‘IHH! ..b~.',...,,._,. H ‘

POROSITY REDUCTION IN A CAMBRIAN QUARTZ
ARENITE GALESVI‘LLE SANDSTONE, SOUTH
CENTRAL WISCONSIN

Thesis for the Degree of M. S.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
THOMAS VINCENT WILSON

' 1977

ABSTRACT

POROSITY REDUCTION IN A CAMBRIAN QUARTZ ARENITE

CALESVILLE SANDSTONE, SOUTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN
By

Thomas Vincent Wilson

The Cambrian Galesville Sandstone of South Central
Wisconsin was studied to determine the degree and mech-
anism of porosity reduction. The Galesville is a Clean,
well-rounded, well—sorted quartz sandstone which has
never received more than 3,000 feet of sedimentary over-
burden.

Forty-four oriented samples of Cambrian Galesville
Sandstone were obtained from stratigraphic grid samplings
of bedding units at three sites near Baraboo, Wisconsin.
Thin sections of the samples were analyzed for porosity
using an antilog computer analyzer. Minus cement porosity
and percent presolved quartz were determined from point
counts of cathodo-luminescence photomicrographs. Thin
section porosity measurements were confirmed by gas-
expansion, mercury—emersion analyses.

Porosity of the samples in thin section range form
15.2% to 28.1%, averaging 19.7% (s=3.81, n=2u), 20.8%
(s=1.98, n=39), and 23.6% (s=l.35, n=2U) for the three out—
crop locations. Minus cement porosity averages 24.2%

(s=3.60, n=U7), 2U.7% (s=2.58, n=72), and 23.6% (s=l.35,

Thomas Vincent Wilson

n=2u). Differences in porosity according to orientation
are not statistically significant and the percentage
presolved quartz is similar for all outcrops, averaging
0.80% (s=0.29, n=165).

Reduction in porosity due to mechanical re-packing
of grains after deposition may have reduced porosity
from approximately N9% to a minimum of 33%. Approximately
0.8% intergranular pressure solution in the Galesville has
resulted in more than a 9% porosity reduction below values
established for maximum mechanical compaction of randomly
packed sands (Gaither, 1953, Scott, 1960; Rutgers, 1962).
This small percentage of intergranular pressure solution,
virtually undetectable under a normal petrographic micro-
scope, is an extremely important factor in the porosity
reduction of the Galesville Sandstone.

Further porosity reduction due to later cementation
by authigenic quartz, adularia, kaolinite, and hematite is
variable between outcrops. The volume of quartz cement is

independent of the volume of intergranular presolved quartz.

POROSITY REDUCTION IN A CAMBRIAN QUARTZ ARENITE

GALESVILLE SANDSTONE, SOUTH CENTRAL WISCONSIN

By

Thomas Vincent Wilson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Geology
1977

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was made possible by the aid of Michigan
State University who provided the most generous use of
equipment and facilities. Financial assistance for which
I am most grateful was provided by the Michigan State
Department of Geology Award for Outstanding Research Pro—
posal——Grant-in-Aid of Research, 1976.

Additional financial assistance was provided by grants
from Sigma XI-—Scientific Research Society of North America
and The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. I
am very thankful for their generosity and I hope to have
Justified their good faith.

I afllhighlyindebted to Mr. Curt Conley of the Kansas
Geological Survey for the personal consideration and as—
sistance I received while in Lawrence, Kansas, and for the
use of the Survey's computer image analyser.

I wish to thank the members of my thesis committee
for their valuable assistance in the preparation and writ-
ing of this thesis. Dr. Duncan Sibley, serving as com—
mittee chairman, provided continued encouragement and
interest in the progress of the research and testing of
ideas. Dr. William Cambray, Dr. Thomas Vogel, and Dr.

Harold Stonehouse were of great help in providing assis-

ii

assistances and materials useful to the completion of
research and in the preparation of the final written draft.

In addition, I would like to thank the members of the
sedimentology seminar. Under the direction of Dr. Sibley,
this group provided the opportunity to present current
results and ideas as thesis research progressed. The sug—
gestions and constructive criticisms generated helped pro-
vide a clear perspective on problems encountered and the
proper direction of the research.

I wish to thank Mike Ritter for his continued tech-
nical assistance and advice. His maintenance of thin
sectioning, laboratory and cathode-luminescence equipment
was invaluable to the completion of the research.

Special thanks go to Deb Kirchen for her work typing
the final draft and for putting everything in order when
I couldn't be there to help.

Finally, I wish to thank my wife, Linda, for her as-
sistance in sample collection, preparation and for her
encouragement and help during the long hours spent on the
many phases of analysis. Most of all, I want to thank her
for bearing up so well under a year of odd hours and in-
convenience.

Thomas V. Wilson

August, 1977

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

GEOLOGIC SETTING — DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT.
DEPTH OF BURIAL. . . . . . . . . . . . .
SAMPLE COLLECTION.

SAMPLE PREPARATION

LABORATORY ANALYSIS,

Image Analysis , , , , , ,
Cathodo—Luminescent Microscopy

DATA: IMAGE AND LUMINESCENT MICROSCOPE ANALYSIS

ACCURACY OF IMAGE ANALYSIS POROSITY
DETERMINATIONS . .

POROSITY VARIATIONS.
MECHANICAL POROSITY REDUCTION,
PRESSURE SOLUTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

MODELING POROSITY REDUCTION DUE TO PRESSURE
SOLUTION

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MECHANICAL POROSITY REDUCTION
AND REDUCTION BY PRESSURE SOLUTION .

LARGE SCALE EFFECTS OF POROSITY REDUCTION,
CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . .
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY.

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

iv

Page

ll
ll
13

13
18

25

28
32
38
N2

“3

“5
50
51
53
5A

APPENDIDICES
Appendix Page
A. Description of Sampling Locations . . . . . . 57

B. Porosity Reduction due to Pressure Solution in
Hexagonally Close-Packed Spheres. . . . . . . 60

C. Data: Image Analysis and Point Counts of
Cathodo-Luminescence Microscope Photographs . 65

Table

10.

ll.

12.

13.

LIST OF TABLES

Estimated Thickness of Strata Above the
Galesville Sandstone, Baraboo, Wisconsin

Image Analysis: Second Operator Comparison.

Comparison with Unknown Analyses
Multiple Analyses of Thin Sections

Data: Image and Luminescent Microscope
Analyses . . . . .

Point Count Porosity — Incompletely
Impregnated Samples, Outcrop One

Mean Thin Section Porosity Determined by
Point Counts, Outcrop One. , . .

Core Laboratory Versus Thin Section
Porosity Analyses.

Image Analysis Porosity: DirectiOnal
Comparison of N-S and E-W Vertical Thin
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Image Analysis Porosity: Directional
Comparison of Horizontal and Vertical Thin
Sections . . . . . . . . . . . .

Image Analysis of Disaggregated Galesville
Sandstone Thin Sections. , . , . . , ,

Porosity of Disaggregated Galesville Sands
Determined by Volume-Density Analysis,

Compaction of a Hexagonally Close—Packed
Arrangement of Spheres

vi

Page

17
19

27

3O

31

33

36

37

A0

A1

63

Figure

10.

LIST OF FIGURES

a. Galesville Grain Size Distributions from
Thin Sections . . . . . . . . . . .

b. Grain Size Distributions of Other Mature
Quartz Arenites . . . . . . . . .

Major Structural Features Surrounding the Baraboo
Syncline Area .

Outcrop Locations and Units Sampled .

Blue Grain Size Distribution Compared with
Distribution of Total Grain Population.

Estimating Presolved Areas Between Spherical
and Oblong Rounded Grains

Porosity Reduction Due to Pressure Solution for
Five Packing Arrangements of Spheres.

Unit Cell of a Hexagonal Lattice.

Pressure Solution to Porosity Reduction
Relationships . . . . . . . . . .

Pressure Solution Relationships During Vertical
Compaction of the Hexagonal Model . . . . .

Percent Pressure Solution Versus Percent

Porosity Reduction for Hexagonally Close-Packed
Spheres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

23

26

1414
A6

A8

61

614

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this study is to determine the quantita-
tive contribution of each important diagenetic process to the
resultant porosity reduction in a quartz arenite. The poro-
sities of recent, unlithified sands have been well establish-
ed (Pryor, 1973), as have the porosities in a great many
ancient sandstones. However, the quantitative effect of pro-
cesses reducing porosity during diagenesis have not, as yet,
been well defined. This gap in knowledge is due largely to
the lack of detailed petrographic analyses of sandstones, and
the complication of uncontrolled variables in texturally and
compositionally complex sandstones. To eliminate complex
variables which affect porosity reduction, this study has
been restricted to a single quartz arenite, the Galesville
Sandstone (Cambrian) of South Central Wisconsin. I

The porosity in the Galesville Sandstone and other
ancient quartz arenites is lost by mechanical grain adjust—
ments, intergranular pressure solution, and cementation. By
thin section and volumetric porosity determinations, cathodo-
luminescence analysis; determining the porosity of disaggre—
gated and artificially packed Galesville sands, the important
variables in porosity loss have been defined and the mode of
porosity reduction in the Galesville Sandstone has been deter—

mined.

