EDUCATION FOR YECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
KN RURAL CUBA.

Thesis 9°: flu Degree of M. S.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Edgar Glenn Nasman
1960'

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EDUCATION FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IN RURAL CUBA

By

EDGAR GLENN NESMAN

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College of Agriculture
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Agricultural Extension

Approved: ,/§éz:&44c
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_v.

1960

A, (1% c

EDGAR GLENN NESMAN

ABSTRACT

This thesis deals with the question of what kind
of a program is most effective in educating for technological
change in rural areas. The hypothesis is stated that "there
are more elements of effective education for technological
change in the community centered program than there are in
the training school program."

This same idea has been stated by others in many
parts of the world. In this case, the specific interest is
rural Cuba and the work of the Methodist Church through
their School of Agriculture and Industry, (Escuela Agricola
9 Industrial) as well as the Pilot Project in Community De-
velopment.

From the review of a large volume of literature,
some elements for effective education are synthesized. The
review of literature covered three major areas, learning
theory, education for technological change and special con-
ditions in Cuba relating to education in rural communities.
The direct quotations from this review are gathered in
Appendix I and a summary is found in a chapter of the main
text.

The elements for effective education in rural Cuba

are used as a basis of evaluation and comparison of two

-1-

EDGAR GLENN NESMAN
-2-

actual programs. The training school program is that of the
Escuela Agricola e Industrial, (E A e I) which is a vocational
boarding school located in Oriente province. The Pilot Pro-
ject in Community DeveIOpment was also carried on in 5 rural
communities in the same province. '

The elements are as follows: an effective program
for education for technological change in rural Cuba should:
(1) work with all members of the family; (2) offer each
individual in the community an opportunity to participate
(even at the point of setting goals); (3) work toward basic
skill development such as reading, writing and calculating;
(A) use the satisfaction of achieving goals related to felt
needs as the motivating factor for the individual to learn
new behavior patterns: (5) use educators who are able to
identify with those who seek to learn; (6) include the key
peOple in the family and community in the educational pro-
cess; (7) be prepared to deal with problems in all areas of
life; (8) maintain the instruction situation as near like
the application situation as possible; (9) offer any new
information or skills at the time that it can be applied;
and (10) develop some kind of an organization that will make
the program self-perpetuating.

The Training School program is rated as having its
strongest points in numbers 3, 5, and 7 while its weakest

points are found in numbers 1 and 10. The Community

EDGAR GLENN NESMAN
-3-

Development project has its strongest points in numbers 1,
A, 5, 8, and 9, while its weakest point is number 10. Com-
paring the two programs together, the Training School is
rated higher on number 7 because of the concentration of
resources that it has available to deal with the different
areas of knowledge. The Community Development program
rates higher in all of the other elements except number 10
where both programs are found to be weak.

The conclusions of this study indicate that there
is a strong rationale to back up the hypothesis that community
centered educational programs are likely to be more effective
than training school programs for technological change in
rural Cuba. A program is outlined for the establishment of
a Community Development project incorporating the elements
for effective education. It is suggested that such a program
could be set up so that a statistical analysis of the two
programs could be compared.

It is further suggested that the Training School
might be able to do a more effective job by educating those
who leave the communities to find jobs. Also a short course
might be offered some time during the year for those who
‘will stay in the communities as a means of suppliment to the

community centered educational program.

EDUCATION FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IN RURAL CUBA
By

EDGAR GLENN NESMAN

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Agriculture
'Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Agricultural Extension

1960

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This thesis represents the results of many years of
reading, listening, observing and thinking as well as the
concentrated effort during this year. This work represents
a clarification and a concentration of many past experiences
as well as the new information that has been added during
this school year at Michigan State University.

I would like to acknowledge the early help given by
my father Glen W. Nesman, for 23 years a teacher of Vocational
Agriculture. In more recent years much help and inspiration
has been given by Dr. Richard G. Milk, Director of the Escuela
Agricola e Industrial. During this year, Dr. George Axinn
has been a constant guide who has made it possible for all
of the past experiences and this year's study to find a means
of expression in this thesis.

