RESOURCE PROBLEMS AND POLICIES OF SELECTED LOW INCOME AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES AND SCOTLAND The“: for III: Degree OI M. 5. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Roderick MacDonald 1959 TH SSSS mumgmzuygwwuywlmun“!!!mm 3 1 4152 IJBRARY Michigan State University OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to remove charge from circulation records RESOURCE PROBLEMS AND POLICIES or SELECTED LOW INCOME AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES AND SCOTLAND By RODERICK MACDONALD AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the College of Agriculture Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Resource DevelOpment 1959 Approved -6; 6/ ._ .. .. _ ABSTRACT Low per capita incomes characterise certain areas in both the United States and Scotland. The reason is primarily one of resource allocation. These areas gener- ..... , ”—1. ally have poor agricultural 0115/, limited natural resonates,“ i, AW' and are often located in the mor “isolated regions. In some cases their resources ave been exploited in the past with no thought given to conservation for the future. The transition from an essentially agrarian economy to an in- dustrial one tended to raise incomes and living standards around the centers of industry, and this encouraged many peeple to migrate to these industrial centers from the ru- ral areas. Those that remained were often the older and less able-bodied members of the communities; and as living standards and costs continued to rise in response to con- tinued industrialization, so the disparity in incomes grew. Through the years, industry itself has shown a marked re- luctance to locate in these low income areas. The intent of this study is to analyse one such area in each country. The area chose in the United States is thQ:Upper Penin:gla of Michigan, lying North of the Straits of Mackinac and connected by bridge with the South- ern part. The area in”Scotl is located in What is com- ‘MWW monly known as the Highlands; and the two areas will be referred to throughout the text as the Upper Peninsula and the Highlands, respectively. A.historical resume discloses the "Raison d'etre" of low income. Due consideration is accorded the human resource and natural resources including minerals, soils, and forests. The agriculture of the two areas is reviewed, as well as other sources of revenue in, cluding fishing and the tourist and resort industry. Some Space is devoted to cultural values and, in particular, the celtic culture of the Highlands. A resource analysis is attempted and some conclusions drawn as to the prOSpects for the future. Consideration is then given to the programs initi- ated in both countries aimed at alleviating these problems. In America the program we are concerned with is known as the Rural DeveIOpment Program. It Operates through the setting up of "Pilot Counties” in designated low income areas such as the Upper PeninSula. In these Pilot counties local committees are organised of people interested in the general welfare of their area. These committees are guided in their work by various Government agencies such as the Cooperative Extension Service, which has its counter- part in Scotland in the College Advisory Services. These committees undertake all kinds of pregrams for the utili- zation of available resources and the encouragement of schemes that will contribute to the economic base of the area. In Scotland the programme is being undertaken by legislative powers granted through the Crofters (Scotland) Act 1955. Crofter is the term used to denote the tenant of a small farm in the area under review; and his role is fully explained in the text. An evaluation of both pro- grams is made as well as some suggestions as to how they could be improved. This dissertation makes no attempt to consider other possible approaches to the resource and low income problems of these areas except to cite the achievements of the Tennessee Valley Authority. A recognition of these problem areas by a wider section of the pepulation and a more active participation by those most closely concerned would undoubtedly ensure the success of the alleviative measures that have been adapted, as well as measures formu— lated outwith these programs. A fair share of the pros- perity of the rest of the country would then.be assured for the peeple in these areas that have been less fortun- ately endowed. RESOURCE PROBLEMS AND POLICIES OF SELECTED LOW INCOME AREAS IN THE UNITED STATES AND SCOTLAND By RODERICK MACDONALD A THESIS Submitted to the College of Agriculture Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Resource Development 1959 I.» . v’ 9 ~— ‘3‘ ’ f,» 179/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Frank Suggitt and Dr. Clifford Humphrys of the Department of Resource Deve10pment for the many helpful suggestions and criti- cisms they made during the writing of this dissertation. A debt of gratitude is owed Dr. William Kimball, Program Leader in the Department, for reading the original manu- script, making available many sources of information, and giving much valuable guidance on structure and style. I also wish to thank Mr. Paul Schneider for his help in the preparation of maps and illustrations. Mr. Paul Barrett, Land Use Specialist in the Depart- ment, made available a great deal of valuable information on.the Upper Peninsula. I am particularly indebted to him for enabling me to spend some time with him in the Upper Peninsula and to learn at first hand some of its problems. His knowledge of the area gave me much cause for admira- tion. My thanks are also due Dr. Alfred Etter of the Department of Fisheries and Wildlife for making possible a trip to the Southern States of Kentucky, Tennessee, Ala- bama, and Georgia and visiting low-income areas there. His kindness and patience, as well as his many valuable comments on the areas we visited, is much appreciated. Acknowledgement is also due the Department of Agri- culture for Scotland for the leave of absence to undertake this course of study, and in particular Mr. M. A. M. Dickie, Chief Lands Officer, and Mr. Malcolm Macaulay, Senior Lands Officer, for bearing with me in.my absence from duty. Finally, I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, whose gener- osity in.making available a scholarship enabled me to study in the United States, and among many other assignments, undertake this study. I am.particularly indebted to Leonard L. White, Secretary of the Foundation, for his help, guidance, and courtesy during my stay at Michigan State University. CHAPTER II III IV VI TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . HI STORICfl . C O O O O C O O O The Highlands. . . . . . . The Upper Peninsula. . . . POPULATION AND POPULATION TRENDS :”The Highlands. . . . . . . \‘The Upper Peninsula. . . . GEOLOGY, SOILS, AND CLIMATE. . The Highlands. . . . . . . Geology. . . . . . . . $0118 0 O O O O O 0 O 0 Climate O O O O O O O O The Upper Peninsula. . . . Geology. . . . . . . . 80118 O O O O 0 O O O 0 Climate O O O O O O O O AGRICULTURE. O O O O O 0 O O O The Highlands. . . . . . . The Upper Peninsula. . . . FORESTRY O O O O O O O O O O O The Highlands. . . . . . . The Upper Peninsula. . . . Page l6 16 23 52 52 55 42 42 42 45 48 50 50 55 55 55 69 69 74 CHAPTER VII VIII IX X XI XII TABLE OF CONTENTS NATURAL RESOURCES AND AUXILIARY INDUSTRIES ‘The Highlands. . . . . . . . I\The Upper Peninsula. . . . . THE TOURIST AND RESORT INDUSTRY. g/The Highlands. . . . . . . . IxThe Upper Peninsula. . . . . RURAL DEVELOPMENT AT WORK. . . . The Highlands. . . . . . . . The Upper Peninsula. . . . . AREA ANALYSES. . . . . . . . . . PROGRAM ANALYSES AND CONCLUSIONS SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHYOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0000000000000000000000. Page 81 81 86 91 91 94 101 101 106 117 132V‘ 159 ’ 143 II III FIGURE 10 11 12 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A typical crofting township showing the strips of arable land and the common pasture in the distance................... Dunvegan castle on the Isle of Skye. An- cestral home of the Macleod clan, and still inhabited by the present chief of the ClaDOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.000.000.000.0000 Land cleared for farming in the foreground and forest land in the background, in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan............... Abandoned land and an abandoned farmstead in the Upper Peninsula.................... Highland cattle in their natural habitat. They are used for cross breeding with bet- ter beef breeds, to which they impart a hardiness that enables them to stay out— Side 811 WinterOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. Loch Coruisk in the Isle of Skye. A well known scenic spot in the Highlands........ A good stand of young timber in the High- land-SOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. The preparation of land by ploughing for planting trees in the Highlands........... A typical area of poor second growth tim- ber land in the Upper Peninsula........... A typical well managed stand of timber in the Upper Peninsula....................... A small farm unit in Kentucky and typical of the type for which the rural develop- ment prOgram was initiated............... A low income area in Northern Alabama. The steepness of the slope makes cultiva- tion difficult and the land erodes read- ilyOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0000... Page 20 2O 30 50 59 59 71 71 79 79 111 111 III III. III» II. III 0 l I O O 0 Q U y I I O O o c O I O t o C O o . a a 2 O . J u g I I O I v I I t FIGURE 15 l4 15 16 PLATE LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A sawmill surrounded by forest land in the Upper Peninsula....................... Experimental plots of trees on peat soils in the HighlandSOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0.0000... A low income area in Tennessee............ Broiler production and hog raising on a small farm unit in Northern Georgia. This is one answer to the problem of limited acreSOOOOOOOOOOO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Land‘map of Scotland showing the seven crofting counties of Invernessshire, Rossshire, Argyllshire, Sutherland, Caithness, Orkney Islands, and Shetland Islands, and the area reviewed in the theSiSOOOOOOOOO0.0.000...0.0.0....0...... Land map of the State of Michigan, show- ing the Upper Peninsula.................. Graphic presentation of the p0pulation of Scotland and of the Highlands............ Land map of the State of Michigan showing the net migration into or out of the counties between April 1950 and July 1957 Land map of the State of Michigan showing the three counties designated as pilot counties in the Rural DeveIOpment Program Land map of the United States showing the pilot counties participating in the Rural Development Program...................... Page 88 88 129 129 Page 56 58 107 109 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS TABLE Page 1 Change in population of Scotland and the Highlands from 1821 to 1947............. 55 2 Pbpulation of parishes in Sutherland County showing the density per 100 acres 54 5 Change in rural pOpulation of Michigan by economic areaSooooooooooooooooooooooo 59 4 Rate of outmigration from the Upper Peninsula, 1940 to l950................. 59 Pepulation change from 1950 to 1957..... 40 6 Table showing value of tourist and re- sort industry to the economy of the Upper PeninsulaOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.9000 loo CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Recent advances in technology have brought mankind to the brink of an age that economically promises more than at any other time in.his history. Yet a world survey shows the countries and their p0pulations to be divided into two camps, a relatively prosperous small number of countries and a large number that are very poor. Simi- larly there are areas within individual countries less well off economically than others. We are concerned in this dissertation.with the relatively prosperous countries of the United States and Scotland and with two less econom- ically well off areas in these countries. The deve10pment of both countries followed the well defined pattern of an agrarian economy followed by an in- dustrial one. Centers of industry grew usually in suit- ably located areas; and peOple migrated from the rural to the urban setting. Industrialization gradually improved standards of living; and some rural areas, either due to isolation, lack of or depletion of natural resources, or poor agricultural soils, failed to keep pace with these rising standards or to share in the general prosperity of the countries. This is in accord with the writings of Gunner Myrdal in his book, ”Rich Lands and Poor,” when he says: If things were left to market forces, unhampered by any policy interferences, industrial production, commerce, shipping and indeed almost all these econ- omic activities which in develOping economy tend to give a bigger than average return-~and in addition science, art, literature, education and higher cul- ture generally-~would cluster in certain localities and regions leaving the rest of the country more or less in a backwater. . . The localities and regions where economic activity is expanding will attract net immigration from other parts of the country. As immigration is always selective, at least with re- spect to the migrants age, this movement by itself tends to favour the rapidly growing communities and disfavour the others.1 Many examples of this sequence of events could be cited. For example, Detroit with its automobile industry which has attracted waves of immigrants from North and South and Glasgow in Scotland with its shipbuilding indus- try attracting immigration from all parts of Scotland and in particular the Highlands. Much of this migration is in? evitable and necessary, provided a reasonable balance be— tween rural and urban areas is maintained. To do this, the rural areas must be made as attractive to live in as the urban areas; and the Tennessee Valley Authority has shown what can be done by a coordinated approach to the problems of rural areas. 1Gunner Myrdal, Rich Lands and Poor (New Yerk: Harper and Brothers, 19575, pp. 26-27. SCOTLAND SHOWING THE SEVEN CROFTING COUNTIES AND SURVEY AREA ORKNEY ISLANDS SHETLAND ISLANDS LEGEND --—- COUNTY BOUNDARIES R mAE A OF WEST HIGHLAND SURVEY In terms of per capita income, nearly 1,400,000 peOple in the designated low income areas of the United States earn less than 31000 ( £525) per annum. These areas which cover 1000 counties comprise in particular the Appalachian.Highlands and Ozark Highlands, the South- ern cotton country States and parts of the Southwest, as well as the Northern parts of the Great Lakes States. Both white and Negro peOple are involved as well as Spanish American and American Indian. In Scotland almost one third of the land area might be placed in this category, namely the Northern third, much of which.is mountainous land. The dissimilarity in size of the two countries makes it impossible to do other than make a cursory reference to many of the low income areas in the United States; and this dissertation will deal primarily with a comparison of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the Western and Northwestern areas of the Highlands of Scotland. Both of these areas suffer from depleted resources, poor agricul- tural soils, and serious migration. The Upper Peninsula of Michigan comprises the counties of Chippewa, Mackinac, Luce, Schoolcraft, Algar, Dickinson, Delta, Menominee, Marquette, Baraga, Iron, Houghton, Keweenaw, Ontonagon, and Gogebic. The area in Scotland comprises parts of the coun- ties of Invernessshire, Rossshire, Sutherland, and M '0 H IGAN DQ . “AN-Tin?" “FIBER-‘0' Wr%-}ALTN: (“TANGO ' I694 ' “NI/f leVfflSflm i I .___ . UPPER PENINSULA i I i mi I . . -_. ._.'.__ -_J--. ..1._ _.I_- ._I_. mso~ T L M! Esotou [—CL AR! [61. ADM/v73 REWAC : ' ' ' I-- : I I I ' L— ”(mow ._.._}_.._- - . 847 ocum Mm: r60 [MECOS n ISABELL A mm— mo. I ._- _._.. I I I I I— ruscou ISM/L AC ---— L_-1._I_. _ __-——- "" -' I All/Sk‘g‘ I iumrcuu TENTH/er Tue/flaw | ' — . - _'. _fl _ , l I ' 4. J KENf ' . . - Juan? __ _____ __~__I_____-I——ENE$f El __. ormuI ' ION/A ~6u~ro~ l-smmus I .9011" . 5” o I . I . . L I . I - ’-'r— _., _“L-_U_._V___L______J____J___I_E)AKLAND ,mmue. 1:21th I BAR/7r vurwv “meme iuvwes'avi I ._-__. _-—- VAN SURE—NTKTIMMAJCAL Howv I—JACKSON filmswrmwl WAY/V! -, I I I I‘a's‘s‘ ‘ , s: Jagged 'a'kiNcWé/zZEML-fl 1. ems? ' T tom? BERN/[NI I I l l I I I Lg I I 1 fi— 6 Argyllshire. Included within these county boundaries are the Islands of the Inner and Outer Hebrides. County units in Scotland are normally larger than those in the Upper Peninsula. The Upper Peninsula extends to some 16,000 square miles and the Highland area to some 10,000 square miles. The population of the Upper Peninsula is around 259,000 and that of the Highlands around 120,000. There are many basic differences between the two areas, and in- deed the Appalachian Highlands with their folk society would more nearly represent the culture that is found in the Highlands. However, except for culture, both areas are faced with essentially the same low income problems, and it will be on this basis that a comparison of problems and alleviation policies will be considered. The question that should be posed at the outset is why, if these areas cannot support a vigorous pOpulation from their own resources, should any alleviation policies be attemptedit all. PeOple who favour equating population with economic base would probably argue that depOpulation was a good thing and that the sooner both were equated the better. The agricultural fundamentalist sees in this ru- ral to urban migration a loss to the country of good seed, nurtured on good earth, and superior to anything urban. This is the sentiment expressed by the Arab historian 7 IbnpKhaldun centuries ago when he said, "Nomadic and rural people are more healthy, more sound, more brave, more re- sourceful, more self-reliant, more independent, more stern, less immoral, less degenerate than urban people.”2 Much more recently T. Lynn Smith, in discussing rural urban.migration, said, Since cities are a kind of colony which the farms rep0pulate each year, it is a matter of the highest social importance to know what types of pe0ple leave the land for the urban centers. The well known tens dency for like to beget like presages serious conse- quences for any nation in which rural-urban migration consistently'cgrries away the cream of the pOpulation from the land. If these statements were true then this in itself would constitute a strong reason for the preservation of population in rural areas but in fact there is a consider- able body of evidence to show that this is not the case. Recent studies have shown that urban reared people hold many advantages over rural bred peOple particularly in terms of personality develOpment, educational level, and Job Opportunity. They also show that urban residence in- fluences educational aspiration but not occupational as- piration. The amount of a person's social experience, especially in childhood, tends to determine the extent to 2Barnes-Becker, Social Thou ht from Lore 32 Science, (D. C. Heath and Company, 1938 , pp. 793-70V. 3T. Lynn Smith and C. G. McMahon, The Sociology 2; Urban Life, (New York: Dryden, 1951), pp. 508-509. 8 which he is retiring or aggressive in social relationships, so that the isolated location of rural youths would tend to make them less persuasive and less able to become leaders.4 A study on personality adjustment, however, showed that rural children were superior to urban children;5 Whatever may be the true situation, modern techno- 10gy, including television, radio, and so on, has narrowed the gap between rural and urban living; and each undoubtedly has its merits and demerits. The question might well be an academic one at this stage were it not for official policy in Britain to maintain a rural population in the Highlands. In the United States technological change, change in real income, papulation composition, and general level of employment and prices has caused the decline of the family-type farm, justly claimed as the foundation upon.which American agriculture was built. Technology has enabled a saving in labour to be made while increasing production on the same area of land. This has caused re- dundancy of many of the agricultural labour force and has forced them to move into industry. It has also caused an 4Otto Amman, Die Gesellschafttordrung und ihne Naturlichen grundlagen, (Jena. Verlag von Gustus Fischer, 1895), P0 1450 5A. H. Mangus, Personalit Ad'ustment of Rural and Urban Children, (American Social ReviewXITT. .0ctober, I§585. pp. 5554575. 