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THE ASSESSMENT OF FRESHMEN FEMALE ATTITUD-ES
TOWARD PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS A RESULT
OF 105 FOUNDATIONS COURSE AT
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Thesis for the Degree of M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Judith A. Phillips
1966

 

 

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ABSTRACT

THE ASSESSMENT OF FRESHMEN FEMALE ATTITUDES
TOWARD PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS THE RESULT
OF 105 FOUNDATIONS COURSE AT
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

by Judith A. Phillips

Summar

The primary purpose of this study was to determine if
the 105 Foundations course at Michigan State University, re—
quired for all freshmen, did in fact meet its general atti-
tudinal objectives. Additional secondary goals were in-
cluded in the study: the development of a reliable, valid
instrument for assessing such attitudes and the determination
of freshmen women's attitudes toward physical education and
activity upon entrance into the Foundations_course.

A long and short form questionnaire was constructed
to elicit response tendencies toward the four general ob-
Jectives of the Foundations course and was administered to
A9 freshmen women students enrolled in that course spring
term. The two forms of the questionnaire were administered
to the sample upon entrance to the Foundations course on
the last formal class day by an unknown male investigator.

The means and standard deivations were used to deter-
mine agreement among the Judges. The reliability of the

long form of the questionnaire was determined by the simple

Judith A. Phillips

correlation technique. Concurrent validity of both long
and short forms of the questionnaire was established by
two methods:
1. A Pearson Product Moment correlation of the
10% highest total scores of the two samples
with the 10% lowest total scores was computed.
2. Simple correlations of the pre-experimental
responses with the total score for the entire
questionnaire were figured.
A "t"-test for the differences between the means of
the long form and the long form rescored with only the
25 short form items were computed to determine if there
was any difference between the two forms of the question—
naire. The similarity of the two sample groups was deter-
mined by the "t"-test for the difference between means of
the original short form and the rescored short form. The
initial attitude of the freshmen was established by com-
puting the differences between the means of the pre-experi-
mental responses and a neutral opinion of three. The Chi
Square comparison was the statistical tool used to estab—
lish an attitude shift with the change in means as the

indicator of the direction of the change.

Results
Development of An Instrument for Assessment

1. The reliability of the Attitudes of Freshmen toward

 

Physical Education, long form questionnaire, was

 

found to have an "r" value of .768

Judith A. Phillips

The Attitudes of Freshmen toward Physical Edu-

 

cation questionnaire for 20 of the 25 short

form questionnaire items and 60 of the 83 long
form questionnaire items met the requirements
for concurrent validity ("r" = .5 or above).

The results of a "t"-test indicated no signifi-
cant difference between the long and short

forms of the questionnaire at the 1% level of
confidence. Therefore, no significant difference
between the two forms was assumed.

The sample groups were not found to be different
from each other by a "t"-test analysis at the 5%
confidence level. Therefore, the long and short

form sample groups were considered the same.

Assessment of Attitudes

l.

The results of the "t"-test indicated that the
initial attitudes of the freshmen women toward
physical activity were significantly different
from a neutral opinion of three at the 1% level
of confidence for 18 short form items, one being
negative and the remaining positive, and 62 of
the long form items, one being negative with the
remaining positive. Therefore, freshmen women
have a strongly favorable initial attitude to—
ward physical activity upon entrance to Michigan

State University.

 

[I'll IIIIEI'I‘: III-E III III.

Judith A. Phillips

The X2 comparison of responses demonstrated a
change in attitude for five of the short form
and 22 of the long form items at the 10% level
of confidence. Twenty of the combined state-
ments moved in a favorable direction while seven
reversed toward the negative. On the whole the
Bio-Physiological objective demonstrated a
greater variety of fluctuation. There were,
however, a larger number of items comprising
this general attitudinal objective. Only in
this area were there any initial unfavorable
attitudes, but upon post-experimental analysis
they did move toward the positive.

The trend in the other three general
attitudinal areas, showing significant X2 changes,
was in a positive direction. The only exception
was item 29 in the Psychological area. The item
states: "Physical activity can help me to relax
and enjoy life." It is the author's contention
that the Physical Fitness exercises used in a
training program were not perceived by the

student as a medium of relaxation and enjoyment.

Recommendations for Further Study

 

The four general attitudinal objectives of the
Foundations course should be further defined
and clarified for a more thorough evaluation

of outcomes.

Judith A. Phillips

2. More value statements should be developed to
represent the student's understanding of the
objectives to insure adequate coverage of the
delineated objectives. Specifically needed are
additional negative statements in the compo-
sition of the scale. A starting point for the
value statements may be found in the recommended
final scale (see Appendix B) and those items re-
tained from the judges' ratings of statements
(see Table l).

3. Attitude investigation with the following

experimental design may prove fruitful.

 

 

Pre-Experimental Post-Experimental
Administration Experimental Administration
0f Questionnaire Variable Of Questionnaire

A X 0 0

B 0 0 X

C 0 X X

D X X X

E X 0 X

 

THE ASSESSMENT OF FRESHMEN FEMALE ATTITUDES
TOWARD PHYSICAL EDUCATION AS THE RESULT
OF 105 FOUNDATIONS COURSE AT
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

By

Judith A. Phillips

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation

1966

Mr.

Dedication

To
My Parents
and Mrs. R. w. Phillips

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is with pleasure and humility that I recognize
those persons who have been instrumental in the develop-
ment and completion of this paper.

First I would like to thank Dr. Janet Wessel, my
major advisor, for her challenging thoughts, encouragement,
and guidance, as well as serving as a judge.

My many thanks and appreciation to the hard working
judges for their patience and kind cooperation: Dr. William
Heusner, Dr. Gale Mikles, Miss Jean McIntyre, and Mr. Herb
Olsen.

Drs. Milton Rokeach and James S. Karslake of the
Psychology Department are deserving of recognition for
their direction and guidance with the initial construction
of the assessing instrument.

Dr. Wayne Van Huss supported my work and offered
valuable criticisms in its development. Dr. Marilyn
Culpepper's efforts were directed at deveIOping an under-
standable paper.

I would further like to extend my gratitude to two
able programers, Mr. Donald Clements and Mr. Santo

Pasqualucci, whose assistance with the formating and

iii

interpretating of the computorized data made the thorough
analysis of raw data possible.

Finally, my co-investigator, Edward Bell, who con—
ducted the companion male study,deserves thanks for his
sharing of thoughts, long hours of shared deve10pmental

work and encouragement.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF APPENDICES

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION.

Statement of the Problem.
Need for the Study.
Definition of Terms .
Limitations of the Study.

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Attitudes. . . .

Attitude Change. .

Educational Research with the College
Student on Attitudes . .

Research Work with Physical Education
and Attitudes. . . . . .

Summary of the Literature . .

III. METHODOLOGY

Experimental Design .

Determination of General Attitudinal
Objectives for Consideration.

Development of an Instrument for
Assessment.

Assessment of Attitudes .

Final Scale Construction. . .

IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA

Experimental Sample . . .
Statements for Rating. . . . .

Page
iii
vii

viii

ix

H

NWMN

10
12

1A

16
18

l9
19
22

23
3O
31

32

32
32

Chapter Page

Judges' Ratings of Statements . . . . 33
Determination of Concurrent Validity. . 33
Determination of Reliability of the

Long Form Questionnaire . . . 35

Comparison of Long and Short Forms of
the Questionnaire . . . . . . . 37
Assessment of Attitudes . . . . . . A0
Attitude Change. . . . A2
Comparison of Pre and Post Attitudes. . AA
V. SUMMARY, RESULTS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . A6
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . A6
Results . . . . A7
Recommendations for Further. Study. . . A9
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5l
APPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

vi

Table
1.

LIST OF TABLES

Acceptable Statements Selected on Judges'
Ratings (Plus or Minus 1.5 Standard
Deviation) . . . . .

The Results of Correlations Computed for
the Concurrent Validity of the Short
and Long Forms of Questionnaire

The Results of Correlations to Determine
the Reliability of the Long Form
Questionnaire .

The Results of the "t"-test for the
Differences Between Means for a Com-
parison of Long and Short Forms of
Questionnaire . . . . . . .

Results of the "t"-test of the Difference
Between Means for Initial Freshmen
Attitude Responses

Chi Square Analysis of Attitude Change.

vii

Page

3A

36

38

39

A1
A3

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. The Mean Plots of Directional Change for
Significant x2 Items Grouped by the
General Attitudinal Objectives of the
Foundations Course . . . . . . . . A5

viii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

A. Raw Data of Subjects' Responses to
Questionnaire--Long Form . . . . . . 57

Raw Data of Subjects' Responses to

Questionnaire--Short Form. . . . . . 59

Judges Ratings of Statements . . . . . 60

B. Instructions and Questionnaire. . . . . 62
Final Scale Construction. . . . . . . 68

ix

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

"Modern educators recognize their responsibility not
only to present the student with essential information,
but also to develop attitudes and practices adjudged de-
sirable by the best thinking within the society." (18,
355) Just as all of education is concerned about building
attitudes upon which the learner will act; physical edu-
cators cannot help but be vitally interested and concerned
about the attitudes formulated within the class situation
which they provide. We are, therefore, concerned whether
meaningful learning has taken place.
Dr. Wessel (31, 562) Suggests the direction for our
profession by stating:
The importance of attitudes, how one feels about
physical activities and how attitudes can be changed,
cannot be overlooked by those interested in encourag-
ing active physical participation of girls and women
in school physical education programs and further
physical activity throughout life.

