AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF POLICE RECRUITMENT AND MINORITY GROUPS Thesis for the. Degree of M. S. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JOHN EDWARD RUSSELL 1-969 v. .f‘JQJ-A’J- -4" _ ’24,. - 9 \. OVERDUE FINES: ~ , , 25¢ per day per item \\\ s ' g |l| {fig RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS: M ‘ I. ~- 3“",1'” “ PTGCB In bOOk return to m‘ x “‘ I - J charge from circulation recon '3 AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF POLICE RECRUITMENT AND MINORITY GROUPS BY John Edward Russell AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to the College of Social Science Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Police Administration and Public Safety 1969 APPROVED : 9 K weenie / airmat‘h mi: QM [V flziL [ilvvz‘i46.\ ber ABSTRACT AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF POLICE RECRUITMENT AND MINORITY GROUPS BY John Edward Russell The recruitment function is directly related to many of the present day problems confronting police adminis- trators. Some of these administrators have voiced a concern for lack of applicants from the minority community. A National Survey identified factors such as fear of prejudice in the selection process, lack of opportunity for promotion, the adversary concept, availability of other employment, civil rights strategy and ineffectiveness of the referral method as explanation.1 The study concluded that although in no instance were all six variables operating; at least one and usually two or more were present in each community where the problem was studied.2 In order to effectively utilize resources, properly associate organization commit- ment and enjoy the benefits from good recruitment, the sig- nificant variables affecting potential applicants need identification. The review of the literature relating to recruitment revealed the total organizational role as the recruiting John Edward Russell process. It involves planning, policy, commitment and evalu- ation of feedback relative to organizational needs. The policy, or attitude, of the organization establishes a re- 1ationship with potential employees, both in day-to-day activities and through its image. The image is sometimes created independent of the particular organization. These factors are evaluated here within the context of police attitudes toward recruitment. The status of the police literature concerning recruitment reflects neither the in- depth considerations of recruitment generally, nor concern for relevant variables applicable to minority groups particularly. One community, having a significant Negro population, was selected for an in-depth case study of the problem. The police department does not have one Negro officer, but has on two separate occasions had Negro officers in the past. The Chief of Police has expressed a desire to have Negro officers and has expressed concern for lack of applicants from the Negro community. The interview technique was utilized in exploring the views of some present members of the police department, some Negro leaders and citizens of the community, and a former Negro officer of the department. Data collected was evaluated against principles of recruiting identified in the literature. John Edward Russell The conclusion of this exploratory research is that, in the city studied, there has been a systematic pattern of excluding Negroes, either by design, naivete or both. The failure of the department to break the existing system of alienation provides day-to-day reinforcement of the past practices of discrimination. The complex barriers deterring Negro applicants are coupled with unique and undesirable em- ployment conditions for any Negro officer, thereby under- mining any external appeal presented as a police recruitment effort. Therefore, police recruiting for minority members should begin with internal improvement. When the organi- zation becomes an appealing employer it can then, with confidence of delivery, make appeals to potential applicants. 1The National Center on Police and Community Re— lations, School of Police Administration and Public Safety, A National Survey of Police and Community Relations. (Washington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), pp. 266-273. 21bid., p. 273. AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY OF POLICE RECRUITMENT AND MINORITY GROUPS BY John Edward Russell A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Police Administration and Public Safety 1969 x1. . {I I"? ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many persons have in some way contributed to this project. However, the participation of certain persons represent contributions crucial to completion. The seed of concern for the subject matter was planted by Professor Louis Radelet. His influence resulted in special attention to the problem. This concern was translated into meaningful focus through the valuable advice of Assistant Professor James LeGrande. Selection of an ap- propriate framework for this complex subject was particularly significant here and contributed greatly to subsequent treat— ment of the problem. The process of inquiry was directed and guided by Associate Professor John McNamara. His adeptness and patience was continuously made available, and to whatever de- gree insight is revealed in this thesis, it is a correspond- ing compliment to his influence. Any major project requires considerable effort. The persistance necessary for the completion of the Masters pro- gram generally, and this thesis particularly, was provided generously by my wife Sandie. Without her continued support and confidence this venture would have been futile. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED . . . l The Problem 1 Statement of the problem . . 1 Importance of study . . . . 6 Definitions of Terms Used 8 Recruitment . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Minority group 8 Police department . . . . . . . . . . 8 Administrator 8 Organization of Study . . . . . . . 8 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . 10 The Recruitment Process . . . . . . . . . 10 Role of the Organization . . . . . . . . . 29 The social organization . . . . . . . 29 The business organization . . . . . . 33 The police organization . . . . . . . 39 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 III. A CASE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 The Method . . . . . a . . . . . . . . . . 64 Limitations of methodology . . . . . . 68 iii Chapter Page The Analysis and Findings . . . . . . . . 73 The basis for need . . . . . . . . . . 74 Identification of the recruitment problem in the community . . . . . . 77 Evidence of resistance . . . . . . . . 86 The Negro police officer . . . . . . . 95 The programmed conflict . . . . . . . 101 IV. CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 Summary and Implications of the Research . 108 Importance of the Research . . . . . . . . 116 Recommendations for Further Research . . . 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 iv CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The police systems of this nation are being con- fronted more and more with challenges and required minimum standards for performance. The unrest of communities is in- creasingly recognized as being closely related to the corre- sponding police institutions. Underlying this identifi- cation of the police role in our society is the recognition that it is a personal service. The public attention upon the nature and exposure of this role therefore, has concen- trated in a large measure upon personnel. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. Personnel needs are seen within a framework of apparent conflict. First, there is a need for a greater quantity of police officers. The in- creasing population and problems of social control attest to demands for personnel to meet these needs. Secondly, the significance of the police function to the overall social effort in creating a better society makes demands for higher standards in personnel. Thirdly, and within this context for more and better police officers, the existing structure of the police agencies often demand that new personnel be hired only at the patrolman level. These demands create an ever increasing pressure upon the administrator in recruit— ing personnel. The search for personnel to meet the demands of our time is taking on an additional condition in many communi- ties. Due to above considerations and for other reasons, some police administrators have given special concern for recruiting people from specific minority groups in their communities. Recruiting practices by these departments to- ward this end have not always resulted in meeting this practical manpower need. A difficulty in obtaining minority people for the police department exists apart from a recognized problem of "qualified" applicants. In some communities where the police administrator is desirous of having minority members, there are no applicants forthcoming. Within the total context of the employment situation in any given community, it might be presumed that where there is a significant minority popu- lation, there would be applicants from that group. For ex- ample, in any given community the competitive employment ,conditions for the police department exists and the depart- ment still has some qualified white applicants. The signifi- cant absence of minority applicants suggests the existance of a related variable or variables applicable to their failure to apply. An Associated Press survey reports, "In many places where racial tensions are significant, determined recruiting campaigns have been carried on for years.”1 Except for Chicago and Philadelphia, the survey indicated results of the efforts were disappointing.2 "The New York police de- partment is reticent about why Negroes and Puerto Ricans are reluctant to join up" and the Chief of Police of Seattle, Washington stated, "If you can think of any technique we haven't used to recruit minorities, I'd like to hear about it.“3 Reasons given for the lack of applicants included the negative image of the police to Negroes, neighbors of po- tential applicants calling them "Uncle Tom" and the police being "Whitey."4 A National Survey of Police and Community Relations conducted for the President's Commission on Law Enforcement, addressed itself in part to this problem.5 This survey indi- cated six factors operating against attraction of minority personnel, and, although in no instance were all six factors operating, at least one and usually two or more were present in every community where the problem was studied.6 —f —— 1Associated Press, ”Few Negroes Accept Police Jobs," The State Journal, April 24, 1968. 21bid. 31bid. 41bid. 5The National Center on Police and Community Re- lations, School of Police Administration and Public Safety, A National Survey of Police and Community Relations. (Washington, D. C., U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967). 6Ibid., p. 273. NOrmal recruiting techniques were identified as not reaching the minority population.7 Particularly significant here is that an ideal source of recruits is referral by other employees. When a department has no minority members, the make-up of the department will tend to perpetuate that condition.8 Fear of prejudice in the selection process is listed as a second variable.9 The survey concluded that the dis- crimination of the past has established a distrust that con- tinues today.10 These suspicions manifest themselves par— ticularly in the oral steps of the selection process and the character investigations, the latter causing concern when minor police records disqualify candidates.ll Lack of oppor- tunity for promotion is presented as influential and is some— what related to the preceding suspicion of the selection process.12 The adversary concept is reported when the police are viewed as the enemy of the minority group.13 Within this context, any member of the minority group joining the police department would be viewed as a traitor.14 7.1229: p. 266. 8M. 9M” p. 267. my. 1139353., p. 268. 12.110.153.- l3_j_[_}g_i_g., p. 271. 14.1.1229 The employment market is considered significant.15 The survey reports that the employment market has been open- ing to members of the minority group and better positions than the police offer are available.16 A sixth variable presented by the survey team is ob— struction of the police recruitment efforts as a civil rights strategy.l7 Some civil rights leaders have suggested that Negroes not join the police department in response to the police practices of the past toward employment of Negroes.18 Two underlying considerations appear significant from the Michigan State Survey. First, the problems of minority recruitment may vary between communities. Secondly, the image or posture of the organization itself is at a critical juncture for major problem areas covered by all six variables. The failure of normal recruitment measures to search for minority group members, once identified, is only a matter of an administrator developing techniques to re- cruit Negro members. The value of these techniques however, would appear to clearly hinge upon dealing with the foun- dation of fears of prejudice in selection and promotion and the adversary concept, which, if modified, might influence consideration of theories relating to a civil rights strate- gy. The remaining variable identified by this survey may 1511616., p. 272 l6Ibid. 17 18 Ibid., p. 273. Ibid. also be approached, and possibly minimized by the nature of changes in other variables and presenting positive features of employment in the police department. The image and posture of the police department, in any given community, would then appear basic in dealing with the problem of minority recruitment. Whereas the conditions operating negatively in a community may be unknown, the con- ditions of the department is common to all of them. If any one or more of these factors existed in a given community, it would appear that any recruitment effort directed at the minority group would have difficulty if the substance of the police department supported a negative image relating to the minority group. Further, recruiting, if it is considered within the context of the total department efforts to ac— complish its objective, must furnish individuals who will continue to identify with the organization as an employee. An administrator desiring to attract minority appli- cants must first confront the task of evaluating the posture of his department relative to the problem. Importance of study. The importance of this par— ticular research project to be reported later is of a practi— cal nature. It is directed at exploring some potential obstacles confronting an administrator in his efforts to re- cruit minority members of the community. The cost of recruitment efforts, both in money and other resources, can be more wisely spent when the nature of the problem is better understood. An administrator spending resources to attract qualified minority members, without results, may even aggravate the problem. In any event, he will not be getting a return on money used. This study may provide a better understanding of the problem area which will furnish information for decision making. If there are no applicants from the minority groups, and the administrator is concerned with correcting this con- dition, he will have available some considerations in how to best approach a recruitment program. In addition to providing a starting point for the administrator, it would be expected that results of this study will increase the probability of success in recruit- ment. The efforts of the administrator directed through productive avenues, will serve to give credit to administra- tive effectiveness. The disadvantages of being ineffective in his efforts attest to this same issue of importance. Finally, this study will hopefully contribute to whatever advantages the administrator visualizes from having minority members on his department. Whatever analysis or in— sight gave birth to the idea that minority members should be specifically employed, the gain from that idea necessarily depends at the outset upon successful recruitment. II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Recruitment. Recruitment is that activity specifi— cally engaged in by the police department to attract or en- tice persons to seek and maintain employment as a police officer in that department. This activity must be viewed in broad perspective. _Minority_qroup. "Minority" is defined as, " the smaller in number of two groups constituting a whole a part of a population differing from others in some characteristics and often subjected to differential treatment."19 Police department. The police department is defined as the organization for internal peacekeeping function through law enforcement within the executive branch of a political subdivision. Administrator. The administrator is defined as the individual of the police department responsible for the per- formance of the total police operation. III. ORGANIZATION OF STUDY This study is organized to explore the problem area in such a manner as to produce some basic insight of value 19Webster's Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (Spring— field, Massachusetts: G & C Merriam Company, 1967), p. 540. in solution. Being of an exploratory nature, the approach is broad; yet the concern for insight calls for ”in—depth” consideration of seemingly crucial variables. Chapter II reveals a review of the literature. The broad Spectrum of the recruiting process itself was viewed with a concern for "benchmarks," and then concentration given upon those considerations relating to the problem area. Chapter III will report a case study of one community which has the same problem identified here for study. Chapter IV will summarize the information obtained relative to those basic factors which seem, from the study, to point for action. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The recruiting process is the subject of many articles, including description of gimmicks and "how to" techniques. Problems of minority groups in our society is a subject of concern for many and is expressed throughout much of the literature. The confrontation of American police systems with some minority groups has been the subject of national concern and numerous news reports dominate this sub— ject, particularly in recent years. Yet literature relating to recruiting of minorities is scarce, particularly in the police field. The objective here is to identify the basics of the recruiting process as they relate to the problem of minority groups, within the context of police needs. I. THE RECRUITMENT PROCESS /Recruitment has been defined as the activity spe— cifically engaged in by the police department to attract or entice persons to seek employment as a police officer in the departmenty/‘The literature is not overflowing with research results and glowing testimonials as to how various insti- tutions and organizations have successfully sought and 10 ll recruited specifically for these groups. The current con- cern for special efforts in these areas take on a variety of form, ranging from seeking out the qualified to qualifying the unqualified, and including programs to provide transpor- tation insuring that some come to work. The obstacles con- fronting this nation in these areas appear monumental. To whatever degree some of these efforts are successful, ap- proaches in recruiting may seriously be altered based upon new insights. Although the problem identified here is only a small segment of the total minority employment picture, the significance of new insights will surely influence future action. Roger H. Hawk places the recruitment function within a setting when he states it establishes the new employee's expectations and the rejected applicant's image of the organization represented.l At the outset, a critical im- portance is attached to its role in the total employment process. It is a commitment of the organization. It would appear to follow that a rejection of a candidate should be reasonably consistent with the conditions presented. Further, an accepted candidate should be reasonably certain that the conditions of employment will be as they were stated. Ac— cording to the author, there are too many risks involved for 1Roger H. Hawk, The_Recruitment_§unction (New York: American Management Association, 1967), p. 121. 12 a Recruiter and Manager to act unilaterally.2 He states, " . . . a recruiting effort is inescapably a subsystem of the total business system which it serves.“3 “/The objective of recruiting is presented as to, "Get the right man into the right job at the right time--and at a properly managed cost.$§’ The significance of this identified objective is that there has been established a particular need, which, to the organization in question, calls for satisfaction. Also, under past standards, the need is re- lated to the capability of that organization to accomplish its objective. A recommended process for identifying this need is the job specification based upon job analysis.5 This involves determination of such factors as how rigidly the duties are established, training needs, level of intelli- gence, routine, whether emphasizing broad planning or con- fined to details, personality needs and what characteristics are unacceptable.6 An administrator calling for special efforts to re- cruit minority members, or, withholding selection pending a qualified candidate from a minority group, is to a great de- gree identifying a special need of the organization to be filled. In a police organization that need might be 2Ibid., p. 7. 3Ibid., p. 8. 4Ibid., p. 183. 5Laurence Lipsett_gt_al., Personnel Selection and _Recruitment (Boston: _Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1964), p. 14. 6Ibid. 13 identified as a department need, as opposed to the tra- ditional specification of one particular job within the de- partment. The broad application of this reasoning fits particularly with the broad specifications often itemized for a patrolman. A recognized police authority presents what he con— siders to be persons suited for the job of patrolmen as follows: Potential or actual leadership qualities . viz, intelligence, sound judgment, decisiveness, physical and nervous energy, personality character, and the ability to convince and inspire and to main- tain confidence, enthusiasm, and interest . . organically sound with a properly functioning nervous system; he must be young and of suitable size; he must have strength, energy and physical endurance and possess adequate physical coordination and speed . qualified to deal with the many complex problems must have a high order of intelligence, which assures ability to learn, to observe, to retain, to reason rapidly and accurately, and to adapt quickly and satisfactorily to new situations . . . must like people and be able to deal with them; he must be emotionally stable and tempermentally equipped for police work and have a broad social concept and lack of prejudice. .He should have a forceful personality and a high level of social intelligence; he should be poised and have well developed powers of self ex- pression . . . good character and reputation es- sential . . . and perhaps most important of all, he must be loyal.7 To present such an all encompassing list of require— ments for a position is to be of questionalbe value in actual practice. Laurence Lipsett states that this process is often 7O. W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950), p. 335. l4 engaged in where a position is viewed unrealistically by presenting a stereotype of all desirable human character— istics, even to the point where some contradict others.8 Authorities concerned particularly with the problem of police recruitment advise that, "Any arbitrary standard we establish will in itself set up a limitation on the number of eligibles we can reach . . . Utopian recruitment is fallacious recruitment."9 The establishment of a recruiting program is neces- sarily the fruit of an organization or institution. One authority contends that poor management cannot produce a good recruitment program.10 He described the process as follows: Effective recruiting means that there has been a determination as to future needs; that the kinds of people required have been ascertained, the value of particular recruiting methods for different types of positions has been determined, contacts have been established, material has been prepared; and that the whole process of demand and supply, as well as company policies and management attitudes, is constantly under study.11 The underlying message of Mandell's program reported above is the anticipatory nature of recruiting. The entire 8Lipsett,_gp. cit., p. 16. 9Richard H. B1um_gt_al., Police Selection (Spring- field, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1964), p. 79. 10Milton M. Mandell, Recruiting and Selecting Office Employees (New York: Research Report Number 27, American Management Association, 1956), p. 37. llIbid. 15 process is geared to the future. Included within this process is an evaluation of management's attitudes and company policy. It is not merely gimmicks to attract out— siders into a preconceived mold resistant to any change Whatsoever. An administrator anticipating efforts to re- cruit minority personnel, particularly where there have not been members in the organization; the outlook toward company attitudes would appear fundamental. The set of attitudes established by the organization is its policy.12 TD§I£§Q£fli§ipgm99li9Y is a part of the personnel policies of the organization.13 This interre- lationship within the organization system, of one part to the other, strongly suggests a vital role for any policy in- volving recruitment of minority groups within the society. The role of the recruiter being a link between management and the candidate needs a fulfillment of that commitment throughout the organization represented. In addition to the recruiter being knowledgeable of management's attitude, to effectively perform as an extension of that management, the organization itself must represent that commitment. A policy expressing an attitude which is generally accepted, in some instances in advance, might only need identification to be fulfilled. The precondition to manage- ment's policy in effect serves to reinforce the position of leaWk, 9—20 Cit.) p. 1400 l3Ibido 16 the administrator. However, as the policy relates to atti- tudes within the organization further along the continuum of disfavor, considerably more than mere identification would be required. The greater the degree of potential oppo- sition, the greater the need for the policy to be presented in a positive, clear and effective manner. A recruiting poligy is necessary for keeping a belsese between the number recruited and expectePéen of need: insuring that salesmanship does not oversell the department, EEEFIAPESAlP are adjusted to the tyesatefi employees Sought SHEEWEEIYE?EPS£1b99rly.or management_meterialol4 The manage- ment must insure that the new employees will in reality be received by the organization through a smooth transition. The success seems to depend considerably upon the coordination and support of management, the recruiting method, and the organization itself. An adjustment needs to be made in light of the new potential employee. The physical recruiting effort by an organization should be preceded by some form of planning. One authority cautions against responding to the strong pressures to merely respond to the need without investing the necessary time, effort and expense to give a more productive direction to the process.15 In normal recruiting practices this would include l4Paul Pigors and Charles A. Meyers, Personnel_Ag- ministration (Fourth edition, New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1961), pp. 261-262. 15 Hawk,_gp. cit., p. 18. 17 information relating to previous recruitment efforts and their results.16 Direct recruitment experiences with minority personnel may be lacking in the organization pre— sented with the problem identified here. The need for out- side information would appear clearly applicable in the planning stage where the organization itself is lacking in expertise. .Roger Hawk again gives perspective to the re- cruiting approach in discussing risks: If the only perceived risk is that of not getting enough people, quality requirements will not be met when the time comes. If the only one attended to is that of getting quality people, a crash recruiting program will never get off the ground. A broad range of methods and recruiting skills is required in the effective recruiting organization. Available methods and abilities must be organized and applied to the job at hand. The nature of the risks changes, and the recruiting organization must be prepared to change with them. 7 There are alternative risks to be considered in planning the recruitment program and this author suggests a need for flexibility. The alternatives of quality and quantity now has the added concern for members of minority groups. The selectivity of quality recruitment might be applicable to that of minorities. Its implications for crash programs is suggestive. An administrator might give serious considerations to consulting outside authorities concerning the select group being sought. Of particular significance in this area might be the various organizations 16Ibid., p. 27. l7Ibid., p. 54. 18 of the minority groups. The investment of time, effort and resources to develop a plan for this demanding need of minority group members would probably receive a pressure for recruiting action even beyond the experiences in normal re- cruiting. The impact of this calculated approach would ap- pear difficult to maintain in police circles, considering the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice found that the majority of law enforcement re- cruiting is haphazard, poorly financed and limited to the 18 Another authority con- community of which it is a part. cerned with police recruitment reports the absence of any effort by some, " . . . based on the theory of waiting for the applicant to come to the agency--the theory that every- one will recognize how good we are and come_knocking at 93; .QQQE-"lg Within the police context, the more antiquated the conditions for normal recruitment, the greater the obstacles to overcome in meeting the demands of a more encompassing program. The actions of recruitment, proceded by effective planning, will be an appeal of some sort toward an audience appearing to offer the greatest return. The return will probably be related, at least in some degree, to the kind of 18The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 136. 19Bllim, 22. cit., p. 72. 19 appeal. One author presents a key to developing appeals which contains insight appearing equally applicable to the problem of recruiting minority applicants. Emphasize the job satisfiers and de-emphasize the dis—satisfiers. Emphasize the dis-satisfiers only when you don't have them and when you know that a disagreeable situation is troubling candidates a dissatisfier is a factor whose presence contributes to dissatisfaction but whose absence usually does not contribute to satisfaction.20 The need to emphasize the job satisfiers might easily find justification in common sense. His emphasis of the job dissatisfiers however, takes on a complementary in- sight for the total strategy of appeal. Under normal re- cruiting conditions a dissatisfier would be evaluated against conditions for all potential applicants, whether directed to- ward quantity or quality. The principle would seem as ap- plicable in appealing to a specific minority group. If, for example, there appears to be a negative attitude in the minority community toward the police department. To ignore this issue in recruiting will not, at least according to this principle, take advantage of the total available appeals in that market. If then, a department is appealing for candidates and the minority community believed there was dis- crimination in the selection or promotion process--and this issue was not given special attention and emphasis in the recruitment appeal--the program might be undercut. 20John S. Morgan, Managing Young Adults (New York: American Management Association, 1967), p. 60. 20 When viewed within a social context affording sup- port to the existing view of the organization--it might be a crucial deficiency since a failure to emphasize its absence might appear as a tacit admission of its presence. This same author states that in recruiting, the employer should select the appeal which he believes will work best for the kind of person he wants to attract.21 This would include such factors as appeal to security, money, self esteem and opportunity for growth.22 There would appear to be no limit to the kinds of appeals to be used which are imaginatively directed toward the relationship of the minority member to the police department. But, fundamental in this appeal must be the capability of the department to deliver what it promises.23 The actual appeal process in recruiting needs a broad base. One authority observed that the entire work force and a substantial number of people outside the work force are needed to have an effective recruiting program.24 Recruiting is understood as more than outward advertising and involves having a favorable image of the company.25 211616., p. 59. 221bid. 23Ibid. 24Philip Parish and Moris T. Hoversten, "Ways To Step Up Your Recruiting Power," Personnel (May/June, 1964), p. 47. 25Ibid. 21 These authors also present the values of establishing re- lationships with teachers who will have an influence upon students at a time when they are choosing their careers. Another author concerned with the problem of attracting social scientists identified the problem of the culture di— recting attention of youth toward certain vocations, par- ticularly medicine, law and business, where high prestige is established.27 These factors of influence upon youth would appear particularly significant for the minority population and their relationship with the police. If there existed an underlying negative attitude toward the police, particularly if the potential applicants are members of a sub-culture, obstacles to effective recruiting would be deep seated. The question of in-depth recruiting might still be considered, without reference to negative background, by viewing an al- most standard treatment of the recruiting function in much of the police literature. An example of recommended recruit— ment efforts is presented by the International City Manager's Association advising of the need for attractive examination announcements, radio and television announcements, the press, billboards and direct contact by members of the force.28 26Ibido , pp. 48-49 0 27Elbridge Sibley, The Recruitment, Selection and Training_gf Social Scientists (New Ybrk: Social Science Re- search Council, Bulletin 58, 1948), p. 45. 28Municipal Police Administration (Fifth edition; Chicago: International City Manager's Association, 1961), p. 134. 22 With the exception of the referrals mentioned, the entire recruiting appeal is directed at surface approaches, as op- posed to_gultivation of candidates. This appears as a short step from the previously mentioned absence of recruiting ef- forts with a presumption that others will automatically see how desirable it is to work for the police department. Internal recruiting methods for normal programs may contain a form of appeal requiring modification, or at least be supplemented, when considering an appeal to extend to minority candidates. John Kenny reported the value of a high esprit_d§.gg£p§ in many departments where it was found that a high percentage of applicants are referred by other officers when the work is presented as offering challenge and opportunity.29 The Los Angeles Police Department recent- ly revised their recruiting program due to a lack of suf- ficient applicants.30 The key to their improvement was de- velopment of a referral card for distribution to all personnel of the department.31 During the first four months of the pro- gram about ten per cent of the personnel had referred persons for testing.32 .A study involving lengthy interviews with personnel managers of about eighty companies, covering a wide 29John P. Kenny, Police Management Planning (Spring- field, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1959), p. 64. 