9 increase in size of unit to justify the full use of tech— nology. It is a known fact that for similar investments, farm incomes over the years have not compared favourably with non-farm incomes. This has been a further reason for migration. The reluctance of industry to move into remote rural areas because of transportation and other costs has also forced the unemployed labour force to move where industry was located. The decline of existing in- dustries, such as the fishing industry, in both the High— lands and the Upper Peninsula has further contributed to papulation loss. The end result of this migration is nearly always an unequal age distribution of the population. The work- ing age pOpulation.moves away leaving the young and the old. Proceeding to its logical conclusion, community services, churches, schools, and community centers eventu- ally cease to function; and the social life of the commu- nities becomes moribund. It may finally cease to resemble a community. There are some areas in the Highlands that have almost reached this end point. Many others are in various stages of social decay. The speed of migration from the Upper Peninsula would seem to indicate that there may be communities here, too, going through the process just described. 10 Many attempts have been made to introduce industry into these areas; and they have met with little success. Government expenditure has been heavy in both areas; and while the capital expended has contributed to the economy of the areas involved, such expenditures are too often ephemeral in so far as lasting employment for an enduring population is concerned. The profit-making motivation of industry has militated against establishment in these areas. Industrialists, looking for suitable locations for establishing plants, are interested in the type of market to be supplied, proximity to such markets, labour supply, materials and transportation. Other considera- tions,such as abundant water supplies, local amenities, etc., are also important. Of these, transportation is probably the greatest deterrent to the establishment of industry in the Highlands and the Upper Peninsula, for its cost, unless local markets were available, would quickly cause profits to shrink if competing with similar products produced near the consuming centers. There are instances where this may not be the case. For example, a high value product, low cost material with a very wide market distribution could be produced in these areas at comparable costs to recognized centers of industry, since transportation assumes much less importance. 11 If labour and power costs could be bought at a lower figure, then it might be possible to cover addi- tional costs of producing in these areas, but organized labour unions are making this less possible. Local mar- kets are few in number, and the bulk of manufactured goods would require to be exported. A good example of an industry that moved into the Highlands because of abundant water resources is an aluminum company. The raw material is imported and processed, and the finished pro- duct is transported away to the South. It has attracted labour towards it and has given prosperity to the two areas concerned. This however is a special case, and the Highlands were one of the very few places that could sup- ply the necessary volume of water for the operation. Had this been available nearer the Southern markets, it is possible that this industry would have been located there. There is a further reason for the apparent reluc- tance of industry to move North. Industrial plants tend to locate near their competitors in order that the skilled labour and facilities of the area may be enjoyed. The con- centration of industry in the River Clyde valley in Scot- land and along Lake Erie in America is an example of this. As long as competition remains as keen in industry as at the moment, it is problematical if any major industry, and l2 few minor industries, could afford to locate any distance from its markets. The location of the major industries often determines the location of the minor ones if they are to compete in a free enterprise economy. The older a country, the more culture and tradi- tion it has amassed over the centuries. By the same token the value placed upon a culture by the pOpulation of a country is greater the older the country is. The Highlands have a quite definite culture of their own, emanating from a language that is still spoken there. This is the Gaelic language, a celtic tongue, which was spoken at one time throughout Scotland. The area covered by this disserta- tion is the last surviving stronghold of the language. It contains a wealth of literature, poetry, and songs; and its gradual demise is regretted in many quarters. It is important to mention it here because its decline is so directly related to the serious migration that has taken place. Those that remain today have lost many of the tra- ditions, although many others have been preserved, and attempts are now being made to further preserve for pos- terity much of the literature, poetry, etc. The fact that America was largely settled by Europeans has resulted in many cultures being brought to these shores, and the Pin- nish population of the Upper Peninsula have a quite defi- nite culture of their own. 15 The question of whether attempts to preserve such cultures should be made is an academic one that is not apprOpriate for discussion here, but in an ever increas- ing materialistic world, the place of culture is a real one, and such a culture as found in the Highlands is so valuable that its preservation for as long as it is possi- ble would almost seem to be the duty of present society. Many peOple do not subscribe to this view and would be glad to see its demise, arguing that there is no room for it in this modern society. Others take the Opposite view and argue that the only hOpe for the future of these areas depends upon a return to a folk society way of life and a repudiation of modern industrialism. Whatever the solu- tion, it is the policy of the British Government to take the view of economic modernism but by no means condemning the area to a quick cultural death. It is recognized by most thinking people that a further decline and eventual extinction of the language is inevitable in any case and that no amount of effort on the part of economic improvers can halt it. But if economic develOpment could be fos- tered, the presently rapid demise of the culture could at least be slowed down, even allowing for a possible inva~ sion of foreign influence, which is likely if it is not too strong, to become assimilated into the culture. 14 There is one final point that appears relevant and that is the desirability of having as widely dispersed a population as possible in the event of war. While it can well be argued that modern weapons of war are no respectors of isolation, nevertheless the possibilities of survival for life and property is undoubtedly greater if dispersed over many communities than if concentrated in the large urban centers as is often the case now. The dispersal of industry, and with it the people that Operate it, would seem to be a wise precaution to take in the troubled world in which we live. The purpose of the study is to investigate the natural resources of each area, and their historical back- grounds, in order to determine the reasons for their de- cline. Alleviation policies are then discussed in the light of recent government legislation in Scotland which is concerned with the problems of the small farmers of the area, and in the United States in the light of a program of develOpment for low income areas,known as the "Rural DeveIOpment Program." The writer is very familiar with the program in Scotland. An attempt is then made to evalu- ate the two programs to determine what common policies could possibly be incorporated into them for their mutual benefit. NO attempt is made to arrive at any conclusion 15 or plan for the solution of the low income problem. That is outside the scape of a study of this kind: It may be said, however, that no single design could effectually solve the problem, but only a combination of approaches can eventually lead to the ultimate goal of a good stand- ard of living and Opportunity for all sections of the com- munity. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL The student of history would relate a period around 200 years ago as the start of the decay in the Highlands. Before this time the Clan social system was predominant. This system Operated on a basis of a real or imagined consanguinity between members of a particular area and bearing the same name. The country's geography lent itself to the isolation of communities of peOple, and it was almost inevitable that they should form themselves into closely knit systems if only to protect themselves from the internecine warfare that frequently took place between different clans. Each clan had a chief, a title held by reason of heredity, and of which he could not be divested. There was a real feeling of mutual respect between chief and clanspeOple, and in this respect the clan system was quite unlike the feudal system in England with its definite social stratification. The clan system was virtually a classless society; any social division was rather between different clans than in the same clan. The peOple gave the chief absolute loyalty; they fought for him in war, and in return he looked after their inter- ests. They all had their small areas of land, and as far - 16 - 17 as is known no cash rent was paid. In any case, purchas- ing power was virtually limited to what the community itself could produce. Pbpulation statistics for this period of Highland history are not available, but it is thought that the pOpulation was very much higher than today; and although standards of living were presumably not high, they prob- ably compared more than favourably with living standards elsewhere. Although self-sufficiency was the rule, south- ern markets for their cattle were being developed; and since large areas of this land was forested at this time, timber was sold as well. The grazing lands produced excel- lent stock for the southern markets, where the animals were finally fattened for the butcher. As far as is known, there were few if any sheep at this time. Scotland and England by this time were united under the Hanoverian ébwn, but the exiled Prince of the Stewart line of kings,that had formerly ruled in Scotland, was exiled in France and was determined to regain what he cone sidered to be his rightful throne. Many Highlanders were sympathetic to this cause and when he landed in Scotland from France at the head of a small army, he was quickly joined by the Highland clans, who were unsympathetic to the Hanoverian dynasty. The campaign failed, and this 18 failure is important because it marked the end of the old Clan social system. Many Clan chiefs were banished from their lands for taking part in the uprising and the clans- people were deprived of their natural leader. These events caused the social structure to break down. The disinte- gration of the system would have eventually occurred in any case,but had it been delayed until the peOple were ready to exploit the natural resources themselves and to agitate for better transportation systems to develop trade, the problem Of low income and depleted lands might have been much less than it is today. The loss of their rights and privileges'forced the Clan chiefs to migrate to the South, where living costs were higher and where it was necessary to have a cash in- come. Endeavors to Obtain this from their own lands were seldom successful since none of the Clan people could meet the excessive demands being made upon them. ,The chiefs looked elsewhere, and soon large southern sheep farmers began to offer high rents for Highland pasture lands. These pastures were worth a great deal in the expanding economy of this time. Furthermore, industry was being rapidly develOped in the Midland valley, and this required large quantities of timber for charcoal and iron smelting. The Highland forests seemed to be the answer, and the l9 chiefs were offered attractive sums for growing timber. Soon a start to the most exploitive and extractive period in Highland history was begun. Thousands of acres of forests were cut down with no thought given to conserva- tion or reforestation. Sheep farmers were beginning to overstock the pastures with sheep and indeed burning down large tracts of forest to make more pasture lands. Sheep farmers objected to their rented pastures being used by the Clans peOple, so that in many cases the chiefs gave their people notice to quit. They were offered areas of land on the sea coast where they were expected to derive an income from fishing and small scale agriculture. Many of them emigrated overseas and helped to found the British Commonwealth. Those that remained lived a meagre existence, and as in Ireland, the introduction of the potato caused an unprecedented rise in pOpulation followed by conditions of famine when potato blight hit the potato cr0ps. It was the signal for a second mass migration. An industry was started using the seaweed that came ashore in large quantities along the coast. This weed was used in the manufacture of soda ash, but when it became cheaper to import the raw material from Spain, this industry also collapsed. By this time the government began to take an 20 FIGURE 1. A TYPICAL CROFTING TOWNSHIP, SHOWING THE STRIPS ‘ OF ARABLE LAND AND THE COMMON PASTURE IN THE DISTANCE. :2. .. . . . . FIGURE 2. DUNVEGAN CASTLE ON THE ISLAND OF SKYE. AN- CESTRAL HOME OF THE MACLEOD CLAN AND STILL INHABITED BY THE PRESENT CHIEF OF THE CLAN. 21 interest in the plight of these peOple and in 1883 set up a Royal Commission to look into the problem and to make recommendations. The result of their published report was the passing of an Act of Parliament, which gave these people security of tenure over their land, the right of a fair rent as Opposed to the rack renting that was prevalent in.some quarters. The act also provided for the payment of compensation for improvements carried out by the ten- ant, in the event of his leaving the land. It did not, however, restore to them the lands of which they had been previously dispossessed, and they were given security of tenure over land which could never hOpe to provide them with a livelihood in itself. Thus the general trend in population and agricultural production was downward and between 1891 and 1911 the total population of the area of the Crofting counties fell from 360,367 to 341,535. The tillage acreage fell in 62 surveyed parishes from some 70,000 to 66,000 acres; the total cattle stock fell from 95,000 to 84,000; and the total sheep numbers from 947,000 to 889,000. By 1952 the tillage acreage was reduced to 38,000, the cattle stock to 58,000, and the sheep numbers had increased to 1,090,000.1 1Report of the Commission of Enquiry into Crofting Conditions. (Edinburgh: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, April , 1954) e 22 The depression years between the two world wars accentuated the problem of these peOple, just as it forced many much larger farmers out of business. Unem- ployment in industry forced many peOple back to the land in the Highlands, but as soon as conditions improved, they left once more. The stage was being reached when only the young and old were remaining on the land, and the important middle age groups were migrating south in search of industrial employment that was not available in their own locality. After the second World War of 1939-1945, the Government, alarmed at the state of agriculture and migration from the crofting counties,appointed another Royal Commission in 1951 with the following mandate: "To review crafting conditions in the Highlands and Islands with special reference to the secure establishment of a smallholding pOpulation, making full use of agricultural resources, and deriving the maximum benefit therefrom."2 The result of this Royal Commission after publica- tion of its report was the passing of the Crofters (Scot- land) Act in 1955. The Royal Commission agreed that public action should be taken: to have thought it right, however, to record our unanimous conviction, founded on personal knowledge and on the evidence we have received, that in the 2 id., p. 2. 25 National interest, the maintenance of these communi- ties is desirable, because they embody a free and independent way of life, which in a civilization predominantly urban and industrial in character is worth preserving for its own intrinsic quality.3 There are many more reasons than this,of course. This area is the fountainhead of the feeder cattle and sheep that are bred here and transported to southern farms for ultimate fattening. In an insular economy like that of Britain, it is essential that the best land use be practiced, even at the expense of heavier support payments than.might seem Justifiable in a continental economy like that of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. In Scotland the use of these high lands for breeding and wool production releases the better soils for grain, stock feeding, and row crOp production. The history of the decline of the Upper Peninsula's economy took a rather different route. When the state of Michigan entered the Union, all of the Upper Peninsula was public domain with the exception of some patent grants held by fur traders. This area had for centuries been the home of Indian tribes, and their claims to the land were settled either through treaty or purchase. Private inter- ests were eager to purchase land from the Government, and 31bid., p. 9. 24 with the exception of land held by the Indians, all Feder- ally owned land was sold or conveyed by special agents. The land was all forested with excellent stands of hard- woods and many other species including some of the world's best white pine. Trade was rapidly expanding in the Lower Peninsula at this time and many speculators saw the possibility of making money in the untapped timber resouraxs of the Upper Peninsula. Among them were pioneer farmers who hoped to develop the land for farming after clearing the virgin timber. The Homestead Law was passed in 1862 and pioneer farmers and loggers began purchasing land directly from the Government or from the early specu- lators who had purchased in the hOpe of making a quick profit. Furthermore, iron and copper were discovered in the Western ranges, and this fact caused a further wave of immigration to this area of the Peninsula. The fol- lowing years, as in Scotland, were marked by exploita- tion of these natural resources. Whole forests were cut down by the timber barons with no thought given to any form of conservation. Many large tracts of virgin forest were set on fire to hasten the process of land clearance so that the pioneer farmers could begin cultivating the land. Unfortunately much of the land in the Upper Peninsula was unsuited to farming, and widespread erosion occurred as a result of natural cover loss and poor farming methods. 25 There were pockets of good land among the poor and forests continued to be burned down by ambitious pioneer farmers. Furthermore, there was a ready market for hay and other farm produce in logging camps, and plenty of available labour so that land prices continued to rise as the boom continued. Good advertising by the speculators helped to hold land prices at a high level, as there was a general fear that pioneers might prefer to go West to the prairies when word of those rich farm lands became known. There was also a fear that no further land would be available for speculation once the prairie lands were settled, and every speculator wanted tonake a quick profit as long as the boom continued. It was being advertised in the south as the Cloverland of America.4 Fortunes were being made in iron and copper, and only the highest grade ore was being taken by shallow mining. Extraction was thus easy, and no thought was given to the future except that it gave every indication of being a prosperous one. It was a highly artificial situation, and a col- lapse was inevitable. The areas of good agricultural 4Raleigh Barlowe, Administration of Tax Reverted Lands in the Lake States, (Michigan State College Agri— cultural Experiment Station, Technical Bulletin 225, December, 1951). q 5(71’ 26 land were infrequent,and many promising farms were aban- doned as the logging camps moved out of the district, and the ready market for produce collapsed. It was not until the 1920's however when land values throughout the coun- try slumped that a virtual end came to the market. This coincided with a depression in agriculture throughout the country, as well as many countries overseas. The lumber industry began to decline and as labour became scarcer, the hardest hit farmers were those with partially cleared land and little prOSpect of a market for their farm pro- ducts. The high land values now came into play. Lumber companies and farmers found themselves with cutover land, timber land, and farm land requiring the payment of taxes that income could not hOpe to meet. In 1893 an act had been passed vesting fee title of tax delinquent land in the State of Michigan.5 When many of these people could no longer meet their tax commitments, the lands became tax-delinquent and reverted to the State, in lieu of taxes. The people moved out of the area to seek a live- lihood elsewhere. Reversion of lands was accelerated by the ambitious local government schemes sponsored by the pioneer settlers with visions of prosperity in the future. SAct 206, PA 1893, Compiled Laws of Michigan, 1948, Chapter 211. arm 9 .1. 