If the response of being physically active throughout life

is to be habituated for the learner, then favorable atti-

tudes built on a sound knowledge framework must already

exist for the learner, or must be promoted for him.

As Edwards points out, "Man constantly searches and
selects or differentiates between all of his experiences
for meanings which better enable him to satisfy his basic
needs." (18, 355)

Statement of the Problem

 

The primary purpose of this study is to determine if
the 105 Foundations course, required for all freshmen women
does, in fact, meet its general attitudinal objectives. As
an outgrowth of this problem four additional tasks become
apparent:

1. The formulation of the general attitudinal ob—
jectives, which will serve as the basis for the
construction of a testing instrument.

2. The development of a valid and reliable instru-
ment for assessing the attitudes of the students.

3. Determination of what the attitudes are of fresh-
men women entering the 105 Foundations course
preceding course exposure.

A. Evaluation of the asserted attitudes upon

completion of the 105 Foundations course.

Need for the Study

 

If our commitment is to the development of sound
attitudes and as Krech and Crutchifeld suggest: "The indi-
vidual's beliefs and attitudes may help him to achieve

various goals-" (7, 154) There is, then, a need to

discover what the attitudes of the female freshmen popu-
lation at Michigan State University are.

Further, "By using the attitude inventory, adminis-
trators and teachers may become aware of students' existing
attitudes, and the desirability of attempting to modify
these attitudes when they are not indicative of readiness
to learn." (20, A32)

We need to know whether this course, 105 Foundations,
is instrumental in affecting and/or developing attitudes.
It is also our responsibility to determine what initial
attitudes toward physical education are prevalent among
freshmen women in order to better provide a curriculum
suited to their needs. To assess these attitudes effectively,
therefore, an instrument must be conceived specific to the

105 Foundations course.

Definition of Terms

 

105 Foundations: "An introductory physical education

 

course required of all freshmen women students at Michigan
State University. Both the structure and material in the
course emphasize the development of the student's self-
awareness and self-evaluation." (26, 2)

An Attitude: "An attitude is a relatively enduring

 

organization of beliefs around an object or situation

0

predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner."

(28, 2)

Belief: "A belief is a pattern of meanings of a
thing; it is the totality of the individual's cognition
about the thing." (7, 151)

Opinion: ". . . a verbal expression of some belief,
attitude or value, which the opinion reflects is a matter
of inference." (28, 9) "An opinion symbolizes an atti—
tude." (ll, 7)

An Attitude Scale: "Scales differ markedly in type

 

and in method of construction, but in every case their ob-
jective is identica1--to assign an individual a numerical
position along a scale that extends from one extreme of
approval or acceptance to the other extreme of disapproval
or rejection. The relative scale positions occupied by
various individuals may be taken, therefore, as indicative
of the relative favorableness or unfavorableness of their
opinions and attitudes." (7, 210-11) "The item must serve
some discriminative function, so that peOple of different

belief and attitude complexion will respond to the item in

systematically different ways." (7, 211)
Ranking: "In making comparisons of the relative

negativity or positivity of an attitude or opinion toward
a set of similar objects, . . ., it is possible to employ
a method of ranking, in which the individual ranks the

objects from most favored to approved or accepted to least
favored or approved or accepted." (7, 22A) "This method

is particularly useful when it is desired to obtain relative

attitudes or opinions among a whole set of objects
(7, 22A)

Thurstone Instrument: The Thurstone method of atti-

 

tude scaling places subjects on a continuum for a specific
attitude. Statements received from a random population are
assigned a scale value by judges on a 1-11 scale of order
of merit. A Thurstone scale is thusly developed: "(1)
Amassing of a very large number of simple statements or
propositions about the object or issue in question. (2)
The judging of each of these items by a sizable group of
experts as to its proper diagnostic position on an attitude
continuum between one extreme and the other and the re-
jection of those items for which there is insufficient
agreement among the judges as to proper scale position.
(3) The assignment of a scale score to each remaining item,
computed as the median scale position for that item given
by the group of judges. (A) A final selection among the
remaining items so that they will spread more or less evenly
along the scale from one extreme to the other." (7, 215)
Likert Technique: Subjects indicate ranking degree
of agreement or disagreement. "The results are then tabu-
lated, scored say from 1 to 5 depending upon the degree of
sentiment expressed, and totaled for each individual. Each
statement is then correlated with the total score in order
to determine those statements which best discriminate be-

tween high and low scoring individuals. Non-discriminating

items are then eliminated, and the remaining statements
form a scale for measuring the attitude in question."
(12, ASA)

Likert Technique For Scale Development: "(1) The
collection of a large number of statements or proportions
either referring directly to or considered by the experi-
menter as likely to relate to the object in question.

(2) The applying of these statements to a group of sub—
jects who indicate for each statement their reaction of
strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree, or strongly
disagree. (3) The summation for each individual of re—
sponses to all the items, by scoring the above five
categories 5, A, 3, 2, or 1 respectively. (A) The exami—
nation of the amount of correlation between each item and
the total score. (5) The elimination of items that fail to
correlate to a substantial degree with the total score,

. . ." (7, 218)

The general attitudinal objectives for the 105
Foundations course were categorized into these four areas
for consideration:

1. Movement: includes those aspects of man which
are concerned with his effective, efficient
utilization of his body, its motion.

2. Bio-Physiological: those aSpects of man which
are concerned with his continued health of

bodily functions.

3. Sociological: those aspects of man which are
concerned with his ability to integrate ef-
fectively with others through work and leisure
time activities.

A. Psychological: those factors dealing with
personality integration, self-image, self-
motivation, neuro-physiological (tension),

and enhancement of self.

Limitations of the Study

 

The Nature of Attitudes

 

Inherent in the study of attitudes are pertinent
limitations which need to be considered. As Thurstone points
out, "Attitudes are essentially subjective experiences which
may or may not conform with overt action." (10, 187)

Sherif comments on the effectiveness of the material being

presented: "The effect of a communication will depend to

a major extent on its relationship to the position of the

recipient and his latitudes of acceptance and rejection."

(9, 1A7) Krech extends this point when he suggests that
There is another important consideration, however. If
the belief or attitude being measured is one involving
repression by the individual or a desire to conceal
his true feelings or a wish to conform to socially
accepted stereotypes concerning the object, it may be
poor procedure to name the scale. (7, 23A)

One further point Krech makes is vitally important to our

study.

The validity of measurement of beliefs and attitudes
can be determined only indirectly, in terms of pre-
dictions of behavior based on such measurements.
There is, therefore, no direct mode of validation

of measurements. (7, 209)

Techniques Used
With the Thurstone method, judges determine the dis-

tance between the attitudes in question, but there is an
extended time factor involved plus the interference of the
judge's personal bias. As Sherif explains,

If a large number of items are presented with the order

of merit procedure, the subject cannot make successive

discriminations from one item to the next item with

the result that variability, and thus the margin for

error, is greater. (9, 27)
Krech comments on the judges' bias; "A scale may be asserted
to have a higher degree of absoluteness to the extent that
there is agreement among the judges regardless of their own
attitudinal bias as to the place on the scale that each item
belongs." (7, 225)

The Likert technique sums the respondent's individual
scores and then averages these. The limitation prevalent
g m

in this type of method is that the subject may receive a
neutral score even though she was high in one area and low
on another.

As to meaningfulness of scores, there would appear to

be a real difference (between Thurston and Likert

methods). The scores yielded by the Likert method

have little absolute significance. Scale scores can

be interpreted only in terms of where the individual

falls in relation to the total distribution of such

scores. Extent of pro—ness or con-ness is purely

relative to the pOpulation of peOple that have been
measured. (7, 219)

Sample Used

 

Initially the sample size is small. Since the course,
105 Foundations, is required of all freshmen a control group
within the university is impossible to attain.