30Robert A. Houghton, "Los Angeles Overhauls Its Police Recruitment and Its Basic Training Program," The Police Chief (August, 1968), p. 34. 311bid., p. 38. 3ZIbid. 23 range of occupations, found a similar preference for this method.33 The preference was based upon less cost involved in the method and that personnel apparently do a degree of . . . . 34 screening in their selection. A few personnel managers 56 considered this an undesirable method. Underlying their dislike for this method were firms having a problem with “cliques“ and those trying to upgrade their work forces.36 It was concluded by them that this method has a built-in condition that people tend to refer people who are like themselves.37 The referral method appears to have its surface value when the administrator desires to perpetuate the same kind of work force, but takes on a disadvantage when the nature of the work force needs changing. On the surface this method appears as a prime example of recruiting practices at odds with attracting those different from the present work force. To abandon or circumvent the referral method, in an effort to obtain persons from the minority community, may be forfeiting the advantages of this method and ignoring a vast recruiting potential. At least, to discard efforts involving the total department, presumably because it is believed, or 33Joseph C.-Ullman, "Employee Referrals: Prime Tool for Recruiting WOrkers," Personnel (May/June, 1966), p. 31. 34Ibid. 351bid. 36Ibid. 37Ibid. 24 known, that they will not act to serve the same end, is to ignore the relationship of recruiting to the total organi- zation. A failure to evaluate successful normal recruiting practices, and consider how to make them effective for the end desired, is to not build upon the experiences of the past in a positive manner. External recruiting methods need the same kind of evaluation. Although being distinguished here as external, the same foundation of organization support would appear necessary. Whereas internal efforts obviously need the positive action of personnel, it might appear on the surface that external efforts will serve as a substitute when the concern is for minority personnel, since the positive re- cruiting effort is accomplished by a select group operating outside the organization. Although the role of the organi- zation will be considered in more detail later, there ap- pears to be different avenues of positive support, but as necessary with internal as well as external efforts. The shortage of police manpower appears to be pressuring police organizations from the passivity reflected in their literature, to an active role in recruiting. There is evidence of this external effort taking form of obtaining assistance from outside forces. In San Diego, recruiting teams were sent to shOpping centers and college campus' in the San Diego area in a special recruiting effort.38 The 38Veon Nykus, "A Report: Police Recruiting In San Diego," Traffic_Digest and Review, Traffic Institute/NOrth- western University (July, 1968), p. 9. 25 characteristics of the community included several colleges offering police programs and recruiters were invited to make personal appearances before classes.39 They changed pro— cessing to better meet the needs of the employment market such as examination times and reducing the time span between 40 In Washington, D. C., this examination and appointment. same general type of approach was used in the form of "Re- cruitmobiles" without success.41 The Metropolitan Department of Washington, D. C. reports some success from a recruiting program established as a relationship with the U. S. De- partment of Defense.42 Upon initiation of the Program in Nbvember, 1967, when the Secretary of Defense authorized applicants in the Army to be released up to one hundred and eighty days early for accepting employment with the police department, over one-half of the applicants received by the department as of June, 1968, were from that source.43 An— other approach was taken in Detroit, Michigan when the Mayor authorized the Greater Detroit Board of Commerce to deal with the problem of police recruitment.44 A police committee 39.1.1239: p. 10. 40214;. 41John Layton, "A Report: Police Recruiting in Washington, D. C.,"-Traffic Digest and Review, Traffic Insti— tute/Nbrthwestern University (July, 1968), p. 12. 42Ibid. 43Ibid. 44John J. Saunders, "A Report: Police Recruiting in Detroit," Traffig Digest and Review, Traffic Institute/North- western University (July, 1968), p. 5. 26 was established and authorized a major campaign by an adver- tising agency in Detroit.45 Included in the assignments was one member of the police committee to raise fifty thousand dollars for costs of advertising.46 Results of programs such as this would appear difficult in determining effectiveness in relation to resources expended. Whatever the results from the Detroit program, with the resources available, what would have been more effective? The appreciation of in-depth recruiting and the cost of advertising gives cause for con- cern. The editor of Traffic Digest & Review commented on the above program, stating, "We can hope . . . that in the near future recruiting through advertising and shopping center recruiting visits and special incentive programs will be replaced by less spectacular but more concrete pro- 47 Although the posals to attract qualified applicants." editor was referring to factors such as better wages, his concern for concrete as opposed to spectacular, and in-depth as opposed to surface appeals, appears worthy of consider— ation in recruiting minority officers. 451bid. 46Ibid. 47Editorial, "Three Reports: How to Recruit Police Officers," Traffic Digest and Review, Traffic_Institute/ _NOrthwestern University (July, 1968), p. 4. 27 The need for evaluation of a recruitment program is strongly supported in the literature.48 Considering the lack of knowledge concerning problems of specific efforts directed at minority groups, this process would appear even more critical. Igfiggmgtignpfgxweyaluation of a recruiting program appears unlimited. Post-visit questionnaires provided a means of feedback from persons who have refused offers.49 The same author recommends an integration of factors such as cost per hire, time lapse from identification of candidates to hire and determination of source yield.50 A research re— port based upon a study of three hundred and twenty organi- zations through office managers and personnel directors de— termined that eighty-five per cent of the companies used exit interviews as a standard practice. Based upon this study and that many stated the departing employees often conceal the true reason, the author recommended information con- cerning, 1) occupation and salary level, 2) sex and age, 3) unit, section, division, 4) quality of performance, 5) length of employment, 6) name of supervisor.51 The signifi- cance of Mandell's conclusion from the study regarding 48Roger H. Hawk, The Recruitment Function (New York: American Management Association, 1967); Milton M. Mandell, Recruiting and Selecting Office Employees (New York: Re- search Report Number 27, American Management Association, 1956). 49Hawk,.gp. cit., p. 61. 50Ibid., p. 43. SlIbid. 28 evaluation, shows how some hard core data, going beyond the surface expectations of an exit interview, can be used to evaluate the problem. Further, the data collected reflects a framework for not only evaluating basic characteristics of employees having a high propensity for leaving, but also for evaluating parts of the organization itself. The signifi— cance of a structure provided by the organization for self- analysis appears as a symbol reflecting far more than its immediate practical utility. For example, if in a particular business it was determined that quality personnel either did not prefer to work, or quit, if assigned to a particular de- partment of the company, it would seem reasonable that con— sideration be given to the make-up of employment conditions in that department. If this is reasonable, it might follow that consideration be given to the failure of qualified people to apply for employment with the organization itself. There are any number of explanations which might be used by an organization. However, if feedback is to be of any real value, the objectivity and thoroughness of the evaluating process would seem as valuable as any of the explanations given which might find surface validity. This would appear relevant in attempting to understand the problems of recruit— ment from minority groups. 29 II. ROLE OF THE ORGANIZATION ‘Any minority group within any community may easily be the subject of concern by an administrator. The employ- ment issue with the police today seems to have surfaced relative to Negro, Spanish, Mexican and Puerto Rican Ameri- cans. Literature dealing with efforts to meet this problem may provide some insight to deal with the question generally. The role of the organization is fundamental in the recruiting process. The recruiting activity is merely an extension of that organization. Basic recruiting appeals, whether of an "in-depth" or surface quality, is that the organization can deliver what it promises. In an effort to gain an understanding of the organization role relative to the police problem, concern is given first to the wider organization of which the police are a part, society. With- in this context, efforts of business and the police are examined. The social organization. A basic consideration in attempting to understand some implications for minority em— ployment is presented by Gunnar Myrdal in his study entitled, 2 _A§_American_Dilemma;The Neggo Problem and Modern Democragy.5 He went beyond the surface appearance of our heterogeneous 52Gunnar Myrda1,WAg American_Dilemma The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1944). 30 society and identified a homogenity identified as the Ameri- can Creed.53 Basic to this creed involves ideals of the essential dignity of the individual, a fundamental equality of all men, and an inalienable right of freedom, justice and fair opportunity.54 He states that, " it has developed that the rich and secure, out of pride and conservatism, and the poor and insecure, out of dire need, have come to pro- fess the identical social ideals."55 This overview of homogenity seems significantly taxed in recent years. One author states that, "Ever since WOrld War II a serious discontent has seized the world's people, 56 erupting constantly into protests." He states this turmoil is present in many countries of the world, including our own.57 He states that social scientists who have studied these protests, " . . . agree only that a world wide social revolution is taking place . . . the key word in the explan- ation of these violent protests is always dissatisfaction, and it is aggravated dissatisfaction and discontent that foment riots."58 In consideration of problems involving domestic order, the National Advisory Commission reported: 511219-. p- 1- 54Ibid., p. 4. SSIbid., p. 13. 56Willard A- Heaps, Riots, g. §. 5. 1765—1965 (New York: The Seabury Press, 1966), p. 1. 57Ibid. SBIbid. 31 Causes of recent racial disorders are imbedded in a massive tangle of issues and circumstances-—social, economic, political, and psychological--which arise out of the historical pattern of Negro-white re- lations in America. Despite these complexities, certain fundamental matters are clear. Of these, the most fundamental is the racial attitude and behavior of white_Americans toward black Americans. White racism is essentially responsible for the explosive mixture which has been accggulating in our cities since the end of WOrld War II. According to the Commission, racism produces discrimination and segregation and black migration combined with the exodus of whites resulting in black ghettos; all taking place with- in the inner city.60 The Commission viewed a catalystic im— pact of frustrated hopes by the Negro, legitimatation of violence by whites, a feeling of powerlessness by the Negro, encouragement of violence by black militants, and the police themselves, expressing the underlying condition of white racism.61 Concerning the latter, the Commission recognized the frequent contact of the police with the ghetto, stating they are symbolic of white power and racism, and that the police themselves express this racism.62 Willard A. Heaps, in reviewing the characteristics of riots involving Negroes in the United States, reports: 59Report Of The National Advisory Commission On Civil Disorders, March 1, 1968, p. 91. 6OIbid. 6lIbid., pp. 92-93. 62Ibid., p. 93. 32 A common feature of all these riots is that they were triggered in nearly every instance by an en- counter, or a rumored encounter, between a white policeman (or policemen) and a Negro (or Negroes) in which the former was believed to have used undue force. .The police are of the social system within which they function and appear bound to the forefront of its dis- orders. Even without the disruptive undercurrents of our time, Raymond B. Fosdick observed in 1920, that, "The conse- quences of this mixture of races and color are far reaching, particularly in their effect on such functions as policing."64 The significance of the police role within such a system is better understood within Bruce Smith's description of the policeman's art as, " . . . applying and enforcing a multi- tude of laws and ordinances in such a degree or proportion and in such manner that the greatest degree of protection will be secured."65 The flexibility of the police per- formance must then be understood within the context of the society it represents and the confrontation inherent in their role when massive disorder takes place. The American society creates, or at least influences, if it is not programming, the relationship of the police with the minority communities. The nature of the function 63Heaps,._o_p. cit., p. 160. 64Raymond B. Fosdick, American Police Systems (New York: The Century Company, 1920), p. 7. 65Bruce Smith, Police Systems lg The United States (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949), p. 20. 33 permits a flexibility where the attitudes and sensitivities of the dominant group of the society might easily find ex— pression through exercise of discretion in enforcing the law. Whatever the result of these variety of circumstances, if they be in any way negative, the resulting image must be con- sidered in reflection to its effect on recruiting. The par— ticular position of a minority group, such as Negroes, in their overall social interaction with the police, would have the added disadvantage of their position in the government structure. The business organization. Some of the business ex- periences and insight relating to recruiting, particularly of minority groups, were reviewed for application to the law enforcement problem. Special concern is given to the im- portance of the organization image or its outlook toward minority recruitment. Eugene Raudsepp conducted a survey of over one thousand professional and managerial employees concerning 66 He found that interest in work and challenge were primary factors.67 However, the appealing factors of recruitment. company's image, or reputation, was found to be significant. VRelating to the organization image, the following factors 6Eugene Raudsepp, “How To Hire Key People," Nations Business (September, 1963), p. 55. 671.123.9- 68_;p_i_c_3., p. 56. 34 were discovered which appear to have a bearing on the law enforcement problem: 1. They have a preconception about the company even without contact. 2. They prefer a company with a favorable image; an unknown company having an advantage since there is no negative information. 3. They disbelieve aspects of recruiting which do not fit their image of the organization. 4. They give more importance to information sources involving personal contact. 5. Advertising and public relations is effective if not inconsistent with the existing image. The study by Eugene Raudsepp was dealing with "key" people and might be considered limited to highly skilled talent. He found that, "Far down on the list in importance are company fringe benefits, company stability and job se- curity."7O In considering the qualifications of those studied, it might be considered that they have a range of choices for employment and these factors are appealing in separating the satisfactory employer from the highly de- sirable. One author gives a basis for this type appeal. Experience has shown that worthy members of a de- prived group often have to be sought out. Perhaps because of discouraging experiences in the past, they are much less enterprising about applying for jobs than are people from more favored groups. Many of 691bid., p. 57. 70Ibid. 35 them are already employed but at jobs far below their capabilities. 1 Another author presents a consideration in stating that Negroes are not convinced that employers sincerely want 72 Whitney Young, Jr. reported a similar View to hire them. upon returning from Viet Nam. He stated that the Negro servicemen's attitude reflected a credibility gap about changes in America and that they believe tokenism exists in the efforts of America.73 John S. Morgan states there is a need to work through present employees, have ads in Negro publications, speak at schools with high Negro enrollment, Negro colleges, and work with Negro organizations.74 But all of these avenues either approach or depend upon the character of the organization. The President's Committee on Equal Opportunity In The Armed Forces reported concerning the lack of effective recruiting efforts by the Military.75 They reported that if Negroes with aptitude are not encouraged 71Harold Mayfield, "Equal Employment Opportunity: Should Hiring Standards Be Relaxed," Personnel (September/ October, 1964), p. 17. 