1‘ 27 Schools, roads, public buildings, and drainage schemes were promoted to attract large-scale settlement. When these plans did not materialize, they were left with in- debtedness to pay off, as well as the taxes, and the economy of the area could not meet all these burdens. Tax reverted land could be sold by the State and even at this stage many speculators bought up this land very cheaply. Eventually however the legislature repealed the act that made the sale of tax reverted lands possible, as it was felt that this process led to ruthless specula- tion, and in any case the lands were better suited to re- forestation than farming. A Special concession was af- forded former owners, interested in claiming properties held from tax reversion; but few took advantage of this offer. Under present laws when lands have been tax de- linquent for three years they are offered at tax sales by the county treasurer of each county on the first Tuesday in May of each year, when lands not considered suitable for conservation purposes are sold. Many go for recrea- tional purposes. To offset loss of revenue by local counties, since state lands are exempt from taxation, a payment in lieu of taxes is made on different classes of land. Lands may also be exchanged between private and federal agencies if ammutual need for these areas is shown, 28 and particularly if physical consolidation of adjacent blocks is involved. The total land area administered by the State Conservation Department,which is the public agency responsible for administration of lands acquired through tax reversion, purchase, or gift, is 3,464,304.9 acres. The total area of land in the Upper Peninsula is 10,584,320 acres. The history of mining makes no better reading. In Ironwood in the west end of the Upper Peninsula there were 23 iron mines at one time and it had a pOpulation of 18,000.6-> Today, the pOpulation is down to 11,000 and there are only six mines. In Gogebic county, six mines have been closed down.completely and the miners have had to move elsewhere. The easily accessible high grade ore in'both the iron and copper regions has long since been mined leaving the deeper seams of high grade and of lower grade ore. In spite of this,mining of these ores continues and new processes of producing iron from taconite ore by pelleting permits previously unprofitable ore to be mined. A new cepper mine started to Operate in Ontonagon County within the last few years and recently a request was made by a company to explore for c0pper ore on land owned by the 6Unpublished material collected from a survey in the Upper Peninsula. State, so that there is still definite interest in these natural resources of the Upper Peninsula. The latest capper mine, however, is only able to Operate with the aid of a considerable Government subsidy. Conditions continued to deteriorate as far as in- come levels in the Upper Peninsula were concerned during and after the second World War. Agriculture,in particu- lar, declined; and in 1954 the Secretary of Agriculture was asked to pay particular attention to the problems of farm peOple with low incomes. In his letter of transmit- tal to the Congress of the United States, the President said: In this wealthiest of nations, where per capita income is the highest in the world, more than one fourth of the families who live on American farms still have cash incomes of less than £1000 per year. They neither share fully in our economic progress nor contribute as much as they would like and could contribute to the Nation's production of goods and services.7 The report that was produced by the Department of Agriculture along with the cooperation of many organiza- tions and groups showed how the low income problem in farming was not new and that many means to alleviate the 7DevelOpment of Agriculture's Human Resources. (Mes- sage from the President of the United States. A report on problems of low income farmers. U. S. Government Printing Office, April, 1955). 30 ‘5’ ’7‘“ r. ! , a v s , . .' ’I~ -’ r -I’ !. 4 FIGURE 3. LAND CLEARED FOR FARMING IN THE FOREGROUND AND FOREST IN THE BACKGROUND. THE UPPER PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN. FIGURE 4. ABANDONED LAND AND AN ABANDONED FARMSTEAD IN THE UPPER PENINSULA. 51 situation through education, supervised credit, vocational training, and the provision of employment information had been tried over the years. ‘The broad objectives of the report were to help farm people,in particular, with low gross incomes achieve the goals to which they themselves aspired. PrOposals were not made on the basis of the re- spective merits of rural or urban life or, indeed, on the Optimum size of farm unit to enable one to make a reasonable livelihood. Instead the proposals were made on the econ- omic and social behaviour of the people most closely con- cerned. The interest and enterprise of the communities themselves, in cOOperation with all the State and Govern- ment agencies, were essential to the successful prosecu- tion of the program. CHAPTER III POPULATION AND POPULATION TRENDS The well-being of an area ultimately rests upon a healthy population of sufficient numbers and of regulated age structure. One of the serious problems facing low income and rural areas is the disparity between the vari- ous age groups. The working groups migrate to the urban areas leaving the young and the old behind. War, reli- gious, political, or racial persecution can force a man to leave his native place and so can economic stringency. In most cases if this is necessary, the nearer to his na- tive place he can go generally the better he likes it. More recently, however, young workers have been migrating to the towns where they feel they can live a more satisfy- ing life and where society offers them a better opportun- ity for advancement. The Highland area has witnessed successive waves of population increase and decrease in its history. We have already seen that the advent of the potato caused an unprecedented increase in pOpulation according to the lalthusian doctrine. For the past half century, however, population has been decreasing. At one time one tenth of - 52 - 33 of Scotland's population was located here, but today it is less than one fiftieth. Migration and a natural de- crease are the factors responsible for this. Figures up till 1947 are available and are shown in the accompanying table. The average density per square mile is 15 and some areas show half of this figure. TABLE I CHANGE IN POPULATION OF SCOTLAND AND THE HIGHLANDS FROM 1821 TO 1947 YEAR SCOTLAND HIGHLANDS 1821 2,091,521 190,907 1831 2,364,386 200,955 1841 2,620,184 200,253 1851 2,888,742 190,728 1861 3,062,294 174,983 1871 3,360,018 168,359 1881 3.735.573 167.928 1891 4,025,647 164,281 1901 4,472,103 158,738 1911 4,760,904 151,085 1921 4,882,497 140,946 1931 4,842,980 128,361 1947 5.138.652 122,385 A typical age pyramid for most areas in the region would scarcely resemble this geometric figure, as the age struc- ture in every case is so irregular with old and young in larger numbers than the virile middle age group. The old age bulge would be due principally to two causes, namely, 34 TABLE II POPULATION OF PARISHES IN SUTHERLAND COUNTY SHOWING THE DENSITY PER 100 ACRES AREA DENSITY PER PARISH IN ACRES 1851 1921 1931 1952 100 ACRES Assynt 110,091 2989 1755 1342 889 0.8 Durness 140,770 1152 620 520 413 0.3 Rogart 81,048 1525 804 732 571 0.7 Farr 258,750 2203 2152 1769 1366 0.6 those who have aged in the community and those who have returned from the cities to retire in their native place. [any of these are still active and settle down to a life of pastoral agriculture. Others are content to do very little on their land, which they either rent out to some- one else or use for grazing sheep. When the sex ratio is determined by dividing the number of males by the number of females and dividing by 100, a figure of 75.5 is obtained for the county and a figure of 90.5 for the parish of Assynt. This indicates fewer males than females in each case. The reason for the higher figure in Assynt parish is probably due to the temporary migration of males from the area in search of work. The greatest decline, as might be expected, is where the amount of land available is least and where there is no other type of work available locally. Thus the 35 Island of Lewis has a pOpulation in well-regulated age groups due to the flourishing Harris tweed industry that has been built up there over the years. The area of the Great Glen with its better soil type and larger units has also shown less decline in pOpulation. The most serious areas of population decline are the northwestern seaboard of the Counties of Sutherland, Ross, and Cromarty. It is in this area that some other form of employment must be found to supplement the income from the land, if a vigorous population is to be built up once more. ‘ In many of these townships along this seaboard, the decline in population has reached a stage when difficulty is being encountered in supporting local services, shops, a school, a church or a community center. When these inp stitutions can no longer be maintained, the ultimate is reached and the decay of the area is thereafter rapid. The accompanying graph shows the pOpulation picture and the pOpulation that might be supported in the Highlands. The gap is a serious one. The Upper Peninsula The population trend in the Upper Peninsula is equally disquieting. The urban population of Michigan has lFraser Darling, Pepulation Figures from West High- land Survey. (London: Oxford University Press, 1952). am. 6 2) 3m. $5.739 Rowena .m hp hogm 05.23am week scum. mm cll d 3.2 .Nm_ .5. com. .mm_ 66. Km. $0. .00. 4 . j 1 q . A O 10. =moznom one unoamoaobon headdsaoo new endpwpquv .nsm lenses as Heapsopom ens mesonoqsoo Sascha downwasqom .sOdwna .m .bm m.s a.HH 4.6H mmmmn mmma mmmm mmmm mmm u eaoomow m.m m.HH m.mH eon u was oem News mmfl . oomenepoo 0.0 n m.ma s.ma ppm s cm u new mom woe : anemones m.m m.mfl e.sa owns- mesa moon moon Host: accesses m.e n.6H «.ma 6H u mmoa mmma term macs oceH m.m m.mH m.Hm meemu com are made some- emeeem m.ma o.oH m.mm omoau some some mama ommm creeoeecs m.mH e.m O.Hm moms: seem mama some Ham eeqaaooes m.eH c.oa m.em once: neon meow mmmc mom u sedan o.oa m.m m.ma downs mama oars meme emomu Sandstone s.ma 6.0H m.mm moms: 5mm 4mm mmas an: 1 sense o.ma 6.0H m.mm mesa: mam mes mama mmm u eeeecaececm m.oa 4.3 6.5H mmmau mom has mmoa ems u eons m.mfl H.0H m.mm mom n ends mma mmma new .ceoasoes m.ea n.m m.mm some: mama seam amen swam staccato .ecoH ocean steam easements .ecoH mopeon esteem omoano .eez roz .pez .nom mmmdmmofln mo madmmOZH AdMDadz wZHBomm hmmd on ommH m024MO ZOHB mqmda 41 Analysis of the figures in the above tables shows that there was a natural increase of 25,600 during this period, but that there was a net migration out of the Upper Peninsula of 30,438 in the same period. These peOple were in the age group that the area could least af- ford to lose. CHAPTER Iv GEOLOGY, SOILS, AND CLIMATE Geology, soils, and climate have an important part to play in the economic develOpment of an area. The underlying structure of the areas we are dealing with, as well as the resources found above ground should thus be known. Climate plays a very important part in the ag- ricultural economy of an area and should also be consid- ered in relation to the other natural resources with which the areas have or have not been blessed. Highland Geology Five main geological formations are found in the Highlands as well as fragments and seams of other forma- tions that occur in such small percentages of the main formations as to be of little significance. The five formations are the Archaean gneiss, Torridonian sand- stone, Schists, granites, and basalts. The other forma- tions present are the Lewisian gneisses which are found in the Island of Lewis, limestones, old red sandstones, hornblende, quartzite, Lias, slate, and chalk. Some of the latter mentioned groups are very much superior to the former as soil parent material. Thus the best lands - 42 - 43 are found on the pockets of these formations and especially the old red sandstones and the limestones. The gneisses and the Torridonian sandstones are acid, non-porous rocks that do not readily break down into soil and because of the cool moist conditions found in the area and their acidity, quickly encourage peat formation. As a result, there are large areas of blanket bog found in the High- lands where the dominant vegetation is Scirpus (Deer grass) and Heather (Calluna). In some cases there will be a layer of mineral soil under the peat, but in other cases it will rest on the bed rock. The peat is cut and used for fuel by the local peOple, and experiments are going on at the moment to de- termine the feasibility of using it as fuel for the pro- duction of electricity. There are many areas in the High- lands where the peat has been completely skinned off, and where there is glacial till underneath, it has been pos- sible to cultivate the better grass species. New surface treatment techniques are now being develOped for improv- ing these lands. This enables them in turn to carry more stock. The higher alumina content of the schists aid in the develOpment of better soils, and since they are mostly found on the lepes, drainage is better, and peat forma— tion does not begin so readily. In the same manner the 44 granites contain richer basic materials than the gneisses or Torridonian sandstones and, with adequate rainfall, produce reasonably good agricultural soils. All of this area was glaciated during the last ice age, and the tOpography shows ample evidence of this, with glacial drift covering large areas. Many of these rock formations are exposed. The basalt is the richest formation of any magni- tude and is found in many parts of the inner islands of the Hebrides, including Skye. They break down readily into easily worked loams that are rich in bases. The vege- tation on these areas is much superior to the other for- mations and consequently the grazing stock per acre ratio is very much higher; indeed, in far too many cases, the ratio is too high, and the pastures have deteriorated as a result. Bad management of these pastures results in invasion by the bracken fern (PTERIS), and it has become a serious weed on many of the best basaltic pastures. Chemical control is being attempted, but cutting three times a year is the only remedy at the moment. This pro- cess is not only costly, but time wasting as well, for many areas can only be cut using hand implements. Where the less dominant formations are found, the arable and pasture lands are correspondingly better, 45 particularly on the limestones and old red sandstones. The agriculture of the area is usually reflected in the type of geological formation underneath, and dairy enter- prises that would practically be impossible on the gneisses are undertaken on these formations. Highland Soils The poverty of soils overlying the gneisses and Torridonian sandstones in the Highlands has already been noted. The non-porous nature of the gneiss gives rise to such a broken type of terrain that there is sometimes difficulty in finding suitable areas for cultivation. The soil derived from these formations is peaty in texture and acid in composition. It is spongy and difficult to drain. The pedologic process involves an accumulation of peat, a reduction of underlying inorganic matter and the develOpment of humic horizons. The general soil characteristics may be briefly stated as a relatively thick peat cover, a thin leached horizon, and a horizon marked by a brown organic staining. This tends to colour the resultant soil brown or greyish, particularly where the texture is heaviest. Where the glacial drift exists under the peat cover little oxidation has gone on and little weathering has evolved. Elevation, drainage, or moisture conditions may 46 alter the usual association between geological formation and soil type. For the most part, however, peat formation has gained ground, and a large percentage of the whole area has some peat deposits. Some areas have fared worse than others. The outer Hebridean Islands of Lewis, Harris, and the Uists, in particular, have large deposits of peat. 0n the west coast region of these islands are areas of sandy soils known as "Machair," which although very alka- line in nature grow good crops, particularly of barley and potatoes. They form a strip of from one-half to two miles wide between seashore and peat lands and are level or slightly undulating in tOpography. To counteract the alka- line nature of these soils and to build humus, they are heavily dressed with laminaria seaweed which comes ashore in abundance with the Atlantic swells. This is spread over the land to an average depth of a foot in the winter time, allowed to rot, and ploughed in the spring. The basalt of the Inner Islands such as Skye per- mit more free drainage,and the loamy soils produced are capable of yielding well. A brown loam is formed from the disintegration of the rock itself. The hill pastures support a Festuca/Agrostis type pasture excellent for grazing purposes,and better breeds of livestock that would scarcely survive on the poorer lands can be 47 satisfactorily raised on the basaltic soils. The alkalin- ity of the rock itself usually precludes peat formation. If overworked there is a tendency in this type of soil for the phosphorus to become fixed as apatite. Some areas around the island coasts have raised beaches of an earlier geologic age that are capable of cultivation, al- though they are gravelly in texture. The moist humid conditions favour this type of soil, but they dry out rapidly in drier climates and do not yield well. Blanket bog areas are only suitable for grazing ' purposes. Three types of blanket bog have been designated, classified according to the type of vegetation which is dominant. The Scirpus (Deer grass) peat type is the deepest and most extensive blanket bog area met with. As its name implies, it spreads over the landscape like a blanket. It is very acid and the scirpus is of such limited pasture value that many large acreages of land are virtually useless for agriculture, and as will be seen, this is not good forest land either. The second type of peat land is characterised by a Calluna (Heather) climax. It is a less acid peat with a pH of from 3 to 4.5. It can be more readily drained, which partly explains its less acid nature. Heather is of some value as sheep grazing, particularly in winter time if there is snow on 48 the ground. It is normally burned in a rotation to encour- age the growth of new shoots. This is the habitat of the red grouse which is indigenous to Scotland. Many attempts have been made to utilize this type of soil for reforesta- tion and some successes are now being achieved, but it is not entirely suitable for this purpose, for a variety of reasons, notably its acidity but also its poor root hold. The third type of peat soil is found on the drier areas and in natural seepage zones. It is by far the best grazing land on this type of soil and is also suitable for reforest- ation. It is not normally suitable for cultivation. Some- times the peat soil will overlie glacial till, and in a case like this it may be worth while clearing the peat, removing the boulders and bringing the exposed soil back into cultivation. It tends to remain peaty in texture, and acidity must be corrected at frequent intervals. Highland Climate Climatically, the Highlands have their limitations. Blessed with a favourable all the year round temperature, due to the influence of the gulf stream, they suffer-ex- tremes of rainfall ranging from 40 inches to as high as 150 inches, although this higher figure is infrequent and in limited areas. The resultant precipitation leaches out large quantities of nutrients and is responsible for a 49 considerable amount of erosion, although generally speak- ing the serious nature of this problem is not sufficiently appreciated. The gulf stream has the effect of reducing the amount of snow that would otherwise fall at this lati- tude of 58 degrees, but this fact also hastens precipita- tion, as it does not allow much of this rain to fall as snow, which would thaw gradually in the spring and seep down hill gradually. Rainfall varies considerably from region to region due to the proximity of mountain ranges, some of which rise to over 4000 feet. Indeed the highest mountain range in Britain is contained within this region. The picturesque inner Hebridean island of Skye, for example, has a very high rainfall due largely to a high range of mountains in the southeast end, while the Northern Hebrides have a rela- tively low rainfall. The mean.winter temperature is 3 to 4 degrees higher than on the east coast of Scotland and is relatively mild. There may be some frost-free periods even in the winter time. There are often severe winter gales on the exposed west coast, however, with wind veloci- ties as high as 80 to 100 miles per hour. Lack of trees can make living in these places uncomfortable at such times, and the winds are a limiting factor in reforestation programs. More sunshine is enjoyed by these islands during 50 the summer months than the mainland valleys. Throughout the area growing days of 160 to 180 days would be common, although again there are variations between areas. Rela- tive humidity shows some variation but is at no time un- comfortable. Upper Peninsula Geology Geologically, the Upper Peninsula is extremely com- plicated and little would be served by attempting to exam- ine all the formations. There are three quite distinct formations, namely, the Precambrian rocks of igneous and metamorphosed type, sedimentary Paleozoic rocks and un- consolidated glacial and lacustrine deposits. As in the Highlands, this whole area has been subjected to glacia- tion. Consequently, most of the land is covered with glacial drift, with occasional rock knobs and ridges left exposed. Much folding has occurred and diverse rock types including granites, gneisses, schists, and metamorphosed sedimentary rocks are found. The land is not elevated to any extent except in the Porcupine Mountains in the west end which consist largely of interbedded sandstones and conglomerates, although again the detailed geology is com- plex. The rocks in the eastern counties are mostly sedi- mentaries and include beds of shale, sandstone, and lime- stone. 