Campbell notes in attempts to control for internal
validity that "It is often true that persons taking the test
for the second time make scores different from those taking
the test the first time." (16, 30A) The procedure neces-
sary to control for this variable requires that the sample
be organized so that two groups will be involved in the
testing only during the second administration of the question-
naire. One half of the students would take the 105 Foundations
course and the other half of this group would not have partici-
pated in the class. Due to the sample limitation, this factor

was not able to be controlled for.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Attitudes

 

Attitudes are learned; they are acquired quite un-
intentionally from life experiences. Most attitudes are
handed down to the child through the process of adoption,
imitation and association. These attitudes as Krech ex-
plains ". . . lie behind many of the significant and
dramatic instance of man's social behavior." (7, 151)

"The object of an attitude, under certain conditions, is
frequently perceived as having a goal character, as de—
manding action." (7, 152) "It is first essential to distin-
guish clearly between the immediate dynamic problem--how the
needs and goals of a given individual at a given time in a
given situation determines his behavior . . . ." (7, 70)

Sherif contends that, "The individual forms an attitude
as a consequence of repeated encounters with objects, per-
sons, or communications." (9, 9)

The study of attitudes, their presence and formation,
is comparatively new. The initial breakthrough into this
area of research was by L. L. Thurstone whose comments

among others will shed light on the study of attitudes.

10

II

"It will be conceded at the onset that an attitude is a
complex affair which cannot be wholly described by any single
numerical index." (11, 6) Himmelstrand concurs with Thur-
stone by stating, "We must admit that the term 'attitude'
implies much more than is measured by an ordinary verbal
attitude scale." (A, 38)

In terms of usefulness for predicting behavior,
Thurstone makes a valid argument. "It must be remembered
that there is a discrepancy, some error of measurement as
it were, between the opinion or overt action that we use as
an index and the attitude that we infer from such an index."
(11, 8) "Truth is inferred only from the relative con—
sistency of several indexes, since it is never directly
known." (29, 217) "It is a serious error to assume that
a man's attitudes are clearly indicated by what he says,
merely because that agrees with what he does. Both might
be wrong." (10, 322)

Most important to the study of attitudes is Thurstone's
statement as follows:

It goes without saying that the frequent assumption of
a normal distribution in educational scale construction
has absolutely no application here, because there is no
reason whatever to assume that any group of people will
be normally distributed in their opinions about any-
thing. (29, 222)

But as Young points out, there is a fundamental as-
sumption necessary for the study of attitudes; "An atti-

tude study is based upon the notion of regularity in human

reactions." (12, A52) A consistent attitude is inferred

12

from the statements and actions of the individual which
suggest a reaction tendency depending upon the situation
in which the individual is involved and also thereby,
limits the extent of the attitude.
In regard to scale construction Thurstone remarks
that,
When the notion of measurement is applied to so com-
plex a phenomenon as opinions and attitudes, we must
here also restrict ourselves to some specific or
implied continuum along which the measurement is to
take place. (11, 12)
While the study of attitudes can be very elusive,
Krech points out that,
These scales do provide, at the very least, a reliable
way of differentiating people in rank order along an
attitude or opinion continuum. There is some justifi-
cation, moreover, for the averaging of the scale
scores of groups of people, so that one group can be
compared with_another group. (7, 226)
Attitude Change
Despite the significant influences of cultural factors
on the development of beliefs and attitudes, despite
the deep-rooted-functional nature of many beliefs and
attitudes, and despite the inherent tendency of be-
liefs and attitudes to preserve themselves, beliefs
and attitudes can be changed. (7, 19A)
Moreover, as Thurstone remarks, "We take for granted
that people's attitudes are subject to change" (11, 8)
especially as educators. And further, "We know that beliefs
and attitudes show constant change in many of their charac-
teristics." (7, 190)
An attitude is deemed desirable if it is rewarded,

if it is repeated often enough, if the individual is

l3

emotionally involved with it and if the attitude is shared
by friends. "A person's attitudes are developed only in—
sofar as they help him to satisfy his needs and provide
meaning to his environment." (18, 356) "Most 'real' worlds
in which the individual finds himself and in response to
which he must develop beliefs and attitudes are character-
istic of a particular cultural pattern, and are filled with
people, objects and events of a particular kind." (7, 178)

There are different amounts of change possible for
every individual. Sherif comments on the emotional involve-
ment of the subject: "It is this ego-involvement with one's
stand on an issue which limits the range of assimilation
for Other_positions." (9, 168) The person's social situ-
ation can also be a limiting factor as Edwards explains:
"Since attitudes are developed in a social context, it is
much easier to change the attitude of individuals formed
into groups of their own choosings, than it is to change the
attitudes of people without group affiliation." (18, 359)
With regard to assessing change Krech concurs when he states,
" . . . it is possible to evaluate changes in the scores of
individuals or groups, as a result of experimentally induced
effects or of other influences tending to modify opinions
and attitudes." (7, 226)

Yet although we are concerned with the modification
of attitudes it is important to remember that the stability
of these predispositions to action are important also. As

Krech concludes, "The continuity from one psychological

1A

situation to the next is given primarily by the enduring

pattern of his beliefs and attitudes [among which are the
very important beliefs and attitudes that he holds about

himself]." (7, 153)

Educational Research with the
College Student on Attitudes

 

Do college students modify their attitudes or are
they too well formulated to be changed? Lewing presents
the problem; "The re-educative process has to fulfill a
task which is essentially equivalent to a change in cul-
ture." (7, 199) Although Mayhew contends that, "Much of
the lasting value of education is obtainable only insofar
as students' attitudes, beliefs, life goals and values are
affected," (2A, 375) he suggests in another article that
there is little relation between attitude change and growth
of knowledge in a college course.

Lehmann's work supports the argument for change of
attitudes among college students:

There are significant social-cultural-educational
differences in attitudes and values. It has also
been shown that changes in attitudes and values will
occur from freshman to senior year, but that the
degree and extent to which attitudes and values are
modifiable depends upon the nature of the experience,
the type of contact, the personality make-up of the
individual and the subjects' perception of the out—
come. (21, A03)
Lehmann's work with faculty suggests, "The strong consensus
of faculty members that students do change as a result of
classroom experience and the fragmentary research evidence

that changes are small encourage research in this area."

(21, A03)

15

Jacobs' work concurs with Lehmann's when he states,
"Sometimes individual students subjectively attribute
important influences to their courses." (5, 59) While
the recognized change at the college level may be intel—

lectual or purely maturational, Lehmann believes that the

". full impact of the student's formal academic experi-

ences is not fully realized when he is in college." (21,
A07) But Jacob disagrees in the following statement.

Even fundamental revisions of the formal content of
the curriculum designed to confront the students

more forcefully with problems of personal and social
conduct and to involve them in a searching examination
of value-issues rarely appear to have brought about a
marked difference in students' beliefs and judgments,
let alone their actual patterns of conduct, nor is
there solid evidence of a delayed reaction or "sleeper
effect". (5, 7)

In studies conducted with women Lehmann summarizes
that, "For females, there is a significant relationship
between changes in value and impact of (a) a course or
courses, and (b) cultural activities." (21, A06) "In
the main students' values are more influenced by family,
friends and fraternities than by the courses they take.
Nevertheless, the argument runs strong that values are both
caught and taught." (5, 1)

In summary Jacob holds that,

Student values do change to some extent in college.
With some students, the change is substantial

But the impetus to change does not come primarily
from the formal educational process. Potency to
affect student values is found in the distinctive
climate of a few institutions, the individual and
personal magnetism of a sensitive teacher with
strong value-committments of his own, or value-laden

personal experiences of students imaginatively inte-
grated with their intellectual development. (5, 12-13)

16

Research Work with Physical Education
and Attitudes

 

 

"Health is a favorable area for the emergence of
magic and superstition, as witnessed by the rise and
persistence of the health cults." (12, 200)

Attitude research conducted in physical education
is limited. There are presently growing attempts to develOp
instruments for assessing students' attitudes. The reali-
zation of the importance of attitudes in physical education
is evident in the trend for more consideration of the stu-
dent's total self, mind and body oriented instead of pri—
marily being biologically and skill oriented.

Wear's work (30) in scale construction appears to
be the pioneering effort. The instrument satisfactorily
shows reliability with the Likert method. The study combined
a single session attitude inventory with a self—rating
index to assess validity and determine how subject's back—
ground affected the college male freshman's attitudes toward
physical activity courses. Statements related to the chosen
outcomes of physical activity were selected for the study after
the Wang criteria for statements. From the long inventory
a short form was derived and retested for reliability and
validity. Wear concludes that with the short form reliable,
valid information pertaining to physical education attitudes
can still be determined and the form is appropriate for both

male and female. The resultant short form has since been

17

used as the basis for analysis of attitudes by Broer,
Koehing, and Wessel, with Edgington's being the most recent.

An attitude scale constructed for high school fresh-
men boys toward physical education was presented in a paper
by the author, O.Edgington (17). While the construction
method was based on Wear's work, his results show a very
high favorable attitude to physical education and activity
for ninth grade boys as opposed to Kappes' efforts with
college women when she concludes, "The lack of relationship
between enjoyment of specific activities and general atti—
tude toward physical education suggests that educators may
encourage the development of desirable attitudes toward
physical education in general . . . ." (20, A33)

If there is a lack of correlation between enjoying
activities and attitudes as shown in Kappes' work and yet
a very high positive attitude toward activity seen in
Edgington's study there then appears to be some unknown
variables affecting these works.