GEOLOGIC SETTING - DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The Upper Cambrian Galesville Sandstone in South
Central Wisconsin is a "blanket" sandstone deposit, ap-
proximately 100 feet thick consisting of white, friable,
well-rounded, well-sorted, medium-grained pure quartz
sand (Thwaites, 1930; Wanenmacker et a1 193A; Raasch, 1935;
Twenhofel, 1935; Driscoll, 1959; Emrich, 1966; Ostrom,
1966; Dalziel, Dott, and Black, 1970). The size distri—
bution of the Galesville Sandstone is illustrated in
Figure la. The long axes of 300 grains were measured for
each of the six bedding units sampled and the results were
compared with results of Friedman, 1961 (Figure lb), who
graphed the grain size distribution for other quartz
arenites determined by sieve and thin section measurements.

The Galesville crOps out on the Wisconsin Arch-—
South Wisconsin Highland (Figure 2). Inthe vicinityof Baraboo
Wisconsin, the Galesville was deposited around erosional

remnants of the Precambrian Baraboo Quartzite.

The Galesville was deposited in an aeolian-vshallow
marine environment. Evidence has been cited for the exis-
tence of both aeolian and shallow marine environments in
and around the Baraboo syncline. It has been suggested
(Dalziel, Dott, and Black, 1970; p. 52) that the local
strand lay slightly offshore from the quartzite cliffs.
This interpretation would put aeolian sands against and

amongst the Baraboo cliffs, with shallow marine sands

FREQUENCY (CUMULATIVE °/.I

I00

I00

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

/
OUTCROP I ./ OUTCROP 2 ./
30‘ B.U.I -’ I 304 B.U.|o
so. / 60..
40. 4o- /
20.1 20. I.
, /
o U '1 I I 0 U7 I I. T I 1
o I 3 4 o I 2 3 4
|00 / Ioo /
OUTCROP 2 / OUTCROP 2 /-
304 a.u. lb / °°~ 3.0. 2 ,-
604 60.4
40. 4o. /
20. - 20. .
.l
./ z
0 I '1 l I o I T 1 j I
o 3 4 o I 2 3 4
I00 / Ioo /
OUTCROP 3 /‘ OUTCROP 3 f
80. so. /
a.u. I 3.0. 2
so, so.
40. 4o. /
20. j 20. /i
o I /I j l o I '1. I I l
o I 3 4 o I 2 3 4
PARTICLE SIZE
(03 UNITS)

Figure la——Ga1esville Grain Size Distributions From Thin Sections

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FREQUENCY (CUMULATIVE %)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I00 I00
TRINITY TRINITY
80. SANDSTONE 80.. SANDSTONE
601 60.
404 40-1
20d 20.1
o 1 ' o I V
0 I 0 I
I00 I00
SIMPSON ST. PETER
80‘ SANDSTONE 8°“ SANDSTONE
so, so-
40. 401
201 20-4
0 l ‘l 0 1 '
0 I 0 I
I00
TENSLEEP
30- SANDSTONE
60+
404
20.1
o I 1
0 I

 

PARTICLE SIZE
(0 UNITS)

Figure 1b—-—-Grain Size Distributions of Other Mature Quartz Arenites
(After Friedman, 1961)

 

 

Ioom
Canada H....,.._.
b. '00“..
\‘\- ..
. “‘.o’\.-.
4 s
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( {in "~ ‘l-g:
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___ ‘Barabooz :- , .
-. nqeo g o MIchIgan
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FOVOSI‘h— _____ 4
City ‘I.
Basin _/‘ r- ----~r.--.
3" 4'0 ' > 1"-
“mr/ - O I 0‘0 I “ 3.
' I'IIHOIS =' 4,0 *9 | g a
. Basin °I 4 9 | ~<
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x 55-; ,1 S‘
‘3 5-} 1’ 4663?-
‘s f” ' 4 ’ 0“ w I

 

 

Figure 2 --MaJor Structural Features Surrounding the Baraboo
Syncline Area. (After U.S.G.S. National Atlas 1970)

surrounding the syncline. Evidence supporting the inter-
pretation is the occurrence of angular blocks of the
Baraboo Quartzite in the Galesville adjacent to the cliffs
and also the bi-modal size distribution of the sands adja—
cent to the Baraboo Cliffs.

The evidence, however, is often conflicting depending
on location or stratigraphic position within the Galesville.
Bi-modal distributions are not restricted to the cliffs;
surf-rounded Baraboo clasts are found against the cliffs
in several locations and large pebbles have been carried
several miles south of the syncline by marine currents.
Large scale cross—bedding indicative of near shore marine
sands (Hamblin, 1961) is found in and around the syncline

in various locations.
DEPTH OF BURIAL

In order to relate porosity reduction to the depth of
burial of the Galesville Sandstone, it is necessary to de-
termine the thickness of overlying stratigraphic units
during the time of maximum burial. The Baraboo area,
which is centered upon the Wisconsin Arch—-South Wisconsin
Highland, has been a structural high since late Cambrian
time. Evidence for the structural high is provided by
rapid thinning of sedimentary deposits to the east, south,
and west toward the arch. Thinning is due to both a re-
duced volume of sediments deposited and numerous erosional

disconformities. Sedimentation on the arch is characterized

by deposition of thin sedimentary units alternating with
erosional intervals of various duration. Erosional
effects become more prominant further onto the arch and
northward (Cohee, 19A8; Willman, et a1 1975).

From strata represented in the Michigan and Illinois
Basins, it can be inferred that the Wisconsin Arch at one
time may have been covered by strata from Cambrian to
Devonian in age (Schuchert, 1955) and possibly by strata
as young as Pennsylvanian. It is debatable whether
Cretaceous and/or Tertiary units were deposited in the
area of the Wisconsin Arch. However,the compactive effect
on the underlying strata due to their deposition would
have been minimal because; 1). great thicknesses of sed—
iments would not have been deposited in this stable in—
terior, arch—highland area. 2). preceeding Triassic and
Jurassic erosion would already have removed a substantial
portion of the sedimentary column.

The total depth of burial of the Galesville Sandstone
in the Baraboo area cannot be precisely determined due to
the erosion of units of Chazyan Age and younger. For the
most part, however, the record of deposition is intact in
the Michigan and Illinois Basins. An estimate of the
maximum thickness on the arch can be provided by establish-
ing the thickness of each complete stratigraphic unit to
the east, south, and west, nearest to Baraboo, Wisconsin.

The estimate of stratigraphic thickness calculated will be

a maximum because of the overall thickening of the measured
sedimentary column into the adjacent areas (see Table l.)

Glaciation and loading by Pleistocene ice accumula-
tion was not an important factor in compaction of the Pal—
eozoic sediments. The Paleozoic sedimentary column over-
lying the Galesville in the Baraboo syncline area had been
for the most part, eroded off pre-Pleistocene and was not
a factor in loading and compaction during later glacial
episodes. Samples were collected from what is known as the
"driftless area" of Wisconsin. Although some evidence of
glaciation is present in the sampled area near Baraboo
(Dalziel, Dott, and Black 1970, p.71), ice thickness pre—
sumably was not excessive. For the overburden pressure on
the Galesville Sandstone to exceed that due to the previous
sedimentary overburden, an ice thickness of over 6,500 feet
is required. The occurrence of an ice mass approaching this
thickness in the driftless area of Wisconsin is highly un—
likely.

Considering the maximum stratigraphic thicknesses into
the structural basins adjacent to the Baraboo area, the
maximum burial of the Galesville Sandstone is estimated to
be 3,000 feet. The maximum lithostatic pressure resulting
from 3,000 feet of overburden is estimated as approximately
200 atmospheres, considering the density of the sedimentary
column to be 2.3 g/ccm. The actual lithostatic pressure
affecting tflka Galesville was less, due to the hydrostatic

pressure of the pore fluid.

Table 1: Estimated Thickness of Strata Above the
Galesville Sandstone Baraboo, Wisconsin

Michigan Basin

 

is:

Cambrain—M. Ordo.
Upper Ordo.
Silurian
Devonian

Early Miss.

Late Miss.

Penn.

Maximum
Thickness (ft.)

 

“55'
200'
500'
200'
550'
(?)
(?)
1,905'

*Personal Communication

W

S. Central Wisc.
S.W. Mich.

S.W. Mich.

S.W. Mich.

W. Mich.

Reference

 

Ostrom (1967)
Cohee (1948)

Melhorn (1958)
Fisher* (1977)

Chung (1973)

Illinois Basin

 

is:

Cambrain
Ordo.
Silurian
Devonian
Miss.
Penn.

Maximum
Thickness (ft.)

235'
900'
300'
200'
eroded
200'
1,835'

 

Location
S. Central Wisc.
N.E. Ill.
N.E. Ill.
Central I11.

N. Central Ill.

Reference

 

Ostrom (1967)

Willman et at (1975)
Willman et at (1975)
Willman et at (1975)
Willman et at (1975)
Willman et at (1975)

10

Table 1: Continued

Upper Mississippi Valley

 

 

 

Age Location
Cambrain-M. Ordo. S. Central Wisc.
Upper Ordo. Up. Miss. Valley
Silurian Up. Miss. Valley
Devonian Up. Miss. Valley
Miss. Up. Miss. Valley
Penn. Up. Miss. Valley
Maximum

Thickness (ft.) Reference
A55' Ostrom (1967)
2A5' (2)
375' (2)
665' (2)
856' (2)
(?) (2)

2,596'

(1) Sections measured may be up to 400 miles west
and southwest of Baraboo. Thicknesses of units
are substantially reduced toward arch.

(2) Kansas Geological Society Guidebook (1935).

SAMPLE COLLECTION

Samples were collected from three outcrop locations

relative to the Baraboo syncline: l). on the margin;

2). inside; 3). outside (Figure 3). Locations relative

to the Baraboo quarzite cliffs forming the Baraboo syn-
cline were chosen to represent the greatest possible
variation in the compositional and textural characteris-
tics of the sands due to different environments of deposi-
tions. Sampling was also designed to determine if porosity
variations were present within individual bedding units

and between bedding units at outcrOp locations.