51 The influence of the ice age is evident in the varying deposits of sand, gravel, clay, and boulders that are found, along with the normal glacial remnants of moraines, eskers, drumlins, and till plains. The reason for the relatively low elevation and undulating tOpography of the Upper Peninsula is the heavy glacial drift cover which characterizes much of it. Soils of the UppepPeninsula The soils of the Upper Peninsula are equally com- plex, and it will suffice for the purpose of this study to locate the great soil groups. There are three great soil groups, namely the podzols with non-limy material, podzols with limy material, and gray-brown podzols with limy mater- ials. The non—limy podzols are found in the western end of the area and comprise good silt 10ams, in Gogebic, Iron, and Keweenaw Counties, and numerous other series less well suited to farming. The limy podzols are largely found in Ontonagon County, Menominee County, and in pockets in sev- eral other counties. These soils contain some peat areas in Schoolcraft County and in the eastern counties. Series of this type occur in St. Ignace area, in Alger, and in Luce Counties. Some of these soils, particularly in the western end, are relatively fertile, and the more favourable 52 climatic conditions found in Menominee County enable them to be utilized for a variety of purposes. The gray-brown podzolic region containing limy materials are only found in the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula. They are not good agricultural soils in gen- eral, and included within this series are the organic soils found in widespread areas of Luce and Chippewa areas, as well as in small areas in several other counties inclu- ding Marquette, Schoolcraft, and Mackinac. These organic soils are not utilized to the same extent as in the Lower Peninsula for the production of truck crops. The largest percentage of the land area is utilized for forestation, and this use, if develOped for multiple uses, is probably the best use for the soils and climate of the area. Many of the soils are influenced by extraneous factors. Lake Superior influences the Keweenaw soils in terms of growth potential. The iron-bearing ore,of the western ranges, tends to leave the overlying soils acid in nature and they are normally lime deficient. The area was extensively glaciated, and this has not only influ- enced tOpography, but also type of soil produced from the glacial till, which is clay loam capable of yielding good crops. These soils are found in particular in Menominee County where good use is made of them in fruit production, as well as forage crOpS for feeding dairy cows. 53 Upper Peninsula Climate The Great Lakes surrounding the Upper Peninsula have a marked effect upon its climate, which is insular in char- acter. The water tends to moderate nearby land tempera- tures. This is because it moderates the cold air sweeping across the prairies of Canada that are not only warmed be- fore reaching these areas, but are often deflected in their movement. The mean temperature of the Upper Peninsula is about 40 degrees and average maximum temperature ranges from around 82 degrees in summer and 28 degrees in winter and the average minimum or night temperature is approxi- mately 57 degrees in summer and 12 degrees in winter. Zero and below zero temperatures are quite general in the win- ter months. Heavy snowfalls are also common and particu- larly in the western end due to the moisture laden winds rising from Lake Superior over prominent tOpographic fea- tures. The ground is covered with snow for an average of six months every year. In the interior, summer frosts are always a danger, particularly where sensitive cr0ps like cucumber or melon are being grown. Rainfall and to— tal precipitation ranges from 28 inches to 32 inches and this gives adequate moisture for growing most crops. The average number of growing days varies from 140 to 180 days and sunshine averages 50%lof the possible amount, the 54 best months being from May to October. Relative humidity is greatest during these months. Winds are generally from the west and seldom exceed 25 to 40 miles per hour. CHAPTER V AGRICULTURE The revolution brought about by mechanization in ag- riculture parallels that of automation in industry, and just as fewer men are required to man the machines in mod- ern industry, fewer people than formerly are required in agriculture. The size of farm unit is increasing, and ac- cording to the 1950 census, the average size of Michigan's 155,589 farms was 111 acres--about 30% larger than in 1900.1 Thus commercial farms are becoming larger and there is also an increase in the number of small, part-time, and residen- tial farms. As we shall see, this factor has serious impli- cations in the Upper Peninsula, and in the Highlands, where the same trend is evident, although not so obvious, due to the peculiar systems of tenure found there. The agricultural pattern found in the Highlands is not found elsewhere in Scotland. It comprises a system of smallholding family farms known as "crofts," which are located in townships. These townships of crofts vary from as few as four crofts or less to as many as sixty or more, and depend largely on the locality. Ideally, townships are located along the sea coast margins or in river valleys, lElton B. Hill, and Russell G. Mawby. Types of Farm— ing in Michigan. (Special Bulletin 206, Michigan State College). - 55 - 56 and individual crofts consist of an area of arable land and a share in a common pasture adjacent to the arable land, shared by all the crofters in a township. Townships are located for the most part on estates owned by a land- lord, and the crofts are rented by these landlords to the crofters, so that this is an excellent example of the landlord-tenant system so well develOped in many parts of Great Britain. To qualify under this system of crofting tenure, a farm unit must not exceed 50 acres in extent (exclusive of the common grazing), nor exceed fifty pounds sterling (150 dollars) in rent. This is a land contract rent, as the buildings normally belong to the crofters themselves, although in some cases the landlord may own the buildings as well, and charge a rent for their use. Crofters are subject to the normal leasing arrangements between landlord and tenant in many respects, but have special rights of tenure not normally associated with farming leases. Provided they adhere to certain conditions of their lease, they have absolute security of tenure; and since the law of primOgeniture holds, crofts can remain in a family's hands for many generations. This raises a social problem when land use reorganization may require the consolidation of several crofts. 57 The total number of crofts in our study area is 16,500 located in 1040 townships. As we have already seen, the soil type is poor agriculturally and it is Significant that very often the poorer the soil agriculturally the smaller the croft. These very small units were always part-time units of sorts, when the fishing industry flour- ished in the Highlands. The larger units may be any size up to the statutory limit. These crofting areas are the breeding grounds of the sheep and cattle industry in Scot- land. The sheep graze the common pastures for a large percentage of the year and their numbers are regulated according to a graduated scale known as a "Souming." A soum is the pasturage required for a cow, and the number of sheep permitted on the common grazing pastures are then equated in terms of cows, normally in the ratio of six sheep per cow. Each township has a committee of members who insure that these soumings are complied with. The soumings are determined by a special statutory body known as the Land Court. A few years experience will determine what is the carrying capacity of a pasture, and over- stocked pastures will soon be reflected in the condition of the stock coming off them. The type of pasture will depend on the terrain and geological formation. Some may be heather clad and rise to elevations of over 3000 feet. 58 Others may consist of grassy Slopes on undulating country- side. Needless to say the "Souming" on these latter graz- ings would be much higher. Technology has not made so many advances in croft- ing agriculture as in more traditional commercial farming, and the standard of husbandry is seldom as high. Crops grown are oats, barley, rye, potatoes, turnips, and kale on a flexible rotation that will include temporary pas- ture of at least four years duration. The climate is suited to grassland production. Yields are seldom high, and only recently has widespread use of artificial fer- tilizer been adopted. Most of the soils are lime defi- cient due to the acid nature of much of the soil and parent material. By far the greatest percentage of crOps grown are for home consumption, and the only cash crOp would be potatoes. Sheep and cattle rearing are the traditional live- stock enterprises, and most of the cash income comes from sale of these products. Pigs and poultry are not impor- tant cash items, although the majority of crofters have poultry for home consumption of eggs and sale of surplus. Distance from markets and feed mills has discouraged the setting up of a pig industry. The predominant sheep breed is the Scotch blackface, a hardy hill breed able to 59 I_‘ _, > _ -., .e o .‘ . .' $.- .' . <0 . .- 0 m .‘. ,- . e ' 'h . -- --‘ ,v,. ‘ . _e ,-\ .,,I , ‘ ' ‘ .' ‘ 4 " ‘ l a, I A |‘ . | ,. s , . ‘ -.—. . - - . - . ’5‘ . ' . - ' . ' . A {It , . . - . _ . . 4 _ . -. ', O ', .RE? I \e‘ e . '. ‘ , . . A '0' e \ ‘ z ’0 F‘. ‘ _ :4 ‘. . '5 K v,‘ ‘ -. 7'. - _ ,4’. . . l’ . ',' q , _ . . . . . ‘ ., . _ . l . p ‘ . e l D i;n,m'c1~‘g\. " . ' o . 7 3‘ - . x-rnfi‘ . . :_.;‘ f, fr‘;”,_ we. . _'.X." \‘h; ‘ LEV" j J " . '31) FIGURE 5. HIGHLAND CATTLE IN THEIR NATURAL HABITAT. THEY ARE USED FOR CROSSBREEDING WITH BETTER BEEF BREEDS, TO WHICH THEY IMPART A HARDINESS THAT ENABLES THEM TO REMAIN OUTSIDE ALL WINTER. 9“- ‘ ~-...‘» FIGURE 6. LOCH CORUISK IN THE ISLE OF SKYE. A WELL KNOWN SCENIC SPOT IN THE HIGHLANDS. 6O survive rigorous weather conditions, often without sup- plementary feeding. They live on the pastures common for most of the year but are kept on the low ground arable land during the severest winter months. A designated number of sheep graze on a particular area known as a "Heft," and it is this ability to heft that makes these sheep such valuable grazers. Their natural habit is to graze the lower elevations during the day and move uphill during the evening grazing as they go, to spend the night on the mountain tops. In this way the grazings are fully utilized. The "Cheviot" breed of Sheep is found on the better grassy type hill pastures. Most crofters own their own sheep, but in certain limited cases the whole stock may belong communally to the township, and a dividend is paid each of them at the conclusion of a year's work when all income has been received. Sources of income are the sale of wool, each sheep may be expected to clip around four pounds, and the sale of lambs both male and female, although in actual practice most of the female or ewe lambs are re- tained for stock replacement. Old ewes are also sold to make way for younger more prolific ones in the flock, and they are an additional source of income. The ewes are in regular ages from one to six years. 61 There are a number of pOpular breeds of cattle in the crofting areas, but largely of dual purpose kind and of a hardy nature like the animal shown in the accompany- ing photograph, which is known as the Highland breed. Various crosses of this breed are used, the most pOpular one being the cross with the shorthorn. These crosses are able to survive rigorous weather conditions and pro- duce a good calf every year in addition to milking reason— ably well. Very often a further cross of a better beef type, usually the Aberdeen Angus is introduced, if better quality feeder stock is desired. The hardier animals nay stay outside all winter but the less hardy breeds are housed indoors. They calve down in the Spring, and the calves are either sold in the fall, or they are retained and wintered. They are then generally sold in the spring. The calves are permitted to suckle their mothers, and this saves labour as well as producing a better quality calf. The stock of sheep and cattle owned by individual crofters will vary greatly throughout the region depending upon the size of croft and the type of soil on which it is located. Some of the smallest crofts will only have one or two cows, while the larger ones that approach the statutory limit with extensive hill pastures will carry a stock of up to twenty breeding cows and up to 300 ewes. This amount of 62 stock is quite adequate to provide a family with suffi- cient income. Here as elsewhere mechanization has largely replaced horse drawn implements. At one time each fulltime crofter kept a horse and by working with his neighbour, he was able to undertake all his cultivation on schedule, in the fall and spring. A tractor can do much more than one croft, if it is not to lie idle, and a communal system would seem to be the best way to overcome this. But ex- perience has Shown that in practice this does not always work. The high rainfall makes excessive demands upon the implements at the same time and inevitably causes friction. During the war, the Government provided equipment at rea- sonable cost to stimulate food production. There was a ready response to this and a clamour for it to continue, when it ended some time after the war. The scheme was non- profit making and an agricultural contractor with whom the writer is familiar once told him that under the price structure in agriculture at the present time, evan a pri- vate contracting company could not hOpe to run at a pro- fit. Marketing of livestock and livestock products pre- sents many problems, particularly where the townships are located at some distance from railheads. Agriculture on 63 the islands has chronic marketing problems, and also prob- lems with the import of seeds, fertilizer, etc., so neces- sary to the industry. Local markets are held in the vari- ous islands and mainland but very often there are not suf- ficient buyers present to create prOper competitive con- ditions, and prices are often less than what the same stock would fetch in a lowland market. This is a discouraging situation and may be a reason for the decline in cattle numbers in recent years. The value to Scotland's agricultural economy of crofting agriculture is small percentagewise, but the con- tribution is far from negligable when land utilization factors are also taken into consideration. In terms of output.the figure is around 5% of agricultural output, and the best figure available in terms of cash is 3.9 mil- lion pounds sterling (812,000,000), this figure including crofts in regions within the crofting counties but out- with the SOOpe of this survey. It is important in an insular economy like that of Scotland to practice the best land use possible, and the utilization of these poorer lands in the crofting counties for breeding pur- poses releases the better lands elsewhere for feeding and cash crOpping. Upper Peninsula Agriculture The definition of a farm in the 1950 census for Michigan was: (1) a place of 3 or more acres if the value of the agricultural produce produced for sale or home use, exclusive of home gardens, amounted to 8150 (£50) or more or (2) places of less than 3 acres if the value of sales of agricultural products amounted to 8150 or more.2 Compared with many areas of the United States, Michigan is a land of small farms of the family type. Nearly 30% of the farms are less than 50 acres in extent and most of these are now part-time or residential. Many of the farms in the Upper Peninsula are small and are for the most part owner occupied, although field renting is very common. Except for Iron County where 21%-30%'of the farms are worked by non-owners, the figure is less than 21% in the other counties. The poor soils and chilly climate are limiting factors and the average growing season of 115 days is a further handicap. Around 2Michigan Bureau of Census, 1950. 65 the Great Lakes the season is extended to 150 days. The expansion of agriculture was twice attempted in the Upper Peninsula, once as has already been observed during the cutover era, and again during the depression years, when industrial jobs were few and there was a migration on to the land. Just as the former attempt failed due to high taxes associated with unkindly soil, so the latter was not a success because of the small size of enterprise. Since that time there has been a slow but definite consoli- dation of farms into larger units, as evidenced by census figures for the number of farms. There is also a trend towards specialization, with dairying and potato growing the main enterprises. Feeder cattle and hay production are other specialty products. Agriculture is not an important industry in the Upper Peninsula and only 13% of the land is in farming. Just over a quarter of this land is in cultivated crOps. There was a decline of around 20% in the number of small farms in the decade 1940—1950. This has resulted in more efficiency, and the purchase of necessary machinery by individual farmers. The many part-time farmers live on their properties and commute to work in the urban areas. The last figures available Show a total number of farms of 8234, and of these commercial or full-time farms account 66 for only 5348. The total number of peOple employed in agriculture is 10,620 and of this number 7000 live on commercial farms. The remainder work 100 days or more off the farm and are therefore classified as part-time farmers. The value of products sold amounted to $18,000,000 (£6,000,000)5 of which crops of various kinds accounted for $4,000,000. Here therefore, as in Scotland, livestock income is much more important than cr0p income. The productive red clay soils yield the best crOps and the county of Keweenaw, parts of Ontonagon, and areas in the eastern end around the town of Sault St. Marie have these soils and grow potatoes that find a ready market in the neighbouring towns. The county of Menominee has some productive soils as well, and the influence of the lakes enables this county to have a considerable fruit industry. Dairying and potato growing is also practiced and the produce sold locally. There are creameries and cheese factories in the Upper Peninsula that utilize available milk. These plants represent a significant industry in some localities. Many parts of the Upper Peninsula farm lands are characterized by a short growing season, poor soils, and adverse weather conditions. The persistence of snow well 5Ibid. 67 into the spring is a militating force against arable farm- ing and many areas are given over.to pasture land. This short growing season tends to force farmers to sell their feeder cattle in the fall, when the market is saturated with stock. However, this is also the time of abundant corn supplies and feeders are generally willing to pay a good price for the right type of animal. The prospects for feeder cattle on these areas therefore seem good. Very few flocks of Sheep are kept and on a trip to Ontona- gon, in the far western end of the Peninsula, the author did not see a single flock of sheep. There are