In a study of a course which appears from the
description to be similar to 105 Foundations in terms of
understanding movement and having the skill to evaluate
self, Broer concludes her work with this statement:

Apparently the more individualized instruction that
is possible in the basic classes, the emphasis on
understanding and the detailed evaluation procedures
throughout the course give the students a better
feeling about participation in activity. (1A, 26)

Her results were not significant. She was suggesting a

response tendency.

18

Summary of the Literature

 

That entity called attitude consists of a fairly
stable, mental predisposition for action on the part of
the individual. Attitudes, therefore, control what is done,
or not done by the person. In other words actions are con-
trolled by how one feels about a thing.

The verbalization of a belief or attitude in no way
insures corresponding, appropriate behavior. Especially
important in determining behavior is the situation within
which the individual is called upon to respond. The environ-
ment surrounding the individual is of paramount importance
and of necessity must be considered in the interpretation
of attitude assessment as well as in unstructured every day
life experiences.

The study of attitudes is in a state of flux and
change. How an attitude is formed remains an educated guess.
The determination of where an individual or group may be
located on an attitude continuum is, however, possible.
Further, change at the college level is evident although
the specific causes for this change have not been defined.
Although attitudes need further clarification and more in-
sight into their formation, developmental and exploratory

work centered about this area is intriguing and worthwhile.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY

Experimental Design
The following activities and procedures were used
to assess the attitudes of freshmen toward the 105 Found-
ation's objectives.
1. Determination of General Attitudinal Objectives
for Consideration
A. Survey of course content and consultation
with the head of the women's 105 Foundations
program.
II. Development of an Instrument for Assessment
A. Selection of Statements for the Questionnaire
1. Obtain value statements from freshmen
students enrolled in 105 Foundations
the term preceding the study.
2. Edition of statements by author and
co—investigator.
B. Rating of Statements
1. Judges' rating of value statements on a
1 to 11 continuum of least to most under-
standing of the objectives of the 105

Foundations course, respectively.

19

2.

2O

Compiling of a preliminary scale with
the surviving statements presented in

the Likert technique.

Assessment of Clarity and Discriminatory

Ability of Items

1.

Administration of preliminary scale in

the Likert technique to a pilot group.

Author and co-investigator's subjective
evaluation of item's clarity discrimi-

natory ability.

Development of a long and short form

questionnaire.

Determination of Concurrent Validity

l.

Pre-experimental administration of the
long and short forms of the questionnaire
to students enrolled in 105 Foundations.
Analysis of results of the questionnaire
to determine internal consistency:

a. Total scores of the highest 10% of
the students correlated with the
lowest 10% in the Pearson Product
Moment technique.

b. Computation of simple correlation
with each item's total scores against
the total score for the entire question-

naire.

21

E. Determination of Reliability--Coefficient

of Stability-—of the Long Form Questionnaire

l. Test-retest administration of the long
form with a four-week intervening period.
a. An independent sample drawn from

freshmen women enrolled in a service
skills course at Michigan State
University.

2. Simple correlations computed item by
item, both pre against post, and total
score-pre against total score-post.

F. Comparison of Long and Short Forms

1. Long form questionnaire rescored with
only the short form items.

a. Calculation of the "t"-test for the
difference between means of the long
form mean per subject per item with
the short form mean per subject per
item, to determine if the short form
is more discriminative.

2. Analysis of difference between means of
the original short form and the rescored
short form's total questionnaire results
to estimate similarity of groups.

III. Assessment of Attitudes
A. Determination of Initial Freshmen Attitudes

upon Entrance to the 105 Foundations course.

22

1. Analysis of pre-questionnaire responses,
both long and short forms, against a
neutral opinion (3) by a "t"—test for
differences between means.

B. Determination of Change in Attitudes at

the Completion of the 105 Foundations Course.

1. Post experimental administration of both
long and short questionnaires to the same
105 sample during the last class meeting.

2. X2 evaluation of significant differences
was conducted.

IV. Final Scale Construction
A. Selection of items exhibiting acceptable
levels of validity and reliability compose
the final questionnaire.
B. The final questionnaire was not included as
part of this study, but is included in
Appendix B.

Determination of General Attitudinal
Objectives for Consideration

 

 

In order to develop an adequate scale for assessing
the attitudes of students toward a course, the objectives
or goals of that course must first be set down. This
formalization was developed by the author and the head
of the women's 105 Foundations program.

A. The content of the 105 Foundations course was

surveyed. After reviewing the text book and

23

lecture outlines, the author decided upon major
groupings of objectives to be considered in the
study. These objectives were evaluated with the
head of the women's 105 Foundations program.

The resulting four main areas for consideration
were chosen: Movement, Bio—Physiological,
Sociological, and Psychological. (See Chapter

I for definitions.)

Development of an Instrument for Assessment

 

A. Selection of Statements for the Questionnaire

1.

Following the compiling of the objectives, value

statements concerning physical education and

physical activity were elicited from students

enrolled in 105 Foundations during the term pre-

ceding the study. Under the direction of their

individual instructors, the students were asked

to respond to the following questions:

(a) What are desirable outcomes of physical
education?

(b) What should be the long range outcomes of
the 105 Course?

(0) What is accomplished through the 105 Course?

(d) How should physical education modify one's

outlook on life?

These questions were chosen to elicit the beliefs
and opinions of the students, not factual infor-
mation.

Edition of statements by author and co-investigator
followed. The author and co-investigator read
through the 600 statements obtained and selected
out 166 statements which represented the 105
Foundations objectives. Four judges evaluated

the 166 statements.

B. Rating of Statements

1.

The four judges consisting of two full professors
in physical education and the heads of the men's
and women's 105 Foundations programs, rated the
remaining 166 statements.

The judges were asked to rate the 166 state-
ments on a l to 11 continuum from the student's
least to the most understanding of the physical
education objectives, respectively. The judges
were further asked to look for clarity and under—
standability of the statements.

The judges' ratings were compiled. The mean
score of the judges' ratings were used to place
the statements along the "student's understanding
of Foundation's objectives" continuum. Those
value statements with ratings of plus or minus
1.5 standard deviation from the mean were designated

as having agreement among the judges.

25

2. Preliminary scale development

These value statements were again subjectively
evaluated by the author and co-investigator. Dupli-
cate items were eliminated and word corrections were
made as indicated by the judges. The remaining 10A
statements comprised the preliminary scale. The
method of presentation statements of the preliminary
scale was after the Likert technique. There are
five possible responses to each statement:

Response Score Value

 

Strongly Agree
Agree

Neutral Opinion
Disagree

Strongly Disagree

I—‘NUUJI'U'I

Those statements which were negative in nature
as determined by the author were scored in the re-
verse of the above.

Total individual scores were the sum of the
responses.

C. Assessment of Clarity and Discriminatory Ability of

Items

The 10A selected statements were randomly placed
on the questionnaire to be presented to a pilot group.
The preliminary scale was administered by the co-investi—
gator to 15 male and female freshmen students (some were
majors in physical education and others that had not had
the 105 Foundations course) in an attempt to discover

which value items would, in fact, discriminate.

26

The results of the questionnaire were tabulated

by sex. Those items which subjectively appeared to

discriminate were selected out to be included in a

short form questionnaire. Those items which were re-

dundant and/or showed all students answering 100%

identically were eliminated from the long form of the

questionnaire. Short form items were included in

both instruments. The resulting two questionnaires were

86 and 26 items in length (See Appendix B).

Determination of Concurrent Validity

l. The pre-experimental administration of the long and
short forms of the questionnaire was conducted. The
revised preliminary scale items were again randomized
and administered to A9 female students enrolled in
the 105 Foundations course spring term. The useful
sample consisted of 25 students in the short form
group, and 2A students in the long form group. The
following testing procedures were utilized in order
to control for the student's bias regarding the re-
sults of the questionnaire having any personal bear-
ing on them: (a) The administration was conducted
by an unknown male investigator; (b) The students
were asked to exclude their names or any identifi:
cation with the exception of the form number of the
questionnaire so that we might keep the long and
short forms separate for computation; (c) The reason

for the questionnaire was explained to the students

27

as being a part of a large study being conducted
by the Sociology Department in an effort to de-
scribe a profile of the freshman student at
Michigan State University.

Note: The author was not involved in this pro—
cedure with the exception of being present at the
beginning and end of the session. The author was
also the classroom instructor.

The above procedures were used in an effort
to keep the students naive to the purpose of the
study, and thereby, secure more truthful responses
to the items rather than the ones the students think
would be appropriate for a physical education class.
An analysis of results of the pre-experimental
questionnaire to determine concurrent validity was
conducted in the following manner.

