Figure

3a

3b

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Experhmental design for Trial II using

32 Holstein calves with two colostrum

amounts and four times postpartum in

two breeding groups at two calendar times. . 8#

Serum immunoglobulin levels from one hour

to two weeks of age as estimated by sinc-
sulfate turbidity (ZST) units for nine

calves hand-fed colostrum up to 36 hours
postpartum and nine calves remaining with

their dam to 36 hours postpartum. Standard
errors are represented by vertical lines . . 97

Serum immunoglobulin levels from 0 to 72

hours postpartum as estimated by sinc-

sulfate turbidity (ZST) units for calves
receiving 1_1p‘,of colostrum initially at

l. 2. 6 or 12 hours of age as indicated

by different lines. Each value represents

the mean of four calves. Numbers 2. 3. #

on each line represent time of 2nd. 3rd

and #th colostrum feeding. . . . . . . . . . 106

Serum.immunoglobulin levels from 0 to 72

hours postpartum as estimated by sinc-

sulfate turbidity (ZST) units for calves
receiving 3_1h.,of colostrum initially at

l. 2. 6 or 12 hours of age as indicated

by different lines. Each value represents

the mean of four calves. Numbers 2. 3. #

on each line represent time of 2nd. 3rd

and #th colostrum feeding. . . . . . . . . . 106

Interaction between genetic group and

initial feeding level after covariate

(grams of gammaglobulin fed within 38

hours/kg of birthweight) adjustment. Values

are #8 hour ZST values as influenced by

amount of colostrum at first feeding (l or

3 lb.) for the ”worst” and “best” genetic

group. Each value is the mean of eight

calves with standard errors indicated by
"rticd line. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 11“

ix

Figure

Page

Interaction between genetic group and time

of initial feeding after covariate ( ass

of gammaglobulin fed within 38 hoursfii of
birthweight) adjustment. Values are #

hour ZST values as influenced by the age

of calves when fed first colostrum for

"worst" and ”best“ genetic group. Each

value is a.mean of four calves and standard
errors are represented by vertical lines. . ll#

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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The effect of calfhood diseases on the profits of the
beef and dairy industries is difficult to accurately deter-
mine. This is partly due to the unavailability of accurate
estimates of death losses for a limited area and on a nation-
wide basis. lore difficult to determine is the monetary
value of losses contributed by permanently stunted and
unthrifty animals resulting from calfhood diseases.

lany diseases are responsible for the ever present
- sickness and death of young calves. Reisinger (1965).
however. contributes 90 per cent to be due to a neonatal
diarrhea complex. Escherichia 99,11 is usually associated
with the infectious diarrhea complex. Calves tend to
become very weak and dehydrated after losses of water and
electrolytes due to severe diarrhea. All too frequently
the end result is death.

Calves do not receive any significant resistance to
disease or immunity through placental transport in utero
and they must therefore obtain immune proteins from colos-
trum or other sources. Hence. feeding. environment and
management practices are important variables in providing
protection to the newborn. Ehrlich in 1892. according to

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Smith (19#8). first discovered that transfer of maternal
antibodies through colostrum occurred when the newborn
nursed. Subsequently. Famulener (1912) determined that
colostrum had high concentrations of immune proteins.
However. research indicates that by 2# to #8 hours post-
partum.calves lose their ability to absorb these immune
proteins. Reasons for this cessation of absorptive ability
have been the target of’much research. These antibodies
have the ability to prevent or alter the infectious diarrhea
complex (Smith and Little 1922. Dam 1968. Penhale at :1.
1970. Gay‘gjflgl. 1965. lcEwan 11,31, 1970b and Fey and
langadent 1961).

Environment which the newborn.ca1f'is exposed is thought
to contribute much to the occurrence of infection and the
resistance of the newborn. lany factors such as air
temperature. humidity. dampness of bedding and cool streams
of air are believed to reduce the resistance of calves to
disease because they place a stress on the calf.

This study was then undertaken to investigate immune
levels in dairy calves in lichigan herds. their influence
on.mortality. and to investigate several variables that
may influence gammaglobulin levels within these herds.
Secondly. to compare high and low'mortality herds in order
to possibly assess differences in management. environment.
and serum gammaglobulin levels that might relate to the
differences in high and low mortality rates.

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW

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lany estimates of the extent of oalf’mortality during

the last 36 years show that the annual loss was and still
is 15 to 20 per cent of the calves born. Marsh (1968)
compiled a table of calf losses in the 0.8. experiment
station operations and this is reproduced as Table l.
Lassiter and Seath in 1955 (cited by larsh 1968)
estimated that of 300.000 calves born on.kentucky dairy
farms each year. 20 per cent were either born dead or died
within six months. Speicher and Hepp (1973) report the
average mortality in 379 lichigan dairy herds surveyed was
l3.# per cent which includes 6.3 per cent dead at birth.
#.1 per cent dying in the first week. 1.5 per cent the
second week and 1.6 per cent dying later. Ace (1973)
summarised data taken from 5#5 questionnaires completed by
Pennsylvania dairymen. Losses were 6.6 per cent at birth.
9.8 per cent in the first week and 5.7 per cent from one
week to one month and a total by one year of 25.2 per cent.
Oxender‘gtflll. (1973) found higher mortality from a question-
naire survey of #77 lichigan herds than did Speicher and

Hepp. For 1971. the annual losses were 17.7 per cent with
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6.# per cent born dead. 8.5 per cent died 0-1# days and 2.8
per cent died from 15-60 days. Mortality was somewhat
higher in Jersey (20.9 per cent) and Guernsey (l9.# per
cent) herds than Holstein herds (17.7 per cent) but the
differences were not significant (Oxender at £1. 1973).
Johnson and Harpestad (1970) reported breed differences in
first year’mortality rates of females in Illinois DHI herds.
Ayrshire (18) herds had #.2 per cent losses. Brown Swiss
(6#) herds 10.5 per cent. mixed (5#) herds 12.7 per cent.
Holstein (9#9) herds 13.1 per cent. Jersey (#5) herds 16.9
per cent and Guernsey (76) herds 18.2 per cent.

Speicher and Hepp (1973). Johnson and Harpestad (1970).
0xender 11,31, (1973) and 1972 Michigan Telfarm data (Brown
gtwal. 1973 and Nott and Speicher 1973) all indicate higher
mortality in larger herds. Data in Table 2 from Speicher
and Hepp (1973) shows herd size and seasonal variation
while Table 3 from Oxender 11,51. (1973) shows that calves
born dead are relatively constant regardless of herd size
except for the five herds over 200 cows. In 36 herds. with
more than 500 cows. surveyed oy Speicher 31 a1. (1972)
indicated their death rate after birth was between six and
ten per cent. Labor which specialized in caring for calves
in these herds may be the key to lower deaths. Data of
Speicher and Hepp (1973) also indicate no relationship
between herd size and calves born dead. Oxender etwal.
(1973) suggest that in herd expansion programs. the number
of cows and milking facilities might be enlarged without

I:
(0
E‘

No.

25-3*
m-sv<

'0,
3:52-51

All I

iSpei

Sign
incr

TABLE

Pom
No. CC
50

50-100
100-20

200
‘Dirn
dif?!

"Dir“
Autho

coxend

6

TABLE 2. Relationship between herd size and calf
mortality prior to weaning in 379 lichigan
dairy farms.a

 

 

QBII_MQIIIIIIX
No. of 49m“— b

No. Cows % S f

25 37 11.1 8.# 9.7
25-39.9 156 13.7 10.0 11.8
#0-5#.9 90 17.2 10.1 13.5
55-6 09 55 20e6 9e5 1 e8
70-8 e9 20 19e9 905 luel

85 21 20.1 13.7 16.6
All Herds 379 17.1 10.3 13.5

 

'Speicher and Hepp 1973.

bSignificant trend for increasing calf mortality with
increasing herd size (P <0.01).

TABLE 3. Effect of herd size on calf mortality.°

 

No. of __fii;3h____, 0-1 15- 0 Total

No. Cows f f 5 1 1
so 217 93.9 6.1 7.5" 2.5 16.113,
50-100 199 93.6 6.# 8.8 2.9 18.1ab
200 5 89.6 10.5 18.1 6.8 39.9

 

*Different letters in that column indicate significant
differences (P < 0.05).

MDifference in column significant (P< 0.05) ANOV.
Author's terminology.

c0xender g: 31. 1973.

chaJ

cal‘

Noti

per

hert
herd
18.2
lich

with

Iort
1973
indi.
than

size

33bit

1Wm
'hosc

OXEm

dehsf

7

changes in calf-raising facilities or in labor for rearing
calves.

lichigan Telfarm data for 1972 (Brown at 31. 1973 and
Nott and Speicher 1973) indicate losses to weaning at l#.9
per cent in southern Michigan dairy herds and 12.8 per cent
in northern lichigan dairy herds. However. the average
herd size was 71 cows and 5# cows for southern and northern
herds respectively. Speicher and Hepp (1973) also report
18.2 per cent losses in October through larch in southern
lichigan counties and 11.5 per cent in northern counties
with annual losses of l#.# and 8.6 per cent respectively.

Type of housing was also associated with rate of
mortality in the two lichigan surveys (Speicher and Hepp
1973. and 0xender gtugl. 1973). Tables # and 5. The data
indicate that herds housed in stanchions have less mortality
than those in free stalls but that type of housing and herd
size are confounded. Speicher and Hepp (1973) also found
a relationship to the type of calf housing. and this is in
Table 6.

Again. type of calf housing and herd size are con-
founded. with greater calf losses in the larger herds
whose calves were housed as part of the loose housing barn.
0xender,gtflgl. (1973) remarked that increases in population
density of animals in larger herds might also contribute
to spread of bacterical and viral infections.

Svitc
Loose

088

8

TABLE #. Relation of dairy herd housing to extent of
calf’mortality.‘

 

 

 

 

Mun W
Type of No. of’ Herd .1. Segagngl.___ b
mm W
Stanchion 152 g6.# l#.7 9.# 12.0
Switch l#.O 8.9 11.3
Loose Housing 9 . 18.6 12.1 15.1
Free Stall 105 56.0 19.0 10.0 l#.z

 

aSpeicher and Hepp 1973.

bSignificant trend in calf mortality with type of housing.
for both annual and winter data (P < 0.01).

TABLE 5. Relation of dairy herd housing to extent of
calf’mortality.

 

.Bmhs...
Type of No. of 0-1 . 15- 0 Total
9‘ 9‘ 5 f f
Stanchion 125 91+.1 5.9 6.7.: 2.1 1n. 7;
Free Stall 259 93.5 6.5 9‘6ab 3.2 19.3:b
93.0 7.010.3 3.5 20. 9

Loose Housing 31

 

*Numbers bearing different superscript letters are
significantly different (P < 0. 05).

‘Oxender n n. 1973.

lithil
Stone]

Separ:
Calf 1

Part c
loose
'31» 1:

hi sig
housi

relati

Iona]
this j

his. I.
19191.
liohi4
“Na:
that J
13:83]

Bile.

9
TABLE 6. Relationship between type of calf housing and

calf mortality prior to weaning on 367 Michigan
dairy farms . a

lean ________£slffilanlalilx_____
Calf No. of Herd M—

 

MW
Within

Stanchion Barn 128 35.2 13.0 7.9 10.#
Separate

Calf Barn 185 52.6 18.9 10.3 l#.3
Part of

Loose Housing 5# #6.6 18.9 13.3 15.9

 

‘Speicher and Hepp 1973.

bA si ificant trend in calf mortality with type of calf
hous . for both annual and seasonal data (P-<:0.01).

Johnson and Harpestad (1970) also found a negative
relationship between level of fat produced and rate of
mortality. lichigan Telfarm data for 1969 agree with
this idea.

In summary. the data reviewed indicated larger herds
“mi-wmsrmity and the? ma._9.¥_, £98.. Musing .2... .9511: u

a...
“-m-h..._
“Hap—Wm” ".

92221951999 whether the_herds are in southern or northern
lichigan.counties all interrelate when evaluating calf
mortality. The unanswered question in these surveys is”
what is different or being done differently with calves in
larger herds. or in high mortality herds regardless of herd

size.

10
,.e ._,. : . a ' u. ; ~ .. ;:. . .. .,. ,, n; . ,. .;
The annual rate of cow removal as reviewed by Dayton

(1966) Table 7. varied from 8.8 per cent to 30.9 per cent
with a mean of 23.8 per cent. The Annual Summary of
lichigan Dairy Herd Improvement Records from 1959 through
1968 shows an average cow removal rate of 27.0 per cent sold
plus 1.6 per cent that died (Table 8). There are 2.65 per
cent of the herd leaving for dairy purposes. 13.68 per cent
for low production and 10.6 per cent from involuntary
causes. In this section I will try to evaluate the effect
of various mortality rates on the number of available herd

replacements.

Bolt:
Seath
isdel

Johns
1960,

11

TABLE 7. Annual rates of removal reported in the

literature.

 

BIPQII—

 

Baltzer (l9#0)

Seath (l9#0)

Asdell (1951)

Johnson (1958. 1959.
1960. 1961. 1962. 1963)

Specht and chilliard

(1960)

Rabold (1958)
Leali (1956)
Clark (1958)

Withers (19550 19570

1959)

O'Connor and Hodges

(1963)

 

United States
(lichigan)

United States
(Kansas)

United States

United States
(lichigan)

United States
(Michigan)

Germany

Italy
Australia
Great Britain

Great Britain

.Qaunirx ._:Annnal_Bamaxsl_Bais

2#.1$

30.9%

16.85

25.#$ 1958
29.0% 1959
27.6% 1960
26.6% 1961
27.95 1962
29.91 1963

26.35

15.0%
8.85

16.8%

22-2uz

29e 1957-58
23o 1959‘60

 

Data from l.S. Thesis of A. D. Dayton. 1966. lichigan State
DiffaranIial_Baaaxa1_of.Daushta:a.Assns_A1_Il

University.
Sires

12

TABLE 8. Data from annual summary of Michigan Dairy Herd
Improvement Records. showing distribution of
animals leaving the dairy herd.

 

Reason for Sale
Dairy Low

Isar_____niad___S21d_____Burn2aaa___Eradusiian___lnxalunsarx
f of Total Herd f of Those Sold

 

59 1.8 27.2 12.# #3.5 ##.l
60 1.7 25.9 11.3 #2.8 “5.9
61 1.5 25.1 11.6 #3.9 99.5
62 1.5 26.# 9.5 #7.0 #3.5
63 1.6 28.3 8.9 #8.8 #1.8
6# 1.3 23.# 9.7 50.2 39.5
65 1.# 30.5 9.6 54.6 35.8
66 1.8 30.# 7.8 53.9 33-3
67 1.8 30.8 9.2 58.3 32.#
68 111 .2215 .515 5215 3112.
Ave. 1.6 27.0 _2Ԥ~_ _59.2 39-3
-- f of Total Herd --
2.6 13.7 10.6

 

the

lhe

the
the

197
hen
the
M.
int.
The;

13
Hetsler (1972) used the following equation to calculate

the number of available herd replacements.

 

 

 

Equation 1
NC L (130 x .85 x .85) x .90
-1-' x. 02 or
__zi. :21, ' 39
I 1.08

Where:

N I Cows bred per 100 cows in.milking herd
(100 cows + 30 heifers)

01 - Per cent bred which calve
L I Per cent of calves which live to breeding age
a To account for normal sex ratio

02 8 Per cent of heifers reaching breeding age which
.also reach milking herd

I s Calving interval

This equation includes several variables affecting
the number of herd replacements. In the present discussion
the primary interest is in (L).

The Telfarm data (Brown.gjflal. 1973. Nott and Speicher
1973). indicate that 98 calves were born per 100 cows in a
herd. This figure (98) can then replace the term N01 in
the previous equation and since the new term calving
percentage is expressed on an annual basis. the calving
interval (1) can also be omitted from.the previous equation.

Therefore:

there

accun
letzle
mist
on the
“P to
'here
0f 11!
lay be
reMlle
based
111 0t
emIna
differ

lb
Equation 2
B x L x C2 or 98 x .85 x .90 I 37.5

 

 

2 2

Where:

B I Calves born per 100 cows

L I Per cent of heifers reaching breeding age

2 I To account for normal sex ratio

02 I Per cent of heifers reaching breeding age which

also reach the milking herd

These expressions give similar values. However. the
accuracy of the estimates for the variables may be questioned.
letsler (1972) did not remark on the derivation of his
variables. The value of (L) in any situation will depend
on the mortality per cent of bulls and heifers being equal
up to breeding age. This may be unlikely on many farms
where bull calves are sold during the first or second week
of life. Applying the above equations to large populations
may be in error due to over or under estimation of actual
female losses. Even so. generating the replacement numbers
based on hypothetical mortality rates will be of value if
all other variables are held constant. The following are
estimates of available replacement heifers based on use of

different mortality levels in the equations.

sorta
sold

breed
cows

the n
nunbe
'Ould
incre;
size .
2912 1
Then ‘
Der C1
leads
eithe:

15

 

 

Equation 1 Equation 2
(L) Replacements (N)
e90 “1.“ 3907
.85 39.0 37.5
.80 3608 35.3
.70 32-2 30.9
.60 27.6 26.5

From the generated replacement numbers above. a
mortality rate of 90 per cent (this will include heifers
sold for various reasons) or 60 per cent survival to
breeding age leaves only 26-27 heifers to replace the 28.6
cows removed from a hundred cow herd in lichigan. Logically.
the number of cows culled annually would be equal to the
number of heifers available to replace culled cows. There
would be the exception where replacements are used to
increase herd sise and animals are bought to increase herd
sise or replace culls. Therefore. one might assume that
2912 or 3 heifers are entering the milking string annually.
Then indirectly one would estimate the survival rate of 60
per cent to be close to the average in lichigan. This then
leads to the conclusion that #0 per cent of heifer calves
either are born dead. die or are disposed by breeding age.

Moore gtflgl. (1979) reported 31 per cent of the
potential replacement heifers were lost prior to calving
during 1h years (1958-1971) at the Lewisburg Experiment
Station in Tennessee. They remarked that above average
feeding and management conditions existed. Death losses of

over 19 per cent were contributed to by scours and/or

16
pneumonia 9.5. stillbirth 9.1. accident 1.9. abnormal 1.9.
abortion .7. and miscellaneous 1.9. Sales of females
accounted fer 11.7 per cent. which were for breeding problems
6.“. dairy 2.9. twin with bulls .9. unthrifty .8. grade .6.
and other .5.

Two points can now be made from these calculations.
First. the data from Speicher and Hepp (1973). 1972 Michigan
Telfarm Records (Brown g3_gl. 1973. and Nott and Speicher
1973) and Oxsnder gngl. (1973) gives estimates on.mortality
to weaning (13.4. 14.9. 12.8 and 17.7 per cent respectively)
that are too low to account for a #0 per cent lose up to
breeding age and therefore are too low to account for only
about 29 heifers entering the milking herd per 100 cows.
This discrepancy here may be due to methods of recording
mortality in dairy herds. Second. herds with high mortality
in heifers will be able to replace very few low producing
cows because the dairymen will first have to replace those
lost for involuntary reasons.

In summary. then. the average lichigan dairyman is
replacing only 19 per cent of his cows for low production
from the "bottomP of his herd. This leaves little or no
increasing effect on the herd production average which is
directly related to income.

Dim-12W
Oxender 11 Q}. (1973) report from their questionnaire

survey that 70 per cent of the Michigan dairy herds considered

diarrhea as a disease problem in young calves and no per cent

grou
tied
bactc
Bate)
endo1
and a

rell

17
considered pneumonia as a disease problem. Numerous
workers have associated diarrhea in young calves with L
99.11 infection (Wood 1955. Radostits 1965. Smith and Little
1922).

Colibacillcsis is a term that has been applied to a
group of diseases caused by infection with bacteria classi-
fied as L, 99.11- E... 1911 are gram-negative. rod-shaped
bacteria that conform to the definition of the family
Enterobacteriaeae. All gram-negative bacteria contain
endotoxins which are confined within the bacterial cell
and are present in W19, W bacteria as
well as those that cause disease (Barnum 91 3.1. 1967).

1., 99.1.1. are usually found in fecal contents of nonal
animals and are acquired in the 0.1. tract by ingestion
(Gay 1965. Barnum n 3.1. 1967. and Wood 1955). Wood (1955)
found fecal swabs taken within a few hours of birth were
invariably sterile although those taken on the 7th. 14th
and 21st day of life revealed large numbers of coliform
bacteria. He also noticed a constant change in rectal
flora of each calf from week to week. and in some instances
more than one strain were present at one time. From 1950
to 1953 there wasa shift in predominant bacteria strains
observed by Wood in the calf house and several times during
the three-year period the house was left idle. In many
calves and pigs with diarrhea. L 9.9.1.1 can be cultured

from the spleen. liver. kidneys. blood. the mesentric
lymph nodes and intestinal contents (Smith and Little 1922..

18
Radostits 1965. Leece and Reep 1961. and Wood 1955). In
the absence of a colisepticemia. E‘_g211 are usually
cultured only from the intestinal contents and congested
mesentric lymph nodes (Wood 1955).

Barnum 11,31. (1967) write that calves which died of
acute septicemia colibacillosis are usually well hydrated
and in good flesh. The intestinal tract in.most cases
appears normal. Fey (1962) was unable to reproduce the
disease with strain 0783K80 in calves which already received
colostrum except for a temporary dysentery. However. this
serotype would easily kill colostrum-deprived calves but
the point here is that greater success in producing septicemia
occurred in colostrum fed calves when the E._ggli,strahn
was artificially fed first and colostrum was withheld for
several hours.

Barnum.g1,gl. (1967) writes that the enteric syndromes
of colibacillosis (local gut infections) are associated
with and are assumed to be the result of large numbers of
enteropathogenic 3.,9911 in the small intestine. They
remark that calves necropsied with the enteric or enteric-
toxamic colibacillosis usually have extreme dehydration.
varying degrees of distention of the intestinal tract with
fluids. and pasting of the rear quarters and tail with
fluid or semi-solid feces. Intestinal walls are thin.
atomic and translucent while the ingesta remains essentially
unchanged from abomasum to rectum.

There are several problems associated with the positive

19

determination of pathogenic strains responsible for death
in calves. Potential pathogenes were often found in feces
of calves not becoming ill as well as calves that died
presumably from these pathogenic strains that were cultured
(wood 1955 and Glantz‘gt.al. 1968). Amstuts (1965) remarked
when cultures are derived from necropsy non-pathogenic
bacteria.may migrate into the tissue when the taking of
necropsy samples are delayed. Gay (1965) remarks that
routine culture methods tend to select for E._gq11,and
because of this it is extremely difficult to assess the
significance of an infection of‘E‘,cqli from a specimen.

Development of disease. according to Dam's (1968)
review of literature. depends on the interaction between the
more or less pathogenic types of’E‘,gg11_involved and a
number of resistance-reducing factors. These may be
insufficient birth hygiene. malnutrition including wrong or
no application of colostrum and bad housing with crowding
of animals. Dam (1968) suggests the pathogenicity of the
strains of L, .9211 and environmental conditions are more
important than a gammaglobulinemia or hypogemmaglobulinemia
(lack of or low serum gammaglobulin) in calves. based upon
his observations of 3“ calves in five herds. There was a
lower average gammaglobulin level for calves that died of
colisepticemia but levels in calves from a control herd
with no septicemia and in several other surviving calves
were lower than the average of those dying from septicemia.

Dam apparently assumes then that the reason these calves

he]

vhf
con
PM

thq

De
he;
'i‘

W

20
with lower levels survived may be due to differences in
pathogenicity of the E‘_2211_involved and in environmental
conditions rather than specific antibody action of the
gamma.globulins.

Reisinger (1965) suggests when colostrum is not
consumed that E‘,ggli_populate the upper portion of the
small intestine under stress conditions. From this he
postulates that allowable time to first colostrum feeding
for protection against E‘,gg11 is inversely proportional
to the total adverse contributing factors.

Amstuts (1970. 1965) theorises several possibilities
why'E.,9911,causes diarrhea and may be more virulent in one
herd than another.

1) Iany different strains or serotypes of’E‘,g211
which are ingested by the calf during or shortly after birth
comprise the intestinal flora. Potential pathogens may be
present. but in such a low proportion of the total that
they are incapable of producing disease. A change in
intestinal environment results in marked increases in non-
pathogens. This relative shift in bacterial population
may result in a flora that is able to invade the intestinal
wall and interfere with normal functions.