marketing problems in the Upper Peninsula, too. The demand for liquid milk in a sparsely populated area is low, and much of the milk has to go to the cream- eries. The problems of servicing these sparsely populated areas at the price that a dairy farmer would require, to show a reasonable profit, are considerable, and in some areas dairying is declining. The marketing of potatoes and competition with better known area brands from other parts of the United States are placing a heavy burden on the grower's profits. The demand for feeder cattle by farmers elsewhere would seem to favour this enterprise, and there are few marketing problems encountered here. 68 Much marginal farmland is being removed from pro- duction and being used for reforestation. Small farms are being consolidated with others to make commercial en- terprises, and there are still some part-time farmers who work their farms and supplement their income elsewhere either in urban employment or in the forest. Even pre- sent commercial farm sizes of 140-150 acres are inade- quate to meet present day living costs in America and it is expected that the trend towards even larger units will continue. The ultimate aim would appear to be as many com— mercial full-time farms as possible, the remainder to con- sist of part-time or residential units. CHAPTER VI FORESTRY We frequently hear of the need for low income areas to encourage industry that can utilize raw materials grown locally. Forestry offers raw materials for processing in- dustries, and since it plays such an important part in the Upper Peninsula economy, it is necessary to consider its potential at some length. It is certain that at one time there were extensive forests throughout the Highlands of Scotland. As we have read, these forests were mercilessly exploited.without thought being given to conservation measures. The result- ant damage not only lost to posterity valuable timberlands, but also depleted the 8011, so that it is no longer as suitable for tree growth. However, after the first world war, the British Government, alarmed at the depleted state of Britain's timber supplies and the difficulty of import- ing such bulky cargo in time of war, decided that more timber must be home produced. The result was the setting up of a public authority known as the Forestry Commission, which was given the task of undertaking extensive planting programs on land to be purchased for this purpose by the Government, and at the same time advising and guiding - 69 - 70 private landlords in tree planting techniques, and encour- aging them to undertake planting through special schemes of assistance. The Highland area was looked upon as a potential source of much forest land, and one of the Forestry Commission districts known as the North Conserv- ancy was set up in the Highland capital of Inverness to undertake this work. Since that time extensive areas of land has been purchased for this purpose. The Forestry Commission have had their own problems to solve in the Highlands. There were many acres of potentially plantable land, but often there were conflicts between the use of this land for planting trees or its retention as Sheep pasture. The timber line can seldom go higher than 1200 feet in elevation particularly in the central and eastern areas, and this often conflicts with sheep interests. A working relationship has been set up between the Department of Agriculture and the Forestry Commission, and land use problems are largely resolved by a coordination of opinion of all parties concerned. Very often the planting of trees can improve hill grazings by providing much needed shelter. It can also utilize areas of ground that are useless for grazing purposes. While there will always be conflict among two interests of this kind, there is a considerable complementarity, and few of these problems are insoluable. FIGURE 7. A GOOD STAND OF GROWING TIMBER IN THE HIGHLANDS. ' - w 0’ . v ‘1‘," ~$fi. ‘e. _ . ' _‘- .i! a - I . .1 fi,;_;. 7*. a' n. V a ., ~-. ~ _ . .. ‘¢.I‘,’: ‘ - . m. ' ’51.. - a t“). -- 0"".‘r ‘ .. ' . _’fi ‘ . " . a; L. . .‘ .4 ”‘5, " «~ , ' ' . x,¢{"‘ff‘., . \ FIGURE 8. THE PREPARATION OF LAND BY PLOUGHING FOR PLANTING TREES IN THE HIGHLANDS. 72 Another problem that confronts the Forestry Com- mission is the type of land available even on land pur- chased for planting. The amount of blanket peat land has already been mentioned. Ordinarily few commercial species will grow on this peat layer. Much research is being undertaken at the moment on new silvicultural practices and new species. Direct planting into the peat has been attempted but abandoned due to the phenomenon known as checking. The plants do not die off, but remain in a position of stagnant growth not more than six inches taller than when they were planted even after thirty years. Experiments in Ireland and Belgium,1 showed that the first essential was good drainage,and that for best results, the young plant Should be planted on an upturned turf and not into the peat direct. This technique has become known as turf planting and with some modification has become the universal planting method. The extensive use of phosphate fertilizer is essential to achieve best results, and this is applied around the base of the plant shortly after planting out. The species showing the greatest promise on peat lands is the Pinus contorta, a 1J. W. L. Zehetmayr, Experiments on Tree Planting in Peat, Bulletin No. 22, Forestry Commission. (Her Majesty s Stationery Office, London, 1954). 73 North American species, but Scots pine, Norway Spruce, Japanese larch, and Sitka spruce have been tried from time to time. Ploughing of land to be planted is undertaken by heavy plough tackle, and this also helps to aerate the soil as well as provide drainage channels for run off and natural drainage. The most difficult peats to manage are the Scirpus dominant blanket bogs, which always have peat several feet thick, and often little or no mineral soil underneath. The most recent available figures for public owned land in the administration of the Forestry Commission are as follows: (North Conservancye) Thousands of Acreg Acquired plantations 7,749 Planted before 1946 46,562 Planted since 1946 34,660 Replanted 40,560 ' Total Area 129.531 2A portion of this acreage is outside the Highland area under review, but by far the greater portion is within the West Highland survey area, most of it in Argyllshire. Figures from the North Conservancy Office, Inverness, Scotland. 74 In addition to these figures, the Forestry Commis- sion have under their management a total of approximately 50,000 acres awaiting planting at the moment. There are a total of 68 forests in the Conservancy, averaging 2000 acres in extent. In addition to these public lands, pri- vate woodland owners are practicing good forestry techni- ques on 84,000 thousand acres. In all this is a formidable total of reforestation being undertaken in the Highlands. If the problems associated with planting on peat, and at higher elevations could be resolved, then many more acres could be made available for planting with trees. The best forest soils are found on areas of glacial drift and on the schists. It is always necessary to fence these plan- tations from marauding deer and sheep, and this adds con- siderably to planting costs. No less than 86% of the total land area of the Upper Peninsula is under timber of one kind or another. Of this area 26% is in the hands of a relatively few owners, 25.5% belongs to the State of Michigan, and 17.6% is in Federal ownership. The remainder is held in small parcels by individual farmers, usually as woodlands at- tached to farms. Since it was cutover in the late 1880's, natural regeneration, and later good conservation practices 75 and management of the second growth has produced these large areas of commercial timber. There were no Sheep introduced into the area following cutover times or it might well have resulted in a repetition of the Highland story. Many tiMber species are found as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) Second growth northern hardwoods, with few hem- lock or white pine, but most of the other spe- cies mentioned. Mixed hardwoods and Softwoods--Spruce, balsam fir, white cedar, aspen, elm, soft maple, yellow birch. Aspen birch, aspen, scrub oak, cherry, and miscellaneous species, including Jack pine, red pine, conifer spruce, white cedar larch. These are smaller trees and average around 8 inches in diameter as opposed to the mixed hardwoods that average around 12 inches in diameter. Old growth northern hardwoods of sugar maple, yellow birch, hemlock, elm, beech. The white pine is the most valuable Species found in the Upper Peninsula, but there was little regeneration of this species after it was originally cutover. Now 76 outgrowth hemlock has largely replaced it as marketable timber. It is estimated that hardwood and Softwood in- dustry accounts for 330,000,000 (10,000,000 pounds ster- ling) and that this lumber manufactured into finished products like furniture, flooring, housing, veneer, and plywood manufacture, hardwood distillation, pulp and paper manufacture accounts for a total value of forest products of approximately $127,000,000 (43,000,000 pounds sterling).3 The number of peOple directly or indirectly employed in the industry is as follows: Logging (saw logs and lumber) 6440 Lumber manufacture 3000 Lumber remanufacture 2600 Veneer and plywood 1040 Pulp and paper 1900 Hardwood distillation A 500 Miscellaneous rough products 3300 Total 18,780 Logging is a seasonal task and many people employed by the contractors are part-time farmers. Since logging takes place largely in the winter time, when the frosts enable large trucks to use forest roads, this is particu- 1arly suitable for farmers, since this is not normally a 5Ebasco Report on Michigan's Upper Peninsula, June 1953, pp. 129. 77 busy time of year for them. The saw mills find it diffi- cult to keep going on the timber cut during the winter months and they require to stockpile. At the moment much of the logging industry is concerned with pulpwood, as hardwood is expensive and difficult to obtain. There is also more competition with other northern areas that have better stands available. The less valuable species such as aspen and hemlock.are being widely used now. There are a number of paper and pulp mills in the Upper Peninsula,manufacturing all kinds of paper from the cheapest to the most expensive. There are five veneer mills producing plywood, furniture panels, flush doors, etc., and some of the timber required in this Specialized industry is imported. Other industries in the Upper Pen- insula associated with timber utilization are two distilla- tion plants manufacturing acetic acid and methanol as well as charcoal. Charcoal is widely used for tobacco curing, in charcoal broilers for recreational and other purposes, and in the chemical industry. Other uses found for timber are turned wood products, fence posts, trellis, etc. There are four small and one large furniture plant, which employs specially skilled workers, most of them local peOple who have been trained by these companies. There is a small box container plant using aspen and lowgrade hardwood timbers. 78 The amount of labour required in these industries is worth recording. Pulp and paper manufacture require 5.07 man days to process a thousand board feet, whereas lumber itself requires only 1.75 man days for the same quantity. The veneer industry requires 7.5 man days per thousand board feet and the furniture industry requires the same amount of labour per unit of wood.AL The high proportion of land area under timber in the Upper Peninsula necessitates large scale use of this resource, and endeavors are always being made to expand it. There is a Special forest products research team at the Upper Peninsula college in Marquette, who are con- Stantly experimenting for new uses to which timber can be put. There is now considerable competition from the plas- tics industry and many former uses for wood have been taken over by plastics as well as from other commodities. Small industries they have recommended for consideration are corrugated boarding for containers, acetate rayon production from aspen, hardboard production, hemlock tan- nin extract and new and improved methods of sawdust utili- zation. Meantime sawdust is being made into briquettes 4Ibide, ppe 155-154. 79 .~. , W339." .. ,Ef .- "3 ~ 22 Q ‘ 7" '13] "I "'° .( 5 , . 'J/ “‘2‘ ‘ -' ~ 3' W3 .' ,- é, ' 3 FIGURE 9. A TYPICAL AREA OF POOR SECOND GROWTH TIMBER LAND IN THE UPPER PENINSULA. 1‘ FIGURE 10. A TYPICAL WELL MANAGED STAND OF TIMBER IN THE UPPER PENINSULA. 80 and sold for fuel. Doubtless many more uses remain to be discovered for all this valuable timber. The large acreage of timber in State and Federal control insures that management will continue to be of a high order. Forestry programs are designed to equate cutting with planting. This should insure lasting yields of marketable timber for the future. The value of multi- ple use of forested lands for all kinds of recreational pursuits, such as hiking, fishing, hunting, etc. is also gaining significance and is becoming an important part of good forest management. CHAPTER VII NATURAL RESOURCES AND AUXILIARY INDUSTRIES The more remote an area from centers of industry, the more it is in need of natural resources which it can develop. The role that the soil and its products play in this has already been examined, but we have still to look at the industries developed from these natural re- sources, and the impact they have on the lives of the people in the area. The Highlands were left few legacies under ground by nature. There is no mineral wealth of any significance. There are intermittent seams of limestone that are quar— ried for industrial and agricultural use. There is a small industry centered on a coral substance known as diatonite found at the bottom of some lakes, and particu- larly in the Island of Skye. It is used in the cosmetics industry and as a filler. The Highlands have ample rainfall and many reser- voir areas known as lochs, which correspond in every way with Michigan's lakes. Fortunately this natural resource has been largely harnessed for the production of electri- city in the last few years. The develOpment program is Government sponsored but under the jurisdiction of a corporation known as the North of Scotland Hydro Electric - 81 - Board. 82 When it was instituted it was given a mandate: (A) (B) (C) (D) To attract to the Highlands, through the offer of cheap and abundant power a share in the vital and expanding electro chemical and elec- tric metallurgical industries; To develOp such further power as may be re- quired for the consumers of existing under- takings, and for consumers in their own dis- tribution areas, the remainder to go to the National grid; To develOp on an experimental and demonstra» tional basis isolated schemes in isolated dis- tricts; The committee should be bound to give priority to local requirements over all other demands for their power.1 Much has already been achieved by the electricity board to meet the requirements of their mandate. Many dams have been constructed, bringing at least temporary employment to many in the area. Power houses have been 1 Ian Finlay, Development Program of the Committee on Hydro Electric Development in Scotland, (London: Oxford University Press, 1945), p. 96. 83 constructed and are now producing electricity from a natural resource. Much progress has been made in distri- bution. Few homes in the crofting areas are now without their electricity, at a cheaper cost than the former fuels they were required to burn. Its use is being extended to aid agriculture, although much remains to be done in this field. One of the major advantages has been the at- traction to the vacationer, and many houses now cater for them that did not do so before its advent. At one time the fishing industry provided the main income of the majority of the smaller crofting units that comprised many of the islands. Two reasons are given for the failure of this industry. First the continental mar- ket,on which they depended for the sale of herring, col- lapsed during the first world war, and was never regained. The second reason was the granting of fishing rights to larger boats known as trawlers to fish on what up until then was the exclusive grounds of the inshore crofters. These trawlers fished by trawling the sea bottom, and in no time had ruined the spawning beds. The crofter fish— erman could not raise the capital for such boats, and in any case such remorseless lack of conservation practices would never have been undertaken by them. Today much of this fishing has been taken over by large scale syndicates 84 Operating from far afield. The boats and equipment avail- able to the crofters did not permit them to go far out to Sea, and many were forced to go out of business. Since the croft in itself could not support them, and Since seldom was other employment available, they had no re- course but to migrate elsewhere. Salmon fishing has also been taken over by business companies and they do provide seasonal employment for a number of local peOple around the coasts. Lobster and crab fishing is still a source of income to many crofters. This type of fishing is not suited to the use of large boats as it necessitates working close in- shore, and near rocky outcrOps, which is the habitat of these crustaceans. Transportation is a problem since they have to be marketed in a fresh condition, and usually in England. They have not yet completely overcome this problem, but the erection of fish ponds, by damning off a section of the many tidal bays in the islands, and storing the lobsters here until they are ready for tranSporting to market, insures a greater number for transportation, with consequent Special transportation charges, and also spe- cial facilities from the railway companies. The best known industry in the area under review is the "Harris" tweed industry. It is largely located in the 85 island of Lewis which with the island of Harris forms the northern end of the chain of islands of the Outer Hebrides. This industry employs many peOple both in the mills where the wool is spun into yarn and the cloth finished for the market, and also the crofters themselves who hand weave the yarn in their own homes throughout the islands. The mills are located in the only large urban center of Stornoway, and from here trucks transport the yarn to the crofts and take the finished cloth back to the mills for final processing before it goes for sale. There is a very large sheep population in Lewis and this local wool is used along with other finer wool to produce the unique tweed that is worn all over the world. America is un- doubtedly the largest market. The healthy combination of youth, working age, and old age pOpulation in these islands is entirely due to this industry, and if it were to col- lapse through a recession or lack of demand, many of these working age peOple would be required to migrate. There is a pOpulation of 28,000 on the island of Lewis itself, and only a small percentage of these peOple could live off the income from the croft lands. There have been efforts made to attract other in- dustry from time to time. An industry,based on seaweed, is making some progress in the island of South Uist, but 86 a similar venture on the mainland collapsed. A southern industrialist attempted to set up small factories in Highland areas, to make castings, bearings, etc.; and while this has been on a limited scale, the experiment has met with some success and six men are employed in one such small factory in the Ross and Cromarty section of the study area. The raw materials are transported by truck to the factory once weekly and the completed products returned by the same truck to the factory. Local youths have Shown.a willingness to work on machines and make a success of it. Upper Penipsula Resources The natural resources of the Upper Peninsula have traditionally been iron and 00pper mines and her forests. The discovery of iron and c0pper in the western end of the Upper Peninsula started a boom that was to bring al- most immediate prosperity to many people and to the area. But the entrepreneure gave little thought to the conse- quences of indiscriminate mining, the richest seams of ore bearing rock were mined, and the deep ores left be- hind. At one time these mines produced over half the world's supply of these metals; but as the high percentage ores diminished in quantity and as richer sources became available elsewhere in America and abroad, the value of 87 these local ores declined until they represent only 4% of the total industrial need now. The remaining ores, although plentiful, are of high and low grade and are in deep mines difficult to extract. Iron mining centers round three areas in Gogebic, and Marquette Counties, and in the west central district. The early mining companies left the low grade ore behind, and indeed many of the original mines have now closed. The total number of peOple employed in the mining industry is 10,000, and the value of the industry to the Upper Peninsula is $69,OOO,OOO.2 There have been recent trends in mineral mining in the Upper Peninsula. A new c0pper mine was started within the last few years with Government support, and it is pro- viding employment for over 1000 peOple who commute from distances up to 50 miles each day. A chemical plant pro- duces c0pper chemicals such as cupric oxide, c0pper hydrate, tri basic c0pper sulphate, and c0pper oxychloride. There are natural deposits of limestone, gravel, and sand that contribute $5,000,000 to the economy. I It might well be worth while looking at and predict- ing the future of these industries particularly the OOpper 2Ebasco Report, pp. cit., pp. 49-51. 