72Morgan,__o_p. cit., p. 22. 73Whitney M. Young, Jr., ”When the Negroes In Viet Nam Come Home," Harpers (June, 1967), p. 65. 74Morgan,_gp. cit., p. 220. 75The President's Committee on Equal Opportunity In the Armed Forces, Equality 9; Treatment and Opportunity for Neggo Military Personnel Stationed Within the United States, June 13, 1963. 36 to enter the services, " . . . there is the danger that the Negro least attractive to private industry and other career fields——men not always in a position to take full advantage of the opportunity offered by the services--will enter the Armed Forces."76 If the study of Eugene Raudsepp does pro- vide meaningful insight for recruiting efforts relative to persons in a position to choose, and if the President's Ad- visory Commission of Civil Disorders properly, or signifi- cantly, described the condition of American society relative to the Negro, the appeal of an organization which was I‘favor- able" would appear significant. Ulric Haynes, Jr. identifies the credibility gap in the business field as being the difference between what business says it is doing, or intends to do, and what a member of the minority group, who would be a potential white ”77 He stated, "One collar employee, sees business doing. would be hard pressed today to find a major U. S. Corporation that does not present itself an an Equal Opportunity Employer or a Plans for Progress Company."78 However, he claims it takes more than words to convince a person who has been dis— criminated against that the conditions have changed.79 He 76Ibid., p. 13. 77 Ulric Haynes, Jr., "Equal Job Opportunity: The Credibility Gap," Harvard Business Review (May/June, 1968), p. 113. 781bid. 79Ibid. 37 states there are no formulas but one general approach ap- pears to be, " . . . an individualized, energetic, system- atic, and visible effort to convince the qualified minority group member that the company wants and can use his spe— cific skills, talent, or potential."80 When a member of their group has been hired in a position of responsibility, it will become known in the minority community and will motivate others in the community to seek employment with that company, according to the author.81 Haynes clarified a big mistake of companies with the Public Relations approach. Following publicity of being an Equal Opportunity Employer the applicant finds the con- ditions unchanged from the past, or, when a member of the minority group is hired, it is followed by created publicity causing pressure on the employee and alienating them from other workers.82 In a subsequent issue of the same periodi- cal, another author, reviewing the needs for implementing a policy to obtain minority members, states that one desirable method of communicating that policy is to have booklets pre- pared on a minority employee success story.83 He also states however, that business does not know how to handle this problem of employing minority groups and that it is too soon 80.1.1219: p- 114- 81Ibid. 821bid., p. 116. 83 Theodore V. Purcell, "Break Down Your Employment Barriers," Harvard Business Review (July/August, 1968), p. 70. 38 to know whether programs being implemented will be successful.84 Ulric Haynes, Jr. presents some basic starting points toward minority recruitment. He states the top manager must have a total commitment; the employment tests should be evaluated for cultural bias; identification of complaints concerning interviewers asking for the applicant's position on Civil Rights; stalling decisions regarding employment and 85 Every factor community bias concerning housing facilities. except the last one would evolve around the role of the organization. Another author, concerned with personnel re- cruitment and selection, states it has been typically found that employees take cues from management regarding treatment of minority groups and that there are seldom problems con- cerning race and religion when there are objective standards of employment, placement and promotion.86 The same view is supported, through a different avenue, by another author dis— cussing compliance with the 1964 Civil Rights Act.87 He emphasized the importance of insuring that the receptionist, or whoever first talks with an applicant, is aware of the 84Ibido’ ppo 66-67. 85Haynes,__gp. cit., pp. 118—119. 86Lipsett,._o_p. cit., p. 28. 87Phillip Ash, "Selection Techniques and the Law: Discrimination in Hiring and Placement," Personnel (NOvember/ December, 1967), pp. 8-17. 39 company policy as she may act contrary to the policy because, " . . . she feels, mistakenly, that that is what she is supposed to do."88 The police organization. The police are often viewed as an entity upon themselves. The concept of "police" is all encompassing and many of those using the term fail to make the distinction made by Bruce Smith in referring to the police systems of the United States. This association of law enforcement systems has led one author to refer t°.EE§ Police Establishment, further attributing a cohesive ex- istance.89 The implications of this solidarity, whether in substance or appearance, would seem to have an impact upon every department or part of that system. Whatever that image is, might easily have an influence in the recruiting operations of every department which is a part of that system. Insights provided by Eugene Raudsepp, mentioned earlier, concerning potential employees, concluded that key people have a preconception about the company even without having a contact. He further concluded that a potential em- ployee prefers a company with a favorable image and that an unknown company may have an advantage in not having a nega- tive image. Considering the integral role of the police in 881bid. 89William H. Turner, The Police Establishment (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1968). 40 our social system, and the tendency for the conglomeration of police agencies to be viewed together, it would appear doubtful that any police department could have the potential advantage of some prospective employers. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice reported that, " . . . the over- whelming majority of the public has a high opinion of the work of the police."90 The Commission found that several surveys, including the National Opinion Research Center, Louis Harris and Gallup, reaffirmed each other on this issue.91 However, the Negroes' attitude was found to be more negative and, "The Commission studies of police- community relations in 11 localities throughout the country showed serious problems of Negro hostility to the police in virtually all medium and large cities."92 Roger W. Wilkins, Director of the Community Relations Service of the United States Department of Justice, presented as one of the basic facts in beginning to understand the ghetto is that the Negro dislikes the police intensely.93 90The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The_golice (U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 145. 91Ibid- 921bid., p. 146. 93Roger W. Wilkins, "A View From The Street," Proceed- mg of Police Administrators Conference on Community Re— lations June 27—29, 1966 (Washington, D. C. International Association of Chiefs of Police), p.17. 41 Visible efforts are being made to improve the re- lationship between the police and the community. The ex- istence of police-community relations units at least attest to the formal recognition of a relationship within the com- munity. The motivations or objectives of these efforts pre— sent another question. William Turner, in viewing what he considers The Police Establishment reports the satisfaction of a police official pleased with their community relations program commenting, I'We hope it will lower antagonisms so we can make arrests without a mob collecting."94 The author writes with approval concerning another department's com- munity relations program where they, " . . . in plainclothes, went into the hard—core poverty areas where they mingled They talked--and they listened. The accent was not on stiff— ly formal conferences and meaningless dialogue, but on con— 95 The head of the community relations structive action.'I unit of the latter department has since retired and he esti- mated that ninety per cent of the police department was hostile against their community relations program.96 A not uncommon complaint about community relations programs has been directed by one authority concerned with police-minority 94Turner,._c_>_p. cit., p. 29. 951bid., p. 158. 96 "Our War Was With the Police Department," Fortune (January, 1968), p. 196. 42 relations, as being merely public relations.97 The inef- fectiveness of these efforts presumably directed to educate the public about the police are explained as follows: In fact, minority groups know a great deal about the police. Since both crime rates and the concen- tration of police officers are high in the ghetto, minority citizens see or hear about police operations constantly . . . The problem is that knowledge of the police, not ignorance, has generally caused the hostility which is so prevalent in minority communities.9 The existence of police-community relations units within a police department might be considered as progress. There is the acceptance, either of a need to be sensitive to the needs of others, or, at least, a recognition of the need to deal eSpecially with a group within the community where there are problems. Louis A. Radelet defined police- community relations as, " . . . the sum total of the many and varied ways in which it may be emphasized that the police are part_gf, and not apart from, the communities which they serve."99 Even a practice of public relations in the name of community relations, which undoubtedly would be considered misdirected by many, is an example of progress. Louis Radelet has defined a result, and, even those programs considered 97 "The Role of the Police," The Anna1s_gf the American Academy_gf Political and_§9cia1 Science (NOvember, 1967), p. 65. 981bid. 99Louis A Radelet, "Police Community Programs: Nature and Purpose," The Police Chief (March, 1965), p. 38. 43 more desirable, once instituted, would doubtfully cause an automatic conversion of conditions whereby the police would be viewed as a part of the community they serve. Although the latter type program might be viewed as more progressive, it appears clearly to be a matter of degree and not of kind. The direction of concern by police departments, for minority groups, would appear to be a seed for a relationship which will produce a condition more fruitful for recruitment. The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders reported that in a number of cities and particularly the larger ones, " . . . police officials are not only willing, 100 but anxious to appoint Negro officers." The commission identified obstacles other than discrimination operating to undermine recruitment of Negro Members.lOl High standards of police employment, the existence of better paying po- sitions for those who are qualified, and the bad image of the police in the Negro community are listed as operative 102 The obstacles to applicants from against recruitment. the minority group might be identified here as having oper- ated against recruitment, but all need not be applicable. The high standards of employment operate to exclude appli- cants in the major group as well as in the minority. If 100Report of The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, March 1, 1968, p. 166. 101 Ibid. 102 Ibid. 44 there is an evaluation as to why certain persons do not ap- ply, who have the necessary qualifications, this might be considered a factor. But, is it an answer as to why the par— ticular minority group does not apply? Regardless of the probabilities of minority group members to not meet qualifi- cations, it would appear there are people of that group, as with the majority, who are qualified and, under similar con— ditions, interested. However, if the practice of exclusion based upon lack of qualification is viewed by the minority group as discrimination, the absence of discrimination would be immaterial if its impact was to deter applicants. The availability of better paying positions for qualified Negroes seems to bring into question the same con- siderations mentioned above. The pay scale for any given police department is in competition for those in the labor market, whether they be from the majority or minority com- munity. It would seem more likely that this factor might ex- plain the absence of a large number of minority applicants to the police department, in a large metrOpolitan area, but how significant is the pay scale in communities with large minority populations and there are hardly any minority appli- cants? In a large metropolitan area, where due to higher salaries elsewhere there is not an overwhelming number of minority applicants, is there any relevance to the question of minority groups and the police department? The distinct relevance of minority groups to recruitment appears 45 significantly less than the third factor, that of the police image. The importance of the image of the recruiting organi— zation was reviewed earlier. The appearance of a racial division within our own society, and the nature of the police role within the society, coupled with the role of the organi- zation image in attracting persons who have alternatives in employment, appears as a significant variable in the re- cruiting picture of minority groups. It is common knowledge that the reputation of an organization can give appeal as well as pay scale. High standards may even be considered attractive when joined with an attractive image. It could be considered an achievement for those having less attractive family accomplishments. The image of the police organization, to the minority group, appears to stand out as associated with any positive recruitment effort, and possibly a key to reducing the influence of factors which might otherwise be classified as barriers. The importance of the police image to recruitment needs evaluation. Efforts to educate the minority population about desirable practices of a police department, when a large percentage of the actual police practices are taking place daily through the eyes and ears of that population; to whatever degree the latter does not fit the former, there would be questionable gains. Howard H. Earle, Chief of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, states that after 46 the Watt's Riot, "Lots of well-meaning people, talking about pglice image, said we need something new, creative, daring; a new design we can throw into this, to really show the ,,103 public we have something to offer He suggests the police contact experts in the field of public relations to 104 However valuable a present a better image of the police. public relations program, the totality of commitment in- volved in seeking employment, when alternatives exist, sug- gest a deeper and more thorough need of convincing. Whether in the name of public relations or community relations; whether to build up an image or to attract candidates; the need for substance behind the image appears basic for the police organization. One author reviewing the needs of young 105 adults reports they are looking for status. He classified the status as being that of the employer, and that of the persons working for that employer; and, an allegedly high status which is determined to be false or tarnished might be worse than no status at all.106 According to this author, "Young adults have grown adept at spotting the sham, the pre- 107 tentious, the phony." This insight might prove more l93Howard H. Earle, "The Police Image," Police (May/ 104 Ibid. 105Morgan,_9_p. cit., p. 163. 106Ibid., p. 172. 107Ibid. 47 significant for a minority group view of the police es- tablishment. The momentum of there being an absence of ap- preciable membership for minority groups on the police de- partment would seem to provide a background for a negative image, and the need for substance and not merely appearance, to overcome that condition. The presence of minority people on certain police departments gives a surface validity to availability of qualified, interested personnel for the police service. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Admini- stration of Justice presented information collected by the U. S. Civil Rights Commission that in 1962, of the nineteen northern and western states, the Illinois State Police has twenty-four Negro officers and the remaining state police de- partments had a total of nine, plus three in training.108 The Commission further found that the Philadelphia Department increased from 3.6 per cent to 13.6 per cent from 1952 to 1956; The Pittsburg Police Department doubled their percentage of Negroes for the same period; The Chicago Department per- centage quadrupled from 1952 to 1961.109 This disparity 108The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967), p. 168, citing U. S. Civil Rights Commission "Administration of Justice Staff Report" (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1963), Chapter 11, p. 23. 1091bid., pp. 168-169. 