2) £._9211_are not capable of producing disease when
confined to the lower portion of the digestive tract but
when specific antibody containing colostrum is not in the
gut within a short time after birth then under certain
feeding and management conditions and unsatisfactory environ-
ment the organisms multiply rapidly. release potent

end

21
endotoxins. and produce generalized toxin reactions
damaging the intestinal epithelium. These bacteria then
enter the general circulation and invade other tissues causing
widely divergent signs of neonatal diarrhea.

3) A virus invades the animal and in some manner.
possibly a synergistic action with resident 3.,9g11 produces
a.modification of the intestinal wall which.makes it pervious
to E‘_9211.

9) Numerous £‘_ggli,serotypes occur in nature and
most are non-pathogenetic but some are capable of producing
disease. When a pathogenetic serotype becomes established
in a herd. infectious diarrhea results. A highly virulent
pathogen may be introduced by a purchased animal or show
animal.

Anderson (1973) and Appleman and Owen (1971) suggest
that an organism increases in ability to produce disease as
it passes from animal to animal and with each sequential
passage. the virulence increases to the point where. after
several passages severe disease results in every animal
inoculated. Reisinger (1965) and Ingram £3.31, (1956)
suggest certain pathogenic strains become dominant by
selection or survival and this is reason fer ”infection“
build-up in calf houses after a period of time. This
phenomena may be likened to the transfer of resistance
factor in human pathogens. This idea has not been explored
in bacteria infecting calves.

The possibility of immunization of calves against

22

E‘,§911_is being probed. Conner gtflal. (1973) have indica-
tions that intra-uterine immunisation of calves to a
specific E‘,9911_strain can provide the neonate protection
against a challenge dose of the strain. Calves were immunized
orally via amniotic fluid while in utero. Three of five
calves immunised where born healthy and survived the
challenge dose of E‘,9911,type 026. Four control calves
given 1.5 x 1010 organisms died in two to ten days.

Recent work by Mebus gtmal. (1969. 1972) indicates
that certain viruses may be responsible for initiating the
diarrhea complex in some cases. Electron microscopic
examination of material from the feces of a diarrhetic
calf revealed many viral particles about 65 mu in diameter.
Reproduction of diarrhea with bacteria-free filtrates derived
from feces from infected calves and containing viral particles
indicated that a virus was the probable cause of diarrhea.
but due to finding E‘_9911,in the feces of experimental
calves it became necessary to produce diarrhea in calves not
contaminated with 3‘,9911. i.e.. calves in which E‘_gg11,
is not found in the feces. This was done in three calves
kept free of’Eh,ggli,and given bacteria-free filtrate.
When non-invasive E‘_gg11,strains were present. the calf
recovered in one or two days: however. when an invasive
strain of‘3‘_g211,was present there was an intestinal
overgrowth of 3.,9211 followed by a septicemia. a tempera-

ture of 109° to 105° 3 and death in three to five days.

On the basis of their research. Iebus and co-workers

believe
experil
caused
vaccine
(P <0.
reo-lik
year an
diarrhe
diarrhe
found a
Se'
changes
1972. a:
that no:
loss of
increagg
or incre
and Levi
losses (
diarrhea
“Specs
011
seem-mi
tion, I
and "God
3110“ a
Ind die:

23
believe that the neonatal diarrhea produced in these
experimental calves. which lasted six to eight hours. was
caused by a virus. Mebus at 31. (1972) then developed a
vaccine for this rec-like virus which significantly reduced
(P ¢=0.01) calf mortality in 15 of 18 herds having the
rec-like virus isolated from calf feces during the previous
year and in 15 of 17 herds that were presently having
diarrhea problems. The virus vaccine significantly reduced
diarrhea.in 19 of the 17 herds. Mebus gj_al. (1972) also
fbund a corona-like virus in seven herds.

Several workers have reported the water and electrolytic
changes in calves which have diarrhea (Lewis and Phillips
1972. and Blaxter and Wood 1953). Radostits (1965) writes
that most workers have reported a reduction in bodyweight.
loss of body fluid. decrease in serum level of sodium.
increase in blood urea nitrogen. and a variable reduction
or increase in serum potassium. Blaxter and Wood (1953)
and Lewis and Phillips (1972) reported normal daily fecal
losses of 50 to 60g. and 5.98 Per Kg of calf. but with
diarrhea fecal losses increased up to no and 22 times
respectively.

Clinical signs observed with calves during severe
scouring are dullness. ataxia. loss of appetite and dehydra-
tion. Body gains declined and often became negative (Blaxter
and Wood 1953. and Lewis and Phillips 1972). Table 9
shows a comparison of focal and urinary losses for normal

and diarrheic calves from data of Lewis and Phillips (1972).

 

'om-OQUOH +89uflfi°h908H8 “vi 98-0.85.- uflofl'fiafih: «Us H'085N em Sufi—DH

24

.NaaH mmHHHHcm use oHsoHu
.H.m.nussoav use use pcstshoon mm non ms.:H+
.A.m.mflssoav has non pcwaoshoon ma non w cue

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

x:m.o . .mm. case. n .cmmm.e so. 0: ma. qua. 6H mn.QuHa.o N-N aanecwum
xen.o mH. omsm. o .o+mm.o xN. :N .sHMm. omH m.nmw.m N-N ssHuHeo
amm.o N. eHMa. Ne .ouua.mm xN. an N. 60H+m.NmN s.N+e.a n-s oeHsngo
ace. o e.NH+m. a .NNHH.emH an. 5H a. mass. as ¢.Hmw.m nus asHonspom
xne. o o .mH+H. N m.AMo.o MN. 5N e. Noun. NnN m.num.a m-m asHeom
me. o H. 3+m. NN e.N+o.o .NN a. nnMH. NNH o.H+n.e nee nape:
as.m N. H+N. am m.oHe.se a .HN m. o+H. em N.Num.Na m-a sopa:.a
mos.o H .eun. :N e.eua.He so. NN n. nnum. mNH o.Hue.m n-“ .Hupoa
-1. .r. . a: -a .t-. - 1a.. 1}. .
easauom
g gnu-dam :58
«6 .oz
e.momuoa +evhaohpoeae use ensues madman: use Hsoem .m mqm¢a

‘1‘}
were 11
two tin
content
died 0:
dehydr:
decree:
of CaH
urinar:
of non

T;
in l m
Wood 1«
occur ;
being .
0f dim

Ti
0! the
inhibi
during
is rel
this p

25

Three of these calves had spontaneous diarrhea. two
were induced by feeding 2g of sucrose per Kg of bodyweight
two times daily. and three were induced by feeding intestinal
contents and mucosal scraping from field case calves that
died of diarrhea. Renal compensation to the ensuing
dehydration is evident as the urinary water loss is
decreased to 0.38 of normal volume. With the exception
of Ca?+ which is decreased to 0.36 of normal. all other
urinary electrolytes were decreased to only 0.5“ to 0.63
of normal (Lewis and Phillips 1972).

Tables 10 and 11 compare fecal losses of calves when
in a normal. loose and diarrheic condition (Blaxter and
Wood 1953). A marked increase of water and dry material
occur in diarrheic calves and here the percentage of water
being the greatest can then be used to indicate intensity
of diarrhea.

The usual amount of hydrochloric acid destroys many
of the bacteria which enter the abomasum and partially
inhibit the growth of E‘_9211_in this area. However.
during the first one to two days of life. gastric acidity
is relatively low and Barnum (1967) and co-workers believe
this partially explains the high susceptibility of newborn
animals. Barnum gtflgl. (1967). however. did not cite
specific evidence for these statements. They reiterate
Reisinger's statement that any interference with the
motility and secretions of the intestine which tend to

move bacteria anteriorly could create an abnormally high

TABL

Cone

Nate

iota
N X
Ash

uBla

TABL

thou
line
cret
equi

26

TABLE 10. Mean amounts of the major constituents
excreted in normal and scouring feces for
calves on artificial diets.a

 

Ratio of
Constituent Q1aaaifiaaiicn_af;£!£ss_§sanlas “Diarrhoal'
Water 51.0 280.0 927.0 18.2
Dry latter 12.5 42.5 93.5 7.5
Total Fat 4.1 17.5 7.4 9.1
N X 6.25 5.5 22.3 1.0 7.5
Ash 1.5 5.3 10.6 7.1

 

‘Blaxter and Wood. 1953.

TABLE 11. Mean amounts of mineral elements lost in the
feces of normal and scouring calves.a

 

 

Amounts of

Mineral Ex-

creted (mg. Ratio of
equivalent Q1aasifisaiicn.2£.£asss.§aanlss. 'Diarrhoal'
na:_daxi ”H2raa12__zLa2sa2__:Disrrhaslz___io_:nnraal'
Calcium 21.6 31.2 98.8 3, 3 7
lagnesium 11.4 16.0 24.0 '
Sodium 5.0 9.5 41.6 11 3
Potassium 2 . 2 3 . 0 39 .9 } '
Phosphorus 21.0 39.0 94.0 4.4

 

‘Blaxter and Wood. 1953.

numt

or 1
tree
afte
pH 1
nixt
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twic

norm

abou

Pese;
fact.
stat.
the 1
trec‘
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(1965
that
agen'
e1.c.

‘bSol

27
number of E1,gg11,in the upper intestine.

Cowie (1964) showed that acid treatment will prevent
or render scours less severe in young calves provided the
treatment begins at the acute indigestion phase and not
after it has advanced. Acid solutions used were in the
pH range of 2.9 to 3.2 and consisted of citric acid or a
mixture of citric (32 gr) and dilute hydrochloric acid
(5 minims) in water (10 oz.). These were administered
twice daily. The pH of feces from 100 diarrheic and 17
normal calves was measured. and those calves responding
to treatment with a drop in fecal pH had a drop from
about 7.6 (6.1 to 9.1) down to 5.6 (4.6 to 7.1).

In summary of this section. it is evident that many
researchers believe E1_gg11,to be the major disease-causing
factor in calfhood diarrhea. Also. several workers have
stated that external environmental conditions as well as
the conditions existing within the gastrointestinal
tract play a significant role as to whether or not patho-
genetic bacteria populate and cause disease. Mebus g: 31.
(1969. 1972) have worked with a rec-like virus and found
that this could also be a responsible diarrhea-initiating
agent. Diarrhea causes gross changes in a calf's
electrolytic balance. thus causing loss of water and poor

absorption of nutrients and thus death.

28

WW

Ehrlich in 1892 (as cited by Smith 1948) recognised
the transfer of maternal antibodies to the newborn from
the colostrum milk. Famulener (1912) referred to colostrum
as having high concentrations of immune bodies. two to
three times the content of maternal serum at parturition.
He also noted very little if any hemolysin transfer into
kids' serum while in utero. Immune bodies and hemolysin
refer to agglutinins or antibodies or substances having
antibody properties (Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary).
Jenness 11,11, (1956) refers to two classes of immune
proteins in milk. euglobulin and pseudoglobulin. based
upon their water solubility. Smith (1948) conveniently
refers to these colostrum and milk globulins which are
associated with immunity as ”immune lactoglobulins'.
although the actual antibody content may account for only
a small portion of these fractions. Immunoglobulin is a
general term assigned to a family of high molecular
weight proteins that share common physico-chemical
characteristics and antigenic determinants. They have
gamma.or slow beta electrophoretic mobility and occur in
serum and other body fluids of animals. Three classes have
been identified in the cow. IgG. IgH. and IgA (Butler
1969).

According to Smith (1948). Jameson in 1942 and San
Clemente in 1943 utilised electrophoretic analysis to
show that the newborn does not have any gammaglobulin

29
and that the presence of slow-moving globulin occurs only
after the ingestion of colostrum. In the 1920's Howe
(1921) and Orcutt and Howe (1922) also observed the
appearance of agglutinins in the post colostral calf
serum associated with a globulin which was precipitated
in 14.2 per cent sodium sulfate.

Smith's review (1948) discusses several properties
of the bovine immune lactoglobulins. Their molecular
weight is in the neighborhood of 180.000. By electro-
phoresis the immune proteins may equal 50 to 60 per cent
of the total protein in colostrum and 85 to 90 per cent
of the protein in colostral whey. Colostrum itself.
shortly after parturition contains 15 to 26 per cent
protein which is about two or three times the concentra-
tion in blood plasma (Smith 1948. Parrish gjflg1. 1950.
and Foley gtha1. 1972). About 85 to 90 per cent of serum
and whey immunoglobulins are of the IgG class and less
than 10 per cent of the Igl class (Butler 1969). According
to Askonas 11Hg1. (1954). Larson (1958) and reldman (1961)
the bulk of protective immune components in colostrum

come unmodified from the maternal blood.

W

A number of studies have been conducted to determine
immunoglobulin levels in newborn dairy calves. their role
in protection against disease and factors affecting these
levels. lethods used in determining these levels have

varied. HcEwan 11Hg1. (1970c) used a modification of the

3o
sincsulfate turbidity test to estimate the immunoglobulin
portion of calf serum. A correlation coefficient of .96
was obtained between values for the zincsulfate test and
a quantitative immunodiffusion technique measuring IgH
plus IgG combined. McBeath gtmg1. (1971) used the sine-
sulfate test and found a correlation of 0.99 with a single
radial diffusion test for IgH plus IgG. A simple
refractometer was also used by McBeath 13,11. (1971) for
a quick determination of immunoglobulin levels. The
refractometer is a method to estimate serum protein
concentrations and thus use of this method for the purpose
of detecting levels of immunoglobulins in newborns assumes
that the major variation in protein levels of neonatal
calves is due to changes in blood gammaglobulin. The
correlation of this test with the single radial diffusion
test was 0.72 which is lower than correlations obtained
between the Znsoh method and radial diffusion cited
previously.

lungle (1972) used the single radial diffusion assay
to quantitate serum IgG along with commercial antiserum
and a standard IgG. He also employed the refractometer
to determine total serum protein and to estimate per cent
gammaglobulin he used a micro-sons electrophoresis system.
Penhale 11Hl1. (1970) used the single radial diffusion
system plus micro-Ejeldahl analysis to calculate total
serum protein. Selman gtflg1. (1971a) and Kruse (1970b)
used cellulose acetate strips to electrophoretically

JK—

colo:
raisl
clevl
(195
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and

lack
body
(196
diet

°0nc
a...
Penh
and

31
determine immune lactoglobulin in whey. Lecce g17a1.
(1961) employed immunoelectrophoretic techniques and
reference antisera to egg white proteins and bovine whey
proteins to detect these proteins in piglet blood after
feeding the egg white and bovine proteins. Lecce gthg1.
(1961) also used agar gel electrophoresis under similar
conditions to separate egg protein fractions. colostral
protein fractions. and for detection of polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP) in piglets blood.

3.. -_ .. . -qe. . h. ..; .._ . - 1;.... .. .:

In 1922 Smith and Little (1922) showed that feeding
colostrum greatly reduced calf losses. They successfully
raised ten calves fed on colostrum while losing nine of
eleven which were colostrum deprived. Ingram,etha1.
(1956) reported similar results losing 59 of 225 colostrum
fed calves and 94 of 103 colostrum deprived calves. Smith
and Little (1922) stated that colostrum deprived calves
lack something allowing intestinal bacteria to invade the
body and multiply in various organs. Lecce and Reep
(1961) found that pigs receiving gammaglobulin in their
diets were most resistant to bacteremia and death.

Several workers have shown that calves with increased
concentrations of blood immunoglobulin tend to have fewer
deaths than those with low concentrations (Dam 1968.
Penhale 11 3.1. 1970. Gay 91 a1. 1965. lcEwan 31;, 3.1. 1970b.
and Fey and langadent 1961). Dam (1968) showed that

32
deaths in four herds due to colisepticemia. a systemic
infection caused by invading bacteria. were more likely
to occur in calves with low blood levels of immunoglobulin.
Penhale 11M11. (1970) had calves dying of septicemia with
IgG and IgM levels of 0.8 and 0.2 mg/ml respectively.
These levels were significantly different from those in
surviving calves (7.5 and 0.8 mg/ml) which had no indica-
tions of illness except occasional diarrhea. Calves that
died but were not bacteraemic had profuse diarrhea and
intermediate IgG and IgM levels.

Several experiments determining immunoglobulin levels
with the sincsulfate test show a positive relationship
between turbidity of serum and the amount of colostral
immunoglobulin in the calves blood. and negative relation-
ship to sickness. Gay gt :1. (1965) sampled 178 Ayrshire
market calves and found 30 per cent (54) had less than
10 sincsulfate turbidity units and of these 54 calves. 23
died. This test was successful in identifying calves
likely to succumb to the septicemic form of colibacillosis.
There was evidence that enteric disease (local G.I.
infections) was also related to serum immunoglobulin and
here again calves with low serum levels died. lcEwan
711.11. (1970b) found all but two of 58 septicemia deaths
occurred in calves having low serum sine turbidity units
(0-10). Fey and Hangadent (1961) found hypogammaglobulinemia
in only 10 per cent of the healthy calves but low gamma-
globulin levels occurred in 95 per cent of the dead calves

33

where death was attributed to colisepticemia.

Logan and Penhale (1971a) and Lecce and Reep (1961)
suggested colostrum has a dual protective function;
locally against enteric disease within the gastro-
intestinal tract and systemically in the circulation against
colisepticemia. Logan and Penhale (1971a) mentioned this
in light of the failure of colostral whey to influence
diarrhea.condition when given parenterally. Penhale g1,a1.
(1971) prepared a IgM rich injectable fraction from bovine
serum. which was given intraperitoneally. The usual
course of septicemia was modified regardless of the dose.
However the fraction had little effect upon the development
of enteric disease. To test the idea that colostrum has
a local protective activity within the gastro-intestinal
tract Logan and Penhale (1971b) used hypogammaglobulinemic
market calves under one week of age. All calves were
placed in an area previously contaminated by calves with
.colibacillosis. Calves were treated with IgH intra-
venously alone and in combination with feeding colostral
whey orally. Other calves received only whey or were
controls with no treatment. IgM I.V. plus whey orally
provided the longest survival time (P< 0.02) with two of
six calves surviving. Postmortem examination revealed
these calves had mucoid 31,9911 in the small intestine
and some mesentric lymph nodes at death as did the
calves given only IgH I.V. Feeding whey alone did not
raise the IgM serum levels (.17 mg/ml) and all these

34
calves died of septicemia. Since whey was not being
absorbed into the circulation when fed orally then the
additional survival time in calves treated with both
whey and IgM I.V. was concluded to be due to local
benefits of whey in the gut.

IgH may be the principle immune component for
protection against colisepticemia in the calf. IgM is
present in normal bovine serum and possesses antibacterial
activity. particularly against gram negative bacteria
including pathogenic serotypes of E1,Qg11_(Penhale 1965.
Logan and Penhale 1971a). Ingram 21151. (1956) however.
suggested that certain strains of bacteria against which
colostrum is non-effective. i.e.. not containing specific
agglutinins for antigens produced by strains of bacteria.
may become dominant in colostrum-fed calves. Cartwright
(1968) writes that colostrum or sow's milk must be in
the piglets gut to neutralise the effect of a particular
virus. transmissible gastro-enteritis (TGE). with which
he was working because they soon died if they were removed
from the sow and nursed artificially. Cartwright did not
mention here what the artificial feeding system was.

Roy (cited by Reid 1956) showed colostrum reduced the
incidence of secure and deaths caused by localized
intestinal infections even when the colostrum was
administered after the time when the small intestine was
no longer permeable to the transfer of intact globulins.

Wood (1955) stated septicemia to be more frequent in

35

colostrum deprived calves. but local intestinal infections
were more prevalent in those receiving an aqueous colostrum
fraction (400 ml) as the first feed followed by a basic
diet of synthetic milk. Lecce (1973) remarked that the
local effects of colostrum in the gut during the first
three days may be more beneficial than the immune level in
blood. He also caused gut closure artificially without
adding any immunoglobulin to the piglets system and
prevented incidence of bacteremia which occurred in
controls. Lecce (1973) theorized that the large globulin
molecules and other molecules filled the absorptive sites
in the neonate intestine and eventually caused closure.

There is some disagreement in the literature on the
need for specificity of antibodies in colostrum to
particular antigens which supposedly cause disease in
calves and death. Dam (1968) reported that he previously
found higher protective effect (this is assumed by the
reviewer to be protection from disease within the calf)
of sera containing specific agglutinating antibodies than
of normal sera. and thus demonstrated the preferability
of a specific prophylaxis aimed directly at the pathogenic
organisms in question. He did not define the normal sera.
Ingram 11 a1. (1956) found that of 59 colostrum-fed calves
that died. 45 had received colostrum devoid of agglutinins
to strains associated with their death. 0f 94 colostrum-
deprived calves that died. 66 deaths were associated with
strains against which agglutinins could be demonstrated

36
in colostrum given to contemporary calves that survived.
However the existence of strains of bacteria were not
determined in surviving calves receiving colostrum in
which agglutinins were present. Gay stated (Gay 1965.
Gay'gtflal. 1965) that the level of specific agglutinating
antibodies to a "K” antigen of infectious E‘_;211_strain
did not relate to the incidence of colisepticemia but
that mortality was related to a deficiency of serum
gammaglobulin in the calf. Lecce and Reep (1961) reported
that feeding of E‘,9911,strain '08“ to nine. two week
old. colostrum-free. 08 agglutinin-free piglets resulted
in no signs of the disease attributable to the z._g911,
fed at two weeks of age. This suggests presence of a
resistance to infection that was not dependent on blood
gammaglobulin containing antibodies for strain '08”.
Lecce and Matrone (1960) write that colostrum-free
isolated pigs were eight weeks of age before they could
synthesise antibodies in response to administered antigens.
and the knowledge that after two weeks of age antibody-
free pigs are ”easy" to rear may indicate that more
factors are involved in protection against disease in
the early period than high blood levels of antibodies.

In summary. Barto (1972) points out that there may
be bactericidial activity in calf serum before colostrum
feeding and that a complete complex may be formed when
colostrum is absorbed. Lecce and Reep (1961) as well as
Logan and Penhale (1971a) describe colostrum as having

37
the primary purpose of systemic and local gut protection
and to this Lecce and Reep (1961) and Lecce (1973) adds
that immunoglobulin may allow for rapid maturation of
piglet serum profile and enhance gut closure which may
be the first line of defense against bacterial disease.

W
The idea that calves lack gammaglobulin until

ingestion of colostrum has been discussed and levels
achieved following colostrum absorption in various studies
will be presented. However. researchers have verified
that calves do not completely lack gammaglobulin at
birth (Howe 1921. Klaus 91,31. 1969. McCoy giflgl. 1970.
Bush :5 n. 1971 and Mungle 1972).

The condition of agammaglobulinemia in calves
refers to this near complete lack of gmmmaglobulin
detectable in the blood. Fey (1967) defined hypogamma-
globulinemic calves as those with blood levels below
0.5 per cent gammaglobulin. Calves deprived of colostrum
until 20 hours had .02g of gammaglobulin per 100 ml of
serum (McCoy 1970). McBeath g1,51. (1971) using a
refractive index found 1“ colostrum deprived calves with
an average serum protein concentration of 3.83 g/100 ml.
with this technique they feund five of 24 (20.8 per cent)
market calves had values of 3.80 or less.

Klaus 31 a1. (1969) found three of ten calves with
less than 0.5 mg/ml IgM and below 0.0 mg/ml for IgG.

38
Staley 11,51. (1971) state 26 and 30 per cent of the calves
in their studies remained hypogammaglobulinemic in spite
of adequate levels in the ingested colostrum. Sixteen
of the 30 calves in Mungle's (1972) work had serum gamma-
globulin levels below O.5 mg/ml which was stated to result
In. feeding low amounts of gammaglobulin. The calves
~cdnmumed either 22.6g or “5.2g of colostral immunoglobulin
per 50 kg of bodyweight within 2“ hours. Low total
immunoglobulin consumption may also have occurred in
calves found hypogammaglobulinemic in experiments of
both Klaus §5_g;. (1969) anu Staley gt_gl. (1971) where
the calves were allowed to nurse the dam. Colostrum
intake was not known in either case and conceivably could
be small in some nursing calves. Staley gt‘gl. (1971)
in their second study fed colostrum at only 2.5 per cent
of the calves birthweight on day one which may be an
insufficient immunoglobulin.mass to increase levels much
above 0.5 per cent gammaglobulin in some calves even
though the concentration is high. Adequate amounts of
colostrum has not been well defined or substantiated.
The reviewer does not overlook the fact that time to
colostrum ingestion could also be a variable in Klaus
and Staley’s experiments but it was constant in Mungle's
work. On the other hand Selman gjhal. (1971a) reported
not one of 50 experimental calves were unable to absorb
gammaglobulin. Colostrum was fed at the rate of 25 ml/lb.
of birthweight in three equal feedings within nine hours

39
postpartum.