88 . FIGURE 13. A SAWMILL SURROUNDED BY FOREST LAND IN THE UPPER PENINSULA. ‘ A r . l O ‘ W; awm%,.";..m I‘Iflr~~ w . \fa'q’?‘ , L FIGURE 14. EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS OF TREES ON PEAT SOILS IN THE HIGHLANDS. 89 industry. At present, most of America's COpper needs come from Latin America, Rhodesia, and Africa. low labour costs and richer ores enable it to be imported cheaper than it Can be mined at home. The prospects for further expan- sion in the Upper Peninsula is therefore not good, unless a national emergency cuts off supplies from abroad. Fur- thermore, copper is continually being replaced both by aluminum and steel. In spite of'flns projected demands for c0pper indicate a need to import 1,000,000 tons in 1975. In time of war it might not be possible to import. COpper can of course be stOckpiled, and indeed latest figures in- dicate that the United States have around 1,000,000 tons stockpiled at the moment.3 This is undoUbtedly essentially a strategic measure, although it tends to create artificial conditions of trade for the product. The need to have de- tailed knowledge of existing sources is necessary in case of emergency and recently the Department of the Interior has formed an office of mineral exploration. This shares with private industry the risks involved, in carrying out exploration projects, which show promise of further develOp- ment, but which would not normally be undertaken with pri- vate capital- Recently a c0pper exploration company 2The-Outlook for Key Commodities. Resources for Freedom, Vol. II. President's Material Resources Commis— sion. 9O requested a lease for exploration purposes on publicly owned land in Ontonagon County. This could be interpreted as a healthy Sign in the Upper Peninsula's c0pper economy. Commercial fishing on the Great Lakes was once an important industry in the Upper Peninsula, and markets were plentiful with the large urban centers so relatively near. But it has declined due to the limited season and to the predatory fish, the sea lamprey, which has become a real problem in all the lakes. It cannibalizes the good commercial species of lake fish and particularly the lake trout. It is causing concern, as well as revenue losses, and large sums of money are spent each year on its control. Recent control measures are promising. There are fish processing plants, and also facilities available for storing fish until favorable market condi- tions can be obtained. CHAPTER VIII THE TOURIST AND RESORT INDUSTRY Few industries have made such striking advances in the last decade as the tourist and resort industry. The explanation for this lies in improved working conditions, better paid jobs and shorter working weeks. The United States in particular has built up a vast industry. Although the rise of the industry has not been so Spectacular in Great Britain, the tourist and resort industry has made progress and gives every indication of making further pro- gress in the future. The more isolated scenic areas of the country are natural vacation areas and both the Highlands and the Upper Peninsula fulfill this role. In former times landlords of Highland estates built up a large sporting industry, by leasing shooting areas to wealthy people who liked to hunt red deer and red grouse. Large well-equipped shooting lodges were erected by the landlords on or near the shooting grounds and these lodges were included in the shooting lease. Sometimes fishing rights were included in the lease, or the fishing rights would be leased separately. Although the Sport was enjoyed by the wealthier section of the pOpulation, it was - 91 - 92 the means of circulating capital in the communities sur- rounding the shooting or fishing areas, and the local peOple benefitted by supplying services of various kinds. This era has largely passed us by, and only the very wealthy can now afford to enjoy these luxuries. Many of the former shooting lodges are falling into decay. The Highlands of Scotland have always been regarded as a pOpular area to visit not only by residents from Britain but also from abroad, who had heard of its natural beauty. At the presenttime many tourists visit there every year to climb, fish, pony trek, and walk. Facilities for accommodating them are provided in many crofters homes, which have been modernized in recent years to meet the demands of modern travellers with bathrooms, electricity, and the modern paraphernalia that go with it. During the peak months of the summer, the local hotels and private houses can seldom accommodate the numbers requiring accom- modation. The responsibility for developing the tourist indus- try in Scotland rests with the Scottish tourist board. A survey carried out in 1956 indicated that the industry was worth 50,000,000 pounds sterling ($150,000,000) and was projected to a figure twice this amount by 1966. The Highland areah share of this total was estimated at around 93 8,000,000 pounds sterling ($24,000,000). Limiting factors to the extension of the industry are short seasons and limited accommodation. Efforts to extend the season are under way now. On the fringe of the area under review in the range of mountains known as the Cairngorms, Skiing is beind developed. Groups like the Scottish Council of Physical Recreation and local hotel keepers are c00perating to foster this sport. Thus many hotels are now able to stay Open for a longer period each year. Not only has this added income to the hotels themselves but also to local stores and local people employed by them. The Island of Skye has set up a tourist association to increase tourism, and good results have already been achieved by advertising and other promotional means of putting the islands attributes as a vacation area before the public. A week of singularly Highland character known as "Skye Week," is held each year. Clansmen from all over the world are encouraged to congregate during this week. A Special day is set aside,by the chief of the Clan Macleod, for visiting the ancient castle and its heirlooms. Thou- sands of Macleods all over the world gather here each year. These are but a few of the measures being attempted to attract tourists. Many things still remain to be done. The standard of roads to these areas is poor and this 94 probably discourages many motorists who would otherwise be willing to undertake the trip. If the next decade brings as many cars onto these roads as the last, then the facilities will be totally inadequate. Local authori- ties responsible for these highways have their own prob- lems. In many cases the most picturesque communities are the most isolated, and an expensive highway to service this kind of community is hard to justify on this basis alone. Deer hunting in the Upper Peninsula provides large sums of money for local areas, through the necessary ser- vicing of food and other commodities. In Scotland manage- ment is based upon the exclusive use of his own land by a landowner, and few people shoot game birds or deer. This is in contrast to Michigan where thousands of peOple from the factory bench to the executive suite take the traditional two-week deer hunting vacation and migrate to the hunting areas in search of deer and relaxation. Red deer are found in abundance in the Highlands. They range on special grazing areas known as deer forests. These are usually the highest and roughest lands in the area. In summertime the deer browse on the highest tOps, and in the winter time migrate to the lower Slopes, and in time of storm to the bottom lands, and often into crOp 95 lands where they.may do considerable damage to root crOps still in the ground. The deer forests are located on estates belonging to large landowners for the most part, although the Forestry Commission owns land in this cate- gory. Deer hunting or stalking has declined over the years and deer numbers have increased. Deer have a part to play in good land utilization but their numbers have to be controlled. An estimate of 40 acres to the deer has been made, as the Optimum,1 stocking on Highland deer forests. Red deer stalking takes place from August to October for stags, and November to January for hinds. Much more Skill is required to hunt on the mountains where there is little cover than on the low ground, and it is doubtful if the interest taken in hunting by the ur- ban pSOple of Michigan will ever occur in Scotland. The tourist and resort industry in the Upper Penin- sula has shown a phenomenal rise in the last decade, and indeed it is the leading industry in the Upper Peninsula. It has the attributes desired by urban peOple, namely lakes, hills with trails to walk, and cool pollen-free summers. It is an excellent playground for the thousands of peOple who want this type of vacation. lFraser Darling, A Herd of Red Deer, (London: Ox— for University Press. 96 The overall population of the United States is growing at the rate of one quarter per cent per year, and the projected figure for 1970 is a figure of 200,000,000. As technology develOps, so undoubtedly will leisure time, and the prospects for the tourist and resort industry are good. The majority of the Upper Peninsula vacationers come from the neighbouring states of Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Missouri. Figures show that upper income families take more vacations and stay longer than middle income families, but it is anticipated that over the next decade the number in the higher income bracket will rise, so that an increase in vacation time might also be expected. The travel industry's chief concern is the servicing of its customers, and this is big business in spite of the fact that many peOple still do not consider the tourist and resort industry in this light. It is probably true to say that because of this complacent attitude on the part of many communities, the need to do something in the community to attract vacationers is neglected. Some areas are more fortunate than others. If a main highway should pass by near the community, that community will have greater Opportunity to expand its tourist trade than com- munities not so fortunately located. The building of the Mackinac Straits bridge, joining lower and upper peninsulas, 97 has eased transportation problems for vacationers to the Upper Peninsula. There are a number of state parks in the Upper Peninsula that attract many vacationers each year. Park attendance has shown a marked increase each succeeding year. It is possible for the vacationers to camp in these parks, and facilities are made available for infor- mation about the area and places of interest to visit. There are many nature trails available, as for example in the Porcupine Mountains in Ontonagon County in the western end of the Peninsula. The desire to help the visitor is always there, and to help him to appreciate the natural resources of the countryside. The increase in the number of "motels" has been almost phenomenal. A recent census Showed a total of 2 2400. Around 50% of these have been constructed in the past five years with private capital. The average number of units for new motels is 10.7, as Opposed to the pre- 3 vious average of 8 units. 2Robert Woodrow McIntosh, The 1957 Tourist and Re- sort business in Michigan's Upper Peninsula. 3Michigan Whitetails, Michigan Department of Con- servation, p. 8. 98 Mention has already been made about deer hunting. The species is the white tail deer which ranges the en- tire area of forest land, browsing on undercover leaves and twigs in summertime, and ground hemlock, white cedar and coniferous twigs in winter time. Around 100,000 peOple hunt these deer during the archery season from October 1 to November 5, and during the Shooting season from November 15 to November 30. Each hunter is estimated to spend an average of 15 dollars on gasoline, food acom- modation, etc. Many have their own hunting cabins. The deer population is estimated at 300,000, a density of a deer to 30 acres and the estimated annual kill is 24,000. In spite of this high kill, the population continues to expand, creating serious problems of winter starvation, and damage to farm cr0ps. In winter the deer congregate in swamp areas known as deer yards if the snow becomes deep. There is abundant fishing and grouse hunting, avail- able. The numerous lakes are surrounded by cabins owned by citizens from many parts of the South. Winter sports are being rapidly develOped in the area, and this is helping to extend the season as in the Highlands of Scotland. The Upper Peninsula is always cer- tain to have snow for at least five months each winter and this enables ski organizers to plan ahead. Thus there 99 have been many T bar lifts installed on the ski lepeS, and week end excursion trains from the south make the I journey to the Upper Peninsula every weekend. In the 1957-1958 season alone sale of tickets for the T bar ski lift in the Porcupine Mountains State Park was $37,222.4 Accommodation is available in special camps set up for the purpose, as well as the many motels who cater for the visitors. The accompanying table summarizes the tourist and resort industry income. The figures are based on the average per capita monthly expenditure on food which was estimated at $24.13. This gives an annual figure of 3289.56. Since food purchases account for 28% of vacation expenditure, capitalization of the amount spent for food, would yield a figure for total vacation expenditure.5 The figures were computed by using the Michigan sales tax of 3% on purchased food. The tourist and resort in- dustry is now the leading one in the Upper Peninsula. 4 office. Unpublished information from local state park 5R. W. McIntosh, The 1957 Tourist and Resort Busi- ness in Michigan's Upper Peninsula, p. 3. lOO .nmoquoz Bonoooa phenom he masmqadmm Home: m.qmwwnoaa SH mmenwmdm pnomom use unannoa bmma one Some monswflm mmm.asm.mmaa mea.msa.mms emm.mem.mmas mmn.mmm.ema oma.mmm : . mmm.amo.e mos.mmm.e oee.mm possesses mmm.mmo.a mow.smm moo.amm emm.mmm cam.m assesses mos.mam.a www.mme men.mma.m Hmfl.mes.a omo.m emsesm oom.omm.a emo.mme oom.soe.m mam.omm.m oma.oa someoopoo mea.ame.a mma.eme mmm.mmm.m som.mma.m ome.e cess use.mmm.m Hae.msm mmo.eem.m mmm.ems.m ome.m names mmm.mme.m www.mom.a oom.moe.e mom.mme.m 0mm.m casecaooocm ome.mnm.m mmm.eme.m mmm.mmm.e eom.mmm.m ome.ms ocaH mme.oae.oa rem.wmm.m mom.mmm.m mmo.mmm.m omm.mm commences oom.mmm.ma Hma.mmm.m mma.eoe.m moo.mom.m ome.m essences noe.mma.ma emm.mmm.m moo.mem.aa. mne.mmm.e oom.mm essence eam.oee.ea eem.meo.e oom.mam.ma Oma.mea.m omm.am steamers omo.mmm.ms esm.mmm.e mme.HHm.ea mam.mme.m oom.mm accomeom mmm.¢mo.ma amm.mmmem mmo man as moo :mmm m emo.am space mmm.som.sm a mmm.mam.s com .566. mm s ego mes. sea ooo.me repossess hnpmsqu phomcm phenom doom proa momsnOHsm mpqooamom hpdfioo pmahfioe Hopes pmahfioa doom psonosnom «HDmZHzmm mmmm: Ems m0 Mzozoom awe OB HmBmDQZH Emommm 924 emHMDOB ho mandb m mnmda CHAPTER IX RURAL DEVELOPMENT AT WORK The passing of the Crofters (Scotland) Act in 1955 Opened a new chapter in Highland development. The Act itself made provision for the reorganization, develOpment, and regulation of crofting in the crofting counties of Scotland, and authorized the making of grants and loans towards the provision of houses and buildings for crofters, as well as for the develOpment of agricultural production. To undertake this task a commission of not more than Six members was authorized, as well as a staff to undertake the necessary field and office work. The Commission was further authorized to: (a) Keep under general review all matters relating to crofts and crofting conditions, including, without prejudice to the foregoing generality, land settlement, the improvement of land and livestock, the planting of trees, the supply of agricultural equipment and requisites, the marketing of agricultural produce, experimental work on crofting methods, the provision of demonstration crofts, the needs of the crofting - lOl - 102 communities for public services of all kinds, the provision of social amenities and the need for industries to provide supplementary occu- pations for crofters, or work for their fami- lies, and to make such recommendations as they may think fit on any of the matters aforesaid; (b) To collaborate as far as their powers and duties permit with any body or person in the carrying out of any measures for the economic develOp- ment and social improvement of the crofting counties.l This gave the Crofters Commission a wide mandate as far as economic develOpment of the area was concerned. The various clauses in the act set up the machinery for administration. The definition of crofting and crofting tenure remained the same, but many sanctions and rewards were included to encourage production, and to discourage absentee crofters and vacant crofts. Thus the Act pro- vided for the dispossession of any registered crofter who did not live on or within two miles of his croft. lCrofters (Scotland) Act, 1 55. (Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, Edinburgh, p. 2 . 103 The assignation, bequeathing or reletting of a croft was now forbidden without the consent of the Commission. These powers ensured that only bona fide crofters able and will- ing to work the land in a prOper manner could be granted the tenancy of the croft. Every party is given ample op- portunity to make representations. Each individual case is considered on its merit after an Opportunity has been taken to interview the parties concerned and to inspect the croft. Perhaps the greatest long-term good can be achieved by the commission through the powers granted to reorganize decadent townships. The commission may institute a scheme themselves, after consultation with all the parties af- fected, or representations may be made by the townships themselves to the Commission to have their township reor- ganized. The normal signs of an aging township is a high percentage of old peOple no longer able to cultivate their land and abandoned crofts of peOple who have migrated to the urban centers. The aim in a reorganization scheme is to reallocate the land in the township in such a manner as to create either units of sufficient size to give fulltime employment or to form part-time units which can be managed in addition to another job. The decision as to the Optimum size of croft is a difficult one. The final decision rests 104 upon the amount of stock that can be handled by one opera- tor, and the income from such stock. This is a question that is constantly changing, and it is always necessary to plan ahead. Unless absentee tenants are prepared to return, they lose all right to their land but are granted suitable compensation, fairly assessed by the Land Court for any permanent improvements belonging to them on their tenanted land. Aged crofters are given an Opportunity to dispose of their land and still remain in the dwelling- house, but no pressure is brought to bear upon them if they do not desire to do this. Shares on the common pas— ture are regulated in accordance with the scheme, and any capital works required are included in the scheme as well. These might include facilities for Sheep handling, new buildings, township roads, and so on. An ideal final scheme should show a well-organized township of economic family type units and part-time units, with all the neces- sary facilities for good management. Adequate provision is made in the scheme to protect parties that might be aggrieved as a result of the scheme coming into effect, and the reorganization process goes through many stages before the final stage of reallocation is reached. Other schemes administered by the Commission in- clude the provision loans to crofters for such things as 105 initial capital to take up crofting, by paying for the in- goings which would include buildings, fences, etc. Loans may also be made for the purchase of livestock at this stage, to enable a man to start off with as full a stock as possible, and use his own resources as working capital. Grants are available for drainage works, fencing works, reclamation of land, for roads, water supplies, and other equipment or services necessary to the proper management of the croft. To ensure maximum orOpping, grants are also made available for land ploughed and sown with a crOp. In return for these liberal schemes of grants and loans, the crofter is expected to reside on and cultivate his land as well as maintain as much stock as the croft will carry. It is also incumbent upon all members sharing in a common grazing to adhere to their souming, and not to overstock, as this eventually results in deterioration of the grazing. Provision is made in the Act for works to improve grazing commons by such cultural acts as surface seeding, fertilizing, etc. Grazing committees are required to be appointed in each township, to look after the welfare of the township and locally administer grazing regulations drawn up by the Commission for the prOper use of the graz- ings. 106 These various schemes, sanctions and rewards, have gone a long way towards providing the machinery for the establishment of a secure smallholding pOpulation in the crofting areas. The very fact that there has been a response shows that there are still many peOple in the crofting counties, willing to remain in the rural areas, if the facilities are available for making a reasonable standard of living. Whether these costly subsidy schemes are justifiable or not in the existing agricultural econ- omy in Britain is open to question and will be discussed later, but it must be remembered that we are dealing with an insular economy, where the need for both intensive and extensive land use is necessary if the maximum amount of food resources is to be home produced. RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM IN THE UNITED STATES The emphasis in the Rural Development program has been placed on farm peOple. Surveys have discovered that it is the inadequacy of agricultural resources in many areas, rather than the peOple that stay there, that has caused a concentration of low income in these areas. Thus the hOpes and aspirations of the peOple themselves is the aim of rural develOpment, and the normal yardsticks like Optimum size of farm, the respective merits of rural 107 macriae . .