At each outcrop, separate bedding units were sampled
by imposing a grid upon each unit. Grids varied in size
depending on bedding unit character, ranging from three to
nine feet in length. Each grid contained thirty sample
intersections. Sample grids were adjusted to an angle of
between twenty and thirty-five degrees relative to bedding
to insure a proper stratigraphic sampling (Griffiths, 1967,
p. 18; Chayes, 1956, Figure 8, p. 26). Samples taken at
each grid point intersection were marked for north and

horizontal orientation.

SAMPLE PREPARATION

Forty —four samples were randomly selected from over
one hundred fifty grid point locations at the three Gales—

ville outcrops. Samples were impregnated with red-dyed,

ll

12

 

 

 
    

 

 

T T I '
“2N Outcrop’l
b
IO
Outcro
TII N “Q /
9
““9?” I :-~-:.
TION - l mm
' Baraboo
.Quartzm
1 I J _L
85E R65 RTE ROE
Outcrop One
Bedding Unit 1
Outcrop Two
Bedding Unit 1a
Bedding Unit lb
Bedding Unit 2
Outcrop Three
Bedding Unit 1
Bedding Unit 2

Figure 3--Outcrop Locations and Units Sampled
(Map after Wanenmacher, J,M. 1935)

13

low viscosity epoxy resin (Minoura and Conley, 1971) and
sectioned in north-south and east-west vertical orienta-
tions. Eighteen selected samples were also sectioned
horizontally. Sections were ground to thirty microns
thickness and then polished for cathodo-luminescent petro-
graphy.

Galesville sands from two of the grid samplings were
disaggregated and packed in twelve separate containers.
Four sands were tightly packed by shaking and tamping, four
sands were loosely packed by shaking, and four were left
unpacked after pouring. These disaggregated sands were

then impregnated with red epoxy and thin sectioned.
LABORATORY ANALYSIS

Image Analysis

Thin sections of impregnated Galesville Sandstone
samples and of disaggregated and impregnated Galesville
sands were taken to the Kansas Geological Survey office in
Lawrence, Kansas, for porosity analyses on the Survey's
computer image analyzer. The image analysis equipment con-
sists of six main components:

1). Petrographic Microscope: Microscope is provided

special lighting, light filtering, and lenses to

provide an even distribution of light intensity with-

in the field of View.

2). Black and White Television Camera: Mounted on

the microscope, the vidicon camera provides good

1A

resolution between areas of different light intensity

on the thin section.

3). Color Monitor Display: Color television displays

the field analyzed for percent porosity.

A). VP 8 Processor Control Console: Controls color

intensity and provides direct digital read-out of

percent pore space.

5). MAP 1, Moving Area Framer: Defines the dimen—

sions of the area or "window" on the monitor within

which porosity will be calculated.

6). Hewlett-Packard 1310 A, X—Y—Z Display Cathode Ray

Tube: Displays voltage levels within field of View so

adjustment can be made for maximum differentiation be-

tween areas of differing light intensity.

The system operates by continually scanning (30 times/
second) the thin section image within the area specified by
the window adjustment. Along each line of scan, signals of
high and low voltage are produced on areas of light and
dark coloration. Because of the intense color of the red
epoxy, pore spaces are seen as much darker than the trans-
parent quartz grains.

Adjustment is made with the aid of the cathode ray
tube so that a significant voltage difference exists be—
tween light and dark areas within the field. A threshold level
is then selected by the operator to best delineate high and
low voltage areas. The selection is made by adjusting the

boundary between quartz grains and red epoxy as it appears

15

on the color monitor. The computer then totals the length
of the scan below the theshold level and displays it dig-
itally as percent porosity.

The mean porosity of each thin section was determined
by measuring and averaging the porosity within 36—1.5 mm
square areas randomly chosen on the slides. Possible
sources of error for porosity measurements lie in poor fo-
cusing of the petrographic scope and misadjustment of the
grain-epoxy boundary. Despite the precision indicated by
the low standard deviation values, four separate tests
were conducted to determine the significance of any possi-
ble error:

1). Second operator comparison: Mr. C.D. Conley of
the Kansas Geological Survey ran second analyses on four-
teen thin sections representing the three outcrop locations.
Conley's result differed from the first set of analyses by
an average of only 0.4% per thin section. The means for
the two sets of analyses by t-test were not statistically
different (Table 2).

2). Unknown analysis: Twenty—four samples were an—
alyzed for percent porosity without previous knowledge of
the samples' origin. Results for the unknowns were also
not statistically different and varied from initial results
by an average of 0.15% per thin section (Table 3).

3). Multiple analyses: Three slides were chosen for
multiple analyses to establish the variation which may be
expected in the repeated analysis of one slide. Six anal—

yses were performed on each of the three slides. A maximum

16

Table 2: Image Analysis, Second Operator Comparison

 

% Porosity % Porosity
Sample # C.D. Conley S T. Wilson S Difference
1—10E 12.6 3.1 14.0 3.5 —1.4
2-4N 22.6 2.4 24.1 2.4 -l.5
3-28E 19.4 2.1 17.8 2.3 +1.6
4-9N 24.4 3.2 23.3 2.5 +1.1
4-9N 20.2 2.8 23.3 2.5 -3.1
4-9N 20.3 3.5 23.3 2.5 -3.0
5-8E 19.7 2.0 20.6 2.2 -0.9
5-8E 19.3 1.9 20.6 2.2 -1.3
5-8E 18.1 2.1 20.6 2.2 -2.5
6—6N 22.0 2.5 20.1 2.3 +1.9
6—6N 19.6 2.1 20.1 2.3 —0.5
6-6N 21.3 2.6 20.1 2.3 +1.2
5-5L—C-2 36.6 3.5 35.8 2.6 +0.8
5-5L~C—2 37.3 2.7 35.8 2.6 +1.5

 

 

 

Mean Difference Per
Thin Section = 0.44%

l7

 

Table 3: Comparison with Unknown Analyses
% Porosity % Porosity
Sample # Unknown Analysis Initial Analysis Difference
S S

1—10E 14.0 2724* 14.0 3753* 0.0
1-18N 16.6 3.08 10.2 2.26 +6.4
1-22N 13.1 1.98 12.5 2.21 +0.6
2—3E 26.3 2.57 23.6 3.34 +2.7
2-4N 24.5 2.09 24.1 2.42 +0.4
2-5N 24.3 2.44 24.1 2.61 +0.2
3-6E 21.9 1.98 19.1 2.51 +2.8
3—18E 19.8 2.41 19.3 3.68 +0.5
3—25E 17.6 2.31 19.0 2.91 —1.4
2-4Ea 25.8 3.85 23.3 3.11 +1.5
4-9N 23.8 2.69 23.3 2.54 +0.5
4-12N 22.5 2.55 23.2 2.24 -0.7
5-11N 18.1 1.95 22.9 2.00 -4.8
5—12N 21.1 2.14 23.2 2.77 -2.1
5-13Eb 18.0 1.71 20.1 1.70 -2.1
6—23N 24.3 3.06 22.9 3.06 +1.4
6—25N 24.5 2.54 25.1 1.84 —0.6
6—29N 21.7 3.62 23.8 2.73 -2.1
3-29IFAF2 44.8 3.72 45.1 2.18 -0.3
3—29L—B—1 36.5 1.86 35.9 2.24 +0.6
3—29L-C-1 36.5 1.97 34.3 2.49 +2.2
3—291rAel 41.6 2.14 42.2 1.98 -0.6
3-29L—B—2 37.3 2.63 36.3 2.54 +1.0
3-29L-C-2 34.0 2.40 33.7 2.38 +0.3

Average Error/Analysis

*ns36 fbr all analyses

= 0.27%

18

range between high and low determinations of 1.9%porosity
was obtained for measurements within the three groups.
Standard deviations for the three groups were all less
than 0.70 for six determinations (Table 4).

4). Image analysis versus point counts: Fields which
had porosities computer analyzed weregflmmographedfrom the
monitor. Point counts were made by Mr. C.D. Conley on
photographic enlargements of the fields. Mean results for
image analysis and point count porosities were well within
statistical error on a 95% confidence level by t-test of

mean values.

Cathodo-Luminescent Microscopy

In thin sections of elastic sedimentary rocks, the
cathodo—luminescent microscope can serve to distinguish
detrital grains from authigenic overgrowths by their dif-
ferent luminescing qualities (Sippel, 1968).

The vast differences between the conditions of crystal-
lization in originally high temperature detrital grains and;
low temperature authigenic overgrowths result in lower con-
centrations of trace impurities within the crystal lattices
of the authigenically precipitated mineral or minerals.
Electron bombardment of minerals in a helium—filled chamber
causes trace impurites in the original detrital grains to
undergo electron excitment and subsequent emission of vis—
ible light spectra. Differing coloration or intensity of

the emission can distinguish detrital grains from overgrowths.

Table 4: Multiple Analyses of Thin Sections

Sample #

% Porosity

 

5-5L—A-l

Mean Porosity =

5-5L-B—l

Mean Porosity=

5—5LrC-2

Mean Porosity =

43.6
43.3
44.6
44.2
42.7

43.4

43.6

38.2
38.7
38.8
38.0
37.8

38.0

QFWUTONU'I CD
MNDNUTN L»

3
3
3
3
3
3
3

 

O\

35.

Std. Dev.