48 suggests variables independent of available candidates. It further underscores variations in departments. One author, in speaking of the Los Angeles Police Department, stated that, " . . . contempt for the Los Angeles force is so deep-rooted in the Negro community that few self- respecting young men care to identify with it."110 The author admits that the police are less brutal today—-in terms of the usual reference to physical brutality, but the reinforcing of the present social order appears more brutal than the physical brutality.111 Another author makes the same point in far more revealing words: Despite the LAPD's incorruptibility, despite its efficiency, despite all the latest technological ad- vances which it used, despite its all powerful in- ternal loyalty, despite its officers' bravery, de- spite its tradition of service, it is incapable of dealing with the major problems growing from racial and economic tensions. Indeed, the case might be made that a primary source of the department's in- adequacy is precisely the set of qualities of which it is so proud. William Turner identified what he considers the division of thinking between the police and the minority community.113 In reference to the Watts riot, Chief Parker is seen blaming the criminal element and lack of respect for the law, while an old man of Watts responds to this theme as, "Parker and 110Turner,2p. cit., p. 102. 111Ibid., p. 120. 112Paul-Jacobs, Prelude to Riot, A View of Urban —F—fi— _America From the Bottom (New York: Random House, 1967), p. 22. 113Turner,__c_>_p. cit., p. 96. ~— 49 his police don't respect us. They're supposed to represent the law. Why should we respect the law? The law don't show no respect for the Negro."114 How can the two themes be reconciled if both maintain their position? From the stand— point of recruiting, who is responsible for changing the other? The wealth of literature and testimonial to the repu- tation of the Los Angeles Police Department for outward ef- ficiency may well serve as an example for the problem. The historical struggle of many in local law enforcement to out— live the corruption and inefficiency of the past image of the police is now confronted with literature attacking the legal system they enforce, and suggesting that their loyalty, bravery and technological advances may well be obstacles in dealing with the problems of today. It might be considered, under the circumstances, that a corrupt department, which is also inefficient, would be less offensive in that it would not bring forth the full impact of the "unjust" legal system. In any event, the literature and testimonial within the minority community of the insensitivity of the police would probably serve as effectively to create a negative local image, as the evidence of efficiency would invite many other departments in police circles to imitate the Los Angeles Department. 114Ibid. 50 The evidence appears more penetrating into the po- lice systems. A Negro officer of the Los Angeles Department was quoted as stating, "In a white community the Los Angeles police believe they're public servants, but in the ghetto it's different--the police make no attempt to understand."115 The author stated several other Negro officers corroborated 116 This same author this opinion of the police attitude. reasons that a Negro officer tends to be more arbitrary and brutal with Negroes as his only means of gaining acceptance 117 If this is true, the demands upon in the police circles. the Negro officers would be tremendous, between his recog- nition of insensitivity to Negro needs, and his personal needs for acceptance. Yet, another department is reported as reflecting a limitation upon acceptance for the Negro officer. Turner reports that the Negro officers were told they would not be appointed to a desirable assignment with the Motorcycle Squad since they would probably cause friction by the necessary frequent contacts with white people.118 The presence of any or all of the above conditions within a police department would seem damaging obstacles to minority recruitment. The insensitivity of the department in minority communities would provide a daily reminder to a negative attitude toward the police department. Unfair 115Turner,_o_p. cit., p. 89. 116Ibid., p. 91. 117Ibid., p. 67. 1181616., p. 176. 51 treatment by members of their own race who are part of that same department would cement the negative image in not pro- / viding persons whereby potential applicants might tend to identify. In addition, the lack of equal opportunity within a department might tend to stifle the Negro officers posi- tive feelings toward the department he represents. If em- ployment conditions for minority members on the department were further limited, such as the power to make an arrest, the image of the Negro officer might serve an even more negative function. As the conditions of employment become more negative for the minority officer, the kinds of appli— cants might tend to be less desirable. All existing negative characteristics of minority em- ployment in a police department needs to be considered in conjunction with negative conditions for potential appli- cants generally. Without listing undesirable characteristics of police employment, it is unlikely that a prospective applir cant would find all features of a police position to be de- sirable. The same is probably true with other kinds of em- ployment. When a person seeks employment, wherein he has alternatives, it would seem that the position sought would have more positive features than negative. If minority members of the community viewed employment with the police department, and was mentally computing undesirable character- istics for his status, in addition to those all other candi- dates need to weigh, the desirable qualities to offset this 52 deficit must be greater than for a person from the majority community. Jerome Skolnick made certain observations of the policemen's outlook regarding race while studying two police departments.119 His conclusions dovetail with the con- clusions of the President's Advisory Commission on Civil Dis- orders relative to racism, and its implications for the po— lice. Skolnick states that, " . . . most policemen would be regarded as highly racially biased."120 He con- tinues that, "A negative attitude toward Negroes was a norm among the police studied . . . If a policeman did not sub- scribe to it, unless Negro himself, he would be somewhat re- sented by his fellows."121 Another observation, more germane to Skolnick's study, is his conclusion about the role of the stereotype. He states, " . . ; this disposition to stereo- type is an integral part of the policeman's world . policemen are trained to View departures from the normal ethnic stereotypes, like the modus operandi of criminals, be— 122 The second come part of the armory of investigation." observation concerning stereotyping seems critical to the recruiting phase for police. Skolnick's views on police 119Jerome H. Skolnick, Justice Without Trial: Law E2- _forcement.ip.§ Democratic Society (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1966). lZOIbid., p. 80. 121Ibid., p. 81. 1221bid., p. 83. 53 racism find broader application by the President's Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. The racism might seem appli- cable in other types of employment and therefore not dis- proportionately affecting police recruitment, any more than business. However, when other factors, such as the police being a personal service, often dealing with conflict situ- ations, and the implications for the tendency to stereotype makes a meaningful distinction. Viewing the focused attitude of the police department having the bias, through the eyes of the receiving minority community; difficulty for a re- cruiting poster to be attractive, through the same eyes, would seem to follow. A Presidential Committee studying equality of treat- ment within the Armed Forces in the United States, found dis- 123 The Committee suggested the problem be crimination. handled primarily at the base level. They recommended that the base commander appoint an officer who would have free ac- cess to the base commander, to receive complaints of dis- crimination.124 The Committee further recommended that pro- cedures be established to encourage complaints and make them confidential to eliminate the risk that the person making the 123The President's Committee on Equal Opportunity In The Armed Forces,_§guality.gf Treatment and Opportunity for Negro Military Personnel Stationed Within the United States, June 13, 1963. 124Ibid., p. 30. 54 125 The complaint officer 126 complaint be subject to reprisal. would need to be a sensitive person. The personnel of the base should be reminded periodically of this officer's avail- 127 ability. They recommended periodic publicized base visits by the Department of Defense, and to be available for com- plaints.128 Further, results of the visit would be used in measuring the base commander's effectiveness.129 His ef- fectiveness concerning discrimination is to be included with other responsibilities as base commander. These recommen- dations were made to the President of the United States fifteen years after another president declared a policy of equality of treatment for persons in the_Armed Froces. Executive Order 9981 of 1948 declared the policy of the President that there should be equality of treatment and opportunity for all persons in the armed services without re- gard to race, color, religion or national origin.130 The underlying theme of the Committee's recommen— dations seem to be that of commitment and follow-through. The procedures recommended involved an approach to bring the same pressures for effectiveness with regard to the non- discrimination policy as toward other policies more clearly related, on the surface, to military effectiveness. The par- ticular method selected to combat the problem was probably lZSIbid. 126Ibid., p. 31. 127Ibid., p. 32. 128 . 129 130 Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. 55 selected after review within a military context. The police are often viewed as a paramilitary organization. However, quite unlike the military, turnover of personnel does not take place so frequently. Unlike the military, even at the base level, anonymity would not be so easily maintained in many police departments. But, the form of the recommendation does not seem to be the thrust of the Committee's conclusion. A procedure for a police department might involve an outward acknowledgment of discriminatory action, by whom and against whom--resolving it in a manner consistent with the organi- zation practices in other important policy matters. Vari- ations in degree of commitment would not appear consistent with the findings of the Committee. The President's Committee reported concerning mili- tary recruitment practices and stated, "Negroes are only now coming to realize that opportunity is available in the Armed Forces."131 Although methods reportedly varied with differ- ent services, there was little recruiting directed toward Negroes.132 An example of the insensitivity was an illus- trative photograph in an occupational training guide wherein the only Negro was an enlisted man dressed for the kitchen 133 in the steward field. The tone of the report regarding this illustration was not that the advertisement was intended to convey a relationship of the Negro stereotype, but that 131 Ibid., p. 12. 132 133 Ibid' Ibid-, p. 130 56 those making it were insensitive to the implications, i.e., how it would be viewed by prospective applicants. This may have implications for the police. It is not uncommon now to see recruiting brochures of police departments showing Negro officers, with white officers. The status of new employees is the same for many police departments as they will be hired as patrolmen, performing the same duties. However, if the view of the conditions of employment for the Negro officer is undesirable--then the message relayed may be the same. A photograph of a Negro officer may be a picture of an "Uncle Tom" who "sold out" and is a "traitor." Thomas E. Johnson, Supervisor for Police-Community Relations and Tension Analysis of the Civil Rights Commis- sion, submitted a report following visits to six large police departments.134 His objective, in part, was to determine what each city was doing to recruit police from the minority 135 community. The techniques used varied by departments. His observations included the following influential factors: 1. Departments making the most progress are those who have been effective in changing their image in the minority community. 2. The departments need to be honest with the minority community concerning the selection process being fair. 134Report of Thomas E. Johnson, Supervisor, Police- Community Relations and Tension Analysis, Civil Rights Com- mission, "The Recruiting Efforts of Six Police Departments Recently Visited," January 23, 1968. l351bid., p. 1. 57 3. One method used for assuring the minority com— munity of fairness is to provide for an appeal process for rejected applicants. 4. Departments have arranged for education, in testing, for applicants failing written tests. 5. Departments need fair and equal opportunity with- in the promotional system. 6. Aggressive recruiting techniques involving inte- grated recruiting teams going into the community and visiting homes in search of men, as opposed to paSt practices of waiting for applicants to apply. 7. Reduction of time between application and employ- ment has prevented loss of valuable applicants. 8. Flexibility in evaluating background information, particularly juvenile records. 9. Lowering height requirements.136 The underlying recruitment ideas reported seem to hinge up— on the commitment of the department to convince the minority community they have a desirable department and that they are wanted to participate as members of that department. It in- volves an effort to.evaluate requirements with flexibility, directed toward the interests of potential employees, taking aggressive personal face-to-face action to overcome negative images, and submitting themselves and their system for review by higher authority as a sign of good faith in their practices. The difficulties for the police to present a de- sirable and inviting posture for prospective applicants were 136Ibid., pp. 14-16. 58 previously mentioned as they related to the society of which they are_a part. However, the problems within departments may add to this problem for other departments. Recently, in a widely read news magazine, attention was given to a Negro veteran of Viet Nam who was the first Negro on the West Virginia State Police Force.137 The problem of acceptance by other trainees was compounded by an instructor giving lessons in mouth-to-mouth resuscitation showing how a handkerchief could be used in case an officer had to save a Negro.138 (This kind of publicity may easily feed negative attitudes in communities other than where the event took place. Yet, this same kind of publicity, reflecting in— ternal conditions, has the equal capacity for positive news. In a well known Negro magazine it was considered news that a Negro veteran of ten years on the police force of fifty- seven men was appointed Chief of Police in a city having a population of about 34,000, of which only five per cent is Negro.139 The article included reference to him being the first Negro Chief of Police for that size city.140 The same magazine later included an extensive feature article about 137 9, 1968),—Eififiif' l381bid. 139 1963), p. 144. l4OIbid. "West Virginia Homecoming," Time (February , "Pertsmouth's Police Chief," bony (April, 59 Otis Rathel, a police artist for the Chicago Police Depart- ment, showing how his role fit into the overall effectiveness of the police department and presenting some of his ac— complishments.l4l This investigator personally recalls when this extremely talented artist made his services available during his normal time off, while assigned to a line unit in the same department, and prior to being assigned to a full time staff function. His enthusiasm for service was recog— nized within the department, and, as indicated, the depart- ment became recognized through him in Ebony magazine. The three types of publicity mentioned here would seem to affect recruitment through insight into the department for any po- tential applicant. The article in gimp would seem a serious obstacle, even for expensive advertising to overcome. Con- versely, the latter two articles would appear to complement any recruitment for minority people. Significantly, both types of advertisment were no financial cost to the re- spective departments. The success stories related by Ebony would seem to accomplish the same objective, on a grander scale, as the recommended practice presented earlier of business efforts to publicize Success stories in the company house organ. But the minority publication will less likely have the drawback of credibility in the source or, consider— ations of tokenism. It reveals itself as evidence of 141 ________, "Chicago Cop Faces Crime," bony (April, 1966): PP- 48-54. 60 something as Opposed to the object of something. The Presi- dent's Committee on Equal Treatment in the Armed Forces ad- dressed itself to the impact this type of positive publicity might make: The ability of competent Negroes to succeed is all-important. Nothing will do more to encourage the able Negro to enter military service as a career than tangible proof, as yet almost entirely lacking, that Negro officers can receive equal recognition and opportunity for advancement with whites. Actual ex— amples of Negroes who have achieved major positions of responsibility in the Armed Forces will be worth thousands of words devoted to claims that no barriers exist.142 The message of the Commission here concerning re- cruitment of able Negroes is clearly that of offering tangi— ble proof of equal recognition for minority employees through examples of equal recognition. A police administrator de- siring minority applicants, and not participating through a personal commitment to provide this condition, would seem of doubtful practical significance. This commitment would find expression through minority members of the department. For those departments not having minority members, this "equal recognition" might take the form of expression through daily performance of the police service. In either case, the police function in the community involving frequent personal contacts with the minority community; the everyday duties 142The President's Committee on Equal Opportunity In the Armed Forces, Eguality pf Treatment and Opportunity for Negpo Military Personnel Stationed Within the United States, June 13, 1963, p. 23. 