Previous discussions have revealed that blood levels
of gamma or immunoglobulin were related to calf livability.
Table 12 summarizes reported gammaglobulin levels with
rates of calf mortality. Methods used for quantitation
of immunoglobulins varied and comparison between studies
may not be accurate. However, fewer calves died with
high gammaglobulin levels than with low levels in each
report.

Further information on mortality and immunoglobulin
levels is in Table 13. Surviving calves had more IgM and
IgG than did calves with septicemia. The usual inter-
pretation is that calves get septicemia because of low
immunoglobulin levels but cause and effect are not proven
by this type of data. In the data of Dam (1968). calves
in the control herd. a herd without a septicemia problem.
had lower levels than the calves dying from septicemia in
herds having a high mortality rate. He also found that
25 per cent of the 20 surviving calves (one calf was not
included in the average values because of very high
immunoglobulin level. 3.0 gram of gammaglobulin/100cc)
had lower per cent of gammaglobulin while 35 per cent had
lower gammaglobulin concentration in serum than the
average values for the six dying from septicemia.

The mean blood gammaglobulin concentration in
young calves is below that in parturient cows. McCoy
31‘s}. (1970) found serum gammaglobulin concentrations

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increased linearly (P <=0.0l) from 0.02 to 0.19g/100 ml during
a 7.5 hour period after feeding colostrum. He also noted an
increase in albumin (P «<0.05) but not in alpha 1. alpha 2
and Beta globulins. Bush £1.51. (1971) found peak levels
at 20 hours in calves hand-fed colostrum after birth.

W

lany researchers have studied the processes involved
in colostral immunoglobulin absorption and the mechanism
of closure to these immune proteins in the newborn in hopes
of enhancing immunoglobulin uptake into the circulation.

The time from consumption until the colostral immuno-
globulins have been detected in the circulation varies
from one-half to three hours according to reports by
Pauconneau and lichel (1970). McCoy 15,11, (1970). and
Staley (1971). The peak immunoglobulin levels in calf
serum occurred about 20 hours after birth (Bush gtwgl.
1971 and Staley 1971). The newborn calf can absorb a
variety of bovine proteins because the intestine does not
yet act as a selective filter (Lecce 1966a and Fauconneau
and Hichel 1970). The piglets gut is also unselective for
constituents of pig and cow colostrum and even polyvinyl-
pyrrolidone (PVP) molecules (Lecce and Reep 1961), Klaus
gthnl. (1969) found the two immunoglobulins Igfl and IgG
absorbed with equal efficiency from the gastro-intestinal
tract of the calf.

The mechanism for immunoglobulin absorption is thought

45
to be similar to pinocytosis found in macrophages. planaria
and ameoba (Lecce 1966a and Fauconneau and Michel 1970).
These proteins cross the intestinal wall in the jejumum and
to some extent in the ileum (Pauconneau and Michel 1970).
Ultra-structure studies have shown a characteristic cellular
organelle in intestinal absorptive epithelial cells in .
newborn of all species which absorb undigested proteins.
i.e. dogs. pigs. horses. and calves (Staley 1971). This
crganella is tubular and engulfs colostral proteins from
the digestive lumen. Globulins are transported into the
cell through invaginations and colostral vacuoles are
formed to transport globulins through the cell and discharge
them into the lamina propria (Staley 1971). From here they
pass through the lymphatic endothelium into the general _
circulation (Pauconneau and Michel 1970 and Staley 1971).

In the discussion of Lecce g1,31. (1964) they proposed
that charged nutrients absorb to the surface membrane with
subsequent pinching off of the membrane and vesiculation
occurring. Using an in vitro technique Lecce (1965)
indicated the transfer of gammaglobulins was energy coupled
and not simple passive diffusion. Inhibition to absorption
was noted and was reversible indicating that a specific
metabolic block could prevent absorption rather than non-
specific generalised damage or death of the cell. Informa-
tion to support_this idea was indicated wheanecce (1966a)
found reversible_inhibition by several metabolic antagonists

from the transport system of small molecules such as

46
glucose in mature intestinal epithelium.

Gay'gtugl. (1965) speculated that the usually quoted
period of absorption in the calf. up to 24 to 36 hours of
age. may be an over estimation because they found calves
lacking capacity to absorb colostral globulins by four to
six hours after birth. Their method for determining
absorption ability was not mentioned. Studies by Selman
atmal. (1971b) do not support the idea of early closure
since three groups of ten calves not allowed to nurse_
until six hours postpartum averaged 18.3. 24.9 and 31.2
sincsulfate turbidity units. Only two remained below ten
units (six.and eight units). Lecce and Morgan (1962)
report starved piglets retained absorption capacity until
52-86 hours of age while nursing piglets lost absorption
ability after 24 to 28 hours. They also found absorption
of PVP possible at 24 and 48 hours in three starved lambs.

Deutsch and Smith (1957) attempted to prolong gut
permeability in calves by giving intravenous transfusions
of’maternal blood. During the 24 to 48 hour postpartum
test period three feedings of’mature milk (2500 m1 total)
was also administered. Gut permeability was then.tested
with proteins from other species. which passed the intestinal
barrier during the first 24 hours but failed to do so
after 36 hours. These_workers_also used diethylstilbestrol
(100-300 mg). progesterone (2007500 mg) and a combination
of these two. cortisone (2007350 mg) and ACTH (120 IV)

given either intermuscularly. intraperitoneally or

4?

subcutaneously. None of these prolonged the period of
permeability. Perhaps the feeding of mature milk during
the 36-40 hour pretest period caused the gut to close.
regardless of the treatments. Deutsch and Smith (1957)
also found a mixture of’amionic fluid and mature milk
would not prolong absorption. Amounts were not mentioned.
El-Nageh (1967) suggested amnionic fluid in the gut at
birth may hinder immunoglobulin absorption.

Lecce and Morgan (1962) utilised PVP. which has
similar weight and osmotic properties as serum proteins.
as a test for gut closure. From.their experiments they
noted that a number of particules and colostrum constituents
could cause gut closure (Lecce 1966a. Lecce and lorgan
1962. Lecce 1966b. and Lecce gt,31. 1964). Compounds
causing closure_were glucose. sow and cow colostrum.
lactose. xylose. galactose. and sucrose. Particules lower
than 20.000 molecular weight were effective and not just
macromolecules. Lecce (1966a) found closure activity
could be associated with a fat-free. protein-free colostral
fraction and with a dialysate of either sow's colostrum
or non-fat milk solids. Therefore results of Lecce £3,31,
(1964) indicated that the absorption of large molecules
and closure could be independent. Lecce and Morgan (1962)
also found closure in piglets was more dependent on amounts
of material fed than on age in the piglet. Newborn piglets
eating more than 300 ml of cow's colostrum in the first 24
hours had gut closure while those eating less had guts

48
still permeable to PVP (Lecce and Morgan 1962. and Lecce
1966a). Piglets that were fed more than 300 M Eq (54 grams)
of glucose within 18 to 24 hours postpartum were unable to
absorb a following 40 ml test dose of egg protein indicating
closure and that closure was probably related to amounts
consumed. However it was not possible to cause closure
in less than 12 hours postpartum with glucose feeding
(Lecce 1966b). El-Nageh (1967) remarked that traces of
marked protein can still be absorbed in apical villi. in
calves in 52-53 hours which have been previously fed
glucose solution or colostrum.

Kruse (1970c) from.unpublished data suggested calves
are exposed to a ”cortisol shock” at birth and this may
trigger some mechanism causing changes in cell population
of the small intestine producing a decline in absorbing
ability. Vochover. 1967. (cited by Pauconneau and lichel
1970) stated absorption ceases when epithelial cells of
the fetal type are replaced by the adult type but the
animal species or evidence was not mentioned. Staley
(1971) remarks that the apical tubular system responsible
for globulin uptake is present in the absorptive cell only
during the postnatal period. The disappearance of this
system occurs at 36 hours in fed piglets (Staley 13,31.
1969). .Staley (197l)_writes that the process of closure
is apparently retrograde in that first the basal cell
membrane ceases to release the evacuolated product then

transport ceases and finally uptake by the tubule system

49
stops.

According to Reid (1956) in 1950 Laskowski and
Laskowski found a tryptic inhibitor in colostrum which may
act to limit protein hydrolysis in intestines of newborn
calves and partially explain.the large amounts of absorption
of intact globulins during the first two days of life.
However Deutsch and Smith (1957) failed to lengthen
intestinal permeability by preventing gastric digestion
of immune proteins with AL (0H)3 gel. Staley (1971)
remarks that proteolytic activity contributes little to
intestinal closure mechanism. Parrish and Pountaine (1952)
noted the pH in the omasum-abomasum of the unsuckled calf
was 4.4 but was pH 6.6 in the small intestine. Staley
(1971) further states that colostrum fed will raise the
pH in the stomach by neutralising the H01.

Hardy (1969) found that bovine serum gammaglobulin
mixed in sodium lactate or sodium pyruvate showed a. high
absorptive pattern into calf serum. characteristic of
serum immunoglobulin levels when colostrum is fed. There
was poor absorption of serum gammaglobulin in NaCl or
HCl solutions. letabolic energy for the epithelical cells
was thought to be increased by the presence of lactate or
pyruvate.

Lecce and Morgan (1962) suggested that one of the
other benefits cfcolostrum. other_thanits antibody
contents. is the abilityof colostrum to enhance gut

closure. Then this “non-permeable gut". like the mature

50
intestine. may be more resistant to invasion by usual gut
micro-organisms. However. Staley (1971) writes that L
2211,antigens were absorbed in one study by older animals
supposedly after closure had occurred. Tlaskaloua gtflal.
(1970) surmised from their experiment that small amounts
of Igl had passed through the intestinal wall of four to
six day old piglets and prevented infection from.E‘,gg11
strain 055. From these two pieces of information Staley
(1971) states that closure may only occur to a degree which
is also dependent on the absorbable material. Closure
could be extremely advantageous to the newborn and Staley
(1971) suggested that invading bacteria.may carry antigens
into the circulation. and any lack of continuity of the
intestinal epithelium may allow easy passage of organisms
and their toxins into the circulation. Gay (1965) speculates
that endotoxin also may be absorped causing enteric-toxemia
in calves.

..: ; ,- : - . . a._..; .._ e: _, _.A.... .,:.:
A considerable variation in calves immunoglobulin

levels has been reported and mentioned in this review.

Klaus at 31. (1969) relates that much of this difference

may be due to different amounts of colostrum consumed by

calves during their first 36 hours. Bush 31,31. (1971.

1973) substantiate this in two experiments. In the first

experiment they found a correlation of .82 (P‘=.01) between

24 hour immunoglobulin levels in 19 calves and the amount

of immunoglobulin consumed in the first 12 hours in two

51
colostrum feedings. Sixty-eight per cent of the variation
in 24 hour blood immunoglobulin levels was attributed to
differences in the amount of colostral immunoglobulin
consumed per unit weight of calf. In their second experiment
they report the absolute amount of IgG consumed by 30
calves. but not its concentration in colostrum. had a
significant effect on bloodegG levels. Approximately
50 per cent of the variation in blood serum IgG was due to
total IgG consumed. Hungle (1972) reports 50 per cent of
the variation in serum immunoglobulin levels were also
attributable to the level fed in terms of grams of
immunoglobulin/kg of bodyweight. Kruse (1970c) found more
than 50 per cent of the variation in the change of immuno-
globulin level from birth to 24 hours was due to the mass
of immunoglobulin consumed.

Kruse (l970d) used data from previous experiments to
build a computer simulation program. He used the program
to generate immunoglobulin levels in calves by using para-
meters of bodyweight. concentration of immunoglobulin in
colostrum. amounts of colostrum. and age at first feeding.
Results indicated that low levels of serum immunoglobulin
in calves is not necessarily associated with malabsorption
because this hypogammaglobulinemia condition could occur
with certain values of the parameters used. With the wide
variation noted in immunoglobulin content in colostrum.
Kruse (l970a.d)suggests that practical recommendations
should place importance on the amount of colostrum (> 2K3)

52
given and on early feeding ( «=5 hours).

Klaus 21,31, (1969) remarked the wide range in
percentages of immunoglobulin appearing in serum of ten
calves may be related to different amounts of colostrum
consumed during the first 36 hours. However. they did not
think this would account for the marked hypogammaglobulinemia
in three of the calves. nor the lack of relation between
colostral and calf serum.immunoglobulin levels. Calves
were allowed to nurse their dams and the amounts of colostrum
consumed are unknown. If a calf consumed only a small
amount of colostrum from the dam there is little probability
that it would have high immunoglobulin levels regardless
of colostral concentration.

McEwan giwgl. (l970a) states calves with high levels
of immunity may have 2-4 g per 100 ml of immunoglobulin in
serum more than colostrum-deprived animals. With a plasma
volume of seven per cent this would be 50-100 g in a 35
Kg calf. Using their regression equation for absorption
efficiency (r - .62. P< 0.02 for y a 0.16 x + 0.58. where
y :- amount of gammaglobulin absorbed as g/‘Kg of bodywe ight
and x I amount of colostral gammaglobulin presented as
g/Kg of bodyweight) one can calculate that 2.7 liters of
colostrum whey with a gammaglobulin concentration of 8 g
per 100 ml would provide 4 35 Kg ca1f_with 50 g of immuno-
globulin. .Three and one_quarter liters (36.4 lb.) of
whole colostrum is thenrequired if their correction

factor for the volume occupied by the casein clot is used

53
to adjust the whey volume needed.

Precaution against overfeeding calves is a typical
recommendation and Reisinger (1965) remarks that overfeeding
can dilute the acid condition in the stomach. cause sluggish
peristalsis and result in upward migration of E1,gg11 in
the lower gut. However it is not known if this complex
would exist on the first day of life. One. because the
frequency of which £1,2g11 occur in the gut at birth is not
known. and secondly what is overfeeding in a newborn? Selman
33,11. (1971b) found a mean intake of 10.813 per cent of
the birthweight in calves allowed to nurse once at six
hours and again at 12 hours postpartum. Calves at the six
hour nursing consumed 5.1 lb. of colostrum. They also
found a significant negative relationship (r = -.78.
PI<=0.001) between birthweight and colostrum intake as a
per cent of birthweight in these 20 calves. Wise and
Lalaster (1968) and Mylrea (1966) presented evidence that
overfeeding alone is not a contributory factor in digestive
disturbances.

Smith 91 n. (1967) m 30 calves colostrum in buckets
at various times postpartum. They remarked that five of
nine calves (55.4 per cent) fed 10-12 hours postpartum had
serum gammaglobulin under ten units while only seven of 21
(33.3 per cent) fed within eight hours postpartum had less
than ten units and they concluded longer times to feeding
initial colostrum decreased the amount of immunoglobulin
absorbed into the blood. In a farm survey Selman 23 a1.

54
(1971c) recorded that 76 calves fed within six hours had
ZST units of 10.716.6 and 88 calves fed after six hours
had 6.714.5 units with P<=;0.001. Selman gtwg1. (l970a)
also calculated a significant negative correlation
(r I -.49. P< 0.05. N a 15) between time of first suckling
and immunoglobulin levels at 48 hours. Concentration of
immunoglobulins and amount of colostrum consumed were not
known. Kruse (1970c) also showed with one feeding of
colostrum a.significant decrease in immunoglobulin absorp-
tion as time to first feeding increased up to 20 hours
postpartum using 141 calves. The AIg per cent by 24 hours
was 1.49 for calves fed at two hours. 1.40 for those fed
at four hours. 1.15 for those at ten hours. 0.89 for those
at 14 hours and 0.86 for those at 20 hours. Howe (1921)
reported that colostrum ingestion after a period of 21
hours resulted in globulin absorption but McCoy 31,51.
(1970) and Hansen and Phillips 1947 (cited by Reid 1956)
found no uptake when colostrum was fed after 24 hours.
McCoy apparently fed .7 Kg of pooled colostrum at 24 hours
but concentration was not known. Insufficient information
was given in these articles for the reviewer to properly
evaluate differing results.

Gay's: a1. (1965) remarked that many dairymen wait
until the fresh cow is milked at_the next regular milking
time before they fed the newborn. Many times this may be
more than six hours resulting in low immunoglobulin levels
according to their findings that some calves may lose the

55
ability for globulin absorption by four to six hours after
birth. They did not remark on the method used to quantitate
absorption. They stated that some mortality may be prevented
if adequate amounts of colostrum are fed immediately after
(birth. They did not define “some”. “adequate” or
“immediately“. These parameters need to be defined for
dairymen.
Concentrations of immunoglobulins in the dam's serum

and colostrum has been investigated in a number of experiments.
Larson (1958) indicated that two months prior to parturition
protein blood levels increase due to increased Beta2 and
gammaglobulins. At about five weeks prepartum these start
filtering into the mammary gland somewhat faster than new
protein are restored to the circulating plasma as indicated
by weekly samples. Bush 31 31. (1971) reports the concentra-
tion of immunoglobulin in colostral whey at parturition was
considerably higher than in blood serum in cows and Klaus
31.31. (1969) states this is particularly true for IgG.

no meaningful relationship existed between blood serum
immunoglobulins of 19 cows and colostral whey immunoglobulin
content. however breed differences may have interferred

(Bush 31.31. 1971). Also blood values in cows are probably
not normal because of a physiological hypoglobulinemia in

the cow at parturition (Dixon 31,31. 1961). Bush 31,31.
(1971) published values on total protein in colostrum of

19 cows at parturition (13.7 per cent). 12 hours postpartum
(10.0 per cent) and 24 hours postpartum (7.0 per cent).

56
Immunoglobulin levels also declined; 6.03 per cent. 4.25
per cent and 2.40 per cent respectfully. The range of
colostral immunoglobulin at parturition was 1.7 to 8.7
per cent on a whole colostrum basis. Samples were apparently
taken from that withdrawn to feed the calf at birth at 2.5
per cent of birthweight. ’Cows were then milked out completely
at 12 and 24 hours. Parrish 31 31. (1950) found a variation
in total protein of colostrum from 4 to 24.6 per cent in
first lactation Jerseys milked completely at first milking.
Average total protein at first milkings were 14.0 per cent
for eight Holsteins. 14.2 per cent for 11 Jerseys. 15.7
per cent for nine Ayrshires and 20.0 per cent for four
first lactation Guernseys. Kruse (l970b) found large
individual variations in colostrum yield. immunoglobulin
per cent. and immunoglobulin yield and (Kruse 1970a)
noted colostrum and immunoglobulin yield were significantly
lower in first-calf heifers (P <0.01).

Hungle (1972) was unable to relate the small concentra-
tion of total gammaglobulin and IgG in the blood serum of
the newborn at birth to the concentration in their dam's
sermm. Bush 31,31. (1971). with 27 hand-fed calves and
Staley 31.31. (1971) also with hand-fed calves plus Smith
31,31. (1967) in 42 calves remaining with the dam. found
the calves had much lower Ig blood serum levels than their
dams. Klaus 31,31. (1969) found no relation between pre-
suckling colostrum immunoglobulin concentration and levels

obtained in calves allowed to nurse. However Staley (1971)

57
reports there was a positive linear correlation (r value
was not mentioned) between colostral immunoglobulin
concentration and calf serum concentration attained in
calves. In this case calves received colostrum on a body-
weight basis (2.5 per cent on day one). This means the
total mass of immunoglobulin consumed by each calf would
be related directly to colostral immunoglobulin concentra-
tion which Staley measured and thus the total mass of
immunoglobulin consumed would correlate to serum concentra-
tion as was the case in Hungle's study (1972). Smith 31,31.
(1967) noted that in the case of six cows with low
concentrations of immunoglobulin in colostrum.by sampling
time. which was usually within eight hours. could be
associated with calves which obtained high blood levels.
In these cases he is suggesting the calves had nursed
significant amounts of colostrum thus decreasing the
concentration by sampling time and increasing the calves
blood values. Conversely no calf with low serum values
was associated with dams with low colostrum concentrations
by sampling time.

Lower immunoglobulin levels were more commonly found
in 30 calves that received colostrum by bucket alone than
in 70 calves that suckled the dam or in 38 calves that ,
both suckled and were fed by bucket (Smith 31 31. 1967).
No statistics have been applied to Smith's work. McCoy
31.31.,(1970) found significantly higher blood levels
(P-<=0.05) at seven hours in hand-fed calves receiving

58
.7 Kg of pooled colostrum at zero and 5.5 hours later
(.13 g/100 ml) than in calves remaining with their dam
(.04g/100 ml). However by 24 hours values were reversed
(.295/100 ml, for hand-fed and ,o.57g/100 ml for nursed) and
they interpreted this as due to smaller amounts of colostrum
consumed in the first seven hours by the nursing calves.
Selman 31,31. (197la.b.c) examined the effect on
immunoglobulin uptake in calves when left with the dam vs
separation after birth. Data in Table 14 shows the ZST
units for calves left with the cow are significantly
higher than in calves separated from dams and hand-fed.
Selman 31,31. (1971a) attempted to determine if there
was an increase in immunoglobulin levels in calves purely
due to being in the presence of their dam (mothered).
They fed two groups of calves equal amounts of pooled
colostrum at one. five. and nine hours postpartum totalling
25 ml/lb. of birthweight. Ten muscled calves left with
the dam (mothered) had an average ZST units of 17.713.l
and the other ten calves that were separated at 15 minutes
postpartum had only 10.312.4 ZST units (P«<:0.001).
Selman 31.31. (1971b) found similar results between calves
when both non-mothered and mothered groups were allowed to
nurse the dam at six and 12 hours postpartum. The colostrum
intake was measured by weighing calves and intake was
similar for both groups. Serum ZST units at 48 hours for
ten non~mothered calves. which were returned to nurse.

was 18.337.6 and 31.236.6 for ten mothered calves (P ~=0.001).

59

TABEE 14. Comparison of ZST units in calves left with
dam vs separated calves.a

 

 

 

 

Time with I ZST unitsb

m 43L r Mean SD
12 hours 16 12.? +7. 9P

Harsh Calves separated at P.05
birth or when found 96 8.3 15. 7
12 hours 17 16.2 19.0

April Calves separated at 'P .05
birth or when found 69 9.4 25.9

 

:8elman 31,31,. (1971c).

bZST; Optical density of BaCl2 standard is divided into 20
to set scale at 20 units. Then the optical density of
a sincsulfate reaction with serum gammaglobulins is
multipled by 20/BaCl2 standard. McEwan 31,31. (1970c).

Ten.mussled. mothered calves were allowed to nurse only at
six hours and their ZST value was just 24.917.7. In this
trial there was an increase in immunoglobulin due to the
second feeding as evidenced by higher ZST readings in the
mothered calves nursing twice. This is contrary to Kruse's
(l970d) suggestion that a second colostrum feeding would
not lower the incidence of hypogammaglobulinemia.in
calves because it would not increase blood immunoglobulin
levels significantly. In piglets Lecce (1973) remarked
that the period of nursing time required for maximum
immunoglobulins levels was to six hours postpartum.

From a farm survey in Pennsylvania. Ace (1973)
found that nearly one-half of the dairymen removed calves
from cows immediately following birth but herds where the

cow and calf were left together one or more days had

60
slightly lower mortality.

Smith 31 31. ( 1967) found no seasonal variation in
i-unoglobulin levels in 280 calves. HcEwan 31, 31. (l970b)
found immunoglobulin levels low from November through
April and attributed this to indoor calvings where calves
usually were separated and hand-fed. Selman 31 31. (1971c)
found seasonal variation in ZST units that corresponded to
the great seasonal variation in mortality in West Scotland.

Selman 31 31. (1971c) found higher mortality and
lower ZST units when calves were born to cows tied in the
barn (byre) than when calvings occurred in box stalls or
in the field. Table 15.