3.19
3.14
2.72
2.81
3.21

2.00

0.68

2.96
2.43
2.59
2.58
2.68

2.57

0.37

2. 32
2 55
2. 89
2.15
2.33
2.34

0.66

 

20

This is especially useful in the case of quartz where over-
growths are optically continuous with detrital quartz
grainsunder plane and polarized light.

In order to determine the necessity for cathodo-lumi—
nescence analysis, Galesville thin sections were first ex—
amined to determine if the volume of quartz cement could
be estimated under a normal petrographic microscope using
"dust ring" evidence alone. For slide containing the best
developed dust rings in the Galesville, approximately one
third of the points near grain margins could not be defin-
itely classed as grain or overgrowth. It is concluded
that dust rings are too discontinuous to provide a basis
for accurate quantitative estimates of the volume of authi-
genic quartz. In addition, because of the discontinuous
nature of the dust rings,an accurate estimate of the degree
of intergranular pressure solution using dust rings is not
possible. Using sutured grain contacts as an indicator of
pressure solution was also excluded because of their extre-
mely limited occurrence.

Approximately six hundred color photographs were taken
of Galesville thin sections. Two photographs were taken
for each 2.2 x 1.4 mm fields to be analyzed, one under
transmitted plane light and the second under cathodo-lumi-
nescence. When compared, the two photos define the posi-
tion of‘detritalgrain-overgrowth boundaries.

Two fields, randomly chosen, were photographed for

each of eighty-two thin sections. In addition, six thin

21

sections representing the six bedding units (Figure 3)
were photographed for twenty different fields per slide.
Multiple analyses wereperformed in order that the varia-
tion observed within an outcrop could be compared with the
variation present within a single thin section.

Luminoscope photographs were taken using fifteen min-
ute exposures on high speed ektachrome light film (ASA 125)
and specially processed, pushing the ASA to 325. The lumi-
noscope was manufactured by Nuclide Corporation, model num-
ber ELM 23. Beam energy was set at 14KV from a cold cath-
ode-ray tube. A beam current setting of 0.6 ma was used.

Color slides were projected into a light-table display,
carefully adjusted to eliminate optical distortion. 0n the
table, detrital grain and overgrowth margins were traced on
graph paper. Areas within the grains and overgrowths were
determined by summing the number of points of intersection
on the graph paper within the respective areas. The volumes
of detrital quartz and overgrowth are proportional to the
areas measured by point counting. After grain to cement
ratios were determined, the minus cement porosities of the
thin sectionswere calculated by adding the prOportional
cement volume to the image analysis porosity.

A problem in the determination of detrital grain over-
growth boundaries was present in many Galesville thin sec-
tions due to a slight reddish luminescence of the overgrowths.
Boundaries became difficult to locate when detrital grain

centers luminesced similar shades. To avoid possible

difficulties with interpreting these slight variations,
only grains luminescing bright blue were analyzed for grain
to cement ratios. For each of the four outcrops where
minus cement porosities were calculated, blue grain size
distributions were checked, and proved nearly identical to
the overall size distributions measured in thin section
(see Figure 4). Differing size distributions would have
resulted in a biased grain to cement ratio. No tendency
toward overgrowths preferentially covering differently
colored luminescing grains was observed.

Percent intergranular pressure solution was estimated
on luminescence photographs by reconstructing rounded grain
boundaries where penetration by adjacent grains had occur-
red and measuring the area of penetration by point counts
on graph paper. The resulting estimate is somewhat subjec-
tive in that it requires the petrographer to reconstruct
boundaries which have been destroyed by penetration of the
two grains. However, in well-rounded sands this reconstruc-
tion is relatively straightforward.

At outcrops one and two where only blue luminescing
grains were used, the percent pressure solution was calcula-
ted by proportionally correcting the presolved quartz:
total quartz ratio determined by point counts to the total
rock volume. At outcrop three where no quartz cement was
present, an estimate of the presolved volume was obtained
by measuring the presolved areas at penetrating grain

contacts as observed in plane light.

Counts

Count:

23

OutcropOno; Bedding Unit 1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.7

Blue Grains All Grain:
300 Count: 300 Counts
'1 '1
60 - __ 60 r 1
1 780.288 780.2"
40 - "am 40 ' "mm
M 300 n8 300
20' 20'
o ' I I [fl-m 0 o ,
(D .I .2 .3 «I .5! .6» [7 ID .I .2 .3. :4 £5 £5 £7
Outcrop Two; Bedding Unit 1a 3332373,:
Blue Grains '1
228 Count:
60 7 4'1 60 " "
'" ”30.2" I .
40 - {-0.03I 40 ' 3:- 3.63:
n- 22. II. 300
20 I- 20 '
o l— _ l l—J O [I- 7 L 1 1
C) J .2! .3 i4 .5! 15 :7 C) I .2 .3 :3 £5 £5
Grain Size (MM) Grain SIuIMM)

Figure 4--Blue Grain Size Distribution Compared with
“ Distribution of Total Grain Papulaiton

24

Outcrop Two; Bedding Unit 1b

Blue Grains

207 Count:

60 I-
3 FT
S 40 -
o
O

20 '

0

 

 

 

 

 

 

Outcrop Two; Bedding Unit 2

 

 

 

 

BlueGroine
l6500unie
60"
3
= I 1
:6; 4° ysazIe
I 380.069
20’ III!”
0 7 l A l 1___I
OJ .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
Grain SizeUlM)

Figure 4--(cont'd)

 

 

 

All Grain:

 

 

 

 

3OOCounte
1
60' I_'
4 1
40* 7.0.22I
"0.079
20’ 03300
0 [- rite-.1...
0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7

 

 

 

 

 

 

AllGraine-
3000mm”
1
_ '1
60"
40’ YIOJOO
080.070
ZOT I121”: . .
0 o
0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7

Grain SizeIMMI

25

Sketching presolved grain boundaries and determining
the percentage of pressure solution by point counting
should provide a maximum estimate of intergranular pre-
solved quartz. Long grain contacts were considered pre-
solved contacts, with the degree of penetration established
by the shapes of the grains approaching the contact (Figure
5). Presolved grain areas were estimated liberally.

Authigenic adularia is present at outcrOps two and
three being easily identified by its characteristic dull
green luminescence. The percentage of adularia was esti—
mated from slides of outcrop two by point—counting fields
containing adularia traced on graph paper. Only trace
quantities of adularia were present at outcrop three, pre-
cipitated on'a small fraction of silt-sized detrital feld-
spar grains. The exact percentage was not determined be-
cause of the relatively small volume, and because the ex-
tremely bright blue luminescing detrital feldspars made

grain-overgrowth boundaries difficult to distinguish.
DATA: IMAGE AND LUMINESCENT MICROSCOPE ANALYSIS

Mean values of percent plus and minus cement porosity,
percent presolved quartz, percent quartz cement and percent
adularia from each bedding unit are listed in Table 5.

Mean values for each outcrOp are totaled below the bedding
unit totals. The standard deviation of the mean, as well

as the number of samples measured, are listed in parentheses.

26

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82:00 82:00 9.3

0:04 0:04

 

 

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27

 

 

 

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a o.mm a 0.0 a 0.0 R mm.o a m.mm mfimooe

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& H.mm & 0.0 a 0.0 a mm.o u H. Imm m pas: mafiooom

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a m.zm a o.o & 0.0 u om.o a m.: H afico woaeoom
m * momoeso

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a A.zm R wm.o u mm.m a me.o R w.om maoooe

Amman .oe.aumv “mm": .mm.HumV Amman Hm. HI mv Ammu .mm.oumv AHA": .Hm.HumV
a m.mm & Hm.o R A. H & No.0 a R.mm m use: mcaooom

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a R.RH a 0.0 a m.: & ow.o a w.mH a page wcaooome
He momoeso

mofimoeoi .uoo .Hmoa owREH

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mfimzams< edoomopqsz ecoowOCHESA new mdeH

"mama "m oflome

28

Individual thin section analyses upon which these mean

values are based are listed in Appendix C.

ACCURACY OF IMAGE ANALYSIS POROSITY DETERMINATIONS

There is a problem in the accuracy of thin section
analyses of porosity in sandstones which are mineral-
ogically complex or contain quantities of clay. It is
caused by the increasing volume of micropore space in
sandstones with increasing mineral and textural complex-
ity. In the analysis of clean, quartzose sandstones,
however, the occurrence of micropore space is minimized.
Rounded quartz grain boundaries are easily defined.
Other mineral phases having porosity relationships dif-
ficult to distinguish in thin section are not present.
In addition, impregnation of the Galesville Sandstone
samples with low-viscosity, red epoxy resin also aides
in distinguishing pores.

A variable quantity of clay and iron oxide is pre-
sent at outcrop one. The clay was identified by x-ray
analysis as kaolinite intermixed with iron hydroxides.
Both the Clay and the iron oxides are the result of
leaching from the overlying soil horizon. In some thin
sections, clay is seen to completely fill the pore spaces.
Kaolinite is a late diagenetic phase and did not play a
role in early porosity reduction due to compaction, pres-
sure solution, or precipitation of quartz overgrowths.

This is evidenced by the lack of clay along pressure

29

solution and cement intergrowth contacts. Because the
precipitation of kaolinite clay occurred late in the
diagenetic history of the Galesville, an estimate of
its actual volume is not crucial to an understanding of
porosity reduction. Clay merely fills pores which have
already been defined by the earlier stages of diagenesis.