61 provides an opportunity. This message of "equal recognition" being confused with surface appearances would not appear to have the substance necessary for the enduring needs of minority employees-—as would be the case for any employee's career. Before any effort to recruit able minority officers could be seriously considered, the full power of the ad- ministrator commited to the creation, and maintainance of equal opportunity within the organization would seem neces- sary. This commitment would require the same zeal as any other highly sought after goal by the administrator, to the point of losing his position rather than compromise in any minor issue involving creation of equal opportunity. An ap- peal to the minority community for able and qualified people to possibly leave other employment, for less than equal opportunity, would involve the same sacrifice for them. Conclusion. The total recruitment process involves the interrelationship of planning, policy, commitment and feedback, growing out of organization needs and visibly pro- truding in appeals relevant to the potential applicant. The recruitment process is the organization and not the appeal. The policy of the organization is its attitude. Therefore, the attitude of the organization toward the new employee is reflected in its formal policy, whether through absence, identification or identification and commitment. If the stated policy differs from the actual practice, the 62 gap is subject to detection, whether it be relative to the (American Creed or the appealing phrase of Equal Opportunity Employer. In both instances the participation of applicants increase probability of detection and exaggeration. If the adaption of today's youth to detecting the sham and phony is considered, the probability is greater. The image of the organization plays an important d role in recruitment and sometimes exists independent of evi- dence directly related to the organization. The image is transmitted within the society and influences potential candidates long before the actual point in time when direct action is taken in the form of an applicant. Each police department receives the police and social image. The police image in minority communities often identified as recruitment targets is generally negative. Yet identification of a negative image with minorities in- vokes a public relations or community relations response at correction. The public relations program is confronted with an already developed community expertise of police operations, and to the degree community relations efforts differ, they cannot proceed in advance of the organizations they repre— sent. Implications of the process suggest a growing aware— ness of a relationship with the minority community, and the need for more thorough evaluation. The absence of applicants is a form of feedback to the organization. _Although police standards and the 63 existence of better paying jobs might be viewed as elimi- nating some individual applicants, their relevance does not explain the absence of a group response. Yet basic hostility to the organization, restriction of total participation of minority people who are members, existing prejudice of police officer, mixed into a personal service handling con- flict situations by a stereotype process operating in a flexible framework of discretion, seems highly relevant when viewed from the group toward which a recruiting effort is supposedly directed. The negative image needs understanding as the result of their recruitment effort as opposed to a separate variable against which a recruitment effort must contend. A planned recruitment effort involves creating an organization receptive to the anticipated addition and then effectively communicating that information to potential applicants. Organization readiness involves a commitment of top management expressed in a policy followed up with organi- zation backing comparative to the energy expanded in the most important function related activities. Organization ap- peals to dispel existing beliefs involve a visible, indi- vidualized, energetic and systematic effort to overcome a credibility gap. The organization must be prepared to deliver. CHAPTER III A CASE STUDY The review of the literature has identified the com- plexity of relationships necessary between the organization seeking applicants and the potential applicant. The lack of sufficient knowledge concerning minority recruitment, par— ticularly in the police field, makes an exploratory case study appropriate for this problem to see if principles from the literature apply, need modification or correction. This is an in—depth study of one department which does not have one Negro police officer, even though the community has a significant Negro population. The department formerly had a Negro officer. The Chief of Police has expressed a desire to have Negro officers on his department and has strongly ex- pressed concern for the lack of applicants from the Negro community. I. THE METHOD The police function has national application, and as indicated in the literature, police organizations are often viewed, by friends and critics, without concern for their 64 65 unique strengths and weaknesses. However, considering that some serve individual communities, a case study approach pro- vided a method of localizing, to a degree, the problem for exploration. The problem was initially discussed with policemen in several municipal departments. One city was finally selected for study. The interview technique was selected to collect the data. It has advantages relevant to this problem, namely to penetrate the superficial or surface explanations. The goal v of insight is appropriately related to this technique. Each respondent was told that views given would be held confi- dential. The purpose was to gain understanding of signifi- cant variables and their interrelationships relevant to the problem without provoking criticism of organizations or individuals. The confidential nature of interviews would hopefully elicit more honest and revealing responses. Nine members of the police department were inter- viewed. The members were selected to give a cross section of rank and specialization. The Chief of Police, command, superVision and patrolmen were included along with patrol, traffic, investigations and juvenile functions. The inter- views were selected and identified by an administrator of the department as "open-minded personnel" who would reflect "good thinking" about the problem. All interviews were con- ducted in private and at the police station. 66 The inquiry later led to nine minority group leaders and citizens who had expressed a past concern for, or experi- enced, the problem being studied. Interviews with one person led to another, based upon selection for apparent knowledge or concern for the problem. Leaders consisting of the clergy, legal profession, business and government were interviewed. In addition, a former Negro police officer of the city and two Negro citizens who had attempted to gain employment on the department were interviewed. Interviews took place in offices, homes and place of business. Some were private and other respondents preferred others present. The interview guide for the police included six questions. (See Appendix I). The guide served as a basis for probing and further discussion. First, the officer was asked why minority citizens do not apply for employment with the department. This question was adopted based upon the tendency of early respondents to give explanations without being asked. Second, he was asked for his estimation of the largest minority group in the community. The purpose was to establish a basis upon which the respondent could answer subsequent questions. Third, he was asked whether that minority group has relatively more or less contact with the police department than the majority population. An antici- pated response of "more" was confirmed and was to give le- gitimacy to having minority persons on the department. Fourth, he was asked whether it is desirable to have minority 67 officers on the department. The purpose was to determine his specific position on the question. Fifth, he was asked whether special efforts should be made to recruit qualified minority officers, to determine the degree of commitment to question four. Sixth, he was asked how he would feel if the Chief of Police directed that special efforts be made to re- cruit qualified minority officers. This was presented as a hypothetical situation. He was asked if he would support the program and whether he would encourage others in the de— partment to do so. The purpose was to determine the impact of the Chief of Police upon the respondents' own views and to determine if the officer would follow the direction be- yond just following the order. The interview guide for Negro leaders was less spe— cific. (See Appendix II-) First, they were asked if it was desirable to have the minority population represented on the city police department. Second, they were asked why they were not represented. Third, they were questioned as to any special efforts having been made in getting minorities on. the department, and fourth, what they considered necessary to accomplish the objective. The former Negro officer was questioned about his experiences which might provide some insights relative to the problem. (See Appendix III.) First, he was asked whether he considered it desirable that persons from a minority group should be on the police department. Second, 68 he was asked about problems he had while a police officer in this city which could be specifically related to the fact he was a Negro. Third, he was questioned whether special ef— forts should be made to recruit qualified minority members. Fourth, he was questioned as to what is considered necessary to accomplish the goal of minorities on the department. Fifth, he was questioned as to why he left the police department. Negro citizens who had made overt acts to gain em- ployment with the police department were questioned about their experiences in that regard. In some instances interviews were conducted in the presence of others. Interested observers assisted in under— standing replies of the interviewee. In all instances where questions called for opinions of the respondent, he was asked "why" he believes the way he does. Length of interviews ranged from forty-five minutes to four hours. Following the interviews, all field notes were summarized in narrative reports. Limitations_gf methodology. The limitations of the interview technique and the case study method are reviewed by Pauline Young and co-authors William Goode and Paul Hatt. lPauline Young, Scientific Social Survgys and Re- search (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, I956); and William J. Goode, Paul K. Hatt, Methods 13 Social Rp- search (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1952). l 69 The inherent limitations were maximized in this research due to the subject matter and the characteristics of the investigator. Basic to the interview technique, except when its purpose is to detect deception, is the problem of respondents telling the truth. This consideration was particularly applicable in this study; noticably relevant to interviews with the police officers. First, the interviews took place in the police sta- tion which is hierarchal atmosphere with assoCiated problems of communication. Second, due to selectivity involved as to who would be interviewed, the guarantee of confidentiality was probably perceived as weak or invalid. Third, since respondents knew they had been selected by the department one might expect a greater degree than usual suspiciousness found among policemen. The investigator attempted to mini- mize this problem by explaining that selection was based up- on concern for a limited sample of views from all ranks and specialties. Fourth, some of the questions asked in a hypo- thetical form involved possible answers which would consti- tute insubordination in a real situation. For example, the interviewee was asked how he would feel if the Chief of P0— lice directed that special efforts be made to recruit minority officers. If the respondent had previously answered he did not believe special efforts should be made, to main- tain his view through some sort of rationalization would 7O require confronting the formal authority represented in the Chief of Police. Again, the question of whether they would support the policy of the Chief, even if his actions would not be verified by the Chief, involved the same issue. Fifth, the investigator was an outsider who had gained ap- proval from the administration of the organization to inter— view them. Last, but significant, the artificial or symbolic conditions of the questions, not involving any action upon their attitudes, did not give any cause to disregard any suspicions they might have concerning the entire event. The investigator believes that the only basis for cooperation from the officers interviewed is that they identified with the purpose of the research and could overcome these conditions. Interviews in the Negro community were seriously limited by the character of the investigator. The inter- viewer was white and the interviewee black, potentially bringing forth project-significant differences of background and experience. First, there was the investigator's diffi- culty in being sensitive to all significant contributions made by the respondents. In some cases, the interviewee was required to repeat statements, only because the investigator would not understand the points being made. If the investi- gator was locally familiar and of the same ethnic background, understanding would have been more easily achieved, thoughts interrupted less frequently, and greater insight achieved. 71 Particularly significant to interviews with Negro citizens, was the tendency for the investigator to disbe- lieve the respondents in many instances. This character- istic was not recognized by the investigator until after all interviews were completed. Upon reflection, it became clear that the investigator's response to experiences related by the Negroes were questions of veracity whereas reports of experiences by police officers were followed by questions of significance to the problem. For example, if a police officer related an experience with the Negro community, the investigator never once questioned in his mind if the experi ence actually happened as the officer reported it, since it was volunteered. However, when some Negroes related experi- ences which were unusual, the investigator tended to disbe- lieve and in some instances told the respondent it was hard to believe. Since there were instances of doubt in veracity where the investigator is now aware, it presents the problem of how this thinking would affect the total interview process and reporting of the essential details relevant to the problem in proper perspective. The gap between the investigator and the former Negro officer was primarily of a different nature. The accurate- ness of experiences related by him were not questioned as in the case of other Negro respondents. They were accepted in the same manner as the other police officers interviewed. However, the primary reason for interviewing him was to gain 72 insight into the problems of a minority officer, and the difference in background again created difficulty in under- standing. Although the circumstances of his experiences as a police officer can be reported, it is recognized that the investigator cannot fully feel the depth of humiliation, powerlessness, and frustration which obviously characterized his role in the police department. This same inability of the investigator relates to reporting information from the minority community in general, however it seems more acute in the case of the minority officer. His role between the black and white communities, against a background of less than understanding by fellow officers, within a framework of the normal social problems incurred in law enforcement, compounded by his own personal sense of justice, cannot be fully understood by someone who has not experienced it. Any description of experiences re- lated by someone other than a participant will be less than complete. The above limitations of the interview techniques and those limitations being particularly applicable to this re- search, are further underscored when considered within the confines of a case study. APauline Young recognized the ten— dency of the investigator to over-generalize based upon too 2 . . few events. Only a 11m1ted number of persons were 2 . . . . . Paul1ne Young, Sc1ent1f1c Soc1al Surveys and Rp- search (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1956). 