Many others have been instrumental in helping me see
the importance of this area of study and at the same time
clarifying some of the concepts. I would like to mention
the following: Dr. I. W. Moomaw of Agricultural.Missions,
Inc. who has presented the challenge of Christian missions
in a new way; Dr. Margaret Read, visiting professor of
Anthropology at Michigan State University in 1960 who shared
some of her vast experiences in the evaluation of Community
Development programs for the United Nations; Dr. John Useem,
head of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at
Michigan State University who guided the direction of this
thesis through his stimulating teaching in the classroom as
well as in private interviews; Dr. Eugene Jacobson of the
Department of Psychology at Michigan State University who
contributed much in the way of sources of information and
his own personal experience related to the evaluation of the
UNESCO programs of Fundamental Education; and finally, to
all of those who labor daily to make possible the facilities
fer this kind of study at Michigan State University.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

LISTOFTABLES................... v

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l
The School of Agriculture and Industry

(E A e I) o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0
Purpose Of the StUdy o o o o o o o o o o 0

MN

Chapter
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . .

5
Observations of Community Education . . . 5
A Stated 0081 or E A e I o o o o o o o o o 6
Observations of Education Throughout the

WOrld o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 8

II. BACKGROUND INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . 21

Life in CUba o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 21
Additional Information about E A e I . . . 28
Pilot Project in Community Development . . 31

III. A HYPOTHESIS RELATED TO EDUCATION AND TECHNO-

LOGICAL CHANGE o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 33
Statement of the Hypothesis . . . . . . . 33

Change and Planned Change . . . . . . . . 35

Change and Education 0 o o o o o o o o o o 38
TGChnological Change 0 o o o o o o o o o o #0
Community Development 0 o o o o 0 0v. 0 o #2
Fundamental Education 0 o o o o o o o o o “A
Informal Education 0 o o o o o o o o o o 0 Ah
Training SCh001 o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 L5

IV. SUMMARY OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . #6

Learning Theory 0 o o o o o o o o o o o #7

Education for Technological Change in Rural
Areas 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 55

Cultural Factors in Cuba . . . . . . . . . 60

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter Page

V. ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE EDUCATION FOR TECHNOLOG-
ICAL CHANGE O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O 65

VI. COMPARISON OF ELEMENTS IN EXISTING EDUCATIONAL
PROGRAMS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 70

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY.................... 101.
APPENDIX I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
APPENDIX II . . . . . .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table, Page
I. UNITED NATIONS REPORT OF THE WORLD SOCIAL
SITUATION IN PERCENTAGES OF AGE GROUPS IN
SCHOOL AND PERCENTAGE OF LITERACY OF THOSE
OVER TEN YEARS OLD AS OF 1957 IN CUBA . . . 26

II. COMPARISON OF SYNTHESIZED ELEMENTS FOR EFFEC-
TIVE EDUCATION FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IN
RURAL CUBA AS FOUND IN TRAINING SCHOOL PRO-
GRAM AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROJECT . . 77

. INTRODUCTION

The ESCUELA AGRICOLA E INDUSTRIAL was founded in
l9hh.1 It was established after 20 years of thinking and
planning with the urgent needs of the rural people in mind.
Since the time of its establishment there has been a con-
stant evaluation of its program. Each fall before begin-
ning the new school year, the faculty spends many hours
looking over the accomplishments and failures to see how a
better job can be done. Also, the Board of Directors along
with the many other friends of the school, both as organized
groups and as individuals have been helpful with their sug-
gestions of ways that the school can be more effective.

This thesis is written with the same orientation in
mind--that of evaluating and making recommendations. The
concern of former evaluations has been based on the insti-

tutional program. This treatment will be broader in that it

 

1The Escuela Agricola e Industrial (EA & I) is
translated meaning "School of Agriculture and Industry".
It is located in Oriente, the eastern most province of Cuba
and more than 600 miles from the capital city of Havana.
It is an institution of the Methodist Church although many
other individuals and entities were instrumental in its
founding and continued Operation. Further data will be
fOund in Cha ter II entitled "Background InfOrmation" and
in Appendix I.

-2-
relates more directly to the rural communities and the needs
of the individuals that are striving for a higher level of
living.

Basically, then, this paper is a review of liter-
ature as it relates to technological change in rural areas
in Cuba--the major concern being that of the part that edu-
cation plays in bringing about change. Related to this is
the big question of how peOple learn, so that much of the
data collected has to do with the learning process.