The differences were attributed to the opportunity
the calf had to nurse and be ”mothered”. According to
Selman when a calf is born where cows are tied in barns
(byre) the calf is usually removed and fed by hand.

IcBwan 31 31. (l970a) estimated the efficiency of
absorption in 13 calves. They received 214.8 grams of
gammaglobulin resulting in 55.36 grams of gammaglobulin
absorbed into the blood or 1.57 Grams/Kg bodyweight. This
gives an absorption efficiency of 25 per cent. However
taking into account the globulin estimated in the extra-
vascular pool and the fact that the casein clot occupies
about 17 per cent of the initial volume of colostrum.
the calculated absorption efficiency was then 65 per cent.
Klaus 31 31. (1969) found the mean Igl concentration in
calves was 49 per cent (four to 118 per cent) and IgG was

61

TABEE 15. The effect of place ofabirth on.nortality and
immunoglobulin levels.

Serum immunoglobulin
concentration (ZST

 

 

 

 

units) hortality
Rate
__£lm NM 51L L...
Barn (cow tied) 191+ 9.0" 5.8 18
Box stall 61» 12.01) 17.9 a
Hold 69 2a.!»c 1.7.9 3
'Selnan 31, u. 1971c. Significance: a vs b P <0.01
b vs c P <=0.00l
a vs c P <=0.001

60 per cent (six to 106 per cent) of the corresponding
colostrum concentrations. This estimate of absorption
efficiency does not allow for the amount of colostrum fed
or the decreased concentrations in colostrum as ncre is
extracted fro-.the cows. Therefore it is not accurate.
Bush 31H31. (1973) found efficiency of IgG absorption to
be 66 per cent during the first 2“ hours.

Smith 31,31, (1967) remarked that the length of
gestation period. the nusber of pregnancies and the breed
of a cow did not appear to influence the immunoglobulin
levels in.their calves.

Penhale 31111. (1971) mentioned that severe scours
could influence the level and duration of systemic immunity
provided. Harsh 31H31. (1969) found serum proteins in the
digests and hacDougall and Mulligan (1969) noted an increased

62
catabolic rate of immunoglobulin IgG in scouring calves.
Thus lower immunoglobulin levels could be partially due
to degradation of immunoglobulin after several days of
securing.

This review has covered a number of factors responsible
for the wide variation in immunoglobulin levels. It does
appear that several variables including: tine to first
colostrum. amount of colostrum. place of calving and to
some extent the mothering effect and concentration of
immunoglobulins in colostrum fed to calves can be altered
or controlled by dairymen to the benefit of newborn calves.
Kruse (l970b) does ramark that man.must not act so that
the transfer of immunoglobulins is blocked or unduly

reduced.

Waller.
Behavior of both the daa and newborn calf'has been

observed in several studies and indications are that
immunoglobulins and/or'mortality'nay be influenced by the
responses of the dam and calf in the early hours of life
of the newborn.

Donaldson 31H31. (1972) conducted a study relating
maternal behavior of first calf heifers to the methods
which as calves they were fed and housed in pens during
the “milk" feeding period. After weaning all calves were
grouped together and raised until they calved as two year
olds. Observations when these animals calved showed that

those fed and raised in individual pens as calves were

63
superior mothers to those fed and penned in a group.
Cows from the group pen system ignored or only partially
cleaned their calves and failed to allow nursing. Also
they tended not to protect the young and were extremely
vocal toward them.

Selman 31,31, (19700) assumed the amount of licking
to be a.measure of mothering intensity and quantitated
this activity. He found differences due to the type of
cow (Table 16). Three dairy cows (DO) and two dairy
heifers (DH) were slow or completely failed to initiate
the licking of their offspring. They were not included
in the data. Dairy heifers spent the least time licking
their offspring. Reisinger (1965) demonstrated that calves
born outside in winter. not fed colostrum. not dried. but
moved into a warm facility died of diarrhea. but those
dried with cloth remained healthy. 31,3311,was found in
the upper tract of dead calves. but nothing was mentioned
regarding determining the presence of’£1_3311,in live
calves. Reisinger assumes this analogous to dams licking
or grooming the calves.

Selman 31,31. (l970d) found the time for calves to
stand was significantly different (Pa: 0.02) for those of
dairy cows (DC) and beef cows (BC) whereas those from
dairy heifers (DH) were extremely variable (Table 17).
Selman 31H31. (1970c) found the shape of the underbelly
of the dams was an important factor in deciding how quickly
a vigorous calf suckled its dam. Teat seeking activity by

Beef

Dairy
Dairy

'Sgln

caIV1
behi]
19701
dair*
(Tab:

the ‘
heir.
but
70 1'

ho. 1
hurl:
levei

and;

6“

TABLE 16. The duration of initial licking of calves by
dams after birth.a

 

 

 

.______Dflll N hasn______§D
min. min.
Beef cows (BC) 10 “8.3 337.1
Dairy Heifers (DH) 8 11.0 3,8.5
Dairy Cows (DC) 7 32.9 318.5

 

'Selman 31 31. l970c.
Signifancec DH vs BC P <=0.0l
DH vs DC P < 0.01

calves was largely directed toward high points of the dam.
behind the forelegs or in the groin area (Selman 31H31.
l970d). Therefore high udders as in the beef cows and
dairy heifers made it easier for calves to find the tests
(Table 18).

Five dairy and two beef calves did not suckle within ‘
the eight hours postpartum observation period. Two dairy
heifers did not stand for teat-seeking advances by calves
but all beef cows did (Selman 31 31. l970c). Small calves
70 lb. were considerably more vigorous and easier (quicker)
to feed than the very large calves (Selman 31,31, 1971a).

How well a cow licks and cares for a newborn calf and
how the calf responds by standing. seeking and obtaining
nurishment may influence mortality and immunoglobulin
levels. It was previously mentioned that calves left with
and fed in the presence of the dam had higher immunoglobulin

Beef
Dairy
Dair}

aSell
Sig1

TABIJ

I I

Beef

Dair,

65
TABLE 17. Time for calves to stand after birth. by groups

 

 

 

of dams.‘
___9.Ilns: N M
min. min.
Beef cows (BC) 10 35.9 lb.8
Dairy heifers (DH) 10 72.7 71.6
Dairy cows (DC) 10 58.1 20.6

 

‘Selman at 31,. 1970s.
Significance: BC vs DC P <0.02

TABLE 18. Interval from birth to first suckling time for
calves from their groups of cows."‘

 

 

__..Qalna N Win.—
min.

Beef cows (BC) 8 81.“ 352.2

Dairy heifers (DH) 8 218.3 3113.8

Dairy cows (DC) 7 261.1 3129.1

 

‘Selman 31- 31. l970b.d.
Significance: BC vs DH P <0
BC vs DC P <0

66
levels than "non-mothered” calves fed equal volumes of
colostrum or 'non~mothered' calves returned to nurse at
six and 12 hours postpartum (Selman 31,31. 1971a.b).
Calves may also respond by consuming more colostrum or
nurse sooner due to the behavior of dams either of rejection
or positive stimulation as licking or grooming. Then also
the calf's ability to stand and find the teats will also
affect the time and amount of colostrum consumption. So
it is evident that there may be many variables in these
first few hours that may affect immunoglobulin levels and
mortality. These variables may also create a large amount
of variation between calves left with the dam during this
early period.

W
The purpose of this section is to briefly review a

number of management and environmental conditions stated
by researchers to influence calf mortality. Factors
included are the calving area. temperature. ventilation.
feeding regime. type of calf pens. weaning age. type of
housing and personnel.

Selman 31 31. (1971c) and Ace (1973) found mortality
related to the type of calving area. Selman found higher
mortality among calves born to cows in stanchions (15 per
cent) than among box stall born calves (eight per cent)
and lowest in field born calves (three per cent). Ace
(1973) stated greater than 50 per cent of dairymen
surveyed in Pennsylvania used box stalls in cold weather.

appro
stall
stall
calve
and 2
were

that

calve
and 1
true
Seasc
love:

Hove:

is t!
temp.
Spei
outs
19.6
the

thEr
Der

But

Outs

faci

67
approximately 20 per cent had cows freshen in comfort
stalls and about 30 per cent allowed calving in the free
stall area or other available space. Their mortality for
calves up to one year of age was 10 per cent. 1n per cent
and 23 per cent respectively. In summertime grassy lots
were used most frequently. Selman 31 31. (1971c) stated
that these differences occur because calves born outdoors
are usually permitted to suckle. however in colder months
calves are born inside in barns and removed from their dam
and fed fixed amounts of colostrum. This is particularly
true for calves born to cows tied in stanchions. This
seasonal management difference may be responsible for
lower serum globulin concentrations in calves born between
November and April in Scotland.

Excessively high and low environmental temperatures
is thought to produce stress on young calves. The
temperature of the calving area in 191 herds surveyed by
Speicher and Hepp (1973) was approximately the same as
outside temperature and winter and annual death losses of
19.6 and 15.4 per cent up to weaning were recorded. For
the 168 herds where cows were freshened in heated facilities.
there were winter and annual death losses of 13.6 and 10.9
per cent. All differences were significant (p«< 0.01).
But average herd size was 51.8 cows for herds calving at
outside temperatures and 38.3 cows for herds with heated
facilities.

Supplemental heat in calf housing has been reported

68
by Ace (1973) and Speicher and Hepp (1973) in surveys to
be related to reduced mortality. Data from Ace's survey
is reproduced in Table 19.

TABLE 19. Relationship of mortality to heated and
unheated calf housing.‘l

 

 

Type of Dairymen Calf

i 1

Cold. no heat added 31 23.3
Cold. heat lamps added 3 16.1
warm. barn temperature 57 15.5
Warm. heat added 3 l#.9
Combination cold and warm 6 19.8

 

“Data from Ace 1973.

Speicher and Hepp (1973) report winter and annual
mortality in 195 herds with supplemental heat was 15.9
and 12.7 per cent and in 176 herds without supplemental
heat respective losses were 18.6 and l#.6 per cent (heat
vs no heat. P< 0.01).

Selman 31,31. (1971a) stated calves subject to cold
environment (-9.0 to +5.50 C) were less vigorous and more
difficult to feed than control animals. Appleman and
Owen (1971) remarked about a definite climate-nutritional
interaction in calves reared in the cold. Gonzales and

69
Blaxter (1962) found the critical temperature in three day
old calves to be 13° 0 (55° F) below which heat production
increases in response to a fall in air temperature.
Jorgensen 31,31, (1970) compared daily gains in calves to
six months and found no difference at six months in calves
reared in heated barns and those reared outdoors in South
Dakota. The outdoor temperatures and type of calf units
were not mentioned.

Appleman and Owen (1971) write that raising the
humidity will decrease heat loss of calves and can increase
the heat stress on an animal in cold environmental
temperatures. Iater vapor cannot escape from surfaces
causing dampness of the hair coat. bedding. floors and
walls thus increasing the unfavorable effect of low
temperature. High temperature increases water consumption
and urine output which may double water vapor production.

Controlling the temperature and humidity then become
very important and require controlled and effective
ventilation in calf houses. Smith (1973) listed five key
factors for calf barn ventilation. 1) Insulation is
needed to retain available heat. 2) Ventilation rate
must be equal to rate of'moisture production by animals
in winter and in warm weather rate of heat removed by
ventilation should equal total heat production minus heat
loss through building structure. Boyd (1970) and Smith
(1973) differ in their recommended ventilation rates.

Boyd suggests for a 50° F calfhouse temperature. a winter

7O
ventilation rate of 1/10 ofm/lb. of animal (10 chm/100 1b.)
and a summer rate of 2 cfm/lb. of animal (200 cfm/lOO 1b.).
Smith suggests that ventilation rate should be l#»cfm/ca1f
(100-300 lb. bodyweight) at ambient temperatures less than
20° F. 32 cfm/calf at ambient temperatures of 20-500 F and
120 cfm/calf when.ambient temperatures exceed 50° F. Smith
and Boyd recommend calf house temperatures of 65 to 55° F
and 50° F respectively and both recommend the use of two-
speed fans to achieve flexibility in a system to maintain
uniform temperatures. Smith mentioned various methods for
air intakes but dwelled on a system using forced air throw
tubes with punched holes to provide even distribution of
air throughout the calf house. This would eliminate
drafts from incoming air.

Boyd (1970) suggests the amount of heat required to
maintain calf house temperatures when adequate ventilation
removes moist heated air can be calculated from the
following equation.

Pounds of calf x 4

Square feet of wall x 5

 

 

Square feet of glass x 10

 

Total BTU's required

 

Appleman and Owen (1971) and Oxender 31,31, (1973)
mentioned that calves are now housed in greater densities
in both new and adapted buildings than in previous years
when.herds were typically smaller in cow numbers. Oxender

31 31. (1973) believe this may be contributing to the

presence «
(1973) co
channels
tion of :1
Anderson
as they a
larger gr
'infectio
of infect
reoccupat
successiv
frequency
became 1e
Oxer
(P< 0.0,I
raised 1,
SPOlcher
use of 1:
effect 01
had ($7.9
dairymen
of 13.3 j
Ace
he. eta
individu
103898 o~

Dar 96m

71
presence of bacterial and virus infections. Anderson
(1973) comments that increased movement of animals through
channels of trade has contributed to the general dissemina-
tion of many diseases. Appleman.and Owen (1971) and
Anderson (1973) submit that organisms become more virulent
as they sequentially pass from calf to calf and thus in
larger groups of calves the organisms may became more
"infectious". Roy 31,31. (1955) commented that the occurrence
of infections in their calf house increased with time after
reoccupation of the house and as the number of calves
successively reared increased. This resulted in higher
frequency of diarrhea and mortality. Also the growth rates
became less.

Oxender 31,31. (1973) reported a significant increase
(Pa: 0.05) in survival rates (by h.6 per cent) of calves
raised in an area separate from.the maternity stalls.
Speicher and Hepp (1973) surmised from their survey that
use of individual pens until weaning had no measurable
effect on calf mortality. Those using individual stalls
had “7.9 cows and annual losses of 13.6 per cent and
dairymen using group pens had “3.5 cows and annual losses
of 13.3 per cent.

Ace's (1973) survey indicated that calves raised in
free stalls to be most favorable. followed closely by
individual tie stalls. and then box stalls. The heaviest
losses occurred when calves were tied in any location (2“

per cent or seven to eight per cent greater than other

72
systems). The number of dairymen and size of herds were
not mentioned by Ace. A statistical evaluation was not
available.
Appleman and Owen (1973) reported that calves raised
in individual wooden pens u feet by 63 feet had a signif-
icantly lower incidence of scours than calves raised in

individual metal stalls #3 feet by #3 feet (Table 20).

TABDE 20. Effect of type of pen construction on scour

 

 

 

 

incidence.a
----------- days of age---------
_____2!D 2:21» 22:52: “3’§Q____.
............ -meanb-------------
Hetal 1&an 1.1+9 1.88° 1.75
Wooden 6§xb 1.35 1.73 1.6“

 

‘Data from A pleman and Owen 1973.

ean scour ex: l-normal. 2-soft. 3-very loose.
c #Bwatery.
Significant for 78 calves at P< 0.05.

Appleman and Owen (1971) remarked that a #3 by #3
foot pen was satisfactory even if a built litter system is
used for six weeks. They also believed that the principal
problem with raised stalls was maintaining control of
drafts.

Since Appleman and Owen indicate stall size may be a
factor in scour incidence the survey reports by Speicher
and Hepp (1973) may show little or no better results with

indivic‘
are tie
feet 01
any do:
compare
be more
(1970)
exact 1
space 1
longer
Provid

511C [‘5

73
individual stalls due to inadequate space for calves which
are tied in 2 by h foot or 2 by 5 foot stalls. The square
feet of bedding a calf has may be important enough to cancel
any desirable effect of isolating calves in tie stalls
compared to rearing them in groups where dry bedding may
be more plentiful. Outdoor hutches used by Jorgensen 31,31.
(1970) required less labor and bedding and although the
exact size of the stalls were not mentioned the stall
space may well be 32 square feet. In this situation a
longer time would be required to dampen bedding thus
providing more dry pack to lie on and less bedding turnover.
weaning age of calves varies from three weeks to
several months and Ace (1973) listed mortality from herds
weaning calves at different ages. This data is found in
Table 21. The higher mortality in the group weaning at
six weeks is not readily explainable. Ace remarks this
could occur because these dairymen are weaning just because
calves have reached six weeks of age and not giving
consideration to calves ability to eat sufficient feed.
Appleman and Owen (1973) and Jorgensen 31,31. (1970)
have both successfully weaned calves at three weeks of age.
However Appleman and Owen report that weaned calves at day
#2 were heavier at day #2 and 57 than were calves weaned
at day 21 (P <=0.0l). Difference between groups disappeared
by six months and they remarked early weaning significantly
increased starter consumption between day 21 and #2.

Reasons for early weaning at day 21 are that calves spend

mm 2

lore 1

aData

less

and r
beddi
beddi

GXter
prac-
and 1
sun
rema
find
and

inpo
r..d

bets

7h

TABLE 21. Weaning age of calves in 5&5 Pennsylvania
dairy herds and the per cent calf mortality
by weaning age.a

 

 

 

mm mm 12.1%.
t: 1c 15.2
6 1+3 19.9
8 31» 15.2

lore than 8 9 1n.2

 

‘Data from.Ace (1973).

less time in the calf barn so smaller units can be used
and rotated in shorter intervals and there is smaller
bedding build up with less labor required for changing
bedding. Also less of the more expensive liquid feeds
are fed.

The feeding regime is one subject that has been
extensively reviewed in the literature where feeding
practices have been related to calf illness. Speicher
and Hepp (1973) found no effect on calf'mortality in their
survey due to the length of time the calf was allowed to
remain with and nurse its dam. This is contrary to the
findings of Selman 31H31, (19710) where place of calving
and usual time the calf was allowed to nurse appeared
important. Information on the time of first colostrum
feeding after birth and the duration of colostrum feeding
was obtained in the survey of Oxender 31,31. (1973) and
both significantly affected mortality (P <-0.05) Table 22.

TABLE

This
8001-;
calf

Ghee

did
75 I
Per

tar,

75

TABLE 22. The use of colostrumain raising calves and its
effects on survival.

NO. of 0-15 15-60 Total

____Traataant________bards____daxs_____daxs_____laarfalitl

 

% f 1
First feeding of
20:33::u- 1988 th'n 267 7.6° 2.6 lo.2°
6 to 12 hours 151 10.5 2.9 l3.h
Days colostrum fed
0 6 19.7a 2.h 22.1
1 22 8.#ab 2.7 11.1
2 89 10.9‘b 3.2 l#.l
3 ans 7.8b 2.7 10.5

 

:hData from Oxender 31,31. 1973.
Values with different letter superscripts are different

P < 0.05.
°Each difference in column is significant at P < 0.05.

This reviewer would question whether dairymen know how
soon their calves are getting colostrum as many leave the
calf with the cow for at least 12 hours with little
observation on suckling.

Ace (1973) reported three per cent of the dairymen
did not feed any colostrum and had 2# per cent mortality.
75 per cent fed colostrum one to three days and had 20
per cent losses and 32 per cent fed colostrum more than

three days and had 13 per cent death rate.

surv:
begs
of c'
then
were
foun
sort
Ace

milk
Reid
exis
syn1
that
immt
and

unt:

Vera

cal.
r...1
‘ho
cal
r...

0n

tiv

76

Speicher and Hepp (1973) found 20 per cent of the
surveyed herds fed milk until weaning age. 27 per cent
began to feed milk replacer immediately after the feeding
of colostrum and 53 per cent started calves on milk and
then changed to milk replacer. Differences in mortality
were not significant. Similarly. Oxender 31,31. (1973)
found a non-significant difference of 2.1 per cent less
mortality in herds feeding milk instead of milk replacer.
Ace (1973) reported 75 per cent of surveyed dairymen fed
milk replacer but those feeding whole milk had less losses.
Reid (1956) writes that when a high level of infection
existed a higher rate of mortality was found in calves fed
synthetic milks than those reared on whole milk. even
though all calves originally had the same level of passive
immunity. Aschaffenburg 31 31. (1949) found less secure
and higher daily gains and no mortality in ten calves fed
untreated colostrum where five of seven calves died which
were fed a colostrum substitute.

Swannack (1971) raised home bred British Priesian
calves on cold milk substitute or 13 day old sour or
fermented colostrum. This colostrum had a stable pH of
b.0 after 12 days. It was readily accepted by dairy heifer
calves. When fed in place of the milk substitute the
feeding costs to weaning were reduced 78 per cent. Calves
on all treatments achieved the same live weight at 8“ days.

Roy (1970) writes (pg. 127) that in infants. fermenta-

tive diarrhea. which is probably similar in many respects

with I
of en:
that I
lacto:

may 0:

relat‘

diets

calve
cent

cent

gain
(47-5

°xper
large
In be
0! tr.
cam
°ent
“ins:
°aIVg
intay
and c

77

to so-called 'nutritional scours' in calves. is associated
with excessive carbohydrate in the diet. or a deficiency
of ensymes to degrade the carbohydrate. The only sugars
that can be utilised by the young calf are glucose and
lactose and yet too large a quantity of these in the diet
may cause diarrhea.

Pettyjohn 31,31. (1963) and Burt and Irvine (1972)
relate high dry matter (greater than ten per cent) liquid
diets to increased incidence of scours. Iork of Pettyjohn
31,31, (l963)indicated poor utilisation of dry matter when
calves were fed 20 and 25 per cent dry matter while 15 per
cent dry matter gave better utilisation than 5 or 10 per
cent dry matter.

Owen and Brown (19 58) found no difference in bodyweight
gain or efficiency with respect to temperature of liquids
(Ivy-52° r vs 97-1oo° r). Diarrhea was not a problem.

Wise and Lalaster (1968) and Hylrea (1966) both have
experimental results that indicates calves can handle
large amounts of liquid when fed ad libitum twice daily.

In both trials calves consumed milk to about 20 per cent

of their bodyweight. Wise and Lalaster used only seven
calves from four through seven days of age. Calculated per
cent calf days of diarrhea was .19 for calves fed by
nipple and .25 for those fed in open pails. Seven other
calves restricted to 14 to 18 per cent of bodyweight

intake had 0 and 13 per cent days of scours for nipple

and open pail feeding. lylrea.noted few adverse effects

78
with ad libitum intake. Calves were abruptly changed from
a restricted intake to ad libitum and reversed again several
times during a period from day 9 to 38. During four of
ten sub-periods of ad libitum feeding a gross change of
feces did occur and some variability of appetite occurred.
No calves in their experiment with re-entrant cannulae of
the small intestine had gross fecal changes when subject
to the ad libitum regime. Mylrea also found by use of
x-ray opaque material that even when feeding large amounts
of liquids all passed to the abomasum which was highly
distensible giving it the capability to hold these large
amounts of liquid milk. Mylrea concluded the high levels
of intake are not a.major cause of digestive disorders
which is contrary to the belief of Reisinger (1965) and
others.

The complete passage of the milk may be affected by
the methods of feeding. Tiedemann and Cmelin in 1826 and
Schalk and Amadon in 1928 and Wise and Anderson in 1939
(all cited by Reid 1956) pioneered work discovering that
in suckling calves liquid is shunt via the esophageal
groove to the abomasum but when drank from a pail. much
entered the reticulo-rumen. Thus suckling vs drinking
is the reason given by most investigators for lower
scour incidence. as is possibly the case in Wise and
LaHaster's (1968) work. when calves were fed by nipple
bottle as compared to the pail fed calves. This effect

may be less when restricted amounts are fed. Ace (1973)

79
reports that #3 per cent of 5#5 herds used nipples to feed
and had two per cent less mortality and Oxender 31,31.
(1973) found no mortality difference between 158 herds
using pails and 126 herds using nipples.

The personnel responsible for feeding and caring of
calves is thought by many to be rather important in
determining the rate of mortality. Ace (1973) from survey
information ranked these in order of decreasing mortality
as the mother. hired man. dad. and youngsters. Oxender
31,31, (1973) report no significant difference in mortality
due to personnel responsible for feeding calves. Table 23
contains data from Speicher and Hepp (1973) giving
creditability to the hypothesis that increased herd sise
and use of hired labor dilute the effects of good herd
management.