- 9 _ . were“ a ammtvmr—j I . L_._- Era-'56 uni/71:51:55.3- MICHIGAN DQ Aim/u [- T— ENC)“ l . ' “PM; Eastman ascertain I ' I “W" . run/755] i I ' , --'-~-—--—---—r ' ————— 'r—-—-—l ————— UPPER PENINSULA COUNTIES msrttlwtxrmo iuwmttTmscoua . ocean I' [0500 INCLUDED m RURAL PILOT j . I ! ' DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM -_. ._.._- - ._.- -_'L._ _L. . '. MASON-T LAKE I—oscmu [—cuR: [aim/HFRHAF' ._.. ._ _.' ________ ' ____. .517 000mm wan YGO Wtcosn Luann-Timing! HURON 71/5603 133m: ----l L- —————— -_A._'_.J_t-.L-' I ”US$35, wavruw FERN/or 35“de I ' , “ Tm" ! ! _'l. Jae: _ i -—--—L _____ |_______f?:~rs£Fi F,_ __ "A", ' ION/A oCL/NTON '5Huws-' ,szcu/ 0 , I l - _L-____J_._._L-_-_J._-_J_-f_OAKLA~o'WAaTeI -_-_._-L_ .l-__ l-_-_|_-_-J. _____ L. VAN Bust/v in“ Amma— CAL HOUN .r—JA cxswv 'insrrmvm i w m: '1 . l ! , . . A—‘J‘" ‘_'#‘—'fi‘ "_1' "‘-"T“ '— . CASS vsr JOSE . ”new ,H/LL 50.11:, may“ . Hafikat’ BERRIIN' I l I I . , l 1 1 I A L i 7175ko | samr sumv imam! ' mi I l A . 108 and urban living is not the first consideration. Auxili- ary employment of one kind or another forms an integral part of the program. Particular emphasis iS placed on the youth of the communities, for they are the peOple that will eventually gain most from any schemes that may be promoted. The three main goals of a Rural DevelOpment program are: (1) To help families with ability and interest in farming, gain the necessary tools, land, and Skills; (2) To widen the range of off—farm jobs; (3) To provide better educational Opportunities especially for young peOple. Unlike the Crofters Act, The Rural DevelOpment Pro- gram does not have a special agency to administer it. In- stead the aim is to integrate existing Federal and State agencies, such as the Extension Service (Equivalent of the Scottish advisory service), the Soil Conservation Service, the Farmers Home Administration who handle loans and capi- tal requirements to farmers, etc., who then work in an ad- visory capacity with local peOple, either at State or County level. Committees are formed at both levels by civic minded citizens which might include farm peOple, rep- resentatives of farm organizations, churches, businessmen, 0.3..3u:o( .o $.05...le m A (a. , 9:: Lou-1......u )0 1.305: VTCICQCRL 3:80 3 c2505 can... 2:2: toTEFELO llolil.l ac.— l o «11:30.. 9590.2. ICE .0 0.3 “c and; .ctn . 0.2.2.2 .L. :49? «0:59.00 .C. Q 0:...“ >3 .2394... hm Owns” UTZIS 5.1.30.3 6.0;... \ 1.....4 CD...“ 3.13:”. _ atria _ 00:10:39. 92.12/71" mmémmn .wzmwofiownml meoL< one mot—Sou Eua flint 110 bankers, chambers of commerce, or indeed any person in- terested in the welfare of his community. All of these peOple stand to benefit from such well being. These cOmmittees have a good deal of autonomy and cannot only decide the course of action to take in any desirable schemes, but can also decide the priorities and the methods to be employed to get Something done. For example, as a result of a united effort of this sort, small farmers in the Pulaski-Alexander, two-county area of Illinois State, have entered into a vegetable production and marketing plan which should increase income and farm Operations generally.2 Local representatives of the various govern- ment agencies give freely of their time and advice to pro- mote schemes, sponsored by the local committees. Up until now the scheme has been a pilot one, and for the fiscal year 1958-1959, 72 pilot programs were under way in 29 states, including Puerto Rica. State committees are constituted in similar manner to local committees, except that they may have official agency personnel as members. The State Committees nomin- ate the county within its borders which is to become a 2Rural DevelOpment Program. (Third annual report of the Secretary of Agriculture, September, 1958), p. 13. 111 "‘6!“ . FIGURE 11. A SMALL FARM UNIT IN KENTUCKY, AND TYPICAL OF THE TYPE FOR WHICH THE RURAL DEVELOPMENT PRO- GRAM WAS INITIATED. , s - ‘ ‘O ' * ~‘ ' s ‘ FIGURE 12. A LOW INCOME AREA IN NORTHERN ALABAMA. THE STEEPNESS OF THE SLOPE MAKES CULTIVATION VERY DIFFICULT, AND THE LAND ERODES READILY. 112 pilot county but only after meeting with the local commit- tee in the county concerned, and explaining the scheme to them, and the benefits likely to accrue from it, includ- ing the help to be received from outside sources. The local committee may decide not to go forward with a pro- gram, and they cannot be forced to do so by the County Committee. Overall coordination of state and county com- mittees is undertaken by a National Committee which includes the Under Secretaries of Agriculture, Commerce, Health, Education, Welfare, Interior, and Labour, as well as the administrator of small business administration and a member of the council of economic advisors. Lay organi- zations and private industry provide both advice and fi- nance, in their own field. With the local committee, rests the final responsibility and credit for any achieve- ments accomplished. Federal apprOpriations for rural develOpment work amounted to 32 million in 1958. The scheme has not been in operation sufficiently long to make a fair assessment of its achievements, but already it is manifestly obvious that in the pilot counties, programs have provided a stim- ulus absent from Similar types of schemes sponsored by individual agencies. The available funds have been used largely to employ additional personnel, agents, and special- ists. At present around 160 Extension Service personnel 113 are engaged on full-time work. Three pilot counties are located in the Upper Peninsula, namely Delta, Algar, and Mackinac, and special schemes are going on in these areas under the program. For example, the Extension Service in Delta County took the leadership in promoting a potato processing plant for the area. The method employed was to prepare a brochure which showed the advantages of lo- cating a potato processing plant in the area, and this was then distributed to all that might be interested. Sur- veys are being undertaken on marketing, manpower, physical resources, forest industries, health, and education. In Tennessee, pilot counties' soil maps are being prepared by Soil Conservation Service technicians working with the local committees, and thousands of pine seedlings have been planted. The University of Tennessee has assigned specialists to work in the field of rural development and Michigan State University has done the same. An extension center has been set up in Marquette in the Upper Peninsula with the purpose of coordinating University services in the Upper Peninsula and to aid civic, business, and other leaders improve the economy of the area. This has resulted in research projects on economic growth in the area, increa- sed production of commercial vegetables, cattle, sheep, and poultry, and better means to market them. Forest management 114 and handling, including demonstration projects, have been set up throughout the area. The tourist industry is be- ing promoted, and other projects are under way to encourage industry. There is a rural counseling program in one county using the services of the Michigan Employment Ser- vice. More recent legislation will strengthen the rural develOpment program. This includes: (1) Legislation broadening the programs of the United States small business administration, increasing the agency's lending authority, and especially providing capital for local groups investing in small businesses. (2) Appr0priations to the United States Labour (3) (4) Department permitting limited expansion of state employment services in rural areas, such as job placement, testing, and counseling for employment. The National Defense Education Act of 1958, especially in its provisiOn for guidance, test- ing, and counseling in both rural and urban schools, and area programs of vocational train— ing for highly skilled technicians. Legislation increasing monthly payments for social security under the Old Age and Survivors (5) (6) (7) 115 Insurance program, thus adding income on many small unproductive farms whose Operators are old or otherwise incapacitated. Expansion of loans through the Farmers Home Administration to help rural peOple repair and build farm houses and other buildings. This has already resulted in home improvement in many areas. Increase in the conservation reserve average rate of annual payments, thus broadening the useful- ness of the program in helping farmers make land use adjustments, especially in areas where these have been most difficult in the past. PUblication in March, 1958, of the first in a series of major studies of the nature and extent of the low-income farm problem, and characteris- tics and use of resources in underdevelOped ru- ral areas. The agricultural research service in c00peration.with land grant colleges in 15 states to carry forward this project. Reports will be issued covering Specific areas in each 3 of these states. 51bid., pp. 6-7. 116 Such is the rural develOpment program in America. It has undoubtedly achieved success in many areas in bringing local civic, business, professional, and other leaders together and has helped rural peOple to help them— selves. Through financial and advisory means, it is mak— ing the most of the natural resources available, stimulat- ing more job Opportunities, better farming methods and overall community betterment. In short it has aroused the consciousness of many communities, and the success of the efforts in the pilot counties will undoubtedly encourage many other states and counties to go ahead with plans of their own. CHAPTER X AREA ANALYSIS Low income areas were defined in the first chapter and few would dispute that both the Highlands and Upper Peninsula would qualify. It is now relevant to consider the factors that contribute to their economic status and to draw comparisons between them. It cannot be over em- phasized that, notwithstanding the serious nature of natu- ral resource depletion in both areas, the outstanding loss in each case is the migration of the human resource. If those that remained were of an equitable age distribution, the problem would not be so serious; but the people that migrate are invariably the working age section. This would appear to hold more true in the Highlands than in the Upper Peninsula; and indeed there is a strong body of Opinion which holds that the migration of more people from the Upper Peninsula would ultimately insure the equation of human with natural resources. However, there comes a time when this Optimum is passed; and the area is faced with public service burdens that it is unable to bear due to limited numbers and the limited money in circulation. Each year hundreds of high school students leave the area and seldom return. That many of these should leave is - 117 _ 118 inevitable, but that they Should all leave is a reflection of the lack of sound planning by those responsible for the wellbeing of the area. They leave in many cases not be- cause they particularly want to, but because they are not encouraged to stay. Any program of develOpment should have in mind the retention of these young peOple in their natu- ral environment, if a strong healthy society is to be built. Agriculture is relatively more important in the Highlands than in the Upper Peninsula. The considerable aid granted it through subsidy schemes might appear over generous in the United States, but the economies are dif- ferent, and since the saleable products of beef and mut- ton are necessary import commodities, Government support to encourage production would be justified in the Highlands when the same justification might not be possible in the United States. The increased Size of unit was commented upon, and the natural reorganization that is taking place in the Upper Peninsula. Although some natural reorgani- zation has taken place in the Highlands, much of it is being undertaken under the development prOgram. The end result is the same, except that natural reorganization will probably cause less conflict in the area; and the size of new unit will be a reflection of the need at the 119 time. Reorganization through Government action presupposes a knowledge of future demand and Optimum size of unit. This is a very difficult presumption to make , and the long—run picture in agriculture is an uncertain one. However, the aim is undoubtedly the creation as far as possible of econ- omically sized family units, although this is a system of farming that is disappearing through mechanization and new technology. To attempt to create the conditions of large scale enterprises requiring fewer and fewer Operators, par- ticularly in the Highlands, would accelerate what the Gov- ernment is attempting to avoid, namely depopulation. This assumes of course that the problems of encouraging indus- try to locate there will continue in the future and that alternative employment Opportunities are restricted. Even the continuance of family farming will further reduce pre- sent population, if many family-type units are to be formed. If all these units were occupied by young working age peOple, then some migration would not be serious, if no other employment were available. There are serious marketing problems in both areas. The Upper Peninsula grows a reasonably large potato acre- age, but it has difficulty in disposing of the crOp. Yet potatoes from the states of Idaho and Maine find a ready market throughout the country, and market distances are 120 greater than from the Upper Peninsula. Although the qual- ity of Idaho potatoes is an important factor, surely trans- portation advantages should more than compensate the Upper Peninsula for this. The real reason is undoubtedly one of good salesmanship and advertising on the part of these other areas, coupled with efficient marketing facilities. They have thus built up a reputation that enables them to override transportation problems and compete in the market. It might be relevant to comment that transportation circum- stances obviously forced them into seeking means of over- coming them, and that they have so successfully achieved this end might be a lesson to other areas similarly located. If full agricultural production is to be achieved then use must be made of every available acre of agricul- tural land. Abandoned farms or crofts should not be allowed to remain idle; and systems of tenure should not stand in the way. This is merely good land use practice, and indeed if the land is not suitable for farming, then some other use can undoubtedly be found for it. There may be social costs involved here, particularly in the Highlands, but this should no longer act as a barrier towards full produc- tion. Improved agricultural practice and the use of mod- ern aids must be adOpted. The agriculture of the Tennessee Valley was at a low ebb when TVA started its work. Today 121 farmers in the area look with pride upon the achievements that have been effected on their lands through good manage- ment practices, and the judicious use of fertilizers, in particular phosphates. Credit facilities are available through the Farmers Home Administration in the Upper Pen- insula, and the Crofters Commission in the Highlands, to improve buildings and other aids to better farming. There are advisory services available in both countries, ready to impart the latest research and help in other ways to educate peOple in the latest farming techniques. There Should be more attention paid to marketing problems, and an extension of cooperative facilities is undoubtedly called for, if the best bargaining Opportunities are to be had. Larger units allow for greater economies to scale, in feeding, fertilizing, and general management; and this is a definite reason for increasing the size of unit. There are areas of course where the ideal of the family type farm is impossible, and this is particularly so in certain areas of the Highlands, notably the Island of Lewis. This island's economy is based not on agricul- ture but on textiles, and the croft is in many cases merely a place for a cheap home and sometimes a place to keep a minimum of livestock. It is the textile industry that permits its present pOpulation to live there, and its 122 demise would certainly lead to mass migration. There seems no reason to fear such a calamity, and the marriage of tweedmaking and crofting has been going for a long time. But not all the crofts here are being managed as they should be, for they have become so ancillary to the loom, that the land often takes a minor place in the week's work. The disparity between the income from land and loom is so wide that this is inevitable; and the land suf- fers. The policy for agriculture in the Highlands would therefore seem to be directed towards family sized units in so far as this is possible and particularly in the areas that lack industry and have opportunity for agricul- tural expansion, and part-time units of small size where industrial employment is available. Seldom is a "half sized" croft and full-time job successful, for invariably the land suffers as the wage earning employment takes pre- cedence. The trend towards natural reorganization in the Upper Peninsula to create full-time farms is the only answer to a continued vigorous agriculture in the area. Much remains to be done in both areas if agriculture is to contribute a rightful Share to their prosperity. Forestry occupies a much more important place in the economy of the Upper Peninsula than in the Highlands, and since much hOpe has been expressed in the Highlands 123 for forestry as the cure to its many ills, a comparison of what it has achieved in the Upper Peninsula is impor- tant. Wise management of the second growth timber fol- lowing the devastation of the logging days has resulted in many fine stands of hardwoods and other species. But although it employs many peOple and occupies an important place in the economy, employment in the wood processing industries especially continues to fall. The main reason for this is the widespread use of alternative materials in what was once traditional timber made. Metals, plastics, and fibre glass are widely used in furniture manufacture and in boats and a host of commodities once traditionally wood constructed. This is because they are so much more easily handled in the mass production process and are ultimately cheaper to the consumer. In spite of this, however, many peOple are employed in the wood processing industries, and in addition many farmers take contracts in the winter time for logging timber. This provides them with work at a time when there is little else to do, and frees them during the busy work seasons. The prospects in the wood pulp industry for paper making are better, and if the demand for paper continues to increase, as will doubtless be the case with increasing population, then the pulp mills will be kept busy manu- facturing it. In this respect, the Upper Peninsula is 124 well located with respect to the large cities of Chicago and Detroit, as well as many other large centers. Much of the timber reaching maturity in the Highlands is of the soft wood variety, for example scots pine, EurOpean larch and the spruces. Much