73 interviewed in this community, however the selection was based upon the probability of the person being in a position to provide insight based upon past activity or knowledge concerning the problem. Even considering the conclusion be- ing applicable in this city, its relevance elsewhere is still questionable. However, considering the function of recruitment, and if similar conditions exist in other cities, the conclusions from this study would seem of primary con— sideration in attempting a solution. II. THE ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Every person interviewed believes it desirable that the police department have minority officers. There seemed to be no instance of hesitancy in making the verbal com- mitment of belief in this idea. The varying degrees of con- cern were more at the positive end of the continuum, such as how crucial its impact on the total social organization for the minority community and, "It's not only desirable; it's a must," independently reported by a Negro leader and by a police officer. The very foundation of the recruiting process, that of need, is fully recognized by all concerned. The police department is expressing a desire for Negro applicants. It is not a question of the department seeing a need, and the people making up resources having conflicting needs. For Sexample, if the department found a need for a minority group 74 in their organization and inquiry with representatives of that group determined that the police occupation represented lower class goals and their group was above that level in our society, an explanation for their absence might be more clearly seen. Conversely, if a minority group was intent upon using the police department as a vehicle for their goals, and the police found no need within their organi- zation; the lack of concern and action by the employing agency might be easily explained. In this community, the need is expressed fully by the potential employer and employees. The basis for need. The basis for need of Negroes on the police department differed in emphasis between the police department and the Negro community. It suggests a misunderstanding of the "job opening" for the Negro appli- cant. The "job description" visualized by the employer is the vacancy he intends to fill. The potential applicant may see the vacancy differently and to that degree might be used by the employer in a manner inconsistent with the contract for which the applicant bargained. For example, if the em- ployer desires to hire Negroes to pacify the Negro community, give the appearance of an Equal Opportunity Employer, or uti- lize a black skin and social knowledge to more effectively solve crimes in the Negro community, it is this function for which the Negro applicant will be used. On the other hand, if the object is to better generally sensitize the department 75 to the community it serves, the applicant will be assigned accordingly. The reasons offered for desirability of minority officers were varied. The police officers interviewed viewed the significance of a Negro officer's presence as an ad- vantage for the department in solving crimes in the minority community. For exampleJKTENis believed that a Negro officer can accomplish more with Negroes than a white officer. One officer, who had worked with a Negro officer in the depart— ment, noted how the public generally likes to talk to their "own kind." When they had calls in the Negro community, the Negro officer did the talking, and when in the white com- munity, the white officer did the talkiflgj There is also the value of minority officers being able to speak a foreign language, such as Spanish. Linked with the idea of more effective enforcement, is the attitude that the police de- partment should be responsive to the community it serves. I By having minority officers on the department, members of the majority community on the department can develop insights into the minority community through its members' interaction with minority officers. It was also believed that this con- dition would result in a better general understanding between the police and the minority communities. Members of the Negro community gave accent to broader goals, but including the concern for better understanding and creating a condition whereby the police and minority 76 community could better understand one another. One Negro respondent stated that this society better employ blacks in controlling areas of the social system to prevent forms of power not recognized as legitimate by the community in making the presence of minority groups known. He stated that riots are the voices of the unheard. The controlling role of blacks needs influence at the street level, and not just some people sitting in city hall. The whites have been controlling the black community, and whatever liaison is set up is set up by the white man, and therefore the Negro par- ticipants are open to the charge of Uncle Tom. When there is no legitimate avenue to audience, the fomentation of un- rest lends itself to leadership by the undesirable elements in the society. The police role represents a controlling influence, is at the street level, and they are in the middle of all social ills. Another consideration presented by a Negro leader involved the political advantages for the minority group seeking an identity. When Negroes are represented in the various ways of life they become better prepared for wider participation in the total system. As they participate, ex- perience is gained, and background develOped, which make them more effective competitors in the system. For example, as Negroes are received in police circles, they will develop background in law enforcement whereby some would have qualifi- cations to compete for the office of Sheriff. The absence 77 of participation is viewed as another form of taxation with- out representation. A significant concern of the minority community, re- lated to this particular department, was the belief that minority representation would change the image of the de- partment itself;) One Negro leader stated that the Negro dis- trusts the department and they would put more trust in a Negro officer. The police of the South have had an integral relationship with those denying opportunity for the Negro. It is also seen as a vehicle for reducing incidence of con- flict between police and minority communities.rw;:e Negro respondent stated that after a white police officer rides with a Negro in the patrol car, he will develop a respect for that Negro officer. This will result in less brutality by white officers toward Negro citizensL since, there will be a transfer of that respect to the Negro citizep;/ This entire process is seen as increasing communication between police and the minority community, as opposed to a white officer "just riding through the community." Identification pf the recruitment problem_ip the community. A recruiter having the problem of an absence of applicants should evaluate the deficiency. It is this pro- cess which is most revealing in the city studied. If a re- cruiter determined that potential applicants did not desire to apply for the opening, or that to have the position is 78 undesirable from his view, the feedback needs evaluation. Since recruiting is in fact an organization function, the feedback is relative to the organization. The acceptance of the view that the organization is undesirable employment is equivelant to poor recruiting. The major explanation for lack of Negro officers on this department, given by the police officers, was the ex— pressed attitude of the Negro community toward a Negro who became a member of the department. The officers stated that the Negro officer would be considered an "outcast," "traitor;' "turncoat," "sell-out," with supporting evidence invariably coming from experiences with the last Negro officer they had on the department. The Negro officer and his family were threatened by other Negroes, and white officers in the Negro community were told to keep the Negro officer out of their neighborhood or he would be "buried." These threats were re— ported as frequent, and the Negro officer also received verbal abuse from other Negroes. One officer explained the negative attitude of the Negro school children, as a group, upon its members. He stated that individual students have greeted him, as a police officer around the school, but when that student is with a group of other Negro students, such as at a sporting event, that student will not acknowledge any association whatsoever. This respondent stated that some Negro students have indicated a desire to be a police- man, but a Mexican student has never indicated any interest. 79 One officer believes that the Mexicans have had a fear of police which is passed on through the generations, while yet another officer discards this View stating that regardless of the accepted image/ Mexicans are reported as having about police, the police in this community do not push authority and the attitudes of Mexicans toward police is based upon their experience here. Coupled with the problem of alienation from the minority community, some officers believe a potential appli- cant cannot be sure he will be accepted by the whites. One officer explained that when a person becomes a police offi— cer, he generally loses friends. The white officers will gain new friends in the police department. However, a minority group officer, being alienated from the white com- munity at the outset, cannot afford to leave his friends in the Negro community for an unknown reception in the police community. Some officers believed the police to be a symbol of Negro frustration with.the white community. .Lack of edu- cational and/or physical requirements and the availability of better employment for those who were qualified were re- ported as factors. Some officers suggested the presence of discrimination in the department. The negative attitude of the Negro community, toward the police, was not related generally as a criticism by the police, of this department itself. For example, one officer 80 stated he could not understand why the Negro people would have anything against the police department. "The town bends over backwards, more than it should, and they are getting more than white kids." Another officer related that a solution to the problem might be to bring several Negroes on the department at one time, so "they could lean on one another." He stated there was no problem of treatment of the Negro by the white-officers, but that the problem was with the Negro's own race. The identification of the Negro com— munity as being the problem, and other Negroes as being a source of support for each other, provides some insight. This view reflects a divorced attitude whereby the depart- ment is not considered part of the problem and the Negro officers are supposed to find individual support among them- selves against the pressures of the Negro community. Beliefs in the Negro community regarding the problem of minority applicants differ broadly. One respondent stated that the problem in this community is the same nation- ally; another stated that this and every other community has its own particular problems. The most outstanding factor mentioned in the minority community was the need for a new image for the police de- partment. This was not mentioned toward "police" as an authority, but in reference to this particular department. One Negro respondent, in voicing what he considered to be the view of the majority of the minority community stated 81 that they, "cannot stand the police." Another Negro stated that the biggest problem for the police in this regard is for them to get rid of the "big stick" enforcement image. Historically the police have been considered brutal, es- pecially in the Negro community. One Negro respondent stated that some officers should either be educated in common courtesy or be fired. He stated that they have a negative attitude toward the Negro community and it is expressed in their manners and their voice. Officers should treat every man with common civility and respect for human dignity. Officers should not assume that any particular people should be treated less respect- ably. Another Negro respondent stated he has_pgy§£ known a Negro to be seen as right in his dealings with the police. The police cannot always, in fact, be right. This does not mean that the Negro never "benefits" from an encounter with the police. He related a practice by police in towns where there is no Negro population: a Negro passing through will often not have the force of the law follow through on a vio- lation, but will be permitted to leave town. His explanation .for this practice is that the town does not have Negro resi- dents and would rather let them go than to keep them in town for the judicial process. According to the respondent, the Negro just laughs at the practice, which gives him the ad- vantage, whatever the reason. The Negro is used to this. 82 The individual Negro applicant would be worried about being the only Negro on the department according to some Negro respondents. He is afraid of "getting hell“ from the officers.- He would be considered a ”Spy” or "Rat Fink" in his community. Both a police officer and a Negro leader referred to the size of the community as being an added pressure on the individual Negro officer. In this city, people still know other people on an intimate scale unlike the case in a large metropolitan area which has the charac- teristic of anonyminity. A Negro officer here would receive the personal harrassment of being a police officer, but in a large city the Negro officer would not live in such a person- al relationship with others in the community. Another Negro respondent pointed out the absence of a high Negro command officer for a Negro police recruit to emulate. For example, if a white and Negro police officer were both appointed, the white officer could find a command officer to look up to and imitate. The Negro officer would not have anyone and could probably only look forward to a life at the patflolman level. Recruiting is a relationship with a seller, accord— ing to one Negro respondent. When the department does not have any Negroes, it looks like they do not want any. In the past there was intended exclusion for Negroes. There is a parallel with the banking situation which existed in the past. The banks never had any Negro employees. The absence of Negroes discouraged Negroes from applying since they, the 83 Negroes, did not want to apply and be embarrassed by being refused. The absence of Negro employees supported the idea that the banks did not want Negroes, and the same applies to the police department. The sincerity of the police department concerning wanting Negro officers was questioned by one Negro leader. The analogy of a hungry man was used to express this View. If a man says he is hungry--you can tell when you put food in front of him--you can tell by the way he eats the food. Some Negroes have applied and were not accepted. Concern is not only for the sincerity of the Chief of Police, but ex- tends to the command officers of the department who are not considered desirous of Negro officers. This investigator believes the question of police sincerity dovetails with the question of police standards as an issue. Opinions vary in the Negro community. Some be- lieve the police should maintain the same standards for everyone, and that "high" standards should be maintained for policemen. Others believe that the need for Negroes on the department is a need in and of itself, and should be met, whether by qualified or, if necessary, by those who do not meet the standards. A third view supported is that since the Negro is disadvantaged in the social system for develop- ing those abilities upon which he will be judged, this should be compensated for in the selection and hiring process. Therefore, the department should provide tutoring for those 84 not meeting the standards whereby they would be brought up to the standards prior to being a practicing police officer. The issue of standards involves more than the issue of objectivity in those standards. Many showed concern for cultural bias, reflecting what one Negro respondent identi- fied as the "white middle class." The written test is con- sidered to have unequal application in discriminating appli- cants. For example, there is one social level in both black and white society which is likely to produce persons in- clined toward police work. This is the 10wer class. If a Negro and white person, from the corresponding socio- economic level, applied for the department, there is a probability that the white will pass and the Negro fail. This is true, not because the white applicant is more capa- ble, but because the cultural orientation of the test works to his advantage and at the same time to the disadvantage of the Negro applicant. The more educated Negro, who can pass the tests for the police level, by overcoming the cultural bias, are oriented to higher occupational levels. Therefore the written test eliminates those people in the Negro com- munity to which the occupation appeals. This standards is- sue complements the original question of sincerity. When a Negro applies for a job and gets ninety-nine on a test re- quiring one hundred, and is told he failed, he returns to the Negro community which has a negative attitude toward the police sincerity. This is given as new evidence to support 85 the idea they do not want Negro officers. All this takes place in a county where the Sheriff's office reportedly does have Negroes on the department. With this kind of condition existing there is just no sense in applying for a job on the city police department, from the Negro vieWpoint. There is also the voiced view by police and Negroes alike, that Negroes who are qualified according to existing standards can find better employment elsewhere. One Negro respondent stated there is an upsurge of openings in person- nel and public relations positions becoming available for Negroes. The advantages of these positions reportedly at— tract Negroes who would also be qualified for the police de: partment. Two Negro leaders who gave this as a factor to explain the absence of Negroes on the city police department, when questioned by the investigator if they personally be- lieved this to be a factor, stated they did not believe it. One respondent reverted to the sincerity issue of the depart— ment, and the second stated this factor is used as an excuse to explain away the problem. The issues of the department image, standards and better employment opportunities were reduced by one Negro leader to the matter of credibility. It is just a matter of not believing that Negro applicants cannot be found. But he believes that the department believes they cannot find them. They need to get out of their ivory towers and sell their department. He does