A Pearson Product Moment "r" was computed
with the total scores of the highest 10% of the
students and correlated with the lowest 10% of
the total scores, item by item for both long and
short forms. Secondly, a simple correlation was
computed with each item's total score against the
total score for the questionnaire.

The level of acceptance established for con-
current validity was an "r" of .5 or greater for

both correlations.

28

E. Determination of Reliability—~Coefficient of Stability
The test-retest method for assessing reliability
is recognized by Lentz (23) and Krech (7) as the best
means of determining the reliability of a questionnaire
since the results tend to be an over-conservative esti-
mate. The test-retest method, therefore, was used to
determine the coefficient of stability.

1. The reliability assessment was conducted independently
of the pre-post experimental study. Sixty-two fresh-
men females enrolled in a service skills course dur-
ing the same time period of the attitude study
served as the sample group. Identical long form
questionnaires were administered. The testing pro-
cedures were essentially the same as those stated
for the pre-experimental group with the exception
that the author gave the instructions.

Following an intervening four—week period, a
re-randomized questionnaire containing the same
items again in the Likert technique was again
administered to this group. The reason for the
second presentation was explained to the students
that the analysis of results conducted by the
Sociology Department had uncovered errors in the

previous questionnaire and the old instrument had

been reconstructed.

 

29

Simple correlations were computed item by item,
pre against post for those students participating
in both presentations. Also the "r" for the total
score for the first testing with the total score
of the second testing was computed. Only those
items resulting in an "r" of .5 or above were

considered acceptable.

F. Comparison of Long and Short Forms

1.

The long form, pre-experimental responses were
rescored with the 25 short form items. Total
scores for each student were computed. A calcu-
lation of the difference between means of the

long form mean per subject per item with the short
form mean per subject per item was run to deter-
mine if the short form items were more discrimin-
ative. A "t" of 2.81 at the .01 level of confi-
dence was necessary to reject the Null hypothesis
of no significant difference between the two forms.
To determine sample similarity, and to provide a
basis for investigation of attitude change an
analysis of difference between the means of the
original short form questionnaire and the rescored
short form totals were computed. A "t" of 2.Al

at the .01 level of confidence was considered neces-
sary to reject the Null hypothesis of no difference

between the two sample groups.

30

Assessment of Attitudes

 

A. Determination of Initial Freshmen Attitudes upon

Entrance to the 105 Foundations course.

1.

To determine the initial freshmen attitude toward
physical education and physical activity upon
entrance to the 105 Foundations course, an analysis
of the pre-experimental responses, both long and
short forms against a neutral opinion of three by
a "t"—test for the differences between means was
calculated. A "t" score of 2.81 or greater for
the long form and a "t" of 2.80 for the short form
at the .01 level of confidence was considered ac-
ceptable to reject the Null hypothesis of no
difference from a neutral opinion of the freshmen
upon entrance to the 105 Foundations course.

To assess if there had been any change in attitude
resulting from the 105 Foundations course, both
long and short forms were again administered to
the sample on the last formal class day by the
unknown male investigator. The students were in-
formed that the need for the second presentation
of the questionnaire was due to errors in con—
struction of the first instrument and this repeat
was an attempt to correct those errors. The test-

ing procedure followed was identical to that

31

followed in the pre-experimental administration
of same. A Chi Square analysis of significant

differences from pre to post was conducted.

Final Scale Construction
Selection of items exhibiting acceptable levels of
validity and reliability compose the final question—
naire.
1. Those items exhibiting acceptable levels of
validity and reliability were selected out to

comprise the final questionnaire (see Appendix

B).

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA

In an effort to determine if the 105 Foundations
course required of all freshmen students at Michigan State
does meet its general attitudinal objectives, the following
samples were drawn and an analysis of results conducted

according to the experimental design.

Experimental Sample

 

A total of 75 students were at least partially in-
volved in the testing procedures. Of the 75, 17 students
were eliminated from the calculations because they were
not present for both administrations of the questionnaire.
An additional nine students were not considered in the
analysis since they were of upper class ratings according
to the Registrar's Office. The remaining A9 students com-
prised the long and short form groups with 2A and 25,

respectively.

Statements for Rating

 

Of the 166 value statements originally presented to
the judges for evaluation, 80 statements were eliminated

during the editing procedures. Of the 86 used in the

32

33

assessing instrument, 13 of the statements' ratings were
considered invalid due to word changes. Item 62 was omitted

from the original long form questionnaire.

Judges' Ratings of Statements

 

In order to determine the degree of agreement among
the judges and because the value statements were not rank-
ordered, but allowed to be placed in any one of 11 cate—
gories, the means of the ratings were taken. This, then,
gives the item a position along the continuum of the "stu-
dent's understanding of the objectives of 105 Foundations."
This can be seen on Table 1. Only those statements with a
standard deviation from the mean of plus or minus 1.5 were
deemed acceptable and retained in the continuum development.
Of the 72 statements analyzed, 33 items were retained. The
continuum appears adequate for those statements indicating
little understanding of 105 Foundations, the opposite end
of the continuum is slightly weaker, but the entire middle

region is almost without judges' consensus.

Determination of Concurrent Validity

 

To determine the level of internal consistency the
pre-experimental results for both the long form with a
sample of 2A subjects and the short form with a sample of
25 subjects were analyzed with the Pearson Product Moment

method of correlation. The 10% highest total scores of

3A

TABLE 1.--Acceptable statements selected on judges' ratings (plus or minus 1.5

standard deviation).

 

.w

a.— —- — .' —.=.—._.L_-.- _ .._-:r:-_“‘:m;-_‘ -;.=_-_, z:

 

 

 

Mean Rating S. D. Item Number Statement
11.00 .0 81 Daily exercise should be carried on through life.
10.50 .57A 55 Physical activity should become an integral part
of the person's life.
10.25 .760 60 The main outcome of physical education is ful-
fillment of the individual's physical potential.
10.25 _ .900 22 Physical movement is a need and a joy.

9.75 1.250 15 There is sheer pleasure in physical exertion.

9.50 1.288 57 Physical education forms sensible ideas about
fitness. _

9.00 1.150 36 There is value in exercise and activity.

3.75 1.500 A9 Regardless of how smart you are, your life is
limited by how fit you are.

.50 1.000 39 One should enjoy the physical aspects of life.

7.33 .980 23 I have found physical activities which I can enjoy
in the coming years. -

“.75 .953 8A Competition is good for everyone.

A.60 1.2A0 7 A physical education course will make you aware
of conditions that can be improved on in your
social life.

2.75 .500 38 The main purpose of physical education is to tell
the person his or her capabilities in athletic
events.

2.25 .500 82 Present information on health scares you into

- becoming fit.

2.00 .810 2 A good physical workout on the week-end is ade-
quate exercise for the week.

1.75 .500 A1 The only valuable outcome of an ac*iv:ty c“ or i;
from the exercises done.

1.50 1.000 A6 TeleviSion commercials are good sources of methods
for staying fit.

1.50 .570 13 One has to be an athlete to be physically fit.

1.50 1.000 76 Being able to play any games well is of little
importance to me.

1.50 .570 77 It is difficult to secure information concernin:

_ body health.
1.30 .A89 86 Physical fitness is good, but man can survive
. without it.

1.30 .960 58 I don't think that physical education should be
compulsory. .

1.25 .760 51 Physical education classes gave me all the physical
activity that I will ever need.

1.25 .295 20 Our medical technology is so advanced that we do
not need to be physically fit.

1.25 .A80 3 All that physical education does is show you your
weaknesses.

1.00 0 5 Exercises do not do that much good.

1.00 0 12 Physical education is a big waste.

1.00 0 A2 Tough exams tire me so I do not need any physical
activity after taking one.

1.00 0 53 There is no need to be able to plan a personal
physical fitness program.

1.00 0 66 Physical education is ignored by most students.

1.00 0 73 There is no reason for an overweight person to change
his present condition since he has been this way all
of his life.

1.00 0 68 I see almost no value in physical education.

1.00 0 79 I do not take part in a sport activity unless

persuaded by a friend.

 

 

35

the two samples were selected out and correlated with the
10% lowest total scores of the two samples. Each question
was correlated separately.

Of the 25 value statements retained in the short
form, 19 items resulted in correlations of .5 or above.
From the 83 remaining statements in the long form, 60
showed "r" values of .5 or above.

To compensate for the natural bias resulting from the
use of only the high and low total scores of the two samples,
a simple correlation of each item against the total score
of the questionnaire was used to more closely identify the
internal consistency. From this set of calculations, A9
value statements in the long form showed an "r" of .5 or
above and 12 of the 25 short form value statements were
adequate.

The final selection of statements showing concurrent
validity were those which survived the item analysis of
both correlations above .5. These are indicated on Table 2
with both correlation values noted. The short form emerged
with 11 valid statements while the long form resulted in A7
of the 86 as valid indicators of the total score.