of this timber will likely go for building purposes. There are no pulpmills now, but suit- able pulpwood species would undoubtedly grow, if the need arose for them. The real value of the forestry of the Upper Peninsula is the processing plants that have located in the area. Without these plants far fewer people could be employed in the industry. This fact must be borne in mind, when large scale felling of the growing timber stocks in the Highlands commences, for if the timber is merely to be grown there and exported elsewhere, then the industry is only going to be of limited value to the area. In view of the continued use, and future trends for using synthe- tics in favour of timber in many commodites, consideration should be given to establishing a wood pulp industry in- the Highlands. The demand for paper will always be there and will increase with increasing pOpulation. Furthermore, this is as effective a method as any for processing the natural resources in the area. The prospects for forestry are probably good, but caution and not overoptimism should 125 be exercised in order to avoid disappointment at a later stage. The mineral deposits of the Upper Peninsula are relatively more important than those of the Highlands, although they have suffered such a decline in importance. Very little processing of the raw ore takes place in the area for it must be shipped to the centers of industry where the facilities are available. The deep mining of these ores particularly iron ore may well result in loss of markets, if the cheaper produced Canadian ores utilize the St. Lawrence Seaway, when it Opens to larger shipping. The reason for the cheaper ore is simply that power Shovels working on the surface, cost half as much as deep mining, and indeed the ore need only be half the quality of the deep mined ore to compete satisfactorily with it.1 However, the "Benefication" process for treating Taconite ores has Opened up new avenues for ore utilization, and in the fu- ture, new technology will undoubtedly come to the aid of less well advantaged areas. It would seem that little Op- portunity for expansion exists in the Highlands unless the expansion of uses for such products as seaweed and peat is found. Peat experimentation is directed towards its use in steam boilers for electricity production. lPaul Strassman, Economic Growth in Northern Michi- gan. Institute for Community DevelOpment and Services, pp. 23-29e 126 If industry could be persuaded to locate in some of the more remote areas, then the abundant supplies of hydro electricity could be gainfully employed. This was thetheme behind the development in the Tennessee Valley, and if a small part of the success achieved there could be achieved in the Highlands, then its problems of pOpulation and lack of natural resources would quickly be resolved. Great Britain became a major world power not because of its natural resources, but because of its ability to im- port the raw materials, and export the finished product. Since the Highlands find themselves in the same position of limited natural resources, than the only answer is to import the raw material and by using the power available, export the finished product. Much more could be done with existing resources. The fishing industry declined, because of competition from large scale enterprises. If this com- petition cannot be met, then at least a share of the pro- cessing of the fish should be obtained. Handling facili- ties could be improved both for fish and shell fish, and if curing plants, canning and reduction plants could be constructed near the location of the fishing grounds, a large industry could be develOped. Some progress has been made in the last few years in this type of develOpment. 127 Industrial develOpment presupposes good transporta- tion facilities, and if develOpment is to progress, this problem must be solved. Meanwhile the roads of the High- lands are quite inadequate, and until these are improved there will be a reluctance on the part of any kind of or- ganization to invest capital there. The road system in the Upper Peninsula is better, and the prOposes system of expressways from Detroit to the Straits of Mackinac, the gateway to the Upper Peninsula, will be a further encourage- ment to peOple to go there. These expressways cut 25% off travelling time, and this fact in itself would give greater incentive to industry to locate in the area. Improvement of transportation avenues leads naturally to the tourist and resort industry. The phenomenal rise in this industry in the Upper Peninsula "augers well" for the Highlands, for they both have the same type of natural resource to offer, namely picturesque scenery, climbing, lakes, sea beaches, and freedom from the smoke and grime of the city. People are willing to spend money in restaur- ants, tourist homes and shOpS to get this. These facili- ties must therefore be provided. The Upper Peninsula has Shown much more vigour than the Highlands in encouraging the tourist industry. The remarkable rise in motel con- struction, the money spent on advertising, and the improved 128 roads have all contributed to making tourism the major industry in the Upper Peninsula. But the question that must be posed is how many jobs will the industry create? This is difficult to answer, because there are so many intangibles. The latest figures available for the Upper Peninsula Show the increase in workers from 1949 to 1956 was 3,500 in July. Many resort and hotel owners are re- quired to close down in winter time, and consequently find it necessary to charge more during the season. However, as far as summer jobs are concerned, it is estimated that by 1970 the number of jobs will range from 10,000 to 2 Many Operators have winter resorts in Arizona 20,000. or Florida. As technology improves and output per manhour in- creases, there is likely to be an increase in real income, and a greater share of this will undoubtedly be used on luxuries. In Britain more peOple are likely to want cars, and car vacations will become more popular. The Highlands must make a point of capitalizing on this and attract as large a share of the tourist business as possible. This can only be done through better roads, better facilities, and reasonable charges. 2Labour Force and Employment Estimates 1949—1956, Michigan_Employment Security Commission, Series 55, p. 15. 129 FIGURE 15. A LOW INCOME AREA IN TENNESSEE. r ‘gl. 7‘ .- m V“... .. tit FIGURE 16. BROILER PRODUCTION AND HOG RAISING ON A SMALL FARM UNIT IN NORTHERN GEORGIA. THIS INTENSIVE USE OF LAND IS ONE ATSWER TO THE PROBLEM OF LIMITED ACRES. 130 Some of the suggestions made for the economic im- provement of these areas, and particularly the Highlands, must inevitably reflect upon the culture and the language, of which brief mention was made in the first chapter. Remedial measures envisage the introduction of some foreign forces into the society. What effect these forces would have on the culture and traditions of the peOple, is a matter for conjecture. It is Open for debate if any at- tempt Should be made to preserve the language, at least, when even those in the best position to know acknowledge its ultimate extinction in any case. But a rapid social disorganization of the culture as a result of foreign in- fluence is another matter and might well be resisted by a peOple accustomed to their own way of life for centuries. This was exemplified by the resistance offered by the local peOple of the Island of Uist to the establishment of a rocket range on lands that had belonged to their peo- ple for generations. This was in spite of the promise of employment and the injection of large supplies of money into the economy, through government expenditure. It is doubtful if a large foreign element could be absorbed into the culture, and the dilution of the language would be but yet another stage in its ultimate extinction. The inevit- able conclusion one reaches is that many of these established 131 practices are incompatible with a modern complex techno- logical age, and the areas can no longer adOpt an isola- tionist policy that must eventually give them a label of backwardness. It is hOped that economic modernism will learn some of the graceful living that characterized the ancient celtic culture and benefit as a result. CHAPTER XI PROGRAM ANALYSES AND CONCLUSIONS The ultimate aim of both programs is the establish- ment of a stable pOpulation in these low income areas, able to share the prOSperity of the rest of the country. To have a lesser ideal than this would be to doom the schemes at the start. The fact that they were instituted at all is an indication that the public conscience was aroused by the disparity in prosperity. In many cases the depression is as serious as that which occurs in industry from time to time, yet there is a naiveity, in the public mind over the problems of under-employment; and if the same amount of publicity was accorded it as is accorded unemployment, then this naiveity might be dispelled, and more sympathy might be accorded it in their minds. Good planning and a prosperous economy is the surest safeguard against unemployment. Too often in dealing with problems, peOple are required to provide for the need after it has arisen, when good planning in the first instance might well have avoided it in the first instance. Unfor— tunately the problems of both the Upper Peninsula and the Highlands go back to a time when conservation practices - 152 - 133 were not understood, and indeed exploitive practices suited the needs of the time. Areas devastated to that extent take a long time to recover, and the fact that cor- rective measures in the past have not achieved as much suc- cess as had been hOped should not discourage future schemes. A major drawback in any scheme, particularly in the High- lands, is the lack of natural leaders willing to take the local responsibility of organizing schemes. The American Rural DevelOpment Program places empha- sis upon the county approach, and it presupposes the abil- ity of all types of peOple from all strata of society to work together for the good of the community. There is much in this philOSOphy to commend it, but it seems to the writer that it may eventually lead to provincialism. The counties in a State are to a greater or lesser extent interdependent on one another and on the State as a whole. There is thus a danger that individual counties, in their zeal to attract employment Opportunities to their own coun- ties, may well be working against the more legitimate claims of a neighbouring county. Certain localities are better suited to industries than others, and a strong for— ceful committee in a less well suited area might endeavour to attract industry to their own doorstep when the economies of plant location would dictate its location elsewhere. 134 This might eventually act to the detriment of the State as a whole, if future develOpment was contemplated and the original site had not proved as suitable as had been hoped. The program further presupposes the availability in these low income areas of people of special organizing abil- ity to undertake work on rural develOpment committees. If the same position holds true as in the Highlands, and in some measure it is bound to do, then there must be many counties where the necessary leadership is quite inadequate to develop local effort. This is particularly true where development Opportunities are limited and where isolation does not warrant the establishment of a school, far less the provision of local medical services, community centers, and so on. ‘ Local agencies act merely in an advisory capacity and great stress is laid upon the fact that the program is a community effort, unshackled by the heavy hand of bureaucracy. Local committees would therefore require to spend a great deal of time on this work, and since this will presumably be their leisure time and they have their own immediate work problems to worry them as well, there is a strong case for more agency participation in the scheme. Indeed there are bound to be occasions when local leaders will not be in a position to attend meetings, and 135 unless they make some progress, there is a further danger that eventually apathy will set in, and the committees cease to function. It is acknowledged that it is in these very cases that prudent agency advisors can help, and in actual practice it may be that their professional know- ledge and ability to guide would overcome some of these apparent shortcomings. However, the philOSOphy of encouraging local initia- tive, is sound, for it is only through the appreciation of the problems in their own area that people can be made aware of the possibilities that exist to correct them. No better example could be found anywhere in the world than in the Tennessee Valley, which was created to supplement the efforts of a region to develOp its total resources for the benefit of the area and the Nation. To quote from the foreword to "A Report to the Nation from the TVA on Its First Twenty-Five Years:" Its mission was and continues to be to bring resources into balance. The problem was even more basic to Spark individual initiative and coordinate the efforts of all echelons of Government. This unity of effort is reflected in achievement, in a river under control, in inter-regional commerce, in electric energy for farms, homes, factories, and defense installations, in revitalized soil and restored forest, in increased agricultural and industrial pro- duction, in the development of a great recreational asset, in increased economic wellbeing within the region and a major contribution to the industrial and defens1ve strength of the nation. 136 But the progress of the last twenty—five years is but a prologue for the future. The development of resources is only a beginning. In the use of resources lies the hOpe for progress in the future. This region will continue to grow and prosper, as it grows stronger and more resourceful, so will the nation. The Tennessee Valley is now a prosperous one and while the initial thinking and initiation was undertaken by the,Government, the installation of the necessary enthu- siasm in the peOple of the valley largely contributed to its ultimate success. The latest legislation for the Highlands is one in a series of corrective measures designed to improve con- ditions for the pOpulation of the region. It is adminis- tered by a government appointed commission, helped in their task by an administrative machine and technical aid from the Department of Agriculture for Scotland. Local Opinion can be sought from people appointed for this pur- pose in the area of immediate concern. Furthermore, local Opinion is sought in formulating plans for such major works as reorganization Schemes. But while the initiative for instituting reorganization may be undertaken by the local people, the work itself is undertaken under commission jurisdiction and the same autonomy is not accorded the local 1Foreword to a report to the nation from the Tennes- see Valley Authority on its first twenty-five year, 1958, p. l. 137 peOple as is envisaged in the Rural Development Program in the United States. More active participation by the 10- cal people would undoubtedly give them more of a feeling of belongingness to the scheme and its purpose. This might well start off a chain reaction of enthusiasm for corrective processes without requiring that the measures be included within the scheme itself. The tourist and resort industry in particular would benefit greatly from more local participation in promotion schemes for not only expanding it during the recognized season but extending the season. At the moment there is far too much apathy in many areas, not only for the scheme itself but for any further measures by themselves to improve incomes and the economic base of their areas. There is a definite lack of the right kind of leadership, willing to undertake the responsibility of initiating schemes for economic develOp- ment. Both programs must inevitably have initial adminis- trative and technical problems to overcome. The ultimate goal of each is similar. If a vigorous pOpulation with a will to their own economic betterment can be settled either in farming, out of farming, or by combination of land uses, then the schemes will have gone a long way towards success. The renounced Scots economist Adam Smith expressed 138 this same sentiment in his "Wealth of Nations," when he said that "The true wealth of a nation, lay not in the gold of the treasury or the size of the pOpulation, but rather in the ability of individual citizens to produce high incomes for themselves." CHAPTER XII SUMMARY The dissertation concerned itself with a study of resource problems and policies in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the Highlands of Scotland. The study was inevitably of an extensive nature and embraced such aspects as the human resource, natural resources and other factors that contributed in any way to the real problem which is essentially one of low per capita income, a mi- gration to urban centers of the younger people, and a consequent unbalanced age structure in the areas concerned. Two programs aimed at alleviating some of these problems were discussed from the point of view of how they operated and how they might possibly be improved. It was agreed that active participation in any program by the peOple most intimately concerned was highly desirable for the success of the program but that a measure of official control over a program could do much to ensure its suc— cess. The value of culture was briefly discussed and particularly the existing culture with its language that exists in the Highlands. It was concluded that the pre- servation of such aesthetic values,while in many respects -159... 140 desirable, was so incompatible with existing cultural pat- terns that the extinction of the language was merely a matter of time, and the absorption of alien influences into the culture could not continue for long until it lost much of its individuality. The following conclusions were arrived at after analyzing the resources of both areas: (1) (2) (3) The reluctance of industry to locate in these rural areas, demanded that existing resources be fully utilized. This to include all avail- able land not being utilized to best advantage at the moment, the consolidation of land into family type economic units where the prospects for auxiliary employment were poor, and small part-time units in areas with special advan- tages where industry might locate in the future. Improved roads, which in turn would improve transportation and marketing facilities were essential if the areas were to share in the ultimate prosperity the respective programs have set out to achieve. The processing of existing resources within the areas concerned, such as the forest re- sources of the Upper Peninsula. In this re- spect it was thought that a wood pulp indus- try promised the best prospect for the future 141 in view of the continued use of synthetics, in originally wood using industries. (4) The tourist and resort industry promised the highest returns in both areas but facilities demanded by present day vacationers such as good food, reasonable charges, etc. must be made available. This can only come about by extending the presently limited season by wins ter sports, etc. The Upper Peninsula is cop- ing with this more successfully than the High- lands. (5) The peOple living in these areas do not in many cases have sufficient desire to improve their income status, or actively participate in schemes for the economic betterment of their surroundings. There is a lack of lead- ership. The thesis made no effort to seek new approaches to the problem of limited resources and low incomes. Only a combination of approaches such as practiced in the Ten- nessee Valley can hope to achieve ultimate success. This type of approach should be encouraged particularly in the Highlands, which has abundant electrical power. The value of Government projects in both areas is considerable and 142 and the importance of government establishments in the Tennessee Valley is well known. The future is uncertain, but it is likely the High- lands could support a population twice its present size if its existing resources of soils, forests, and water power could be fully and wisely utilized. The Upper Penin- sula could support many more as well, but the problem of dispersal of pOpulation in.the United States is not so acute. It is finally acknowledged that the establishment of a reasonable pOpulation able to enjoy a standard of living comparable to the rest of the country, and of a well defined age structure is infinitely more desirable to an unbalanced population eking out an inadequate income from a spoiled land. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1. Barlowe, Raleigh. Land Resource Economics. The poli- tical economy of rural and urban land resource use. Prentice Hall Inc., Eaglewood Cliffs, N. J. 1958. 2. Barnes-Becker. 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