The presence of clay, however, complicates image
analysis by impeding epoxy impregnation. Incomplete im-
pregnation has resulted in excessive plucking in some
slides during sample preparation. Porosities, as a re-
sult, are biased low. In order to estimate the effect
of incomplete impregnation, point counts were made of
all sections from outcrop one. Red epoxy, clay, and in-
completely impregnated areas were counted as pore space
(Table 6). The average porosity provided by these point
counts provides a better estimate of this porosity between
quartz grains and quartz overgrowths than the results of
image analysis.

The mean point count porosity (Table 6) is used in
place of image analysis porosity to calculate percent
presolved quartz, percent quartz cement and percent minus
cement porosity in Table 7. The point count porosity
which eliminates the bias of impermeable clay results in
a calculated minus cement porosity of 24.2%. This mean
value is not statistically different from those measured

by image analysis for outcrops two and three.

30

Table 6: Point Count Porosity — Incompletely Impregnated
Samples; Outcrop One

 

%
Image Analysis Point Counts: Point Counts:
Sample # Porosity % Red Epoxy Total % Porosity
l—EN 11.2 11.2 25.2
l-EE 13.8 23.2 29.8
l-FD 14.8 11.0 19.0
l—FS 16.1 16.7 21.3
1-6N 12.2 10.8 17.5
1-6E 11.4 12.7 15.7
1-7N 11.4 10.3 16.3
l-8N 13.7 10.5 15.2
1—8E 13.2 12.5 17.5
l-lONa 8.7 10.0 18.0
1-10Nb 14.6 15.0 16.0
l-lOE 14.9 13.3 17.3
l-l2N 14.0 17.0 18.3
1-12N 16.0 13.8 18.8
1-12E 15.8 15.2 21.8
1-13Na 12.0 10.2 17.5
1-13Nb 14.4 19.8 25.5
l—l3E 11.8 9.5 16.3
1—18N 10.2 15.5 18.8
1-18E 10.0 10.8 25.8
1-19N 11.9 7.0 17.7
1—19E 10.5 13.5 18.2
1—22N 12.5 12.0 21.7
1—22E 11.2 18.7 23.3
Mean Porosity 12.8% 13.3% 19.7%
(s=2.05) (s=3.74) (s=3.81)

(n=24) (n=24) (n=24)

31

 

 

 

 

 

22.2 23.: Lane smug
om.mum wm.mum sm.onm Hm.mum
m.:m m.: me.o R.ma oco oHcD wcfiooom
mpfiwopom ucoEoo pcmsoo uppmsa mpczoo pcfiom
mace: a Ramada R wo>aomopm & mufimosom w

oco aopopso
mmpcsoo pcfiom mp occassouoo mpfimosom cofipoom cane com: um manna

32

A final check of the accuracy of thin section por-
osity analysis was made by comparison with porosity
measurements performed by Core Laboratories, Incorpor-
ated, on Galesville hand samples. Sample porosity was
determined by helium expansion—mercury emersion (HE—ME).
Results of Core Laboratory porosity measurements compared
with image analysis determinations of the same samples
are listed in Table 8. T—test of samples show no signif-
- icant difference between mean values for the two methods
of porosity measurement at outcrop two.

A small difference in mean values is discerned at
outcrop three. The difference is due to the presence of
silt-sized particles in several sections, not always vis-
able within the red epoxy. This results in image analyses
slightly higher than HE-ME determinations. A difference
of 8.9% in the two mean porosities is present at outcrop
one. As previously diScussed, this is caused by the inter—
stitial kaolinite at outcrop one, the volume of which was
not determinable and thus eliminated from thin section
analyses. While Core Lab porosity provides a better
estimate of the actual sandstone porosity, point counts
serve to determine the porosity before precipitation of

kaolinite and iron cements.
POROSITY VARIATIONS

Comparisons were made of image analysis porosities

according to the orientation of thin sections. Results

Table 8:

33

Core Laboratory v.s. Thin Section Porosity

Analyses

OUTCROP ONE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

% Core Lab % Point Count
Sample # Porosity Porosity
Ni 3;.
l-E 11.6 25.2 29.8
1-6 14.0 17.5 15.7
1-7 8.2 16.3 15.2
1-8 8.9 17.5 18.0
1-10 7.8 16.0 & 17.3 18.3
1—12 10.2 18.8 21.8
1-13 15.5 & 11.0 17.5 & 25.5 16.2
1—18 13.0 18.8 25.8
1—22 8.5 21.7 23.3
Avg. Porosity 10.9% 19.8%
Outcrop One: s=2.64 s=4.l3
n=10 n=20
OUTCROP TWO
% Core Lab % Image Analyses
Sample # Porosity Porosity
N.-_§ 2:!
3-16 17.4 17.7 20.6
3—30 19.8 18.2 17.9
5—12 22.6 23.2 21.4
5—15 22.6 21.5 22.5
6-6 20.8 20.1 20.2
6—25 20.8 25.1 24.0
Avg. Porosity 20.7% 21.0%
Outcrop Two: s=l.95 s=2.40
n=6 n=12

34

Table 8: Continued

OUTCROP THREE

 

 

 

 

% Core Lab % Image Analyses
Sample # Porosity Porosity
N—S E-W
2-2 22.4 25.9 26.1
2-5 22.5 24.1 24.0
4—2 20.1 24.0 24.7 & 23.3
2-8 19.2 23.3 22.0
Avg. Porosity 21.1% 24.2%
Outcrop Three: s=l.66 s=l.29

n=4 n=9

35

of the comparison for north-south versus east—west and
horizontal versus vertical orientations are listed in
Tables 9 and 10. The mean porosities compared by t-test
show no statistical difference according to orientation
in the Galesville.

Wide ranges in porosity of the Galesville are seen
only on a very small scale. Variations in porosity be-
tween 1.5 mm areas on a thin section commonly range up
to 12%; however, estimates of mean thin section porosity
are very consistent between thin sections and bedding
unitsfor each outcrop location. Between outcrop locations
plus cement porosity varies considerably due to varying
quantities<1fauthigenic quartz, adularia, kaolinite, and
hematite.

Minus cement porosity measurements between the three
Galesville outcrop locations do not differ significantly,
only ranging from 23.6% to 24.7% (Table 5). In addition,
individual thin sections are highly representative of the
mean minus cement porosity present at all outcrops. Using
data from Appendix C, the minus cement porosity for the
four outcrops determined from eighty-four separate thin
sections is not statistically different at the 95% con-
fidence level from the average porosity determined from
the multiple analyses of one section for each outcrop.

The percentages of intergranular presolved quartz
were tested to see if significant differences existed

between mean values for different sample groups.

36

Table 9: Image Analysis Porosity; Directional Comparison
of N-S and E-W Vertical Thin Sections

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Outcrop #1 — Bedding Unit 1 Avg. Std. Dev. 3
N-S Sections 12.9 1.75 12
E—W Sections 12.1 2.18 10
Outcrgp #2 - Bedding Unit 1a Avg. Std. Dev. 2
N-S Sections 19.5 1.87 7
E—W Sections 19.0 1.08 7
- Bedding Unit lb
N-S Sections 20.7 1.71 7
E-W Sections 20.6 1.50 8
- Bedding Unit 2
N-S Sections 23.0 1.57 6
E—W Sections 22.3 1.53 7
Outcrop #3 - Bedding Unit 1 Avg. Std. Dev. 3
N—S Sections 24.9 . 1.59 6
E-W Sections 24.3 2.05 7
- Bedding Unit 2
N-S Sections 23.2 0.72 7
E-W Sections 23.2 0.84 8
Total - All Outcrops Avg. Std. Dev. n
N—S Sections 19.7 4.65 45

E-W Sections 19.8 4.63 47

Table 10: Image Analysis Porosity; Directional Comparison of

Hbrizontal and vertical Thin Sections

Outcrop l—Bedding Unit
sample 1—10

Outcrop 2—Bedding Unit

sample 3—18
sample 3-30

-Bedding Unit

sample 5—12
sample 5-15

—Bedding Unit
sample 6—6
sample 6—25

Outcrop 3—Bedding Unit

sample 2—2
sample 2—5

-Bedd.ing Unit
sample 4—2
sample 4—8

Total — All Outcrops

1a

1b

HOrizontal
Sections

 

11.8

18.7

s=3-73
n=1l

vertical
Sections

14.5

19.5
18.1

22.3
22.0

20.2
24.0

26.0
24.0

23.3
22.7

21.5
s=3.08
n=11

38

Calculations using data from Table 5 demonstrate that
within bedding units no statistical difference is present
for mean values of percent presolved quartz. Outcrop
mean values are also not statistically different at the

95% confidence level by t-test.
MECHANICAL POROSITY REDUCTION

Porosities upon deposition of well-sorted beach and
dune sands, inferred to be the depositional environment
of the Galesville Sandstone, are found to average approx-
imately 49% (Pryor, 1973). The loose-packed Galesville
sands compare favorably with this,having a mean porosity
of 46.2%. Reduction in sandstone porosity begins shortly
after burial by mechanical re-adjustment of grains into
a more tightly packed arrangement. Mechanical compaction
is prompted by pressure from loading and possibly minor
earth movements. Compaction by mechanical re—adjustments
tends to proceed until a stable grain framework is achiev—
ed, or until cementation by authigenic minerals makes in-
tergranular movements impossible. The minimum porosity
value established for tight packing of well—sorted and
well-rounded sands in laboratory experiments is approxi-
mately 36% (Fraser, 1935; Gaither, 1953).