In summary surveys and experimental trials relate
many factors to calf'mortality. However the presence of
interactions is not easily detected with these methods
alone. In other words the factors easily related to
mortality may not really affect mortality but may be
related consistently from farm to farm to particular
practices that are influential. Herd else is evidently
related to mortality rate but reasons for this relation-
ship appear complex. Whatever interactions exist have not
been clearly identified.

It is a tedious process for many cattlemen to make

sure that the newborn calf receives adequate levels of

TABLE

Opera
Hired

Moths
of 01

Child
opera

Oper:
assi

All
comb

:Dat
Sig
per

and

In

and
811C

“8U

80

TABLE 23. Relationship between persons caring for calves
and calf mortality on 378 Michigan dairy farms.

 

Person(s)

caring for No

         

Q“

Operator 171
Hired labor 25
Mother or wife

of operator 25
Children of
operator 66
Operator with
assistance 67
All other
combinations 2#

. of

Mean

herd

no.0
53.2

38.2

cm

 

«Calflmsrialitz____
____§2as2nal____

S f f
16.2 10.0 12.8
28.1 12.u 20.1
15.0 9.# 12.3
16.0 10.0 13.1
16.2 10.9 13.5
16.3 11.1 13.4

 

:Data from Speicher and Hepp 1973.

Significant difference (P‘<:0.0l) in calf mortality. with

person caring for calves. both annual and winter data.

immune protein via colostrum and then maintain the calf

and the environment to the best advantage of the calf.

In this rearing process many interacting factors are
involved which may tip the balance favorably or unfavorably

and thus result in survival or death of the calf. The

successes and failures of this procedure is a pussle to

many cattlemen and scientists alike.

allow
hours
durir
we lg]
with
of w
are
Celt
one.
lie]
and
The
Col
mil
the
311d
co]

sh.

CHAPTER III
MATERIAL AND METHODS

W

Nine Holstein calves in the University herd were
allowed to remain with their dam for approximately 36
hours postpartum. Calves were not assisted in nursing
during this period. Following their removal calves were
weighed and placed in individual pens # feet by 6 feet
with sawdust bedding. Calves then received four pounds
of whole milk twice daily from an open pail. These calves
are referred to as mothered calves. Nine other Holstein
calves were permitted to remain with their dam for only
one-half hour during which time the dam was allowed to
lick the calf clean. Calves were weighed upon removal
and placed in pens of the same type as the mothered calves.
These calves were fed by nipple bottle 2 lb. of their dam's
colostrum one hour postpartum. This colostrum was hand
milked from the dam after the calf was removed. Calves
then received # 1b. of their dam's colostrum at 12. 2#
and 36 hours postpartum from a nipple bottle. This
colostrum was taken from subsequent machine milkings of
the dams. After 36 hours calves were fed whole milk at
# lb. two times daily from an open pail. These calves

81

82
are referred to as separated or non-mothered calves.

Blood samples for serum immunoglobulin determination
were taken at 2#. #8 and 72 hours and two weeks postpartum
in the nine mothered calves and just prior to feeding at
one hour. again at 2. 6. 12. 2#. 36. #8 and 72 hours and
at two weeks postpartum in the nine separated calves.

TRIAL II

Calves from 32 Holstein cows in the N.S.U. herd were
blocked into two groups according to date born. February
through larch or April through May 1973. and within these
two groups they were blocked into two genetic groups. best
or worst. The best breeding group is those cows in the
N.S.U. herd who were sired by two newly proven young sires
each year found to have the highest predicted difference
for milk among a group of young sires progeny tested by
Select Sires Inc. These cows were also from dams who
were sired by similarly chosen young sires. Those cows
in the worst breeding group were sired by two young sires
having the lowest predicted difference for milk among this
same group of young sires and these cows were also from
dams who were sired by similarly chosen young sires. This
blocking for genetic capability would provide information
on genetic influences upon immunoglobulin absorption.
These calves were then randomly assigned to a treatment
combination in a 2 by # factorial scheme. Two initial
feeding levels of colostrum were given: 1 and 3 1b.. and

four initial times to first colostrum: l. 2. 6 or 12 hours

post
init
on t
nevh

plot

The
ind.
The:

801'

of
For
fox

mil

te]

'11:

‘Ia

be

83
postpartum. The object was to evaluate the effect of the
initial amount of colostrum given and the time it was given
on the estimated serum immunoglobulin levels in these
newborn calves. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the split
plot 2 x # factorial design used.

mat-1W
Calves were permitted to remain with the dam for 15

to 30 minutes allowing the dam to lick the calf clean.
The calf was then removed. weighed and placed in an
individual # feet by 6 feet pen with sawdust bedding.
These pens prevented contact between calves and were

scrubbed between use by calves.

fislnllzmllzssnini

Calves were fed pooled colostrum to remove the effect
of variation due to colostral immunoglobulin concentration.
Pour groups of approximately ten cows were used to make
four pooled batches.

Colostrum collected from cows at the first and second
milkings was frosen in one gallon containers at -20° C.
When sufficient colostrum was collected from approximately
ten cows to make a siseable batch it was thawed. throughly
mixed and placed in one gallon containers and refrosen
until use. Thawing was at room temperature or in warm
water. Lots of first milking were designated batches
l. 3. 5 and 7 and lots of second milkings were designated
batches 2. #. 6 and 8.

81+

.313. masseuse can. as museum
”Queens can. a.“ Eggnog mead». use“ use 3535 gnomes 25.
5s. .258 53.3: «n 9:2. S 129 you 52.... ipnofiuonum .H 8&8

 

 

 

.3 n

I
«use. .5 H mm
he: nus: , "m.
3.54 .93 to
. "I
an .nom H .aos . . a . m
N . N A N .QH m "1.0..
anon IJIIIIHIIIINIIIIIMI .fl a Wm.

 

 

 

 

ba1
ba1

Bac

pa.
sec

US!

of

coi

col

po:

“11
re!

th-

f0:

f1“!

1‘0:

Be;

My

85

Batches l and 2. 3 and h. 5 and 6. 7 and 8 were paired
batches. That is batch 1 was from the first milkings and
batch 2 was from the second milkings of the same le_cows.
Each calf received all its allotted colostrum from the same
paired batches. As one paired batch was used up by
sequentially born calves then the next paired batch was
used. All calves then received the allotted amount (1 or
3 1b.) for the first feeding from one of the four batches
of first milking. All feedings except the final feeding
in the 38 hour postpartum period was from first milking
colostrum while the final feeding was from second milking
colostrum. Table 2“ indicates the times of feeding and
total amounts of colostrum received in the 38 hour period
postpartum.

After the 38 hour period calves were fed a lb. of
whole milk twice daily from an open pail. Water and dry
feeds were withheld for several days after birth.

WW
All serum samples from Trial I and II were taken from

the jugular vein of calves by using 10 m1 vacutainer tubes.
Samples were refrigerated for 12 to 2n hours then centrifuged
for 15 minutes at 800 Kg. A sample of serum was then
frozen at -70° C and later stored at -25° C until tested
for immunoglobulin content.

The estimation of immunoglobulin content of blood
serum was determined by the sincsulfate turbidity method
outlined by McEwan 11,31. (1970c). This test is based on

86

.msphsnvmon mason

mm 60% IshvaHoo Ho .96 Haaoao

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.uehhsooo seen ass» asvnuavmon .HHHo.He
.msHvoeH page new saapmoHoo no .
41 HH 1 m o

u an palm: on «elm: an palm: an «aunt

H mm as 0H 9e mm .sH as mm .nH pa .nH n

H NH as w as a pa H as

1||||||HH a. XMH|I {MHMHuHaul

N on film: on 2.1:! mm film. R :3:

H au as a mH a. a ww .aH an a mu .nH «a .pH H

H mH as N

H «H as H m as H u as H nH vs sH
IJqIEILJujHr 4: a {a g
-HHHI song we samvaHoo
asavaoHco no assoa<

wcHeooa pauH» no .aHs

 

some :HmvHa nmsHueeH asunaoHoo Hon eesHv use asuaaoHco no evssoad

.soHvssHpsoc assesses»
.dN flflm<9

8?
a turbid reaction of a zincsulfate solution and the
gammaglobulin fractions in blood serum. Zincsulfate
solution is made by adding 208 mg of ZnSOuo7H20 to one
liter of distilled water which had been boiled for lO-15
minutes to remove dissolved carbon dioxide. This solution
was made fresh each time. It was dispensed from a
repipette bottle with the 002 removed from incoming air by
using ascarite. The repipette was set to deliver .1 ml
serum and 6 ml of sincsulfate solution into a test tube.
Blank determinations were made with every fifth serum
sample which included 6 ml of distilled water plus .1 ml
of serum. Blanks were not determined on every sample
since blanks for different serum did not differ significantly
to affect accuracy.

‘Each day determinations were made. a standard of
barium sulfate was prepared so that results obtained may
be compared to those feund in other laboratories and on a
day to day basis within this study. This suspension was
prepared by dissolving 1.15 g of barium chloride (BaClzo
ZHZO) in 100 ml of distilled water and then 3 milliliters
of this solution was mixed with 97 ml of 0.2 N sulphuric
acid to make 100 ml of barium sulfate suspension whose
turbidity was very constant when prepared on different
days. The serumaaincsulfate mixture was incubated for
one hour at 20° C as were test blanks and the standard
aaolution. These solutions were then sequentially paired

in one of a set of matched 1 cm light path cuvettes. One

88
cuvette contained water and was arbitrarily set at 100
per cent transmittance when read using a wavelength of
650 mu on a Beckman DB spectrOphotometer. The reading of
the sample was then converted to optical density using a
table based on optical density a z-log of transmittance
of the sample contained in the second cuvette. The per
cent transmittance for the barium sulfate standard varied
between 14 to 16. All test blanks with 6 ml of distilled
water and .1 ml of serum had 98 to 99 per cent transmittance
and were therefore negligible and not considered in any
calculation. Relative turbidity units were then calculated
assuming a value of 20 units for the Basou_standard. For
instance the standard had a transmittance of 18 or an 0.D.
of 0.85“ therefore 20 divided by 0.854 a 23.42. This value
(23.“2) was used as the multiplicand for the optical
density of each sample to give relative turbidity units
for each sample.

Serum samples taken at #8 hours in Trial II were also
analysed using cellulose acetate electrophoresis which is
a procedure frequently used on human serum. Procedures
used were somewhat modified from those outlined in a manual
provided by the Gelman Instrument Company of Ann Arbor.
Michigan. The Cellulose Polyacetate (Sepraphore III)
strips were placed in a cold Tris-Barbital-Sodium Barbital
buffer (pH 8.8) which had been lowered to pH 8.6 for
bovine serum by use of HCl. Serum.(3-4 ul) was applied
to each strip by a wire applicator. The strips were then

placed
volts w
one hou
five mi
usual I
solutic
Dc
detem:
mu fil‘
Electr
area u
albumi
I
index
the tc
Micro
The t<
Want

01’ se'

Mali

89

placed in a Gelman electrophoresis chamber. Three hundred
volts were maintained with 2.5 milliamps per strip. After
one hour strips were then placed in Ponceau S stain for
five minutes. They were then destained and dehydrated by
usual procedures. The strips were placed in clearing
solution and then put on u inch cleaned glass slides.

Density of the stained bands of protein were then
determined on a Gelman Gelscan densitometer using the 620
mu filter. Tracings of density were recorded on a Goerts
Electro recorder which had an integrator to measure the
area under the curves. The percentage of proteins in the
albumin. alpha. beta and gamma areas was then determined.

Total serum protein was determined by refractive
index using a Goldberg refractometer. From a table provided
the total protein in the serum was calculated and recorded.
Micro Kjeldahl procedures were also used for total protein.
The total protein value was then used to express the
quantity of each protein fractions in terms of gram/100 ml

of serum.

 

Colostrum given to calves in Trial II was pooled in
order to remove variation between dams in immunoglobulin
concentration. Samples from the four first milking
batches and feur second milking batches were analyzed for
immunoglobulin content.

One milliliter of commercial cheese rennet was added

to 20 ml of a thawed colostrum sample and incubated in a

vat
for
fro
det
pro
dia
The
at:
use
add
aqr
del
Rio
ca]
cox

die

C8;
thl
'13

81:1

90
water bath for two hours at 37° 0. Samples were centrifuged
for 15 minutes at 800 Kg. and the whey was decanted and
frozen at -20° C until analysed. Total protein was
determined on the whole whey by semi-micro K1eldah1
procedure. A 10-20 ml portion of the whey sample was
dialysed for l to 1% hours to remove much of the water.
These samples were then electrophoresed on cellulose acetate
strips as were blood serum samples except that the dye
used was Naphthol blue black. The dye was prepared by
adding 100 mg of Naphthol blue black to 100 m1 of saturated
aqueous picric acid. Density of the protein bands was
determined using a Gelman Gelscan densitometer and Gortea
Electro recorder and the percentage of gammaglobulin was
calculated. Total gammaglobulin in each colostrum batch
could be expressed quantitatively by multiplying percentage
distribution by total nitrogen content per 100 ml of serum.

FIELD STUDY

Various informants were used to obtain a list of
potential dairymen either having good success in raising
calves or having high calf mortality. These dairymen were
then contacted by phone to determine if they would be
willing to provide information and animals for this field
study and to verify their calf mortality rate. Herds
smaller than #0 milking cows were excluded from this study
since too few calves would be born during the observation
period to provide usable information. Thirty-five

cooperator herds were selected and sufficient data was

91
collected from 30 herds.

Each herd owner was asked to complete a questionnaire
upon the initial visit to provide background information
and mortality statistics for the year of 1972. From the
1972 data herds having calf losses from birth to two months
(excluding those born dead) greater than 15 per cent were
classified as high mortality herds (l? herds) and those
with losses less than 10 per cent were classified as low
mortality herds (l3 herds). A sample of the questionnaire
forms Table 25.

Dairymen were asked to phone whenever a cow calved
so that I could take a blood sample as near as possible
to #8 hours postpartum. Samples were taken from.the
jugular vein using a vacutainer tube and handled and
analysed the same as those in Trials I and II. Sampling
of calves started in January of 1973 and continued through
May of 1973. Dairymen were given a data sheet to record
the time the calf was born. its identification number.
its dam’s number. date born. date died. and sex. Then for
esthmating some management effects the high mortality herds
were arbitrarily split into two groups. One group (nine
herds) along with the 13 low mortality herds were asked to
record the time after birth the calf first received
colostrum and the hours it spent with the dam when they
were known. The reason for separating high mortality herds
into two groups was to determine if the dairymen who were

to record how soon the calf received colostrum would

92
TABLE 25. Questionnaire for calf mortality study -
January 1973.

The purpose of this questionnaire is to gain information
on your calf problems and help us develop research projects
that may solve your calf raising problems.

Information is for the calendar year 1.2.2.2.

NAIR COMPLETE HAILING ADDRESS

 

Circle the correct answer.

YES NO 1. Do you use maternity (box) stalls for cows

calving?
2. Calf raising pens are:
YES NO a) in separate building from calves older than
2 months?
YES NO b) in separate building from maternity pens?
TBS NO 3. gr;d$ry cows kept separate from the milking
e
YES NO 4. Do you dip the navel of newborn calves with
iodine?

TBS NO 5. Do you take body temperature of sick calves?

YES NO 6. Do you supply supplemental heat to your young
calf raising facilities?

TBS IO 7. Do you use fans for ventilating your calf

housing?

138 NO 8. Do you routinely use antibiotics on calves
at birth?

YES NO 9. Do you routinely use antibiotics for scouring
calves?

10. Are there any other treatments or supplements

given to calves?
TBS NO a; at birth? What?
YES NO b when scouring? What?

 

 

Place the correct number or letter for answer in space at
left edge of page.

11. Do you vaccinate calves for: A) IBR: B) BVD;
C) PI-3s D) None of these.
If so. at what age in months do you vaccinate
calves?
12. Have the cows been vaccinated for: A) IBR;
B) BVD; C) PI-3: D) None of these.
13. If cows have been vaccinated for IBR
a) were the vaccinated as calves? A) Yes:
B) No: C Some were.
b) If they were vaccinated as cows. at what
stage of lactation? A) Dry; B) Just prior to
calving: C) Fresh to 3 months in lactation:

 

1h.

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.

20.
21.

26.

27.

28.

29.

93

D) 3 to 9 months in lactation.
If you use antibiotics for calves. which ones?
A) Combiotic: B) Tetracycline: C) Neomycin:
D Sulfas: E) Puracin: F) Penicillin:
G Chloromycetin: H) Vetsulid: I) Other
Number of cows milked.
Number of heifers and female calves for
replacements (all females never fresh).
Average milk production per cow per year.
Type of housing for cows: A) stanchion or tie
stalls: B) free stalls: C) loose housing:
D) Other
Type of stalls for young calves to 2 months
of age: A) individual pens: B) individual tie:
C) group pens: D) other
Now many maternity (box) stalls do you use?
How long do calves usually remain with cow after
birth? A) calves not left with cow: B) less than
3 hours: C) 3 to 12 hours: D) l to 2 days:
E) longer
Number of calves born 111g_during 1972?
Number born dead during 1972?
How many calves died between birth and lb days?
How many died between in days and 2 months?
Do you supply calves with fluids when they have
scours or diarrhea by: A) oral administration:
B) intravenous: C) none
How soon after the calf is born do you usually
feed colostrum? A) not fed B) less than 6
hours: C) 6 to 12 hours: D 12 to 28 hours
Which of the following calf raising problems
cause you the most trouble? A) scours:
B) respirato (coughing. etc.): C) navel
infections: 3) other
Complete the following table where method of
feeding is: A) automatic nurser: B) bucket:
C) nipple bucket: D) nipple bottle: E) other

 

 

 

 

Age of calves (in Times fed lethod of feed-
W

Max.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rank the following in regard to helping you
successfully raise herd replacements. l-very
helpful: 2-helpful: 3-not helpful.

_____reed Salesman _____Hagaaine articles
_____yeterinarian _____Neighbor

seco
and

make

C888

coll
area
aatt
Gala
herd

the
the
this

9“

County Extension Agent _____DHIA tester
_____Dniversity Extension Specialist

 

31. If you attended the meeting last winter on
preventing calf mortality. please answer the
following questions.

a) How many calves have you saved as a result
of attending the meeting?

b) What other benefits were gained from the
meeting?

secondarily reduce mortality due to closer observation.
and particularly explore the possibility that they may
make some effort for calves to receive colostrum sooner
after parturition during this study than was usually the
case in their herds.

During numerous visits to the 30 herds data were also
collected on the temperature and humidity of the calving
area and the calf facilities. Bedding samples for dry
matter and other observations were taken from.both the
calving area and calf pens in most of these herds. Several
herds used raised steel constructed stalls with steel
barred floors and no bedding for the young calves.

The aims and type of calf pens were recorded as was
the number of calves in the calf facilities. Notes on
the type of calving facility and the number of cows sharing
this facility was recorded and other general information

was noted.

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

TRIAL I

The nine mothered calves had higher estimated immune-
globulin levels as estimated by sincsulfate turbidity
units. at 2#. #8 and 72 hours and at two weeks than did
the calves separated from their dam at birth. Table 26
gives values for each calf at #8 and 72 hours and at two
weeks. Figure 2 graphically shows the difference between
the two groups and the immunoglobulin pattern from birth
to two weeks fer the nine separated. hand-fed calves.
Only six of the nine mothered calves had serum sampled at
2b hours. Maximum concentrations occurred near 2# hours.
as was found by Bush 33 a1. (1971). Also levels in
mothered and hand-fed calves remained rather constant
between 2b and 72 hours. then by two weeks levels decreased
to 77 per cent of their 72 hour level. lean values for
hand-fed calves for one hour to two weeks are given in
Table 27 with the amounts of colostrum fed. Hand-fed
calves received 6 lb. of colostrum (2 lb. at one hour and
# lb. at 12 hours) prior to the 24 hours when concentration
reached a plateau. The second feeding probably had a large

contribution to the 2b hour or maximum level because calves

95

96

 

TABLE 26. The estimated immunoglobulin levels in newborn
mothered and separated calves at fixed times
postpartum.

W

Calf Dam Genetic

up. up. gaggpa 48 DE: 2; hr. 3 wggkg

lothered group ------- ZnSOu turbidity units--

1343” 967 B 27.05 30.47 20.75

1188A 1188 C 2.16 2.27 3.21

1345 1199 B 12.9 12.50 10.12

1021A 1021 B 18. 18.03 9.84

gng 972 W 4.38 4.01 2.93

1 1133 C 20.75 11.92 18.03

1347 1133 C 10.68 11.29 5.36

1348 900 B 6.18 7.26 6. 7

9000 900 B 25.59
Mean 1 S.E. % 13.531: 10.551
2.83 3.10 2.25

Separated group

1192A 1192 C 3.42 4. 31 3.63

1119A 1119 B 9.20 11.29 .71

1344 1129 B 12.60 9 84 9.32

1349 1070 B 5.04 11.13 7.2

1351 923 B 19.30 21.1716.37

1352 1097 B 9.58 6.84 6. 65

13:2 1140 C 6.84 6.09 4.77

I38 11%; C 4.87 7.92 4.87

9A W %.68 §.£Q
Mean 1 S.E. .731 9. 81 7.2
1.62 1.66 1. 29

 

‘Genetic groups in NSU herd. B - Best. W I Worst.
bC 8 Control.

Calves with numbers

letter following dam' s number are bulls.

in 1300's are heifers. those with

Figure 2. Serum immunoglobulin levels from one hour to two
weeks of e as estimated by sincsulfate
turbidity ZST) units for nine calves hand-fed
colostrum u to 36 hours postpartum and nine
calves rem ing with their dam.to 36 hours
postpartum. Standard errors are represented
by vertical lines.

ZST UNITS
o

 

9?

LEFT WITH DAM

~

 

~~
- .f.oeoooo./Ooeoo..."/n oooooooooooooooooooooo /° ....... I f ..... f
HAND-FED
J l__
I l l l I I l
24 as ‘9 n 2 was

AGE (HOURS)

FIGURE 2

98

TABLE 27. Estimated immunoglobulin levels for nine
calves separated from dams and fed fixed
amounts of colostrum at fixed times postpartum.

 

   

Time Total colostruma
----- ZST units------

Hour lb. Mean 1,8.E.
1 O .167 0.02
2 2 .175 0.02
6 2 3.162 0.62
12 2 3.997 0.95
24 6 8.835 1.33
36 10 9.246 1.53
48 14 8.725 1.62
72 14 9.475 1.66
2 weeks 14 7.245 1.29

 

‘Calves were fed 2 lb. at one hour postpartum.and 4 1b. at
12. 24 and 36 hours. whole milk fed after 36 hours.

99
sampled at six and again at 12 hours showed little increase
during this time indicating that most of the 2 lb. of
colostrum fed at one hour postpartum was absorbed before
the second feeding at 12 hours. Then the large increase
in immunoglobulin level from 12 to 24 hours is likely due
to absorption from the 4 lb. of colostrum fed at 12 hours.
This is in agreement with data from Selman gtflgl. (1971b)
which indicates that calves with two nursings had higher
ZST units (31.2) than calves with only one nursing (24.9).
In the hand-fed calves little or no absorption had occurred
at two hours postpartum or one hour after feeding. Calves
were not totally void of serum immunoglobulin at birth as
was also found by Bush gtflgl. (1971) and Mungle (1972).

The mean differences for serum immunoglobulin between
the mothered calves and hand-fed. separated calves were not
statistically significant at 24. 48 or 72 hours or 14 days
postpartum even though the mean and maximum value for the
mothered calves was consistently greater. Table 28 contains
the one way analysis of variance for 48 and 72 hour and two
week immunoglobulin levels.

The reason for the non-significant difference between
the mothered and separated calves was due to the large
variation between the mothered calves. This is evident
when examining the standard errors and range of calves in
Table 26.

The possible reasons fer the large variation that

existed when calves were allowed to remain and nurse their

100

TABLE 28. One way analysis of variance for immunoglobulin
levels in mothered and non-mothered calves at
48 and 72 hours and two weeks postpartum.

 

m
Level of
Source d.f SS HS f value significance
Treatment 1 108.74 108.74 2.27 .25
Error 16 767.42 47.96
22_haurs
Treatment 1 75.95 75.95 1.36 .50
Error 16 891.12 55.70
Lenka
Treatment 1 46.25 46.25 1.53 .25
Error 16 484.31 30.27

 

dame are: 1) time to nursing is obviously variable.