Determination of Reliability of the
Long Form Questionnaire

 

 

The reliability coefficient of stability was figured
by the test-retest method. The responses of a sample in-
dependent of the experimental group consisting of 60

subjects was drawn. Simple corrections were run

TABLE 2.--The results of correlations compuated for the concurrent validity
of the short and long forms of questionnaire.

 

 

 

 

 

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9. (30) .93 .6A 19. (59) .79 .75
10. (32) .77 .61 23. (76) .9A .82
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6 .923 _.69 A1 1 00 7“
7 .50 .6A A2 87 5A
9 .60 .59 AH 92 3)
10 .68 .50 “5 j; 7v
11 .93 .68 A8 92 68
12 .96 .81 5A 83 68
15 .70 .67 55 96 83
17 .67 .58 56 7o 67
19 .87 .59 57 96 78
20 .66 .65 58. 1 5A
21 .78 61 59. 68 66
22 .83 7A 6A. 1 00 78
2A .96 82 68. 60 58
25 .88 .68 71 80 62
26 .83 .5A 72 62 80
29 .73 .5A 7A 70 53
30 .97 .76 75 87 65
31 .93 .82 78 87 73
32 .82 .8A 79 98 7A
33 .66 .50 81 93 80
3A .87 .67 8A 87 50
35 .92 .72 85 89 7A
36 .88 5A

 

“Corresponding long form numbers.

"r" - .5 or above for both items.

37

between pre and post responses to the questionnaire. Thirty
items met the criteria of an "r" of .5 which is considered
an adequate level of acceptance for a group (7, 260). The
reliability coefficient for the total questionnaire scores
of pre against post was found to be .769. Considering the
extended length of time (four weeks) intervening between
test and retest administrations of the questionnaire, the

H

"r appears to be outstandingly high. The results of the

calculations are presented in Table 3.

Comparison of Long and Short Forms
of the Questionnaire

 

 

The responses of the pre-experimental administration
were utilized to establish if the short form was more
discriminative of attitudes than the long form. The pre-
experimental long form was rescored for the 25 short form
items only. The sum totals of responses for each subject,
both long and rescored short form were obtained. Next the
mean response per subject per item was figured. A "t"-
test for the differences between these means was figured.
To establish a significant difference between the forms,
at the 1% level of confidence, "t" values of greater than
2.81 were necessary.

As tabulated in Table A, at no time did the "t" value
begin to approach the significant level of 2.81 to allow
for rejection of the Null hypothesis of no difference be-

tween the long and short form.

38'

TABLE 3.--The results of correlations to determine the
reliability of the long form questionnaire.

 

 

Item Number "r" Results* Item Number "r" Results*
2 .513AA 36 .523AA
A .62A96 37 .50906
5 .66653 A9 .57603
7 .67109 50 .55A25
8 .5805A 53 .50431
9 .60060 SA .50763

10 .55098 55 .61366
11 .55928 58 .68856
12 .6208A 63 .55453
15 .56971 67 .53051
17 .6A099 68 .5192A
22 .62AOO 76 .51971
23 .SIBOA 79 .66990
29 .52797 8A .69102
31 .736AO

32 .552A7 Pre—Post Totals .769A0

 

I'All items at "r" values of .5 or above.

39

 

 

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An additional analysis was conducted to estimate
if differences did exist between the two sample groups.
Another "t"-test for the difference between the means of
the total sum of the original short form and the rescored
short form was found to be "t" equals .2Al7 and therefore,
we cannot reject the Null hypothesis of no difference be—
tween the two samples with a significant "t" equal to
2.Al with A0 degrees of freedom for the 5% level of confi-

dence.

Assessment of Attitudes

 

Determination of Initial Attitudes

 

To establish the initial attitudes of the freshmen
women toward physical education upon entrance into the
105 Foundations program, the responses of the pre-experi-
mental questionnaires were analyzed by the "t"-test for
differences between means. The mean total response for
each statement was calculated with the neutral opinion
score of three. In order to reject the Null hypothesis
of no difference between the two means a "t" value of
2.81 and 2.80 are necessary to assume a 1% level of confi-
dence for the long and short forms respectively: Of the
short form items, 17 were sufficiently positive in nature
to reject the Null hypothesis and one item was sufficiently
negative in nature to justify rejection of the Null
hypothesis. Those significant items are indicated in

Table 5.

TABLE 5.——Results of the

4,1

"t"-test of'ihe difference be-

tween means for initiaf freshmen attitude responses.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item No. "t" Item No. "t" Item No. "t"
Short Form
1. (2)* -14.2118 11. (35) 11.9587 18. (57) 7.6881
2. (3) 17.6433 12. (36) 8.2758 19. (59) 5.6336
4. (14) 6.6469 13. (39) 12.9703 21. (68) 12.9703
5. (20) 6.2610 14. (48) 5.0593 22. (73) 9.8539
8. (29) 5.7657 15. (49) 4.3424 23. (76) 2.8823
9. (30) 5.3353 17. (55) 5.773A 2A. (81) 7 A639
Long Form
1. 12.1370 33. 12.4370 59. 5.0614
2. -10.2501 34. 5.1090 61. 6.3713
3. 4.0130 35. 11.1240 64. 6.7753
5. 4.5992 36. 12.4370 67. 4.9998
6. 3.82A0 37. 7.2167 68. 8.1872
11. 3.6130 38. 6.3651 69. 3.8672
12. 5.6802 39. 10.8499 70. 4.3030
13. 6.1800 41. 6.2541 71. 4.0433
14. 7.4160 42. 5.2033 72. 5.8009
16. 3.9995 43. 3.7092 73. 4.4890
18. 6.8097 44. 9.0467 74. 4.5064
19. 3.7080 45. 8.1299 75. 5.0614
20. 16.8571 46. 8.9536 76. 5.6014
21. 4.4268 47. 7.4581 77. 4.3718
22. 2.9925 48. 4.5442 78. 7.3628
23. A.953l A9. 3.9536 79. 4.8007
25. 7.3628 51. 9.6807 80. 10.0588
26. 3.2946 54. 5.2439 81. 4.0895
27. 9.4919 55. 4.9708 83. 3.5192
28. 8.7676 56. 3.7032 8A. 3.3848
29. 5.6872 57. 6.2677 85. 4.54u2
NOTE: All items are significant at the 1% level of
confidence.

*Parentheses indicate corresponding long form number.

A2

Sixty—two of the 86 items comprising the long form
of the questionnaire were beyond the required level of
significance in a positive direction and one item survived

in the negative direction.

Attitude Change

 

In an effort to determine if 105 Foundations was in
fact meeting its attitudinal objectives and developing
sound positive attitudes toward the four basic goals, a
Chi Square analysis of pre versus post responses was com-
puted. Rejection of the Null hypothesis of no change in
attitudes required a value of 7.779, 9.A88, and 13.277 for
the 10%, 5%, and 1% level of confidence respectively
(see Table 6). Five of the short form and 22 of the long
form items had sufficient values to be considered signifi-
cant at the 10% confidence level.

The Bio-Physiological objective demonstrated a
greater variety of fluctuation. There were, however, a
larger number of items comprising this general attitudinal
objective. Only in this area were there any initial un-
favorable attitudes, but upon post—experimental analysis
they did move toward the positive. The trend in the other
three general attitudinal areas, showing significant X2
changes, was in a positive direction. The only exception
was item 29 in the Psychological area. The item states:
"Physical activity can help me to relax and enjoy life."

It is the author's contention that the Physical Fitness

“3

TABLE 6.--Chi square analysis of attitude change.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Item Objective X2
Short Form
l. (2)8 Bio—Physiological 9.435b
7. (26)8 Sociological 10.7AA
l7. (55)a General 23.229c
24. (81)a Bio-Physiological 20.711c
26. (84)a General 22.500c
Long Form
2. Bio-Physiological 10.771b
4. Bio-Physiological 24.071C
6. General 22.814C
7. Sociological 16.133C
8. Psychological 8.292
9. General 9'033b
l6. Bio-Physiological 10.397b
29. Psychological 11.083
30. Psychological 36.6186
32. Psychological 11.825
33. Bio-Physiological 8.823
41. Bio-Physiological 20.586c
A7. Psychological 7.818c
A9. Bio-Physiological 20.577
55. General 7.821b
60. General 11.21A
63. Sociological 32.633:
70. Sociological 12.738
71. Bio-Physiological 8.988b
77. Bio-Physiological 9.758b
81. Bio-Physiological 11.060
85. General 8.A85
aLong form equivalent numbers.
bSignificant at 5% level of confidence.
0Significant at 1% level of confidence.
NOTE: All items are significant at the 10%

of confidence.

AA

exercises used in a training program were not perceived

by the students as a medium for relaxation and enjoyment.