Two separate experiments were performed on disag-
gregated Galesville sands to determine the minimum possible
porosity value due to mechanical compaction of the Gales-

ville. Results from thin section analysis of Galesville

39

sands, artificially packed in the laboratory and impreg-
nated, are listed in Table ll. The porosities resulting
from three different packing techniques were determined
by image analysis of four thin sections per packing
arrangement. The second method of establishing porosity
in the loose sands was performed by packing Galesville
sands into a volumetric cylinder and determining porosity
by volume-density calculations (Table 12).

Thin sections show an average maximum porosity re-
ducation by mechanical compaction to approximately 35%.
Volume—density determinations show porosity reduction to
approximately 36%. Results for the two methods of porosity
analysis are very similar to those established by previous
work (Fraser, 1935). However, porosities as low as 33%
were achieved by packing of Galesville sands in methanol
while being tamped and ultrasonically treated.

This special method of compacting disaggregated sands
demonstrates the possibility of reduction in randomly
packed sands to near 33%. While conditions in the labora-
tory porosity reduction experiments using methanol and
ultrasonic treatments are not comparable to conditions in
natural sands; the special treatment may, in effect, ac—
celerate mechanical compaction processes which occur in
the natural environment over long periods of time.

A long period of mechanical grain adjustment during

the early diagenetic history of the Galesville is suggested

Table 11:

II.

III.

Image Analysis of Disaggregated Galesville
Sandstone Thin Sections

Unpacked Sands

 

Sample # % Porosity
5-5 L—A-l u3.1
5—5 L-A—Z “2.9
3-29 L-A-l U2.2
3—29 L-A-2 “5.2

NO

Std.

 

Mean Porosity =

U3.“

Sands Settled by Shaking

 

Sample # % Porosity
5-5 L—B-l 38.0
5-5 L-B—2 37.9
3-29 L-B-l 35.9
3—29 L-B—2 36.3

Dev.

 

 

Mean Porosity =

37.0

Sands Shaken and Tamped

 

Sample # % Porosity
5—5 L—C-l 35.6
5-5 L—C-2 35.8
3-29 L-C-l 3N.3
3-29 L-C-2 33-7

2.7“
2.72
1.98

__2__-l_8_

1.29

Std. Dev.

 

Std.

 

Mean Porosity =

314.9

2.82
2.63
2.2”

2.5M

1.08

 

NNNI’U
J:
\O

H
O
H

“1

Table 12: Porosity of Disaggregated Galesville Sands
Determined by Volume - Density Analyses

I. Unpacked Sands: % Porosity

 

“5.
5“.
“7.
“5.
“6.
“6.

l—‘NkONNJ:

Mean Porosity= “6.2

II. Sands Settled by Shaking: ngorosity

 

37.9
38.5
38.“

Mean Porosity= 38.3
III. Shaken and Tamped Sands: % Porosity

36.“
36.0
36.1

 

Mean Porosity= 36.2

 

IV. Sands in Methanol, Tamped, % Porosity
Ultrasonically Treated:
33-0
32.8
33-1

Mean Porosity= 33.0

“2

by very similar minus cement porosities and percentages
of intergranular pressure solution for all outcrops,
despite the variability in the quantity of quartz cement.
If quartz cementation preceeded mechanical compaction,
minus cement porosities at outcrops one and two would be
significantly higher than outcrop three where cementation

has not occurred.

PRESSURE SOLUTION

In addition to mechanical grain adjustments, inter-
granular pressure solution in the Galesville Sandstone
has also occurred prior to authigenic quartz cementation.
Nearly equivalent volumes of presolved detrital quartz
at all outcrops measured would not be observed if cement—
ation had occurred before, or synchronously with pressure
solution. Authigenic cement would have stabilized grain
contacts and reduced the percentage of presolved quartz
where precipitated.

Pressure solution in the Galesville Sandstone is
entirely intergranular in nature; no stylolitic develop-
ment is observed in thin section or at the outcrop. Inter-
granular pressure solution is virtually undetectable under
a normal petrographic microscope in the quartz cemented
samples. An estimate of the volume of presolved quartz in
the Galesville could only be made by cathodo—luminescence

microscopy. Pressure solution relationships by petrographic

“3

examination are less than obvious because of the small
volume presolved and because very few sutured contacts

are present.

MODELING POROSITY REDUCTION DUE TO PRESSURE SOLUTION

The porosity reduction in quartz arenites due to
pressure solution between grains has been investigated by
Rittenhouse (1971). He presents a theoretical model where
spheres arranged in an orthorhombic lattice are compacted
due to "overburden" pressure. As the volume of the lattice
is decreased by vertical shortening, an overlap, or "solu-
tion" of the spheres occurs at points of contact through—
out the lattice. The percent porosity reduction with
pressure solution for the orthorhombic and other models
are plotted on Figure 6.

The orthorhombic arrangement was chosen by Ritten—
house because of the close approximation of porosity in this
lattice (39.5“%, Graton and Fraser, 1935) to porosities
observed in laboratory experiments with randomly packed
sheres (Fraser, 1935, p. 936). The number of contacts per
grain (8) also closely approximates the 7.5 contacts per
sphere found in randomly packed lead shot (Marvin, 1939).
Rittenhouse assumed that below 39.5“%, porosity reduction
would proceed only with pressure solution and/or cementation.

Since it is possible that pressure solution may begin
in the Galesville at porosities below 39.5“%, the relation

between porosity reduction and pressure solution in a

““

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wcfixomm o>wm pom coapzaom whammopm on can cofiposoom zpfimopomllw mpswfim

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mmvm «Nome 9! N. o. m o V N o.

 

 

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hexagonal close—packed arrangement of spheres was deter—
mined to establish the effect of a closer packed framework
on the solution—reduction ratio. Porosity reduction was
performed in a manner similar to that used by Rittenhouse
for orthorhombic packing. A unit cell (Graton and Fraser,
1935, p. 800—80“) was chosen and used as representative of
porosity and grain relationships throughout the hexagonal
lattice.

The unit cell is best described as a rhombohedron
whose corners lie at the centers of eight adjacent spheres
in the hexagonal lattice (see Figure 7). The orientation
of the unit cell in relation to the direction of shortening
was chosen to maximize the percentage porosity reduction
with compaction. The mechanics of the model and the method
of calculation are explained in Appendix B. Results show
the pressure solution: porosity reduction ratio for hex-
agonally close-packedspheres isslightly higher than that
calculated by Rittenhouse for orthorhombic—rotated 30
degrees and cubic-vertical arrangements. However, the
results for these four packing arrangements are not dras-
tically different and the pressure solution: porosity

reduction ratios are comparable.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN MECHANICAL POROSITY REDUCTION AND

REDUCTION BY PRESSURE SOLUTION

In the Galesville Sandstone, if mechanical compaction

to minimum porosity values has occurred (to 33%), an

“6

 

 

 

Figure 7-—Unit Cell of A Hexagonal Lattice

“7

additional 9% porosity reduction is required to reduce the
minus cement of the measured 2“%. The reduction of 9%

below maximum mechanical porosity reduction is caused by
intergranular pressure solution. Petrographic and lumines—
cence analysis show that fracturing of grains is unimpor-
tant in the Galesville. No other process besides inter—
granular pressure solution is known which could reduce the
cement porosity belwo that established for maximum mechan—
ical adjustment (approximately 33%). The presolved volume
of quartz responsible for the 9% porosity loss has been de-
termined by point counts to be less than 1%. This pressure
solution: porosity reduction ratio is significantly smaller
than predicted from theoretical packing models. The smaller
solutions: reduction ratio is due to the random rather than
regular packing of grains and the imperfect grain shape and
sorting characteristics of natural sands. The Galesville
pressure solution: prrosity reduction ratio is shown in
Figure 8 and compared with ratios for hexagonal and orthor-
hombic arrangements of spheres.

An additional consideration in porosity reduction during
pressure solution is that a definite boundary does not exist
between mechanical adjustment effects and reduction due to
pressure solution in uncemented sands. The small scale dis-
placements due to pressure solution at stressed grain con-
tacts could conceivable affect grain packing and result in
re-packing of grains mechanically.

Evidence supporting this possibility lies in the extreme

friability of outcrops sampled. At outcrop three, uncemented

“8

wdflnmcoflpmaom coflposoom mpwwogom ou :oHQSHom wpsmmmpmulm ogsmfim

cozoaumm 3390a oxo

 

0.0N 0.0 . 0.0. 0.0

 

 

0.0. 0.9 0.0 xx

 

 

 

+0

+0

04.8

{p.-

. +0
Q
\
\

\

 

ocozocom 2.33:5 ‘ 0:28.".

 

A/Bcoooxoz

0538\4

0352.355

 

     

ON

06

0d

0.0

 

0.0 _

uoun'os aJnSSGJd %

“9

sands having a porosity of 23.6% are easily crumbled under

the slightest pressure. Presolved contacts in the sand do

not act as cemented contacts. Mechanical re-packing of grains
in this type of sand during early stages of pressure solution
would not be hindered by cementation or coherence at presol-
ved contacts.

Further evidence that mechanical re-packing proceeds with
pressure solution lies in many observations of a "puzzle fit"
of previously presolved contacts, now separated slight dis-
tances by void space or cement. This may occur if early
presolved quartz contacts have been affected by mechanical
adjustments even on a very small scale, causing re-packing
and a change in the position of previous grain contacts.

As presolved intergranular contacts become more abun-
dant in the sand with increasing depth of burial, the grain
framework tends to become more and more stablized. As a
result, the importance of mechanical adjustments will be
rapidly decreased as pressure solution proceeds.