2) differing and unregulated amounts of colostrum would

be consumed. 3) difference in immunoglobulin concentration
of damFs colostrum. 4) difference in mothering intensity.
5) differences in birthweight. and combinations of above
listed variables.

Selman.g1ugl. (l970c.d) have shown that time to first
suckling is influenced by size of calf. shape of the dam
and in particular the height of the udder in relation to
the shape of the underbelly. Selman at 31. (l970b.d)
reported the average time to first suckling was 218.31
113.8 minutes for calves of dairy heifers and 2611129.1
minutes for calves of dairy cows. This information plus
observations made during these experiments indicate little

101
possibility that the interval from birth to nursing in the
mothered calves was less than the one hour to first feeding
for the hand-fed calves. The actual interval was not
recorded but general observations were made. In this
experiment then the importance of time may be questionable.

Selman 11,31. (1971b) reported calves allowed to nurse
at two fixed times postpartum consumed 5 to 8 lb. within
12 hours postpartum. Very likely mothered calves in this
experiment and particularly those with the highest serum
immunoglobulin levels consumed more colostrum than the
6 lb. fed by 12 hours or the 14 1b. total fed by 36 hours
in the hand-fed calves. Also probably some of the mothered
calves found to have low immunoglobulin levels did not
receive much colostrum.

In this trial all calves received their dam's
colostrum and the difference in concentration of immuno-
globulin in their colostrum could be responsible for
variation in both groups.

Bush 11 a1. (1971. 1973) and lungle (1972) found
strong relationship between serum immunoglobulin levels
in calves and the absolute amount of immunoglobulin or
IgG fed when fed at a rate based on birthweight. There
was not a strong relationship however to concentration
alone.

Selman.gtflal. (1971a) also reported that calves fed
equal amounts in the presence of the dam had higher ZST
units (l7.713.l) than those which were separated soon

102
after birth (10.3:2.4). They postulate a maternal effect
on immunoglobulin absorption. This maternal influence
could not likely occur in the separated calves unless the
effect was established in the first 15-30 minutes before
the calves were removed from the dam.

Since the calves bodyweight. and the concentration
of immunoglobulin in colostrum were random in both groups
these variables would probably not contribute significantly
to the difference between treatment groups. Therefore
one must conclude that the greatest contributors to the
differences in immunoglobulin levels between mothered and
non-mothered calves and the variation within the mothered
calves was the amount of colostrum consumed and possibly
the maternal effect. In other words when the amount of
colostrum fed was constant and mothering was not permitted
as in the hand-fed calves less variation between calves
existed than when these two variables were permitted to
vary in the mothered calves. Thus a careful consideration
of the difference in variation within the two groups does
provide more understanding of factors affecting immune-
globulin levels in newborn calves.

103
TRIAL II

Allocation of calves to treatments and experimental
design are in Table 29. Individual values for sincsulfate
turbidity (ZST) units at first feeding and at 12. 24. 36.
48 and 72 hours and two weeks postpartum are listed for
each calf in Appendix Table l. Serum.immunoglobulin
estimates for 48 hour samples are shown in Table 30.
Analysis of variance of the 48 hour ZST values indicates
that the time of first feeding of colostrum (l. 2. 6 or
12 hour postpartum) and the initial amount fed (1 or 3 lb.)
were not significantly different (Tables 30 and 31).
Figures 3a and 3b represent the increase in ZST units
from.birth to 72 hours for each time and feeding level
treatment combination. Calves fed 1 lb. initially had
very little increase by 12 hours as compared to those fed
3 lb. and therefore the levels at 12 and 24 hours appear
to be more affected by the initial feeding level than the
48 hour values. The calves fed 1 lb. had a considerable
increase at 24 hours as a result of the second feeding
of 4 lb. Those initially fed 3 lb. also increased from
the 12 hour to the 24 hour sampling time as a result of
the second feeding of 4 lb. On a percentage basis the
increase for those calves fed prior to 12 hours was less
for those initially fed 3 1b. than 1 1b. (two-fold vs
six-fold increase). Analysis of variance on the 12 and
24 hour samples are in Table 32. Level of initial feeding
is significant: P «=.001 at the 12 hour and P <=.005 at the

104

TABLE 29. Allocation of calves by treatment combination
with two blocks for seasons and two genetic

 

groups e
Amount of
colostrum Time to first colostral
Cenetic at first - .: ,. - b 1
lb.
Bestb 1 121013 1374 1181A 1369
3 1221A 1368 1072 1375
Ic
Worst 1 1366 1190A 1362 1195
3 1353 1355 1367 1355
Best 1 1377 1141A 1142B 1373
3 1147A 1376 1381 1225A
II
Worst 1 1232A 1222A 11388 1379
3 1214A 1380 1371 1378

 

Walf number. those with letters are males.
bHerd genetic group.

cBlock I calves born 1-26-73 to 4-26-73
Block II calves born 4-7-73 to 5-29-73

105

TABLE 30. Mean 48 hour serum immunoglobulin levels for
calves fed first colostrum at l. 2. 6 or 12
hours after birth. Two levels were fed at
these times. 1 and 3 lb.

 

 

 

 

Amount
first Ho
feedina______4L_ :2 J______J£L____Aze:eaa____.
1b.
1 9.403 8.13 5.58 9.53 8.17
3 10.26 12.59 9.75 8.69 10.32
Average 9.85 10.36 7.66 9.11 9.25

 

‘Values are estimated serum immunoglobulin levels expressed
as sincsulfate turbidity units (ZST) and each value is a
mean of four calves.

TABLE 31. Analysis of variance of ZST values at 48 hours
for 32 Holstein calves in Trial II.

 

Level of
._jauusuL____4aaLa____JTi_______lsL______1L____§ianificance
Genetic
groups (G) 1 35.343 35.343 2.713 .25
Feeding
levels (P) 1 37.083 37.083 2. 847 .25
Time (I) 3 33.128 11.059 0. 849 .50
G X F 1 32.004 32.004 2 .457 .25
G X T 3 133- .747 51. 249 3.934 .025
r X T 3 0. 206 13. 402 1.029 .50
Blocks
(season) 1227.232 27.372 2.101 .25
Error 1% 13.027

3

 

Figure 3a.

Figure 3b.

Serum immunoglobulin levels from 0 to 72 hours
ost artum as estimated by sincsulfate turbidity
(ZST) units for calves receiving .‘|._1b.L of
colostrum initially at 1. 2. 6 or 12 hours of
age as indicated by different lines. Each value
represents the mean of four calves. Numbers

2. 3. 4 on each line represent time of 2nd.

3rd and 4th colostrum feeding.

Serum immunoglobulin levels from.0 to 72 hours

s artum as estimated by sincsulfate turbidity
{EST units for calves receiving 3_1h‘,of
colostrum initially at l. 2. 6 or 12 hours of
age as indicated by different lines. Each value
represents the mean of four calves. Numbers
2. 3. 4 on each line represent time of 2nd.
3rd and 4th colostrum feeding.

106

OMOMOOOO”. .

   

  

   

 

 

 

 

 

1.
I C
2
3 1
fl
.
~
..sseseeee eceess eeeeeee e.
. - see.... .
fl..“u5sseeeeee0°.
J I I T l 1
. 8. I. a. C. 7.
I.‘ (”UC.)
FIGURE 38.
-------- 1
- ........... a
eeeeeesseeseeeee .
‘1
fll’
.
'2
8
a
.-
.
N
o l I l I I s '
0 '8 u as 4. , 2

AG! (0100'!)

FIGURE 3b

107

TABLE 32. Analysis of variance of ZST values at 12 and

24 hours for 32 Holstein calves in Trial II.

 

------------------ 12 hours--------------------
Level of

§aaraa______4isLa_____JS1______JEL______JL___§isuifiaenas_

Genetic

group (G) 1 4.150 4.150 0.972 .50
Feedin
level P) 1 95.437 93.437 22.345 .001
Time (T) 2 8.895 . 8 1.041 .50
G X P 1 0.185 0.185 0.043 NS
8 x r 2 2.249 1.175 0.275 NS
P X T 2 5. 0 2.70 0.632 .75
Blocks
(season) 1 4.546 4.546 1.064 .50
Error 13, 55.523 4.271
3

------------------ 24 hours--------------------
Genetic
group 1 22.882 22.882 3.091 .1
Feeding
level 1 88.658 88. 658 11.976 .005
Time 3 101.534 33. 845 4.576 .025
G X F 1 0.226 0.306 0.041 NS
G X T 3 17. a 5.814 0.785 .75
P X T 3 33.79 11.265 1.522 .25
Block
(season) 1 13.320 13. 20 1.799 .25
Error 1% 133.253 7. O3

 

108
24 hour time. These analysis indicate that time of
initial colostrum comption is significantly related to
24 hour ZST values (P <.025). Peak ZST levels occur
after 24 hours (Figure 3a and 3b).

Table 33 shows the gammaglobulin content of eight
batches of colostrum used. Second milking had markedly
less nitrogen than first milking but about the same
percentage distribution of gammaglobulin. Grams of
ganaglobulin per 100 m1 second milking averaged 57 per
cent (range 44 to 65) that of first milking colostrum.
For each calf the total grams of gammaglobulin fed in the
38 hour postpartum period was calculated from grams of
gmaglobulin/loo ml (g.g1./100 :1) whole colostrum
multiplied by the amount fed. These values along with
serum gammaglobulin values for each calf at 48 hours and
other general intonation about the calves are in Appendix
Table 2. Analysis of variance of the serum gammaglobulin
levels at 48 hours show no highly significant relationship
(Table 34). There is some difference in the significance
levels between values in Table 31 and 34. The genetic
group and the GxT interaction terms are nonsignificant
and tile approaches significance in Table 34 while in
Table 31 the tern 011‘ is significant (P <.025) and tine
is nonsignii’icant (P <. 50).

Coaparison of techniques to determine serum i-une
levels shows the correlation between gammaglobulin levels

at 48 hours and ZST values at 48 hours is .37. P <.05.

109

TABLE 33. Analysis of eight colostrum batches used in
Trial II.

 

Total Gamma
proteina globulin g gl/100 m1ggl/100 m1

wha_32 sh212_2212§1£ns__

 

1 f g 8

1d 8.25 63.2 5.21 4.06

2 4.69 67.0 3.14 2.45

a 7.81 68.0 5.31 4.14

3063 64.7 2.35 1.83

5 7.75 62.4 4.84 3.78

6 4.75 66.0 3.14 2.45

7 6.50 71.2 4.62 3.61

8 3.81 68.8 2.6 2.06
Ave. 1st

milk 7.58 66.2 5.00 3.90
Ave. 2nd

milk 4.22 66.6 2.82 2.20

2nd 8 lat 0557 1.01 .564 .564

 

:Nitrogen from kjeldahl analysis X 6. 25.
cGrams of gamma globulin/100 m1 of whey.

Grams of gamma. lobulin/loo m1 whole colostrum s g g1/100
m1 whey X 0.78 per cent of whole colostrum in whey
dfraction).

Odd numbers are first milkings even numbers are second

milkings. each set of two samples 1 and 2. 3 and 4. etc.

are from same group of about 10 cows.

110

TABLE 34. Analysis of variance of serum gamma globulin
levels (g. g1./100 ml serum) at 48 hours
postpartum in 32 Holstein calves in Trial II.

 

 

Level of
W W
Genetic
group (G) 1 .0043 .0043 0.041 NS
Feedin
level P) 1 .1668 .1668 1.602 .25
Time (T) 3 .8083 .2694 2.588 .10
G X P 1 .0148 .0148 0.142 .75
G X T 3 .1192 .0397 .0381 NS
P x T 3 .2988 .0996 0.957 .50
Blocks
(seasons) 1 .2468 .2468 2.371 .25
Error 18 1.8741 .1041

 

This correlation is much lower than the correlation found
by McEwan 51,11. (1970) between zincsulfate turbidity
units (x) and the concentration of IgG + Igfl (y) in serum
(r 8 .96. N t 53. y 3 107: - 2.17). McEwan g1_31, (1970)
used a more quantitative immunodiffusion technique to
determine the IgG and IgM concentrations in calf serum
whereas the present study employed cellulose acetate
electrophoresis to quantitate total serum gammaglobulin.
The relation of this electrophoretic value to total serum
IgG + IgM is not known but is assumed to be high.

111

Studies by Bush g3,a1. (1971 and 1973) and Mungle
(1972) found the absolute amount of gammaglobulin or IgG
fed per unit of birthweight to be highly correlated to
serum immunoglobulin levels at 24 hours and to account for
50 to 68 per cent of the variation. Similar results by
Staley at 31. (1971) and Kruse (1970) also indicate the
mass of gammaglobulin fed is highly related to the increase
in serum immunoglobulin levels. In Kruse data the amount
fed was more significant than time to first feeding. Kruse
(1970) as well as Bush g3,al. (1971. 1973) and Mungle (1972)
based their evaluation on the 24 hour serum samples.

Staley 31,31. (1971) does not state the hour of samplings
that were evaluated. The difference in significance of
time and amount of colostrum between these studies and
the present study evaluation of 48 hour sampling may be
due to this difference in time of samples as well as the
fact that the present eXperiment did not account for
variation in bodyweight when allotting colostrum amounts
to calves.

To determine if the absolute amount of gammaglobulin
fed to the calves in this study significantly influenced
the 48 hour ZST values a covariate was calculated. The
covariate was the total grams of gammaglobulin fed during
the 38 hour colostrum feeding period per Kg of birthweight
(g. g1./Kg b.wt.). Total grams were used because the 12.
24 and 36 hour level appear to be affected by each previous
feeding of colostrum (Figure 3a and 3b). Analysis of

112

variance fer the 48 hour ZST values with the covariate
adjustment appears in Table 35. Comparison of Table 31
and 35 shows the covariate adjustment decreased the level
of significances for genetic groups. feeding level. time.
PIT interaction and season while increasing the significance
of the Ga? term. The GxF interaction was negatively
related to the covariate and in Table 35 approaches
significance (P <=.l). Only the FIT interaction is highly
significant (P <=.025) in both analysis.

By graphing the mean values for the GxF interaction
(Figure 4) the calves from the worst genetic group are
more efficient in absorbing gammaglobulin when only 1 1b.
if fed than are the calves in the best genetic group.
However the calves receiving 3 1b. initially appear to
have similar absorption efficiency as reflected in 48
hour ZST values.

The GxT interaction is graphically depicted in
Figure 5. As the age of calf to first colostrum increases
to 12 hours the 48 hour immunoglobulin levels increase
for the worst genetic group. A simple regression equation
indicates the trend is not significant (y 3 9.274 + .1941.
r a .21 NS: where y = 48 hour ZST value. x I hours to first
colostrum). There appears to be no consistent time trend
for this relationship in calves of the best genetic group.
However the worst genetic calves had higher levels when
colostrum was initially fed at 12 hours. These interactions

suggest that calves of different genetic potential may have

113

 

 

TABLE 35. Analysis of variance for 48 hour ZnSO
turbidity values when covaried on total
grams of gammaglobulin fed within 38 hours
per kg of birthweight.
Source Level of
m1) 511:. SS HS f M
Genetic
groups (G) 1 15.235 15.235 1.37 .75
Peed
level F) 1 0.038 0.038 0.003 NS
Time (T) 3 15.537 5.179 0.466 .75
G X F 1 46.754 46.754 4.204 .1
G X T 3 150.695 50.232 4.517 .025
P X T 3 9.613 3.204 0.288 NS
Blocks
(seasons) 1 3.529 3.529 0.317 .75
Error 11 189.062 11.121

30

 

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Interaction between genetic group and initial
feeding level after covariate (grams of
gammaglobulin fed within 38 hours/kg of
birthweight) adjustment. Values are 48 hour
ZST values as influenced by amount of
colostrum at first feeding (1 or 3 lb.) for
the “worst” and “best“ genetic group. Each
value is the mean of eight calves with
standard errors indicated by vertical lines.

Interaction between genetic group and time of
initial feeding after covariate ( rams of
gammaglobulin fed within 38 hours kg of birth-
weight) adjustment. Values are 48 hour ZST
values as influenced by the age of calves when
fed first colostrum for “worst“ and "best”
genetic group. Each value is a mean of four
calves and standard errors are represented

by vertical lines.

40 HI ZST UNITS

18" UNIT.

4. HI

.0
O
l

114

 

m
l

 

 

l l
1 s

IIIYIAL
LI. OF 601°81’80" FED

FIGURE 4

18r-

 

 

 

AOI 0' CAL? (HI) WHII Fll‘T no COLOOTIUI

FIGURE 5

115
have different abilities to absorb immunoglobulins.

The covariate (g. g1./Kg b.wt.) was found to approach
significance. The f value is calculated by f = SSr/adj
ESE. where SSr a SPEz/SSE(X). SSr s Sums of squares of
regression. SPE a error sums of squares for x and adj
MSE 8 adj error mean square (Snedecor and Cochran 1967)
and was found to be f a 4.085 with P 41.1.

Covariance analysis of the serum gammaglobulin levels
(3. g1./100 m1 serum) decreased the significant levels
(Tables 34 and 36) for feeding levels. time. GxF inter-
action. FxT interaction and seasons but increased slightly
the level of significance for genetic groups and GxT
interaction. However none of the variables were highly
significant (Table 36). Test of significance for the
covariate gives f = 2.0305. P <=.25 which is not significant
but the trends indicate again that this type of covariance
should be taken into account in the experimental design.

The efficiency at which gammaglobulin is absorbed can
be evaluated. The estimated grams of gammaglobulin/Kg
b.wt. fed in the present study ranged frmm .61 to 1.69 g.
The regression for ZST units on g. gl./Kg b.wt. fed
(column 4 and 5. Appendix Table 2) was y = .61 + 9.10:.
where y - 48 hour ZST value. x - g. gl./Kg b.wt. fed
(r . .50. P <.01). A regression of grams of gamma-
globulin/100 ml serum.(Y) and g. g1./Kg b.wt. fed (1)
(column 7 and 4. Appendix Table 2) gave y a .78 + .721.

r I .50. P <.01. In comparison McEwan 91 31. (1970) fed

116

TABLE 36. Analysis of variance for 48 hour serum gamma-
globulin levels when covaried on total
gammaglobulin fed within 38 hours postpartum
expressed as gram per kg of birthweight.

 

 

Level of

Genetic

group (G) l .0306 .0306 .3107 .75
Feedin

level fF) 1 .0003 .0003 .003 NS
Time (T) 3 .450 .150 1.5228 .25
G X F 1 .002 .002 .0203 NS
G X T 3 .1984 .0661 .6711 .75
F X T 3 .1783 .0594 .603 .75
?:::::ns) 1 .0706 .0706 .7168 .50
Error 12. 1.674 .0985

30

 

calves two colostrum feedings with an average of 6.18
grams of gammaglobulin/Kg b.wt. The whey protein
concentrations estimated by McEwan and coworkers were

10.6 g/100 ml (average) which is higher than in the
present study (Table 33) and accounts for higher estimated
grams of gammaglobulin/Kg b.wt. fed. Their regression
equation which is an estimation of absorption efficiency
is y - 0.16x + 0.58 where y a the grams of gammaglobulin
absorbed/kg bodyweight and x a the amount of gammaglobulin
presented (g./Kg bodyweight). The coefficient r is 0.62

117
with P <=.02. N c 13. which is similar to the values
(r a .5) in the present study. The serum values were
also adjusted by McEwan £1,51. (1970) on a bodyweight
basis (g/Kg bodyweight) and this was not done in the

present study.

118
FIELD STUDY

The division of herds into two groups was based on
their calf'mortality rate during the 1972 calendar year.
2 herds had similar mortality in 1972 and also
during the sampling period of this trial thus indicating
that having the dairymen in H1 record. when known. the

H1 and H

hours to first colostrum and hours the calves spent with
the dam did not influence the mortality rate. Table 37
contains the analysis of variance for the mortality rate
of the 30 herds by groups for 1972 and 1973. The mean
values were similar for all three herd categories during
both time periods. Herds were selected on the basis of
high or low mortality in 1972 but all herds did not
continue with the same mortality rate for the sampled
calves in 1973 (Appendix Table 3). Herds B and u were
exceptions on selecting on the 1972 mortality rate where
they had 19 and 15 per cent mortality respectively for

the year but they currently were not having any losses

and it was therefore decided to place them into the low
mortality group. The variation from 1972 to 1973 mortality
is indicated by the change in significance from P <=.001
in 1972 to P <=.l for mortality rates between high and

low mortality herds in 1973. In 1973 only calves from
which blood samples were obtained were considered in these
calculations and perhaps the few calves sampled in several

herds over this period of time were not completely

119

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120
representative of the 1972 and existing mortality rate.
Five high mortality herds had no sampled calves die and
conversely one low mortality herd (x) had three of eight
or 37 per cent die that were sampled. Except for herds
R. T. V. X. FF. HH. II. JJ and KK. almost all of the calves
born in each herd between February and May 1973 were sampled.
Poor sampling occurred in herds R. T. V and X and Herds
FF through KK did not start on the trial until March.

The average ZST units for the three herd groups and
the calves that lived and died are in Table 38. There is
a slight trend with higher ZST units in low mortality herds
but these differences were not significant as indicated by
the analysis of variance in Table 39. This is due to the
great variation in average herd ZST levels within each herd
group as indicated by P <:.001 for herds within groups.
This variation in mean herd ZST units within groups can be
seen in Appendix Table 3.

The difference in ZST units was significant (P ‘=.05.
7.75:.53 vs 5.691.53) between calves that lived and those
that died by two months postpartum (Table 39). This
indicates that ZST readings are related to the survival of
calves as was indicated by McEwan gtmgl. (l970b) and Gay
£1.11. (1965). However in this data if all three herd
groups had similar average ZST units then all groups had
calves with low ZST units but more calves with low ZST
units died in the H1 and H2 groups than in the L group
(Table 40). Only 11 of 176 sampled calves died in L herds.

121

TABLE 38. Means for 48 hour ZST units in three herd
groups and in surviving and dying calves in
30 Michigan dairy herds.

 

23? units3 Bangs

 

Herd group ‘x :SE Low High Calves
H1 high mortality 1 5.92 .67 0 - 30.24 158
Hz high mortality 2 6.70 .71 .12 - 30.26 117
L low mortality 7.50 .86 .12 - 26.84 119
445
Livec 7.75 .53 .12 - 30.26 380
Died 5.69 .53 0 - 25.60 65

 

aZincsulfate turbidity (ZST) units for serum samples taken
as near to 48 hours postpartum as possible.

erd group H1 and L were asked to record. when known. the
time to first colostrum and hours calf remained with dam.

0Status of calves by two months postpartum.

122

TABLE 39. Least squares analysis of variance for immuno-
globulin levels in 30 Michigan dairy herds.

 

 

Level of
fianraa_______dlf- jTL______1EL_____1;___sisnifissn22_
aTreatment
(group) 2 86.117 43.058 1.137 .322
bMortality 1 142.406 142.406 3.759 .053
Horde/group 27 2259.023 83.667 2.207 .001
T x M 2 44.702 22.351 .590 .555
Error 412 15607.65? 37.883

TOTAL
(about
mean) 444 18485.540

 

R2 for regression of above variables = .16.
a I three herd treatment groups. H1. H2. L.
b a live or dead by two months of age.

TABLE 40.

123

Raw mean values. standard errors and ranges

for calves that lived and died in each of
three herd groups.

 

«Callas—

 

Live
Died

Live
Died

Live
Died

 

a
(127)

(.31)
161

( 92)

(.26)
118

(165)

(.11)
176

NI

6.35
4.53

7.23
4.80

7.66
2.68

 

_ZST_nniI§E_
____Ban£s____
15E Low High
.559 012 " 30.24
0956 O " 21078
.709 3.25 - 30.26
1.301 012 ' 25060
eugl .12 - 26.84
.992 .17 - 9.84

 

aSeveral values were added to data in this table therefore
the number of calves in each treatment is different than

D

c

“1

in Table 38.

a high mortality 1. Hz a high mortality 2. L a low
mortality.
Zincsulfate turbidity units for serum samples taken as

near to 48 hours postpartum as possible.