not believe the rationale that it is 86 hard to find Negroes without police records; there are a lot of young Negroes who have not been in trouble with the police and are good people. Also, the opportunities for the Negro in today's society are not as great as for a white person. These limited opportunities would make good employ— ment very appealing. The Negro today wants the same oppor- tunity the command officers of this department had years ago. The present command officers, who are supposedly viewed as good police officers by the community, were accepted on the police department at a time when standards were lower than they are today. They joined the police department and ele- vated themselves by making a career and at the same time pro- viding a benefit for the department and the city. Today, many whites are using the police department for a stepping stone and after they get their education are leaving the de- partment. The Negro would look upon the department as an end in itself. It would be an opportunity for the Negro to elevate himself and at the same time improve the character of the department by viewing it as a profession. Another Negro respondent stated that there are not now ten Negroes in the city who can be recruited to the police department. Evidence of resistance. Evidence of resistance by the community power structureg including the police, was found in the community studied. The evidence tends to sup- port the views given by the Negro community and provide an 87 explanation for the accepted cause given by the police. How- ever, this evidence requires interpretation. It requires the same explication as the broader question of feedback. For example, one police respondent stated, in reference to the Negro community, that the matter of belief depends upon whether a person wants to believe something. He stated if people do not want to believe something they will react to the testimony accordingly. However, this is true for the organization itself. This investigator approached the inter- views of this study seeking understanding relative to the problem, and no personal gain or justification was necessary for one conclusion rather than another. The Negro community leaders interviewed were strangers to the investigator there— fore no basis for distrust of their response can be given for the inclination of disbelief. Yet there was a marked ten- dency to disbelieve. The pre-judging by the investigator as to trustworthiness is strongly suggestive to evaluators of evidence where their personal involvement is associated with the arrived-at conclusion. Further, the impact of this condition of resistance needs evaluation within the social organization of a disadvantaged group and how they perceive the evidence reflected in police operations. One Negro leader, when questioned as to why Negroes do not apply for employment with the police department, stated he was very bitter about this problem. Thirty-five years ago someone very close to him applied for a job with 88 the department and was refused. He was forced to take a menial job of being a janitor in a local business. This individual is now a judge in another community. Another Negro stated that fifteen years ago the atti- tude of the Negro community was negative toward the city police department. There was not one Negro or Mexican person on the department. At the same time the police de- partment was advertising for applicants and stating they would hire anyone who was qualified. The Negro leadership in the community decided to test the sincerity of the de- partment and they were interested in getting a Negro on the department. They searched the community to find someone they knew would meet the standards. This same Negro respondent stated that a young Negro, hereafter referred to as Mr. Black, who had a high school education, was 6ft. 2%ins. tall, 205 pounds, and lacked a police record, was approached. He had won eleven athletic letters in high school and was "All State" in football, basketball and track. He had gone to school with the Chief of Police's son and was a close friend. He knew the Chief of Police personally. _Although he knew those who approached him were only concerned with getting a Negro on the police department, he personally was interested in becoming a policeman. A few years earlier there had been one Negro on the police department and he was looked up to by the Negro 89 community. Whatever Mr. Black tried to do he always "wanted to be the best, or one of the best." Mr. Black reportedly went to the police department and was escortedby the Chief of Police to fill out an appli- cation. He was then told to return the following day for the written examination. The next day he took the exami- nation and achieved a score of ninety-seven. Eighty-five was passing. The Chief of Police told him he did very good and Mr. Black was escorted to a room to wait. Shortly, an examiner approached him and said he was two pounds overweight and therefore did not qualify. The following Monday, Mr. Black went to the city council meeting and reported there was discrimination in the police department. He told them he was born and raised in the city, that he applied for the job, passed the test and then was told he was two pounds overweight. Mr. Black stated there were members of the department who weighed more than him. Nething was done. About two weeks later Mr. Black went back to the police department and applied again. He scored ninety-eight on the test. This time the examiner told him he was one- half inch too tall and therefore was not qualified. Mr. Black knew a man who had been on the department was 6ft. Sins. tall. Mr. Black's sponsors told him to go again to the city council, which he did. The city council referred the matter 90 to a committee of the Police and Fire Board, the Chief of Police and the representatives of Mr. Black. No action was taken for six months. The Negro leaders then told Mr. Black they were not given any reason for his not being hired and he should just go to the city council again. Mr. Black went to the city council again. He told them they should not advertise for policemen when a quali- fied person applies and is not hired. He said their actions just meant they did not want Negroes on the department. He said he was tired of the "run—around" and being a "punching bag"; the city was discriminating. Mr. Black is now working for a state agency in help- ing juvenile delinquents. He is an Assistant Pastor in the church, for which he receives no pay. He hopes some day to have his own church. One Negro leader stated that in 1967 a federal grant was given to this state with the objective of recruiting one thousand police officers; five hundred of whom were to be minority officers. The program was co—sponsored by the state association of Chiefs of Police and the Civil Rights Com- mission. The program concentrated in certain cities of the state. The effort involved an executive director who visited the various cities and encouraged the Chief of Police and leaders of the community to form advisory committees for the purpose of recruitment. The grant provided money for technical knowledge, pamphlets and radio/television 91 announcements. The plan was for local communities to do the recruiting and the state and federal assistance only to serve as a catalyst. The program resulted in fifteen persons being hired throughout the state, thirteen of whom were members of the minority groups. The program was conducted for six months. The Civil Rights Commission reportedly conducted a follow-up evaluation of the program. .Minority representa- tives were sent throughout the state. They walked into police stations and asked persons such as the desk sergeant about advertisements they had heard concerning the need for police officers. There was a large number of police person- nel which stated they knew nothing about any advertisements, and made no effort to get the name of the person making the inquiry. Both Negro and police respondents mentioned that this police department participated in the state-wide program to recruit police officers. The Chief of Police met with Negro leaders and personally interviewed potential minority appli- cants. Based upon names of interested persons from the state program, over one hundred letters were sent to these persons by the Chief of Police. The only response was about two telephone calls, therefore the program was ineffective. Several police and Negro respondents reported that a group of local Negro leaders joined in the effort to re- cruit Negroes. The Negro leaders found sixteen men who 92 indicated an interest and they were introduced to the Chief of Police. The plan, according to one Negro leader, in- volved having about ten Negroes hired at the same time, which would have eliminated any problem about all Negroes being assigned to the Negro community and eliminate the problem of a lone Negro on the department. One of the po- tential applicants was sent to the department to take the test in an effort to see what it involved. He failed the test and brought the information to be used in preparing the entire group to take the test. Arrangements were made with a local college which donated space and instructors for the potential applicants. Only two of the sixteen appeared for classes. The apparent failure of the planned program of mass application dis- couraged the two who did appear for class, and they did not apply for a position. According to one Negro leader, one potential applicant stated his family had talked him out of the idea. Inquiry of the other applicants who had previously agreed to take the classes, by the leaders, resulted in expression of "flimsy" excuses. Some stated they might ap- ply at a later date. The Negro leader conducting the in- quiry believes that they do not want to be the first one on the department. No one admitted this was the reason. In about August of 1968, a Negro citizen, hereafter referred to as Mr. Blackman, who lives in this city, and who 93 has the outward appearance of being a qualified applicant, heard a radio advertisement for police officers in the city. Mr. Blackman is a foreman in the skilled trades and holds the rank of Captain in the military reserves. About two days after hearing the advertisement, while returning from work, Mr. Blackman decided to stop at the police department. He was wearing his work clothes. He walked into the police station and approached a Corporal at the desk and asked if there were any vacancies on the department. The Corporal said no. Mr. Blackman told the officer thank you and walked out of the station. Mr. Blackman knows the Corporal's name. Mr. Blackman stated he is not interested in being a policeman, but he wanted to see how the department would re- act to his inquiry. Mr. Blackman believes that if a Negro ever was hired, and made a mistake, he would not receive any backing from the department. He felt, for example, if he shot someone he would probably be used as an example and then they could comment that they expected as much from a Negro. Mr. Blackman says he does not fight the system any more. If people do not want the benefit of his talents then he does not care. One police officer stated that the way to recruit minority members for this city is for the Chief of Police to make a personal effort in recruiting. He should conduct the entire process involved. He stated the Negroes will not be- lieve other members of the department. It is a matter of 94 wanting to believe something. If someone does not want to believe something, they will not believe contradictory evi- dence. The Negroes do not want to believe the members of the department. Also, the office of the Chief is more im- presgive in supporting the effort to obtain minority members, according to this officer. A Negro leader stated he believes the command of- ficers of the department do not want Negroes on the depart- ment. Another Negro leader stated the command officers have fifteen or twenty years experience and have develOped a prejudice. Eight of the police officers were asked if the de- partment should make special efforts to recruit qualified members of the minority community. Three stated that no special effort should be made. They justified this response: The department should not "beg" someone to be a police officer. If a man "wants to join the department" he can; "the department can get along with them or without them." thhing special should be done to get a person just because he is black; if he wants to join the department he can do so. Upon beinquuestioned as to their loyalty to a special pro- gram to recruit minorities, which might be devised by the Chief of Police, all eight stated they would support the program. However, when questioned as to whether they would encourage other members of the department to support the program, one-half stated they would not do so. One 95 supervisor stated he would make the policy known, but not push it. Another stated he would outline the policy, say he supports it, but would not push a patrolman whose beliefs differ, as one is entitled to his beliefs. One officer stated that although he believes special efforts should be made, and would support a program of the Chief, he would not make a personal effort to encourage others since policies should be supported only through the rank structure. One of the four agreeing with the idea that special efforts should be made, supporting the Chief's program, stated that he would further make efforts to encourage others, but he would not try and force the issue. For example, if in a dis- cussion group with officers, and someone stated he would not support the program, this officer would question him about the attitude. But, upon doing so, if the other person main— tained his position, no further effort would be made since some officers are prejudiced. One police officer stated the police department would have a problem in the community if special efforts are made to recruit minority officers. If favoritism is shown by the department, toward the minority, then the majority community creates a backlash effect upon the police depart— ment. There should be no exceptions in a program which would affect its integrity. The Negpo police_gfficer. The atmosphere of re- sistance as perceived by the minority community needs to be 96 considered along with the position of any successful appli- cant. Presuming that the barriers of negative conditions existing within the community did not deter a candidate, what could he look forward to as a police officer in this city? When the complex pressures are better understood, from the view of the Negro police officer, there is a correspond— ing recognition of the police advertisement to the potential applicant. This is the opening for which the department is requesting that an individual apply. Implications of ex- periences expected provide insight as to the type of person necessary to fill the position. When recruitment is viewed as a total process in which the employee will be performing the operations daily, and on a long term basis, it becomes the routine for such employment. Several years ago the police department had a Negro officer, hereafter referred to as Officer Gray. He had a college education and previous police experience. Attitudes of the Negro leaders differ over the experience of Negro police officers in general. Some said that there is a tendency to over-identify with the police in an effort to be more acceptable to the white officers. He will exceed his authority and be more zealous, especially toward the Negro community. Another view is that the Negro citizen will tend to expect more from the Negro officer. Since he expects preferential treatment, and is given equal treatment, he will consider the action taken as unfair. 97 The biggest problem in Officer Gray's view (and the department's view) was the Negro community. The feeling ex- isted that he had "sold out" on them. Once, after Officer Gray arrested a Negro, the defendant said he would kill Officer Gray, stating, "You of all people should know better--why are you a cop?" Officer Gray's family was threatened and received anonymous telephone calls. His father spent large sums of money for medical care for his wife who became very nervous about the conditions. When Officer Gray worked in the white community there was also sometimes a problem in his being a Negro. (About five or ten per cent of the white citizens questioned his authority. For example, Officer Gray might arrest a white man who responds that Officer Gray cannot arrest him and says, "Where I come from you would never be a police officer." Even on minor issues there was a potential problem. For example, in telling a citizen of a minor ordi- nance violation, which had been the subject of a complaint by another citizen, the violator responded that it was not a violation, that she has been doing it for a long time, and stated, "I would not take your word for it anyway." In these instances where there appeared to be a problem, Officer Gray summoned a white officer to support him. On one occasion Officer Gray and his partner arrested a white teenager, of a wealthy family, for drunk driving. Upon arrival at the station, the parents were notified and 98 the father came to the station. When the father stated the officers were picking on his son, the officers showed him his son was "laid out drunk." Later in court the irate father told the court that Officer Gray was picking on his son. When Officer Gray responded that he knew neither the father nor the son, the father stated he had previously heard from his son that there was a colored cop who was try- ing to make a name for himself. The father said Officer Gray was trying to use his son as an example for whites and that he should go and pick on the colored kids. On another occasion Officer Gray and his partner re— sponded to a complaint regarding a group of Negro teenagers, the intention for action being only to break up the gather— ing and tell them to leave.