Since adjustment and separation of presolved grain
contacts has occurred in the Galesville, the actual per-
centage of presolved quartz will be slightly higher than
that estimated by measuring the areas of interpenetration at
grain contacts. The difference in these values, however,
is not significant. Presolved grain contacts which have
since been separated are often noticable under cathodo-
luminescence. The volume presolved, however, is not of

significance when compared with the greater (approximately

SO

“OX) volume of presolved quartz occurring at interpene-

trating grain contacts.

LARGE SCALE EFFECTS OF POROSITY REDUCTION

Geologic and structural maps of the Baraboo syncline
area (Hanson, 1970; Thwaites, 1935, p. 393) show a gentle
structural depresssion of the upper contact of the Gales—
ville Sandstone. Nearly 150 feet of relief is present,
from the margin of the Baraboo Syncline deepening into the
center. This depression is not due to folding since de—
formation forming the structure of the syncline's meta-
morphic rocks is of Precambrain age.

It has been suggested that the structurally higher
position of the Galesville sands around the Baraboo cliffs
may be due to conditions during sandstone deposition. In
a higher energy beach environment around the cliffs, thick
sands were deposited. If these graded to finer sediments
deeper within the syncline, it is possible that the contact
observed and mapped is a result of the paleoslope into the
syncline and/or a change in facies to finer-grained sediments
within the syncline.

Another possible factor in the structural depression
is the differential compaction of the sediments (Hedberg,
1926), from a thick sedimentary column in the center, thin-
ning and onlapping the quartzite around the margins. An

estimate of the possible effect of differential compaction

51

can be calculated by multiplying the depth to bedrock within
the syncline by the fractional reduction in volume due to
compaction of the sedimentary column below the Galesville.

A volume reduction of approximately 25% has occurred
within the Galesville from an initial depositional porosity
of “9% to the detrital grain porosity of approximately 2“%
measured in thin sections. The degree of porosity reduction
and compaction of the Galesville provides a good basis for
the porosity loss expected in the underlying column which is
predominantly sandstone to bedrock. The actual vertical
compaction calculated is a maximum since compaction began
in the underlying units before Galesville deposition.

Depths to bedrock in the syncline have been reported
by Weidman (190“) from drilling of water wells. He records
depths of over 560 feet from wells close to the deepest part
of the syncline. Using these figures, a maximum estimate of
0.25 x 560 feet, or 1“0 feet, difference in elevation may
have resulted form differential compaction. It is concluded
from this estimate that compaction was a major factor in
producing the present structural configuration of the Gales-

ville Sandstone.

CONCLUSIONS

1) Porosity reduction in the Galesville Sandstone is deter-
mined to be due to three factors. These are:
a) Up to 16% porosity reduction by mechanical grain

adjustments.

52

b) A minimum of 9% porosity reduction after the onset
of intergranular pressure solution.

c) Implacement of variable quantities of quartz
(0—“.5%), adularia (0-0.9%, kaolinite, and iron
oxides and hydroxides after the completion of
grain adjustments and pressure solution.

2) Intergranular pressure solution in natural sands results
in significantly lower pressure solution: porosity re-
duction ratios than demonstrated by theoretical models using
packing arrangements of perfect spheres.

3) During early stages of pressure solution, additional
porosity reduction may result from accompanying grain ad-
justments in uncemented sands.

“) The volume of authigenically precipitated quartz cement
in the Galesville Sandstone is unrelated to the percent
intergranular pressure solution.

5) Large variations in minus cement porosity and percent
pressure solution only occur on a very small scale within the
the Galesville Sandstone. Variation within thin sections

is greater than that observed between thin sections, bed-
ing units and outcrops.

6) Differencesixlporosityaccording to thin section orien-
tation are not statistically significant in the Galesville
Sandstone.

7) Intergranular pressure solution, virtually undetectable
under a normal petrographic microscope, can have a signifi-

cant effect on porosity reduction in sandstones.

53

8) The differential compaction of sediments within the
Baraboo Syncline is a major factor in the development of
the present structural configuration of the Galesville-

Tunnel City contact.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY

At the present time, little precise knowledge exists
concerning the effect of pressure solution on porosity
reduction in natural, randomly-packed sands. Laboratory
experiments using apparatus designed to evaluate the
effect of porosity reduction with pressure solution would
be very useful by helping to define the relative importance
of mechanical and chemical processes on the reduction in
pore space.

Other useful lines of research involving the mode of
porosity reduction in sandstones could include: 1). Eval-
uation of the diagenetic effects on clean quartzose sand-
stones which have undergone greater depths of burial 2).
Evaluation of the effect of differing sandstone compositions
en diagenetic porosityreduction with increasing depths of
burial.

Work toward an understanding of the relative impor-
tance of variables able to be isolated for observation in
compositionally and texturally simplistic sandstones can
lead toward a better understanding of the diagenetic alter-
ation and porosity reduction which occurs in natural sand-

stones.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Chayes, F., 1956, Petrographic Model Analysis: An Elementary
Statistical Appraisal: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
York.

Chung, P.K., 1973, Mississippian Coldwater Formation of the
Michigan Basin: Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University.

Cohee, G.V., l9“8, Cambrian and Ordovician Rocks in Michigan
and Adjoining Areas: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists
Bull., v. 32, no. 8, pt. 2, p. l“l7-l““8.

Dalziel, I.W.S., Dott, R.H. Jr., and Black, R.F., 1970, Geology
of the Baraboo District, Wisconsin: University of Wiscon-
sin, Geological and Natural History Survey, Information
Circular #1“, p. 39-“1.

Driscoll, E.G., 1959, Evidence of Transgressive-Regressive
Cambrian Sandstones Bordering Lake Superior: Jour. Sed.
Petrology, v. 29, p. 5—15.

Emrich, G.H., 1966, Ironton and Galesville Sandstones in Illi-
nois and Adjacent Areas: Ill. State Geology Survey, Cir-
cular “30, p. 55.

Fraser, H.J., 1935, Experimental Study of the Porosity and
Permeability of Clastic Sediments: Jour. Geology, v. “3,
P. 910—1010.

Friedman, G.M., 1961, Determination of Sieve-Size Distributing
from Thin Section Data for Sedimentary Petrological
Studies: Jour. Geology, v. 66, p. 39“—“l6.

Gaither, A., 1953, A study of the Porosity and Grain Relation-
ships in Experimental Sands: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 23,
p. 180-195.

Graton, L.C. and Fraser, H.J., 1935, Systematic Packing of
Spheres with Particular Relation to Porosity and Perme-
ability: Jour. Geology, v. “3, p. 785-909.

Hamblin, W.K., 1961, Paleogeographic Evolution of the Lake
Superior Region: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 72, p. 1—18.

Hanson, G.F., 1970, Geologic Map of the Baraboo District: Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Geological and Natural History Survey.

5“

55

Hedberg, H.D., 1926, The Effect of Gravitational Compaction
on the Structure of Sedimentary Rocks: Am. Assoc.
Petroleum Geolobists Bull., v. 10, p. 1035—1072.

Kansas Geological Society Guidebook, 1935, Ninth Annual Field
Conference, Upper Mississippi Valley.

Marvin, J.W., 1939, The Shape of Compressed Lead Shot and its
Relation to Cell Shape: American Journal of Botany,
v. 26, p. 288—295.

Melhorn, W.N., 1958, Structural Analysis of Silurian Rocks in
the Michigan Basin: Am. Assoc, Petroleum Geologists
Bull., v. “2, p. 816—838.

Minoura, N. and Conley, C.D., 1971, Technique for Impregnating
Porous Rock Samples with Low-Viscosity Epoxy Resin: Jour.
Sed. Petrology, v. “1, p. 858-861.

Ostrom, M.E., 1966, Cambrian Stratigraphy in W. Wisconsin:
University of Wisconsin, Geological and Natural History
Survey, Information Circular #7.

___1967, Paleozoic Nomenclature for Wisconsin: University
of Wisconsin, Geological and Natural History Survey,
Information Circular #8.

Pryor, W.A., 1973, Permeability-Porosity Patterns and Varia—
tions in Some Holocene Sand Bodies: Am. Assoc. Petroleum
Geologists Bull., v. 57, p. 162-189.

Raasch, G.O., 1935, Paleozoic Strata of the Baraboo Area: In
Guidebook, Ninth Annual Field Conference, Kansas Geolog—
ical Society.

Rittenhouse, G., 1971, Pore-Space Reduction by Solution and
Cementation: Am. Assoc. Petroleum Geologists Bull.,
V. 55, p. 80-91.

Rutgers, R., 1962, Packing of Spheres: Nature, v. 193, p.“65-
“66.

Schuchert, C., 1955, Atlas of Paleogeographic Maps of North
America: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.

Scott, G.D., 1960, Packing of Equal Spheres: Nature, v. 188,
p. 908-909.

Sippel, R.F., 1968, Sandstone Petrology, Evidence from Lum-
inescence Petrography: Jour. Sed. Petrology, v. 38,
P. 530—55“.

56

Thwaites, F.T., 1930, Buried Pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin: Geol.
Soc. America Bull., v. “2, p.719-750.

1935, Physiography of the Baraboo District, Wisconsin:
in Kansas Geological Society, Ninth Annual Field Con-
ference Guidebook

Twenhofel, W.H., 1935, Cambrian Strata of Wisconsin: Geol.
Soc. America Bull., v. “6, p. 1687-17““.

Weidman, S., 190“, The Baraboo Iron Bearing District of Wis-
consin: University of Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Survey, Bull. 13.