12h
These calves averaged 2.68 ZST units while 3h calves in H1
and 26 calves in H2 died and averaged 4.53 and h.80 ZST
units respectively (Table #0). This indicates that a
greater number of calves with low ZST units succumb in
the high mortality herds than in low mortality herds. On
the other hand surviving calves had average ZST units of
6.35 in H1. 7.23 in H2 and 7.66 in L which indicates that
calves with higher levels have a greater chance of survival
than low ZST calves regardless of herd group. This is
particularly important for calves in the high mortality
herds because the data suggest that calves with high ZST
levels are less frequently affected by factors causing
death. i.e. environment. management practices or presence
of disease organisms. Therefore a possible interrelation-
ship exists between low ZST values and the ”environment”
'of the calves.

Correlations fer both time to first colostrum and
hours the calf remained with the dam versus mortality are
in Table 41. In H2 herds. by design. time to first colostrum
and hours with the dam were not obtained thus data in Table
#1 are for H1 and L herds only. Even though there was a
correlation of r s .35 (P «:.05) fbr mortality vs time to
first colostrum in H1 herds the values used in this
calculation may not have been sufficiently representative
of high mortality herds being from only 39 calves from Just
four herds. More extensive data will be needed to actually

demonstrate that such a relationship exists. The positive

125

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126

relation of a longer time to first colostrum and higher
mortality (r a .35) is not due to lower ZST units since
Table #2 indicates no relation between time to colostrum
and ZST units. This result is similar to the non-
significant influence of time in Trial II on #8 hour ZST
values and is contrary to data of Selman £1,3l, (1970a)
where time to first suckling versus #8 hour ZST units was
negatively related (r = -.#9. P ¢=0.05. N a 15). However
the average time to first colostrum observed and recorded
by dairymen in the present study was about 3% hours (Table
#l and #2) and the range was 0.2-l# hours indicating that
most of these calves recorded were receiving colostrum
within six hours. Therefore differences in ZST units may
not be strongly related to how soon they receive colostrum
within this short time period. Within a longer period of
time to first colostrum consumption (0-20 hours) the
influence of time could be more important on mortality and
ZST values. More data are needed on this relationship.

Selman £1,31. (l97la.b.c) noted higher ZST values in
calves remaining with their mother which he termed a
”mothering effect“. Such a.maternal effect was evident
by the positive correlations between the hours with the
dam and the #8 hour ZST values in the sampled calves from
19 herds (Table #2). This relation was significant for
all 237 calves and for the 119 calves in the low mortality
herds (r a .30. PH<=.01). The correlation of r a .13 for
H1 herds and r a .30 for L herds were not significantly

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127

 

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128
different and thus caution should be used in interpreting
the data in the bottom two lines of Table #2 as indicating
differences in effect of maternity environment on ZST
values in high and low mortality herds. This will be
mentioned later.

Examination of relationships of several items measured
as influenced by methods used to feed colostrum to newborn
calves was performed. To do this herds were grouped
regardless of mortality into three treatments. Treatment
A were herds that left the calf with the dam for'more than
2# hours and who depended on the calf to receive its first
colostrum from the dam as well as the rest of the time it
remained with the dam (column # and 5. Table #3). Treatment
B was composed of dairymen who generally left the calves
with the dam for 12 hours (column #. Table #3) and who
believed that 80.7 per cent (50-100 per cent) of their
calves were receiving colostrum from the dam for the first
time and thus only 19.3 per cent (0-50 per cent) were
believed to be hand-fed for the first colostral feeding.
Treatment 0 included dairymen who left the calf with the
cow for l to 12 hours and generally believed that only
l3.# per cent (0-#0 per cent) received colostrum for the
first time from the dam and believed that 86.6 per cent
(60-98 per cent) received colostrum first by hand-feeding.
The average ZST units for the three treatments were
A = 8.561.52. B :- #.93:.7o and c a 7.301.82 (P <.025.
Table #3).

129
TABLE #3. Average ZST units and colostrum feeding data
for 30 Michigan dairy herds grouped by method
of feeding colostrum to newborn calves.

 

Minimal Nurse
Herd ZST time with cow
MEI]: “a “d: 95] ii 1 .1! b :5 c “1: Sid
no. hr/% %
A-nurse A 11 8.59 2#/100 100
the B 18 9.35 2#/ 80 66
dam F 17 6.38 2#/100 100
L 19 7.8# 24/100 95
II 9 9'28 #35100 100
XX 9 9. g 100 _21
Ave 805 93
15E .52
G 9 2.#5 12/100 97
H 12 6.38 12/100 50
B-nurse J 13 6.88 2#/ 85 50
dam & v 9 7.00 12/100 80
hand- X 8 2.11 12/100 75
fed 2 # 3.91 12/100 80
AA 2 8.73 12/100 80
PF 10 5.03 10/100 100
HH 23 3.57 12/ 95 95
JJ 11 aggz 12/100 .199
Ave 093 8007
15E .70
C 12 3.56 2/100 10
D 13 7.81 1/100 15
M # l#.79 12/100 25
N 8 7.65 12/100 10
C-hand- Q 31 9.03 12/100 10
fed R 8 3.71 #/100 10
T 7 9.#2 3/100 5
U 18 5.19 /100 30
W 27 9.03 1/100 0
BB 1# 5.7? 12/100 #0
CC 23 5.9 L/100 2
DD 12 3.# 2/100 5
EE 9 7.01 2/100 20
60 25 12/100 __5
Ave .30 l3.#
23E .82
Significance A vs B vs C P <=.025
A vs B P <=.005
B vs C P a .05
A vs C NS

 

130
TABLE #3. Cont'd.

 

 

 

hand- Colostrum Colostrum
fed e hand-fed i? hand-fed first
mam—112M.» 6 W8
7% 1b . lb.
A-nurse 0 - -
the 3# 10 #
dam 0 - -
5 .. -
o - -
_3 12 6
Ave 7
3 10 #
50 10.6 #
B-nurse 50 8.3 2
dam & 20 6.0
had. 25 6 0 8 3
fed 20 7.2 #
20 8.0 #
O 6 o 0 '-
5 2.0 1
J .-
Ave 19 . 3 7 . 01 "37$
90 11 #
85 11 #
75 .5 2
90 12.3 2.5
C-hand- 90 12.3
fed 90 6. 1.5
95 8.# 3
70 8.1 a
100 ll
60 8.# 3
98 8.# 2.5
95 6.0 2
80 19 #
1&— 8...
Ave 8 .6 10.1 3.5

 

131
TABLE #3. Cont'd.

aHerds were divided into three groups according to method
they most frequently depended on for calves to receive
colostrum during the first 36 hours postpartum. i.e.
nurse the dam for most of colostrum received-A. nurse
bdam and hand-fed-B. and hand-fed most colostrum-C.
Zincsulfate turbidity units average of calves sampled.
cMinimal time with dam postpartum in hours and per cent of
calves remaining this length of time as estimated by
ddairymen.

The per cent of calves which are thought by dairymen to
ereceive their first colostrum by nursing the dam.

The per cent of calves which are thought by dairymen to
rreceive their first colostrum by hand-feeding.

Average colostrum hand-fed to calves in 36 hours. When
hand-feeding was practiced.
gAverage amount of colostrum fed to calves at the first
feeding when suspected not to have nursed the dam.

132

Interpretation of these differences is difficult and
the actual explanation may be in what the dairymen think is
happening in regard to how the calves are first getting
colostrum. Those dairymen who left the calf with the cow
for less than 12 hours in general believed the calf had
not nursed during this period and therefore were hand-
feeding the calf thus assuring that it received colostrum
(Treatment 0). Dairymen in Treatment A were leaving the
calf with the cow for 2# hours or more thus gave the calf
plenty of opportunity to nurse and they depended on the
calf to nurse. These calves had the highest ZST values
but not significantly higher than Treatment 0. These
results are similar to those in Trial 1 where nine calves
were allowed to remain with the dam for 36 hours and nine
were separated at birth and hand-fed colostrum. Treatment
B herds had low ZST values in calves and these dairymen
believed many of these calves were nursing the cow for
their first colostrum which suggests that they depended
on the calf to nurse the cow during this period and perhaps
hand-feeding colostrum some time later or upon removal from
the cow. Therefore these calves received less hand-fed
colostrum within 36 hours than calves in Treatment 0.
This interpretation is substantiated by the average amounts
of colostrum.hand-fed 7.01 lb. for B but 10.1 lb. for
Treatment 0. The total amount of colostrum received by
calves must be assumed to be more when calves are hand-fed

or left with the cow for ”longer" periods than when left

133

with the cows for only 12 hours.

Selman gjflal. (1970a.b) recorded the time required
to first nurse the dam for each of 20 calves born to dairy
cows (10) and heifers (10) in box stalls (refer to Table
18). Five of 20 dairy calves (25 per cent) did not nurse
within the eight hour observation period and those that
did took an average time of about #12 hours to nurse the
first time. If this is the case then calves in Treatment
A could make up for ”lost time" by consuming reasonable
amounts during their extended stay with the cow. But
calves that do not nurse during their stay with the dam in
Treatment B only receive what is hand-fed which may be less
than they could eventually nurse from the cow. These
results may offer an explanation to the findings of McCoy
117.1. (1970) where calves hand-fed colostrum had higher
gammaglobulin levels at seven hours than calves remaining
with the dam but by 2# hours calves remaining with their
dam had values that exceeded those levels in calves that
were hand-fed colostrum. Emphasis should be placed on the
fact that the per cent of calves which nurse the dam for
first colostrum or are hand-fed first colostrum.in Treat-
ment B and C are merely reflections of each dairyman's
thoughts and not recorded facts.

Correlation coefficients between the estimated pounds
of colostrum hand-fed within 36 hours and the average ZST
units for each herd are in Table ##. No highly significant

correlations were found for any of the five categories

134

TABLE ##. Correlations between estimated amounts of
colostrum hand-fed in 36 hours postpartum and
the average ZST units for each of several
herd categories.

 

___Qmp_ W

Depended on both nursing 10 0.2# NS
the dam and hand-feeding
colostrum (combination)

 

Depended on hand-feeding l# 0.08 NS
colostrum most frequently

Depended on hand-feedinga 8 0.2# NS
colostrum most frequently

but removed calves by or

shortly after # hours

postpartwm

Low mortality herds. hand- 8 0.55 NS
fed and combination.
excluding herd M

A11 low and high mortality 12 0.#6 NS
herds using box stalls.

hand-fed and combination

excluding herd Mb

 

aCalves left with the dam have an opportunity to nurse
and thus increase ZST units regardless of the lb. fed
in 36 hours. therefore only herds which removed the
calves by or soon after four hours were included in this
group.
bHerd I had only four calves sampled and the average ZST
value was unusually high consequently this herd average
was excluded.

135
tested but the number of observations in each category were
low. However the coefficients for the low mortality group
which all used box stalls was .55 and for all herds hand-
feeding colostrum and using box stalls it was .#6.

Table #5 contains correlation coefficients for variables
relating to calf mortality. population density and maternity
areas in the herds studied. The correlation between 1972
mortality and mortality in calves sampled in 1973 was
r I .52. P <:.01. The correlation between herd size and
mortality was not significant; r I .05.

The highest correlation to the 1972 mortality rate
'was the dry matter per cent (nu per cent) and estimated
dry matter per cent of the bedding in the maternity area.

r I -.67 for N I 23 herds with P <=.001 for both. A
regression for the first was y I 32.5-.31x. The estimated
dry matter (Appendix Table 3. column 18) was used for

some herds because maternity bedding samples were not
obtained but DH per cent was estimated from personal
observations during a number of visits. Also some samples
taken from herds N. JJ. D. and U were not judged representa-
tive of usual conditions and these values were omitted and
new'estimates were obtained. This did not affect the
average DI per cent for the herd groups (Appendix Table 3.
columns 17 and 18) but more accurately reflected the average
situation. Since only one to three bedding samples per
herd were analyzed for dry matter content average values

were easily affected by the “non-normal” extremes. The

136

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137

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138

correlation coefficient between the estimated bedding DM
per cent and 1972 mortality in the 13,L herds using box
stalls was also r I -.72. P «=.Ol. y I 27.#-.29x. These
correlations are high and not only significant for alle
herds but significant even in herds with low mortality.
The correlations between bedding DM per cent and mortality
of calves sampled in 1973 were also significant but not as
high. This may be due to small sampling of calves in some
herds and abnormal mortality rates of that small sampling.

The square feet per calf in bedded stalls. individual
or group. was significantly correlated to bedding DI per
cent (r I .#2. P ‘<.05. N I 20). This is similar to the
finding of Appleman and Owen (1973) where incidence of
scours was significantly higher in smaller bedded stalls
-and this difference was thought to be related to the dry
matter of the bedding.

The number of cows in the maternity area was highly
related (r I .#9. P <=.01) with 1972 mortality and this
number of cows is also related to the maternity area
bedding DM per cent (r I -.72. P «=.001).

The number of herds using box stalls and group
calving areas is in Table #6. A difference between high
and low mortality herds is very apparent in that the low
herds were all using box stalls and 13 of the high mortality
herds were using group calving facilities with three to 60
cows in a large pen.

Table #7 shows that the mortality rate for both 1972

139

TABLE #6. Number of herds using box stalls and group
calving area in 30 Michigan dairy herds.a

 

W12.
W 119.: High
(11) (N) (9%)

 

 

Box stalls 13 # 59
Group maternity areab 0 12 #1
Average (%) #3 57 100

 

:0ne high mortality herd calved cows in tie stalls.
Calving cows in groups of three to 60 cows.

TABLE #7. Analysis of variance relating two types of
maternity calving areas (box stalls vs. group
or loosec) in 30 Michigan dairy herds.a

 

Level of W
WW

1972 b

mortality

f 1 and 28 P «=.001 9.6:l.5 2#.919
1973 d

mortality

fl 1 and 28 P I=.005 5.5:2.# 28.617.3

 

‘One high mortality herd had cows calve in tie stalls.
bMortality is the per cent of the calves that are born
alive which die within two months of age.
Calving cows in groups of three to 60 cows.

ortality of calves from which blood samples were
obtained Jan-May. Also in some herds an indeterminate
number of other calves were not sampled and not included
in these figures.

c

l#o
and 1973 are significantly different for herds using box
stalls and group calving facilities. Differences in
bedding dry matter per cent for high and low mortality
herds and herds using box stalls and group calving area
are apparent in Table #8 with all differences significant
at P <=.001.

The negative relationship of mortality rate and usual
dry matter content of bedding in the maternity area is
speculative but may be related in three ways. One. the
wetter maternity areas may allow more body heat transfer
to the contact area and thus tend to lower calves body
temperature which could become a stressful situation.
Two. the maternity areas in the high mortality herds were
wet because of a high concentration of animals and the
areas were usually unclean and could provide a desirable
environment for bacteria and a higher concentration of
bacteria. Three. the group situation may also cause a
different maternal behavior by the dam than when a cow is
isolated in a box stall or calving away from.the group
when on pasture. The dam may be more interested in
competing for food. Other animals may hamper the dam and
calf thus interferring with "mothering" activity. This
hampering had been noticed in several of the herds. The
calf may have more trouble locating its dam among a large
confined group of cows especially when the dam leaves to
eat. Such phenomena may be responsible for the lower

correlation between hours a calf remained with the dam and

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l#2
the ZST units for calves born in group pens (or high
mortality herds) than for calves born in box stalls (or
low mortality herds) (Table #2).

Mean values for low and high herds as related to
population density in the calf barn and maternity area
are in Table #9. Statistical significance for several of
these differences are in Table 50. Differences in herd
sise were not significant and differences in area per calf
(total square feet in building housing calves I all
calves all ages) only approached significance. Difference
between high and low herds in square feet per animal in
the barn where calves were housed (total square feet in
building housing calves I all animals) approached signifi-
cance at P <‘ .1 and data in Table #5 indicated a negative
correlation (r I -.37. P <=.05) between square feet per
animal in the calf barn and 1972 mortality rate. Both
these measurements indicate that population in calf
facilities may be biologically important.

Data in Table 51 relate to the mortality rates
stratified by type of calf barn. type of stalls and
bedding material. Mortality was not lower in herds using
a specialised calf house as compared to herds using old
barns but a higher mortality was noted for two herds using
group pens within a loose housing barn. The average number
of’milking cows per herd was higher for herds using
specialised calf barns than for herds using all other types

and for herds using old barns but these differences were

143

TABLE #9. Mean values for low and high calf mortality
groups as related to population density in
calf barn and maternity area.

 

 

 

 

 

 

W
1&1 m
Means Means
No. herds 15E No. herds 15E

Usual no. of '
calves/barnb 13 26.#16.8 l7 21.#12.8 L1
SQe ft/calf '
in stallsc l3 19.#1# l7 20.013.6
Sq ft/calf in - .
indiv dual
stall 8 18.0:# 9 12.813.0
Sq. ft/calf in '
group pense 3 32.3110 6 3#.&:5.5
Calf stall ‘ '
bedding. DM % 9 7#.31#.# 11 65.&13.8
Maternity area '
sq. ft/cow 13 156.0116 17 120.0118
No. cows in ‘
maternity area 13 l 17 20.015.0

 

aLow mortality herds withsz 10%. high mortality =-15%.
mortality is the per cent of calves born alive that died
within two months of age and was based on 1972 calendar
ya at e .

bThe average number of all calves in barn where young
ccalves are raised.

Calf stalls for pre-weaned calves. individual and group
pone 0

oes not include raised steel stalls.
One herd in both high and low group used a group pen the
first few days then moved calves to raised steel stalls.

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145

 

 

TABLE 51. Mean mortality categorized according to type
of calf barn. type of stalls and bedding.
No. Of Mean mortalit SE
No. of milking y 1
herds ,9913____4E£EL 1221...
9‘ %
Specialized d ‘
calf barna 12 172133 16.213.1 21.017.3
d . .

111 other 18 1 7119 16.112 10. .7
01d barns b 12 1127122“1 16.012.8 8.8155
In cow barn 4 131171 7.812.6 3.212.0
Group pen in , _
loosechousing 2 165185 2#.511.5 #0.51£.5
Other 2 132158 12.512.5 #0, V

Straw bedding 22 15.212.0 ll.Q13.0

Sawdust 2 21.51B.5 “3.0193

Steel stalls ‘ ‘

no bedding 6 l7.519.0 19.818.5

 

 

 

aBarns constructed or completely remodeled especially for

braising young calves.

Calves raised in barn with milking herd. two herds move
ccalves after a few days to a specialized calf barn.

Two herds had calves in a room within herd facilities
dwhich was not intended for young calves.
No significant difference by analysis of variance for
herd size between herds using specialized calf barns and
all others or specialized vs. old barns.

146
not significant. Only two herds used sawdust and one
dairymen noted that newborn calves would eat the sawdust.
This sawdust eating behavior was also noted in the calves
in Trial I and II in the M.S.U. herd. Whether sawdust could
be a carrier for bacterial invasion is not known but more
definitive information would be needed before incriminating
sawdust bedding as an agent causing increased mortality
rates in calves.

Table 52 gives the average temperatures_and relative
humidity in the calf barn and maternity area. Average calf
barn temperatures and their deviation from the outside
temperature indicate no differences between high and low
mortality herds. However heated calf barns averaged six
degrees higher than non-heated barns. The average relative
humidity readings were six per cent lower (60.7 per cent
vs 66.8 per cent) in low than in high mortality herds and
feur per cent lower (62.3 vs 66.2) in heated barns than in
unheated barns.

The maternity area had slightly lower temperatures
(2.20) and greater relative humidity (2.9 per cent) for
high mortality herds than did low mortality herds. Enclosed
maternity areas were Judged as those with all doors and
windows closed during colder weather and no air movement
through cracks in the walls while open maternity areas
were those with Just doors and windows open as well as
those with one side of the building open. Enclosed

maternity areas were n° warmer and slightly warmer relative

1h?

TABLE 52. Average temperature and relative humidity in
calf barn and maternity areas in 30 Michigan
dairy herds.a

 

Herdsb Calf barns
Low High Not
mortality mortality Heated heated
£13) (12)° 11. d
- ------------ Temperature °Ff----e----
Calf barn 55.3 h.” 57.“ 31.8
range 50-60 9-60 54-62 +58
Calf barn - outdoor 6.1 6.6 8.7 3.6
range 13-3 10-1 lfl-3 10-
- -------- Relative humidity fig---7----
Calf barn 60.7 66.8 62.3 66.2
range 46-75 57-80 50+?“ 53-83
Calf barn - outdoor -2.4 -u.9 -6.5 -O.l
range -17 -5 -2h -h ~13 -3 -17 -7
Maternity areas
enclosed open
0 (9,. (21)
----+---Temperature F ---------------
Maternity area 2.5 0.3 “.0 0.1
range 37-59 34-58 8-60 24-58
Maternity - outdoor 3.7 3.5 5.7 2.3
range .5-9 0- 1-12 0-5
-------- Relative humidity $-------~--
Maternity area 63.5 6#.# 63.5 65.9
range #9-81 52-8h 50-79 50-84
Maternity - outdoor -l.6 -1.2 -l.7 -l.3
range -16 -8 -9 -# -21 -6 -8 -6

 

.Temperature and relative humidity values are averages
and the range values are averages of low values and of
high values for each group. . . ,

bMortality - per cent of calves which are born alive that

died within two months. Low a <= 10%. high I =>'15%

based on 1972 calendar year.

°The number of herds are in parenthesis.

1&8

TABLE 52. Cont'd.

gCalf barns with heating unit being used in colder weather.

Enclosed maternity areas were judged as those having all
doors and windows closed and no air movement through

cracks in the walls during colder weather and the remainder
judged as open were those with just doors or windows open
as well as those with one side of the building completely
open.

fTemperature in degrees Fahrenheit.

gPer cent relative humidity measured with a sling
psychrometer.

149
to outdoor temperatures than were the more Open maternity
areas.

Table 53 includes data on the personnel involved in .
feeding the calves with regard to mortality and herd size.
Only three herd owners depended completely on hired labor
and two others on a herdsman to feed calves indicating that
they place herd replacements low on their list of priorities
or they would be involved with rearing these calves.
particularly in a crisis (high mortality) situation.
Average mortality and herd size where highest and square
feet per animal in the calf barn was the lowest in these
two categories (Table 53). Speicher and Hepp (1973)
stated that as herd size increases the effects of good
herd management may be diluted. From their data they
suggest that mortality is high when calf care is delegated
to hired labor. The average herd size is much larger in
the present study (152) than in Speicher and Hepp's (1973)
survey (#5) but herds with hired labor caring for calves
had a larger average herd size than other categories in
both these studies (270 and 53 cows). As in the survey by
Speicher and Hepp low mortality was noted when the wife fed
calves (Table 53). The wife is usually praised for great
success in raising calves but perhaps her success is partly
due to much lower herd size which was only 38 in data of
Speicher and Hepp and 52 in this study. Where the wife
fed calves there was also less dense populations in calf

barns (Table 53). The high mortality in herds fed by

150

TABLE 53. Stratification of mortality, herd size and
population density by personnel feeding the
young calves.

 

No. of Sq. ft /
Personnel No. of W milking animalf’ in
faanina____herda____1222_____1973 seas____ssflJLluu:L__.

 

---------------- Mean 1 SE--------------

Wife 3 6.619 0 52115 8117

Wife &

Owner 2 18.0112 “7.0139 75:0 79193

Owner 1n 17.1:21° 9.919 158121 éuziu

222:: + 6 12.219 10.613 1&6126 49111
Herdsman 2 20.51# 36.Q17 17617“ #9:?

Hired 3 21.618 26.0111 2701115 uo19

30

 

aMortality is the number of calves that are born alive and
die within two months. expressed as a per cent of those
born alive. 1973 mortality reflects only calves sampled
bfor immunoglobulin levels.

Sq. ft. of building per animal in the building housing
cnewborn calves. V .
Analysis of variance for 1972 mortality data between
herd owner and all others combined is non-significant.

hired labor may be confounded with the simultaneous
occurrence of high cow numbers. greater population density
and less satisfactory facilities which all tend to increase
stress and disease incidence. On the contrary it is obvious
that mortality exists in herds where hired labor is not
used (Table 53).

151
SUIIARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A sincsulfate turbidity test (ZST) was used to estimate
immunoglobulin levels in serum of neonatal calves. The
relationships of serum gammaglobulin or immunoglobulin
levels in calves to the interval from birth to first
colostrum feeding. the amounts of colostrum at this initial
feeding. the presence of the dam and several environment
factors were examined.