By searching out the dynamics of human behavior as
they might apply to this situation it is hOped that some
explanation or some valid elements can be fOund that might
explain why educational effort at the community level has
given greater results in a shorter time than educational
effort in the training school situation. Interesting ob-
servations were made to the effect that more vegetable gar-
dens were grown, more pigs vaccinated, more children reg-
istered in the Civil Registry, etc., etc. in one year of
organized educational effort at the community level than
had been gained by the selection of young people for train-
ing of EA &.I over a ten year period.2 Naturally, there
are many factors working and observations may not be as

valid as they appear, but the pilot project in Community

 

2This refers to the Pilot Progect in Community
DeveIOpment as described in Chapter I .

-3-
Development that was carried out was based on a belief that
there are some more effective elements in this kind of a
program.

By searching the literature for these elements that
have been tested in other situations and by comparing them
to the training school program (EA a I) and the community-
centered program (Pilot Project in Community Development),
it is expected that more of these effective educational el-
ements will be found in the latter. This, of course, is not
a real test or proof that one program is better than the
other, but it should give the basis fer recommendations for
a larger scale and more effective educational program based
on loCal needs.

Undoubtedly, the training school program will con-
tinue much as it is for years to come, for it has proven
effective in many aspects. If this study can provide a
basis for deveIOping an informal educational program at the
commmnity level, then the two programs can provide a com-
parison for a more complete analysis with statistical mea-
surement of results.

The organization of this study then is as follows:
(1) A statement of the problem; (2) The setting in which
the problem is fbund; (3) Statements related to a hypothesis
concerning educational effort in the training school vs.
the community-centered program; (A) A review of the liter-

ature related to learning theory, education for technological

-4-
change, and, special conditions in Cuba related to education;
(5) An analysis of the literature reviewed to arrive at a
group of "Elements (conditions) for Effective Education"

that would be applicable to technological change in Cuba;

(6) A comparison of these elements with the two programs

as they are known to exist to see which program contains

more of the elements; and finally (7) Conclusions and
recommendations including a plan for future use of the re-
sources available for more effective educational effort

and suggestions for further testing in the future.

CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The reason fOr this study stems from a belief that
a real part of the educational process now attempted by the
ESCUELA AGRICOLA E INDUSTRIAL could best be done in the rural
community. Not only is this the place where some of the
graduates now find themselves but it is where the future
students will come from, it is where the rural church is
located, and it is the place where the many problems of
living are for a large percentage of the Cuban peOple--the
very reason for establishing the school almost 15 years ago.

Recent evaluations of the educational goals and
accomplishments indicate that in some areas, greater impact
could be made by organized educational effort at the com-
munity level or to put it in other words,1 that some aspects
of the schools program could be best served by organization
in the local community of special educational programs.

One of the goals of the ESCUELA AGRICOLA E INDUSTRIAL
(EA & I) is as follows: "The selection of qualified young

 

1
See Appendix II.

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nmn.and women from the rural communities in order to offer
them further training that they might return to their com-
nmmities to help raise the level of living." This goal is
not being met as well as it was hOped for, for it is fOund
that only a small percentage of the graduates ever return
to their home communities to live. The feedback of infor-
mation from the communities from which students have come
lead us to believe that there is a low amount of applica-
tion of these practices. Also observations made by faculty
members as they have made visits in the students homes and
by other professional people indicate this. It has been
impossible to make direct observation and measurement be-
cause many of the students come from as far as 600 miles
away.

There are many things that seem to be Operating here
but there is no doubt that the Opportunity to go to school
is often used as a means to get away from the rural commun-
ities. Perhaps if this study opportunity had not been
available, the young person would have used some other
method to open up the future.

There is no doubt that another reason is the pattern
of authority that does not make it easy for a young person
to suggest changes that are likely to affect the way things
are done by the parents and other adults. Then, there is
always the possibility that the way the young person was
taught is not really practical fer the conditions that

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-7-
actually exist in the home situation. Closely related to
this is the fact that there is just no economic opportunity
in many of the home communities. No land is available and
there are no other professions open, especially without
capital.