Wanenmacher, J.M., Twenhofel, W.H., and Raasch, G.O., 193“,
Paleozoic Strata of the Baraboo Area, Wisconsin: Amer--
ican Journal of Science, v. 228, p. 1-30.

Willman, H. B., et a1, 1975, Handbook of Illinois Strati-
graphy: Illinois State Geological Survey, Bull. #95.

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLING LOCATIONS.

Outcrqg_0ne: One bedding unit sampled

 

Location: NE NW S32 T12N R5E. Galesville outcropping
in flagstone quarry 0.6 miles west of the intersection of
highways 136 and 15“ in Rock Springs. Outcrop one is located
on the synclinal margin, deposited within a erosional break
in the quartzite.

The Galesville Sandstone at this location displays large
festoon cross stratification. Troughs range from 20 to 60
feet wide, up to “0 feet in length and have a typical amplitude
to 2 to 3 feet. The sandstone is unusually well indurated.
Cement includes authigenic quartz with minor hematite. Vari-
able amounts of kaolinite and iron oxide are present inter-
stitially. Detrital quartz grains are well-rounded and well-
sorted, of medium sand size. Abundant dust rings are observ—

able in thin section.

Outcrop Two: Two bedding units sampled.

 

Location: NE SE 816 TllN R5E. La Rue quarry, 100 feet
South of LaRue city limits (n1 highway PF. Outcrop two is
located inside the Baraboo syncline. Bedding unit one was
sampled in two locations (1a and 1b), located approximately
twenty feet laterally. Bedding unit two was located approx—
imately 15 feet stratigraphically below unit one. Bedding

units were composed of massive sands internally unstructured

57

58

and unlaminated. Bedding units sampled were defined by dif—
ferences in weathering characteristics on the outcrop face.

The Galesville is a very clean quartz sandstone at this
location. Quartz cement varies from 1.7% to “.3% between
sampling grids. Some minor hematite is present in the upper
section of the quarry from weathering in the overlying soil
horizon. Detrital quartz grains for all grids measured are
well—poundedand well-sorted, medium sand sized.

Authigenic adularia composing up to 1% of the rock volume
is found in the interstices of the sandstone. Crystals of
adularia by microprobe analysis contain greater than 99%
potassium. Adularia has precipitated in the pore spaces of
the Galesville without detrital feldspar cores. Crystals
have a characteristic rhombahedrla form, low relief and low

birefringence. Adularia displays a dull green luminescence.

Outcrop Three: Two bedding units sampled.

 

Location: NW SW 813 T10N R5E. Outcrop on hill, one mile
north of junction to Denzer on highway C, 200 feet east of
road. Outcrop three is located outside of the Baraboo Syncline.

Both bedding units sampled consisted of massive, extre-
mely friable quartz sands. Sands contained a small percentage
of fine silt composed of quartz and detrital feldspar. Micro—
probe analysis shows the feldspars to be potassium feldspar,
96% to 98% potassium. Bedding unit one is approximately 20
feet stratigraphically higher than bedding unit two, separated
by a less resistant bench former of finer grained sandstone-

siltstone.

59

The detrital feldspar fraction is very visable under
cathodo-luminescence due to its bright blue luminescent
quality. Authigenic feldspar overgrowths are present; how-
ever, large euhedral feldspar crystals are not present as
in Outcrop #2.

Quartz grains exhibit primary rounded shapes. No quartz
cement is present at this outcrop. Grains are well—rounded
and well-sorted of medium sand size. The small quantity of
detrital silt grains are for the most part not visable in
thin section under plane light because the fine grains are

most often submersed in the red epoxy.

APPENDIX B

APPENDIX B

POROSITY REDUCTION DUE TO PRESSURE SOLUTTON IN REXAGONALLY
CLOSE-PACKED SPHERES

As vertical compaction of the hexagonal close—packed
model proceeds, interpenetration of grains occurs at point
contacts as depicted in the cross section, Figure 9. Hor-
izontal displacement or rotation of spheres does not occur
within the model during compaction.

The volume of interpenetration is equal at all contacts
and can be calculated by using the equation for the volume of
a spherical segment.

V(segment) 1/3flh2 (3P-h)
Within each unit cell there are a total of two spherical
segments where interpenetration occurs.

When compaction from A to A' causes displacement x as
in Figure 9, the length of h can be calculated by subtracting
the length of the line connecting the centers of two inter-

penetrating spheres from the length of the line before com-

paction.

 

h = 2-JETB/3V2 - x12 + (u/3)

The total volume of the unit cell is equal to the area
of the base times the height. With increasing compaction,

the volume of the rhombohedron is defined by the equation:

V = 3.“6“ (\/8/3 - x)

rhomb
The pore space within the hexagonal lattice is determined

by subtracting the volume of the two spherical segments from

60

61

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 9——Pressure Solution Relationships During Vertical
Compaction of the Hexagonal Model

 

62

the volume of the spheres and then subtracting that total
from the volume of the rhombohedron. The percent porosity
is obtained by dividing the volume of pore space by the
volume of the rhombohedron and multiplying by 100. The ex-

pression may be used:

[3.u6u< 8/3—x> - u/3nr2—2/3nh?(3r-n>3
3.“6“( 8/3—x)

 

% Porosity=100

The percent volume of the unit cell which has been over—
lapped or presolved at thepoints of contact is determined by
calculating the volume of the spherical segments within the
unit cell, dividing this by the volume of the rhombohedron
and multiplying by 100. The expression may be used:

2/3nh2(3r—h)
3.“6“( 8/3-x)

 

% Pressure Solution=100

Making use of the equations formulated above, Table 13
and Figure 10 were prepared.

The plus cement porosity assumes that material presolved
at point contacts further decreases porosity by being pre—
cipitated within the model as cement. Minus cement porosity
is the porosity of the spheres subtracting the effects of

any precipitation of dissolved material.

63

 

 

 

 

 

 

8.2 mm; 8.2 i 3.9” 92w om

mo.ma om.mH w:.m Hm.~H _ Hm.: ma

mm.m m>.>H mm.w mw.ma mo.m OH

om.m mo.mm aim mm.mm om.o m

o mm.mm o mm.mm O o
coaposoem mpflmopom coauQSGQm mpamopom soapSHom :oHpoMQEoo
mpfimopom pcmEmo mzam mpfimopom pcmemo macaz ohsmmopm & &

monocm no ucoEmwcwhp¢ ooxommummoao Hmzowmxom m no coapomQEoo "ma mHnt

6“

   
  
   

 

 

I0”
‘5 3 " Minus Cement
3 Porosity
a e»
‘3 Plus Cement
5’, _ Porosity
m 4
o
L.
O.
s 2-
O L . . J
O 5 IO I5 20

% Porosity Reduction

Figure lO—-Percent Pressure Solution Versus Percent
Porosity Reduction for Hexagonally Close—
Packed Spheres

APPENDIX C

IMAGE ANALYSIS AND POINT COUNTS
OF CATHODO-LUMINESCENCE
MICROSCOPE PHOTOGRAPHS

65

 

:.Hm m.H e.m w.mH m.m m.mHm m.o: o.msm mmH-H
m.mfi H.m s.m mo.m m.mfi o.m o.mmm m.sa m.HHm mmHuH
2.0m o.a 2.: o.ea o.m m.osm m.ma o.mmm ZNH-H
s.mm :.H 3.0 mH.m o.eH m.m o.mom m.mm m.oss ZNHIH
:.ma m.o :.m 0.:H m.» m.mme o.m: m.m:e moata
s.ma m.o 3.: mm.m o.=H o.m 0.0mm o.mm o.mmo moatfi
m.ma m.o m.m m.:a m.m o.mmm m.ea m.mmm nzOHuH
H.Hm w.o m.m ss.m m.:H 0.: o.ms: m.mm m.maz nzoaua
m.ma m.o m.m :.HH o.m o.sHm m.m m.HHm meta
m.ma m.o m.m mm.m s.HH o.m m.mwm o.m: m.o:m meta
w.ma 0.0 H.: s.m o.o m.msa o.Hm m.am: mmua
0.:H m.o m.m s.m 0.: o.mm: m.sm m.oo: mw-H
=.NH m.o s.m mm.m s.m o.H o.smm o.ma o.mmm mm-H
m.ma o.o s.m m.mH 0.0 m.mmm 0.5 m.mHm emua
m.ma 0.0 e.e em.m m.ma 0.0 m.mmm o.sm m.mmm Zena
s.ma :.H o.m :.HH m.m o.mH: m.m m.mo: Zeta
m.mH 0.0 H.m mm.e :.HH 0.0 m.mom o.ma m.mma Zena
s.mH :.H m.» m.mH o.m o.mmm m.m: m.mmm Zena
m.mH m.o :.m oe.m m.mH m.m m.omm o.HH m.mmm Zena
m.ma o.o s.m H.©H 0.0 o.sma m.e m.mma meta
o.mH m.o m.m as.m H.ma m.m m.H:m m.HH 0.0mm mmua
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s.ma .s.o m.: mm.m m.:a m.m m.sH: m.mm 0.2mm omua
m.eH Q.H m.m m.ma m.m o.mme 0.0m o.mse mmna
m.mH m.m m.m Hm.m m.ma m.ma o.mm= o.ma o.mm: mmua
m.ma k.o e.m m.HH m.m m.mm: o.mH m.mm: zmua
m.mH m.H s.s 0.0 Hmwm W.HH o.w o.mmm m.mm m.mmm zmua
m e
pCoEoo soapsaom ucoEoo Magmasog mfimzamc< ommEH soapsaom kuoB npzopw campc ooHHm
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