In Trial I nine Holstein calves in the I.S.U. herd
were allowed to remain with their dam for 36 hours post-
partum and nurse at will while nine other calves were
removed from the dam at one~half hour after birth and hand-
fed lfi lb. of the dam's colostrum during the first 36 hours.
The hand-fed calves received 2 lb. of colostrum at one
hour and serum ZST values increased from .167 ZST units
at one hour to 3.162 ZST units at six hours. The 12 hour
sample (3.997 ZST units) showed little increase from six
hour sampling indicating that the gammaglobulin from the
initial colostrum fed had been absorbed by six hours. These
calves were again hand-fed at 12 hours and at 2“ hours
serum ZST values averaged 8.835 indicating a further
increase in serum gammaglobulin levels resulting from the
second feeding of colostrum.

In comparison the calves left with the dams had
higher ZST values at #8 hours postpartum than the hand-fed
calves (13.6h12.83 vs 8.731l.62) but they had greater

152
variation in their values. This was interpreted to be due
to differences in amount of colostrum consumed and ”mothering”
effects of the dams that might hnfluence gammaglobulin
absorption. This difference was not statistically
significant.

In a second trial 32 Holstein calves were removed
from.the dam at one-half hour postpartum and assigned to
be fed initially at l. 2. 6 or 12 hours after birth and to
receive one or three lb. of pooled colostrum at one of
these times. Calves were blocked for two genetic groups
existing in.the I.S.U. herd and for two calendar dates
between January and lay 1973.

Calves receiving 1 lb. of colostrum at the 1. 2 or
6 hour first feeding had only a slight increase in ZST
units by 12 hours but a six-fold increase occurred from
the 12th to the zbth hour due to the second feeding of b
lb. at 12 hours after the initial feeding. Those calves
fed 3 lb. of colostrum initially had significant increases
in the ZST units by 12 hours and only a two-fold increase
from 12 to 2b hours.

The 12 and 2b hour ZST values were significantly
affected (P s=.001 and P -=.005 respectively) by initial
feeding level of l or 3 lb. and the 28 hour values were
also affected by the time interval to the first feeding
(l. 2. 6 or 12 hours). Peak ZST units usually occurred
after 2“ hours. However ZST values at #8 hours were not
significantly affected by the feeding level or time

153

interval nor were the #8 hour serum gammaglobulin levels
(g/100 ml) determined from total protein analysis and
electrophoretic distribution. The correlation between
ZST values and ga-aglobulin levels (g/l-oo ml) at #8 hours
was only .37 (P <.05).

Calves with lower values at 12 and 210 hours had a
greater increase by #8 hours than did those with higher
12 or 211 hour values indicating that repeated consumption
of colostrum tends to equalize serum gammaglobulin levels.
The #8 hour ZST values had a significant interaction
between genetic group and the interval to first feeding.

Calves fed initially at one and two hours postpartum
received three more feedings of II lb. of colostrum within
38 hours totalling 13 or 15 lb. Calves fed at 6 or 12
hours received only two subsequent feedings within 38
hours totalling 9 or 11 lb. There was a trend toward
higher #8 hour ZST values as the total lb. of colostrum
fed increased. Prom this point a covariate was used to
adjust the treatment means. The covariate. grams of
gammaglobulin in the colostrum fed within 38 hours per
Kg of birthweight. did not significantly change the levels
of significance for the #8 hour serum ZST or ga-aglobulin
values but testing the covariate itself showed the covariate
was approaching significance at P < .1.

Dairy herds in Michigan having high mortality rates
(>15 per cent) (high) and herds with low calf mortality
(<10 per cent) (low) were selected to study immunoglobulin

 

15#
levels in the neonatal calf and to relate these levels
and several factors affecting them to mortality. Mortality
was based on the 1972 calendar year and was calculated as
the per cent of calves dying within two months of age that
were born alive. Further an evaluation of any differences
in management and environment that might differentiate
high and low mortality were made in an effort to elucidate
factors causing neonatal mortality in Michigan dairy herds.

Seventeen high mortality herds were divided into two
groups. nine Hl herds and eight H2 herds. Hl herds as
well as the 13 low herds were asked to record. when known.
the hours from birth to first colostrum and the hours the
calves spent with the dam. Therefore there were three
treatment groups. low. H1 and H2 herds.

Serum samples were taken as near to #8 hours postpartum
as possible on #56 calves in the 30 dairy herds. The #8
hour ZST units. as well as the 1972 mortality and the mortality
of the sampled calves in 1973 were not different for the H1
and H2 herds indicating that asking dairymen to record the
additional information did not alter their mortality rate or
ZST levels.

Correlations between.mortality and the time to first
colostrum for one low herd and four H1 herds combined was
.16 (NS) and .35 (P <=.05) for the four H1 herds alone.
Values could only be used in herds where some of the calves
died. Mortality versus the hours the calf remained with
the dam had a low correlation -.12 for low and H1 herds
combined.

155

Correlations between #8 hour ZST values and time to
first colostrum recorded was .01 for H1 herds and .07 for
low herds. The #8 hour ZST levels were more strongly
correlated to the hours the calf remained with the dam in
low herds r I- .30. (P <.01) than in 31 herds r '- .13
(us).

The average #8 hour 28! level for low. “1 and H2
herds was not significantly different but the average
values of surviving calves (7.751553 ZS! units) was
significantly higher (P <.05) than those for calves dying
within two months postpartum (5.691.53 ZS! units).

The mortality rate for 1972 was similar to the rate
for calves sampled for ZS‘l' levels during the study in
19733 7.5 vs 6.8 per cent for low herds: 21.2 vs 21.2 per
cent for El herds and 2#.2 vs 21.0 per cent for H2 herds
but correlated at r - .52. P < .01.

to evaluate the methods dairymen employed to get
colostrum to the newborn calf the herds were re-divided
into three treatment groups regardless of mortality. nerds
in treatment A generally left the calf with the dam for 2'!
hours or longer and these herds had the highest average
281' levels (8.561.52). Treatment B herds generally
allowed the calves to remain with the dam at least 12
hours. these dairymen believed that over 50 per cent of
the calves received colostrum first fram the dam before
they were hand-fed colostrum either during their stay
with the dam. or upon or sometime after removal from the

156
dam. nerds in Treatment B averaged only 5.3h:.7# 28!
units. Treatment 0 herds generally left the calf with the
dam between one and 12 hours but believed that at least
70 per cent of the calves were receiving the first colostrum
when they were hand-fed. Average 28! levels for treatment
c calves was 7.12:.88 units. Differences between A and B
and between B and c were significant at P «(.005 and
P - .05 respectively. but differences between A and c
were not significant.

An attempt to correlate the amount of colostrum hand-
fed within 36 hours to the herd average 28! level showed a
high but not significant correlation in herds using box
stalls (r I .#6. NS) however the number of herds was small
(n - 12).

In conclusion the observations on the immunoglobulin
levels in neonatal calves as estimated by serum 28! units
indicate that average levels from herd to herd are not
related to high and low'mortality herds. However the
individual calf levels within a herd are related to
mortality and more calves with low zsr levels died in
herds previously classified high mortality than in herds
classified low mortality indicating the possible existence
of a.herd “environment“ interaction with immunoglobulin
level.

Based on observations 12 and 2# hour 28!.levels are
influenced positively by the initial feeding level (1 or
3 lb.) of colostrum. And interval to first colostrum

15?

consumption affects 2b hour ZST values. However. #8 hour
28? values and gammaglobulin concentration are not
significantly influenced by the initial feeding level
(within the limits of this study. 1 or 3 lb.) or the
interval to colostrum (1 to 12 hours). Additional
colostrum feeding within 38 hours did increase 28! levels
particularly in calves with lower 28! levels at 12 hours.
fhese additional feedings may be responsible for the
non-significant differences in #8 hour samples. Calves
left with their dams more than 2“ hours have higher but
more variation in 28! values than hand-fed calves.

Information covered in the literature review and in
particular work of Selman 11,31, (l970c. l97la.b.c).
Kruse (19700). Bush gjhgl. (1971. 1973). and lungle (1972)
plus data from the present study indicate that to achieve
higher 28! values in neonatal calves several practices can
be employed. 1) Use a system where the calves are left
with the cow for 2h plus hours in a box stall to achieve
the I“maternal” effect that increases immunoglobulin
absorption. 2) then hand-feed colostrum 6-8 lb. per
feeding every 12 hours. or less amounts more frequent up
to 36 hours to assure large intake of gammaglobulin. and
possibly pool first colostrum from several cows to minimise
the possibility of giving colostrum with a low gamma-
globulin concentration. 3) Provide new dry bedding in
maternity stalls for whatever reason dry matter percentage
of bedding is related to mortality rate and possibly use a

158
mussle to prevent intake of foreign material.

The evaluation of low and high mortality herds

indicated the maternity area to be of significant importance.
All 13 low mortality herds were using box stalls but only
four high mortality herds were. Thirteen other high herds
had cows calving in a large pen in groups of three to 60.
Correlation between estimated bedding dry matter per cent
and 1972 mortality was -.72. (P <.OOl) for all herds and
was also -.72 for low herds using box stalls (P <.OOl).
Area per animal in the calf barn and the number of cows in
the maternity area were also correlated to the previous
years' mortality rate. r - -.37. P <.05 and r I .#9.
P <.01 respectively. laternity area bedding dry matter
per cent and number of cows per maternity area were also
significantly correlated to herd mortality rate of calves
sampled during the four month study.

No difference in the previous year's mortality rates
occurred between herds using specialised calf facilities
and makeshift set-ups in old barns but those herds with
old barns had lower mortality of sampled calves in 1973.
Perhaps if all herds had similar maternity areas the
differences due to calf housing may become evident.

One of the objectives of this study was to determine
the needs of the clients. i.e. the important farm problems
related to calf mortality. lluch emphasis has been and
still is placed on calf housing. But this small sampling
of two very distinct mortality groups indicates there is

159
less difference in mortality rates between herds with
specialized calf facilities and those with makeshift
facilities such as old barns than exists between herds
with different types of’maternity areas. i.e. box stalls
vs group calving facilities. Therefore more dairymen need
innovations and improvements in maternity facilities than
need improvement in calf housing facilities.

APPENDIX

160

 

 

 

 

ooH. a ano. HH Nom.o ano. NHm.HH now. a ooN. HwHNHIqu
oao.m oHn. o oHo. o moH. .m NHn.o Hno. N ooN. 4 MHH oH
Ham. oH oHn. .MH ooH. N N2. oH ooo. oH moN. N oo. N «H NH
NHn. HH oNn. H noH. oH NH“. HH noH. NH moo.» oo. «HNNH NH
Hoo. n ooo. N Noo. o Noo.NH can. .. oHH. umnanuH
oH .o one.“ awe.“ ooo.m sea. n nu Non. «NNH “H
mm. .o ooo. H ow. MH ooo.oH oHo.o .. HHN. «moMH 1m
o1 n ooo. NW oao.o mom.n -u ooN. .ummaauuw
mon.o nae.“ on.m No . ooH.H ooN.

ooo.: Noo.o moo. o Noo.o oHo.H ooN. mNoHH HH
Noo.m oNo. NMH.n can. a Mom. N Hoo.N ooN. NoNH oH
oNn. ooo. Hum. N Non. H gmo ooH.H ooN. 4H HH o
ooo. N man.m noH. NH oNn. oH o o.m oH . moo. «umuaunu
oo1 o moo. m .n omo.o NHm. n NH Non. «HoHH a
ooo. NH ooH. oH mo .NH 1 oH oo1 oH son. NnN. HooHH o
How. u NS. NHn.o oHa.o nnN. o NNo. ooN. NNH n
ooN.HH oo.MH ooo.: onN.o ano. aH oHo.H «Ho.

ooo.o NoN. o oNo.HH non. nH no1o anN.N ooN. NNNH
amH.o ooo. MH NNN.HH ooo. oH non.oH HNH.H oo. oonH N
ano.HH oH1o ooa.o Noo.oH noo.o nmo. moo. HoHNH H

“Ht on «a Human. lg
.InaauamuwuquuuqsduMn muuHu NH a
.HH HuHua

guidlnmvfla EOE ISOdhdb .HOH aflMNv OHO’OH fidflfinbflwogg a.” 3H “Hafl ”alga

.mHeeeH sHHsponosssmH ashes no evssavoe as ends: haHvausv easuHssosHuo
.musom NH as hHHsHvHsH eon ease «numN use oHnnH ee>Hooo
.uuoo: NH. on NHHuHoHcH one one: oN-nN oouN NHso nooHao
.eusom or» an hHHsHvHsH sou ones aNuHN use mum eo>Hso
.coos one as aHHquHnH o.» oo.: oNuNH one -H nooHuoo
.eoHss ens unsaveH m» a .muHoeem veuHu one we asupmoHoo no .nH o. co>Hooeu

«nibd moraso .

ae>Hso

161

seen amuHu one as ssuvmonoo Mo .AH o.H ue>Heoeu wauH meeasos

 

ooN.N non.NH oNN.nH Noo. o mom.“ .. ooN. NNNH Nn
oNn.oH ooN.N Noo.n NoN. o Noo.m .. ooN. «nNNH Hm
oH1 o HNn.oH nno.o noo.HH . .. HHN. onNH on
Nn1 NH ooo. .mH ooN.o omN.o ooo.o .. ooo. mNNH oN
No1o Ho1 omN.N Noo.oH ooN.HH Noo.N ooN. nannauuu
mo1.m NH1 3 Non.o Nno.N ooo.: How.“ ooN. HNNH NN

o1 NN1 HH HoN.o onn.NH mon.oH oHo.o ooo. NoNH oN
oNo. o on1 HH HNH.NH Nn1 oH HH .HH Noo.o ooN. mNNoH “N
ooo.N No1 o omN.o oNN.oH oN .oH N .o NoN. nuunaumu
Nao.N o o. oH mmH.NH oN1 HH mon.NH N N. o oHo. oNNH N
NNo.o o H.mH Noo.oH Nmo.oH ooo.nH on1 o oH. nnNH NN
noo.oH NHm.HH oNn.oH NNn.NH NoN.o no1 n N. moNH HN

O

 

 

U1 Hi

1maIIIIIIIaaIIImuaduqqulllllllddZIHamu

puuHN NH

 

.covnoo

.H unm<fi NHQHHNAd

162

 

 

 

oN.H o.NN Non.o NH.H o.o: o.o o.NN «JHNH
o. n.oH oHa.o oo. o.No o.w o.s 4N HH
o.H o.oN NoH.N NN. “.Nn o.o o.NN o «H
NN.N m.on noH.oH oN.H o.Hn o.o oo «HNNH
“N.H N.nN Noo.o NN. m.nn o.m m.oo oNNH
NH.H o.NN N o.¢ oo. N.on o.n .no NNNH
NH.H N.mN o o.NH Ho. N.on o.m o.H: «noHH
mn.H H.nN oNo.m oo. m.on o.n n.o: moNH
Nm.H «.NN on.o oo. N.oN H.o o.H: momHH
Nn.H o.oN oo.N Ho. «.oN H.» N.na mNoHH
oo. N.oH NNH.n oo. H.on H.o o.mo NoNH
oN.H o.oN Hno.N oo. N.oN H.o N. a «HNHH
oo. o.oH noH.NH mo. H.oo o.n o.NN <NNNH
Nn.H N.oN no .n No. H.oa N.“ o.NN «HoHH
oo.H o.NN om .NH No.H o.oo o.m n.mm «ooHH
oo.H n.NN NHn.n no. o.NN o.n o.H onH
oo.N n.mn man.a o.H o.No o.m N.nm «NNNH
mm.H o.NN oNo.HH NN.H o.NN o.n n.m NNNH
HN.H n.on NNN.HH o.H o.ms o.m v.3: ooNH
mm.H a.oN ooN.o so. a. o o.n c.wo «oHNH
m u m w mu mu
He ooH sauna :H amN Nh\oou o.H» .m souuooHoo suuHm
.\eHU em UeHw em a: g peg em

 

.HH .7th c.“ msbdso :0 SouvsIAOHnd unease .N 338 592934

163

ooHNHoHpHoa an oonHupno on: chaos on :H cod pogo-4

.mshom we as ooH hen saasnon Nahum no magma
.uHmemoonuvooHe HsoHcHHo menu soHvanuach «coo you as cHHsnon mason
.ooHco NpHoHnuop opaNHooocHNo

o
c

.uuooo on :HspH: vowHoegpan no aguuoHHu coo ounce cH ooH :HHonon season
.PsoPSoo .H» .m sea hp com soavmoHoo

.swasnoaw.ssmsw I .Hw .ws

 

 

 

nN.H n.3N NN.NH an. N.on o.n o.on NNNH
oH.H m.HN oo.N oo. N.on o.m n.no «mNNH
on.H o.NN mno.o m . N.on o.n o.o: omNH
NN.H N.on moN.m o. N.on o.m H.o: nNnH
oo.H H.NN onN.o oo. N.nn o.n n.M~ HNNH
nN.H o.NN Nom.o oo. m.nn o.m H. HNNH
on.H N. N HoN.o oo. o.on o.m ”.on NomH
Hm.H N.nN HNH.NH oN. «.on o.m .Hm mNNoH
HN.H H.oN onN.o HN.H o.om o.o o.om oomH
oo.H H.oN an.NH NN.H o.H o.o o.o oNNH
HN.H N.nn Noo.oH No.H m.on o.o n.N nmNH
oo.H o.NN oNn.oH oN.H o.Nn o.o o.H: ooNH
m a m m mm on
an am “a no... __ landfillqgilldflj
Hm ooH cocoa :H amN m one o.H» .m nouoooHoo spuHm
Keg em ”0H” em 0“: g DOH ow

 

.u.v:oo .N mam<9 NHszmm<

16“

General information about 30 lichigan
dairy herds participating in field

APRBNDIX TABLE 3.

 

 

 

 

 

study e
__Jk~ -Z__ 3 4. 5 o—§
No. of lb. of Ave. Iortality
Herd milking milk/cow ZST Calves 1972
A 38 13.000 8.59 11 0
B 110 13.500 9.35 18 19
P 135 12.000 6.28 19 8
G 98 10.200 2. 5 9 6
H 73 12.100 6.38 12 6
Low J 6 11.300 6.88 13 10
L 70 12.200 z.8b 13 7
I 36 15.000 1 .79 15
N 66 13.000 7.65 8 7
X 500 13.600 2.11 8 8
CC 170 12.500 5.93 23 u
BE 8 1 .100 7.01 9 5
fig 3kg 13.69% 2.§§ 25 3.
Ave 13 13.00 7. 7.
O 155 14.000 3.56 12 28
I 250 9.03 27 20
Z 250 11.000 3.91 N 23
AA 170 8.73 2 20
H1 BB 200 13.500 5.77 1h 15
DD 110 9.500 3.4“ 12 12
P? 180 13.000 5.03 10 20
JJ 160 1 .900 3.27 11 23
7: W7 9 :9
Ave 172 12.7 5 .9 21.2
153 19 .67 1.9
D 1H0 12.000 7.81 13 37
Q 180 10.600 9.03 31 28
H2 R 165 1“.“00 3.Z1 8 13
1 103 10.700 9. 2 7 17
U 80 1 .#00 5.19 18 26
V 100 1 .100 7.00 9 21
an 250 1 .200 3.57 23 2b
W 1 j£_
Ave 152 13.5 7 .7 2 .2
:53 20 .71 2.6
31+ Ave 162 6.3 22.6
H2 153 14 .62 1.6

 

165

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX TABLE 3. Cont'd.
.J. 2 Q 9 19..____11_
Mortality Type Usual type of Sq. ft.
Herd 1973 calf calves calf per calf
ML
A 0 Old barn 12 I 20
B 0 Special H 25 S 8
P 20 Special H 21 I 8.7
G 11 Special H 12 I 8
H 8 Special 25 I 8
Low J 8 Other 1 I 12
L 5 Cow barn H 15 C 22
I 0 Cow barn 12 I :2
N 0 Old barn 10 I
x 37 Special H 50 S 8
CC 0 Special H 75 I 20
ER 0 01d barn 10 G 53
J W 75 ASL—.21.—
A'Q e 26s” 12s?
:53 3 6.8
C 17 Special H 10 I 3“
I 11 Old barn H 10 G 20
z 37 Open shed 22 0 30
AA 0 Old barn 1(2) 20
H1 BB 0 Other 6 G 53
DD 0 Special H 22 I 8
PF 0 Old barn H 30 1(2) 1h
JJ 36 Special H 12 S 8
I L—
Ave 21.2 20.2
:83 9.“ “.1
D 38 Special H 15 I 8
Q 3 Old barn H 19 8(8) #2
H2 R 0 Special H 28 I 8
T 29 Old barn 30 I 9.3
U 40 Open shed 6 C #3
V 0 Old barn 15 I 6.“
HH #3 Old barn H a; S 8
._11___11___.0.1Lham J.___1L_.
Ave 21.0 22.3
153 6.9 3.7
Hl+ Ave 21.1 21.0 20
H2 183 5.8 2.8 3.6

166
APPENDIX TABLE 3. Cont'd.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.1 _12* 41 H1" 15
Adult
animals
Sq. ft. in calf Sq. ft./ No. cows in

Herd per calf barn animal in maternity
Mn L___mf_b.am___ma_____

A 99 l 91 l

B 3 0 3 1

P l 0 l 2 H

G ## O ## 1

H 121 0 121 l w
Low J ##6 l 223 l

L 613 90 88 l I

I 266 35 68 1

H 111 l 101 l V

X #9 0 #9 1 V

CC 59 2 58 1

EB 93 l 22 l w

1

AV. 152 ~£ 77 e 1 1

153 51 15

C 68 O 68 21

w 2# O 2# * I

Z 280 90 70 #5

AA 50 0 50 1
H1 BB 106 0 106 23

DD 38 0 38 1

PP 82 0 82 20

JJ #2 0 #2 0
J 3L 1 36 9

D 22 o 22 20

Q #2 0 l6 3
H2 R 2# 0 2# 1 W

T 55 0 55 60

U #00 35 67 30

V l 0 l 1

HH 2 0 2 #
____11_ #9 3_, #5 31
Hl+ Ave 88 3 #8.1 20.1

H2 153 25 6 5

167
APPENDIX TABLE 3. Cont'd.

 

 

 

._1be 16 Jflée _1§:~» «19 ZQ_____
Sq. ft ./ leternity Celt
cow in Maternity bedding stall Personnel

Herd neternity bedding eetinated bedding feeding

 

 

 

A 90 - 82 82 Wife

B 15# #5 Se #5 Se - Owner

P 113 59 59 - Owner+hired

G 100 73 '73 81 Owner+hired

H 200 - 7O Z9 Wife+owner
Low J 280 #9 #9 2 Owner

L 132 83 83 83 Owner+hired

I 225 - 65 - Vite

N 187 57 7O 77 Owner

X 130 70 7O - Hired

CC 130 85 85 80 Owner+hired

RE 187 7g 76 80 life

Ave 5 .1 63.3 é.e

:33 16 #.3 3. u.

C 55 25 25 68 Owner+h1red

w * * 2 - Owner+hired

z 73 o 30 62 Owner

AA 173 # 8# - Hired
H1 BB 117 33 33 70 Owner

DD 216 80 8O 57 Owner

pr 58 3O 3O 69 Owner

JJ 56 16 20 - Owner
__n.__§9 3: 41 7W2.

D 78 33 3O 71 Hired

Q 306 61 61 81 Owner
H2 R 100 #8 Se #8 Sn #8 Se.0wner

T 69 - 3O - Herdcnen

U 71 23 a: 81 Owner

V 150 #2 Owner

HR 221 - go Se Horde-en
M - 9 Jim——
H1+ Ave 120 #2.8 #2 65.8

.0
H2 283 18 5.6 #.7 3.8

:0

m

"m AMI-O
v

N!

168

Group calf pens.

Heating units used in colder weather.

Individual calf pens with bedding.

Raised steel stalls.

Two herds keep newborns in a group pen for several days
then.noved then into raised steel stalls.

Sawdust was used for bedding.

Two herds frequently had two calves per individual
stall. the square reot per calf was based on two calves
per stall.

Warn maternity area i.e. all doors and windows were
closed in cool weather and there was no air'noveaent
through cracks in the walls.

Herd calved cows in tie stalls.

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