Comparison of Pre and Post Attitudes

 

A comparison of the initial attitudes toward physical
education and those attitudes indicated upon completion of
the 105 Foundations course were evaluated in terms of
direction of change by the means for each pair of signifi-
cant items.

Of the five significant X2 statements in the short
form, two items originally showing no significant difference
from the neutral opinion of three, during post testing be—
came positive and the negative item moved toward the posi—
tive, but remained below three. One positive item moved
in a negative direction, but remained above three and the
last positive statement became more strongly positive.

Seven of the 2A long form items not significant from
three during pre analysis were acceptable in the Chi Square
comparison in a positive direction; two items shifted
toward the positive, but remained below three. Six pre-
viously significant positive items reversed in a negative
direction and six positive items became more strongly
positive: a stronger favorable attitude toward physical
education.

One item was significant in the X2 comparison, but

the mean value was not altered (see Graph 1).

45

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rm

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, RESULTS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The primary purpose of this study was to determine
if the 105 Foundations course at Michigan State University,
required for all freshmen, did in fact meet its general
attitudinal objectives. Additional secondary goals were
included in the study: the development of a reliable,
valid instrument for assessing such attitudes and the
determination of freshmen women's attitudes toward physi-
cal education and activity upon entrance into the Found-
ations course.

A long and Short form questionnaire was constructed
to elicit response tendencies toward the four general ob-
jectives of the Foundations course and was administered to
A9 freshmen women students enrolled in that course spring
term. The two forms of the questionnaire were administered
to the sample upon entrance to the Foundations course on
the last formal class day by an unknown male investigator.

The means and standard deviations were used to
determine agreement among the judges. The reliability
of the long form of the questionnaire was determined by

the simple correlation technique. Concurrent validity

A6

A7

of both long and short forms of the questionnaire was
established by two methods:

1. A Pearson Product Moment correlation of the 10%
highest total scores of the two samples with
the 10% lowest total scores was computed.

2. Simple correlations of the pre-experimental
responses with the total score for the entire
questionnaire were figured.

A "t"-test for the differences between the means of

the long form and the long form rescored with only the 25
short form items were computed to determine if there was
any difference between the two forms of the questionnaire.
The similarity of the two sample groups was determined by
the "t"-test for the difference between means of the original
short form and the rescored short form. The initial atti-
tude of the freshmen was established by computing the
differences between the means of the pre—experimental re-
sponses and a neutral opinion of three. The Chi Square
comparison was the statistical tool used to establish an
attitude shift with the change in means as the indicator

of the direction of the change.

Results)
Development of An Instrument for Assessment

1. The reliability of the Attitudes of Freshmen

 

Toward Physical Education, long form question-

 

naire, was found to have an "r" value of .768.

.48

The Attitudes of Freshmen Toward Physical Edu-

 

cation questionnaire for 20 of the 25 short

form questionnaire items and 60 of the 83 long
long questionnaire items met the requirements
for concurrent validity ("r" = .5 or above).

The results of a "t"-test indicated no Signifi—
cant difference between the long and short forms
of the questionnaire at the 1% level of confi-
dence. Therefore, no significant difference be-
tween the two forms was assumed.

The sample groups were not found to be different
from each other by a "t"—test analysis at the

5% confidence level. Therefore, the long and
short form sample groups were considered the

same .

Assessment of Attitudes

1.

The results of the "t"-test indicated that the
initial attitudes of the freshmen women toward
physical activity were significantly different
from a neutral opinion of three at the 1% level
of confidence for 18 short form items, one being
negative and the remaining positive, and 62 of
the long form items, one being negative with the
remaining positive. Therefore, freshmen women
have a strongly favorable initial attitude toward
physical activity upon entrance to Michigan State

University.

A9

The X2 comparison of responses demonstrated a
change in attitude for five of the short form
and 22 of the long form items at the 10% level
of confidence. Twenty of the combined state-
ments moved in a favorable direction while seven
reversed toward the negative. On the whole the
Bio-Physiological objective demonstrated a greater
variety of fluctuation. There were, however, a
larger number of items comprising this general
attitudinal objective. Only in this area were
there any initial unfavorable attitudes, but
upon post-experimental analysis they did move
toward the positive.

The trend in the other three general
attitudinal areas, Showing significant X2 changes,
was in a positive direction. The only exception
was item 29 in the Psychological area. The item
states: "Physical activity can help me to relax
and enjoy life." It is the author's contention
that the Physical Fitness exercises used in a
training program were not perceived by the stu-

dents as a medium of relaxation and enjoyment.

Recommendations for Further Stugy

 

The four general attitudinal objectives of the
Foundations course should be further defined and
clarified for a more thorough evaluation of out—

comes .

 

50

More value statements should be developed to
represent the student's understanding of the
objectives to insure adequate coverage of the
delineated objectives. Specifically needed
are additional negative statements in the
composition of the scale. A starting point
for the value statements may be found in the
recommended final scale (see Appendix B) and
those items retained from the judges' ratings
of statements (see Table l).

Attitude investigation with the following experi—

mental design may prove fruitful.

121-2991.

 

 

 

Pre-Experimental Post-Experimental
Administration Experimental Administration
Of Questionnaire Variable Of Questionnaire
X 0 0
0 0 X
0 X X
X X X
X 0 X

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

51

 

10.

11.

12.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Cronback, Lee J. Essentials of Psychological Testing.
New York: Harper & Brothers, 19A9.

 

Freeman, Frank S. Theory and Practice of Psychological

 

Testing. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1962.

Garrett, Henry, E. Statistics in Psychology and
Education. New York: Longmans, Green, 1958.

 

 

Himmelstrand, Ulf. Social Pressurep,L Attitudes and
Democratic Processes. Stockholm: Almquist &
Wiksell, 1960.

 

 

Jacob, Philip E. Changing Values In College. New
Haven, Conn.: Hazen Foundation, 1956.

 

Krech, David and Crutchfield, Richard S. Elements of
Psychology. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1958.

 

 

. Theory and Problems of Social Psychology.
New York: McGraw—Hill, 19A8.

 

Krathwohl, David R., Bloom, Benjamin S., and Masia,
Bertran B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:
Handbook 11: Affective Domain. New York:
McKay Co., 196A.

 

 

Sherif, Muzafer and Hovland, Carl 1. Social Judgment.
New Haven, Conn.:, Yale University Press, 1961.

 

Thurstone, L. L. The Measurement of Values. Chicago:
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Thurstone, L. L. and Chave, E. J. Theory of Attitude
Measurement. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1929.

 

 

Young, Kimble. Handbook of Social Psychology. London:
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52

 

13.

1A.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

53

Periodicals

 

Adams, R. S. "Two Scales for Measuring Attitude
Toward Physical Education," Research Quarterly,
3A (1963), 91-9A.

 

Broer, Marion R. "Evaluation of a Basic Skills
Curriculum for Women Students of Low Motor
Ability at the University of Washington,”
Research Quarterly, 26 (1955), 15-27.

 

Brumbach, Wayne B. and Cross, John A. "Attitudes
Toward Physical Education of Male Students Enter-
ing the University of Oregon," Research Quarterly,
36 (1965). 10-16.

 

Campbell, Donald T. "Factors Relevant to the Validity
of Experiments in Social Settings," Psychological
Bulletin, 54 (1957), 297-311.

 

Edgington, Charles W. "Development of an Attitude
Scale to Measure Attitudes of High School Freshmen
Boys Toward Physical Education." Paper presented
at the National AAHPER Convention, Chicago,
Illinois, March, 1966.

Edwards, Ralph. "The Development and Modification of
the Elusive Attitude," Education Forum, 28 (196A),

355-358.

 

Guttman, Louis and Suchman, Edward A. "Intensity
and a Zero Point for Attitude Analysis," American
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Kappes, Eveline E. "Inventory to Determine Attitudes
of College Women Toward Physical Education and
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Lehmann, Irvin J. and Payne, Isabelle K. "An
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Likert, Rensis. "A Technique for the Measurement of
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Lentz, Theodore F. "Reliability of Opinionaire
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2A.

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27.

28.

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5A

Mayhew, Lewis B. and Walker, H. Hill. "Attitude
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Molot, Gail S. "A Pilot Study: To Investigate the
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Rohrs, Jan Van Duzer. "The Relationship Between
Selected Physical Activity Background Factors
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Education Course at Michigan State University."
Unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State
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Rokeach, Milton. "Attitude, Attitude Change, and
Behavior Change." To be published in the Public
Opinion Quarterly,

 

. "The Nature of Attitudes." To be published
in the International Encyclopedia of the Social
Sciences.

Thurstone, L. L. "Attitudes Can Be Measured,"
American Journal of Sociology, 33 (1928), 529-554-

 

Wear, C. L. "Evaluation of Attitudes Toward Physical
Education as an Activity Course," Research Quarterly,
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Wessel, Janet A. and Nelson, Richard. "Relationship
Between Strength and Attitudes Toward Physical
Education Activity Among College Women," Research
Quarterly, 35 (196A), 562-569.

 

APPENDICES

55

L .. if“
.‘I

 

APPENDIX A

RAW DATA OF SUBJECTS' RESPONSES TO QUESTIONNAIRE

—-LONG FORM

RAW DATA OF SUBJECTS' RESPONSES TO QUESTIONNAIRE

--SHORT FORM

JUDGES RATINGS OF STATEMENTS

56

412 413 414 415 417 418 419

TO QUESTIONNAIRE-LONG FORM
All

3

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A07

A02

401

 

 

 

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APPENDIX B

INSTRUCTIONS AND QUESTIONNAIRE

FINAL SCALE CONSTRUCTION

61

62

ATTITUDES OF FRESHMEN TOWARD PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

Instructions for Questionnaire

 

This is a questionnaire designed to explore the attitudes of
freshmen toward physical activity. It is concerned with
your beliefs and feelings. There are no right or wrong
answers. This is not a test.

There will be 86 statements for your consideration. Each
statement has five possible responses; Strongly disagree
(#1), Disagree (#2), No opinion (#3), Agree (#A), and
Strongly agree (#5). The response is to be recorded on
your answer sheet in the following manner:

 

Strongly ’ . Strongly
Disagree Disagree No Opinion Agree Agree
1 2 3 A 5 \

After reading each statement you will know at once, in most
cases, whether you agree or disagree with the statement.

If you are undecided (or neutral) about the statement, then
mark no opinion. Mark the response that you feel best
reflects your personal opinion.

We are not concerned about connecting any person with any
paper, so please answer each statement as you actually
feel about it. Be sure to ANSWER EVERY STATEMENT.

*2.

*3.

*5.
*6.

VEL
*10.

Yll.

11 *12.
*13.

*lA.

X15-
716.

17.

18.

Yl9.

X*20.

(l)

(2)

(3)

(A)

(5)

63
It is good to know what exercises are appropriate
for specific body areas.

A good physical workout on the week—end is ade-
quate exercise for the week.

All that physical education does is show you
your weaknesses.

I am never too busy to exercise.

Exercises do not do that much good.

Physical education courses are nearly worthless.
A physical education course will make you aware
of conditions that can be improved on in your
social life.

It is possible to tell a great deal about a
person by the way he or she walks down the
street.

Physical education gives interest in being active.
A healthy body is foremost in my mind.

Physical activity is an enjoyable break from
classroom drudgery.

Physical education is a big waste.
One has to be an athlete to be physically fit.

Physical education encourages active part rather
than passive observing.

There is sheer pleasure in physical exertion.

It is important to be active when you are at
middle age.

We need to move and discover muscles to be aware
of our movement capabilities.

Physical activity provides a change of pace.

A person must be physically fit in order to meet
the stresses of life.

Our medical technology is so advanced that we
do not need to be physically fit.

21.

22.

23.

*2A.

25.

*26.

27.

28.

*29.

*30.

31.

*32.

33.

3A.

*35.

36.
37.

*38.

39.

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(l2)

(13)

6A
Physical activity gives an individual an interest
beyond his work.
Physical movement is a need and a joy.

I have found physical activities which I can
enjoy in the coming years.

Physical education gives me the means to remain
physically fit throughout my life.

Many things you do in life are concerned with
physical education.

Physical activity provides an understanding of
spectator sports.

Now is the time to acquire skills necessary for
active participation now and in later life.

Sport activities are enjoyable.

Physical activity can help me to relax and
enjoy life.

Being physically educated gives meaning to
activities that a person engages in daily.

Physical education motivates you to do exercises
out of class.

Physical education modifies one's outlook on
life by giving that person a feeling of worth.

It is necessary to have physical activity at
all ages.

You acquire better living through recreational
endeavors.

Using my leisure for physical activity is a
waste of time.

There is value in exercise and activity.

Physical activity is a means of working off
tension.

The main purpose of physical education is to
tell the person his or her capabilities in
athletic events.

One should enjoy the physical aspects of life.

*A0.

*A1.

*A2.

“3.

AA.

A5.
*A6.

A7.

A8.

A9.

50.

*51.

52.

*53-

5A.

55.

56.
57.

*58.

(1A)

(15)

(16)

(17)

(18)

65
Undesirable traits cannot be modified through
physical education.

The only valuable outcome of an activity class
is from the exercises done.

Tough exams tire me so I do not need any physical
activity after taking one.

Physical education should be stressed more at
early ages.

Being physically active adds zest to life.
Exercise can replace idle moments.

Television commercials are good sources of methods
for staying fit.

Man should know how to use his body to help
satisfy his psychological needs.

Physical education teaches broad principles which
a person can apply to himself at any age.

Regardless of how smart you are, your life is
limited by how fit you are.

My day would not be complete if I haven't
exercised.

Physical education classes gave me all the
physical activity that I will ever need.

There is a need to retire from the daily grind
through physical activity.

There is no need to be able to plan a personal
physical fitness program.

You have a higher regard for the body once you
know a little how it works.

Physical activity should become an integral
part of the person's life.

Competing with another person is exciting.

Physical education forms sensible ideas about
fitness.

I don't think that physical education should be
compulsory.

59.

60.

61.

63.

6A.

+65.
+66.

67.

*68.
*69.

70.

71.

72.

*73.

7A.

*76.

*77.

78.

(19)

(20)

(21)

(22)

(23)

66
Principles of physical education should be
utilized in everyday activity.

The main outcome of physical education is ful-
fillment of the individual's physical potential.

Physical education should make me more acceptable
to change in respect to activity.

Physical education helps a student to find him-
self, within peer groups.

One should learn to enjoy physical exercise.
People are afraid to be "active."
Physical education is ignored by most students.

A physically fit person is more optimistic than
a run-down person.

I see almost no value in physical education.

Physical weariness derived from participating
in a vigorous game over-shadows any pleasure.

Physical education should give you knowledge
of how you appear to others.

A person must be physically fit in order to
meet the stresses of life.

Physical fitness permits one to move more
efficiently.

There is no reason for an overweight person to
change his present condition since he has been
this way all of his life.

Taking a swim or playing a game during the
noon-hour would be a satisfying experience.

Physical activity helps resist psychological
disorders.

Being able to play any games well is of little
importance to me.

It is difficult to secure information concerning
body health.

Physical activity can be fun now and when you
are older.

*79-

80.

81.
+82.

83.

8A.
85.

*86.

(ZA)
(25)

(26)

67
I do not take part in a sport activity unless
persuaded by a friend.

Understanding the body is necessary for a weight
control program.

Daily exercise should be carried on through life.

Present information on health scares you into
becoming fit.

When exercise is experienced, a pleasant fatigue
follows.

Competition is good for everyone.

You need to be aware of the forms of physical
activity around you.

Physical fitness is good, but man can survive
without it.

*Indicates those items considered negative in nature.

()Indicates corresponding short form number.

+Omitted from statistical analysis due to inability to
intrepret context.

NOTE:

naire.

Item No. 62 was omitted from the original question—

68

Final Scale Construction

 

A final form of the questionnaire can be extracted
from the preceding information utilizing the reliability
and validity coefficients at a minimum of "r" equals .5
for both as criteria for an item to be included. Eighteen
statements from the long form meet this criteria for ac-
ceptance. Of these 18 only 3 are negative value state-
ments. While only eight of the items have acceptable
judges' ratings, the continuum as a whole is well repre-
sented. Seven of the items may be considered indicators
of general physical education objectives, one item is
indicative of the human movement objective of 105 Found-
ations, five items represent the bio-physiological ob-
jective, one corresponds to the sociological objective
and the remaining four indicative of the psychological
objective.

Item No. Statement
A. I am never too busy to exercise.
7. A physical education course will make you aware

of conditions that can be improved on in your
social life.

9. Physical education gives interest in being
active.
10. A healthy body is foremost in my mind.
ll. Physical activity is an enjoyable break from
classroom drudgery.
15. There is sheer pleasure in physical exertion.
17. We need to move and discover muscles to be

aware of our movement capabilities.

22. Physical movement is a need and a joy.
29. Physical activity can help me to relax and
enjoy life.
31. Physical education motivates you to do exercises

out of class.

32. Physical education modifies one's outlook on
life by giving that person a feeling of worth.

36. There is value in exercise and activity.

69

Item No. Statement
37. Physical activity is a means of working off
tension.
5A. You have a higher regard for the body once you
know a little how it works.
*58. I don't think that physical education should
be compulsory.
*68. I see almost no value in physical education.
*79. I do not take part in a sport activity unless

persuaded by a friend.

8A. Competition is good for everyone.

*Indicates those items considered negative in nature.

HICHIGQN STQTE UNIV. LIBRARIES

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