The students have often indicated that they feel
more "at home" in the school than they do in the home that
they came from. This is not strange for they spend most of
their time at the school during the years they are a stu-
dent. Incidental learning that takes place in the out-of-
Class hours related to living conditions, recreational
facilities, social contacts or just the values expressed,
work against returning to a situation where these items
are lacking.

There are evidences_that this situation is not unique
in Cuba fer the literature Contains many such instances.
The following quotations give some idea of this. There has
been no attempt to organize these quotations in other than
alphabetical order according to author. In some cases the
inferences may be based more on speculation than experimen-
tation, but there is little question that in general they
represent keen observation of existing programs.

Fer the most part however, these schools tend

to provide their pupiIs with a large amount of in-
formation about agriculture which is by no means the
same as teaching them farming. A few develop pro-

ficiency in certain basic skills which are an impor-
tant part, but not all, of this important occupation.

-8-

Rare is the agricultural course in underdeveloped
sectigns of the world that prepares rural youth

Far too often it happens that the supposedly
vocational institution weans its students away from
the soil or makes unhappy misfits of those who
attempt to return to the land.

In addition, the size of the school farm is

often completely out of proportion to the small-
scale plots on which the parents of the students
are fOrced to depend for survival. The implements
are apt to be of the latest imported type partly
because of the extensive acreage to be tilled.
Thus in a region of family-worked farms which are
not only small but broken up into scattered pieces,
the school may often be using machinery that is
especially imported, costly, and impractical for
general use.

There is also the matter of living arrangements.
Few institutions of this kind manage to provide
accommodations which, while being sanitary and
comfortable, reflect local customs and habits. Too
frequently the pupils live and work in surroundings
and with accessories which are totally foreign to
their normal way of life.

After fOur or five years in an environment
basically'Western and under a program of instruction
unrelated to local needs and conditions, the gradu-
ate is expected to make his own adjustments when he
attempts to apply his agricultural training. Is it
any wonder that a large percentage of these boys,
once they have their diplomas, seek Government jobs
or find themselves in an unhappy situation if they
do return to the land? ~This is one of the reasons
why those with experience in the field insist that
the period of training should be brief and intensive
or, alternatively, that the total program of voca-
tional instruction should be extended over several .
years in the form of a series of short unit courses.3

 

2Harold B. Allen, Rural Reconstruction Action (Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 5 , p.

31bid., pp. 125-26.

-9-

There are those who insist-~and with good reason--
that the most effective solution is not a school

or vocational training course in the traditional
sense, but rather an intensive form of rural exten-
sion service in the villages themselves. This
system is based on extension workers who are trained
on the job and who then organize the older boys and
youths into future-farmers groups or modified A-H
Clubs. Through these channels and over a period of
years, the younger generation is given right on the
spot in its own environment systematic farming in-
struction of a practical nature. The merits of the
system are such that our discussion might well be
concluded at this point, for the method is not only
relatively inexpensive but is by far the most effec-
tive way yet discovered for doing the job.“

Certain aspects of the farmer's vocation may be i
worthy of study but are not of sufficient immediate
value to justify the extra training costs or the
additional time the student has to spend away from
home--an important consideration in underdeveloped
rural areas. The course was therefore reduced from
fOur years to three; that was, at any rate, a step
in the right direction.

Preparing rural youth for the hard business of
farming in underdeveIOped parts of the world is a
task which is neither easy nor sim la. The most
earnest attempts to do the job wel are certain to
meet with serious obstacles. Many institutions with
vocational aims require a thorough overhauling if
they are to contribute to better farming in the next
generation. But with proper organization, the appli-
cation of a few sound principles of education, a
little common sense, and a measure of cautign, suc-
cess in fair degree can usually be assured.

In Pakistan, primarily a rural country, there
are more than seven million Children of primary
school age, and only about A0% of them are in school.
Of those who enter school, only about 20% complete

 

“Ibid., p. 127.

51bid., p. 135.

61bid., p. 141.

-10-

the five year primary school program. One reason for
this educational waste is that parents take their
children out of school to help on the farms. Parents
also believe that the children receive little econ mic
advantage from the kind of school program offered.

The concern of the traditional schoolroom for know-
ledge acquisition has blocked the conceptualization

of education as process of behavior change. Tradition-
al education has been relatively efficient in produc-
ing retention of verbal material but has been woefully
ineffective in changing character personality, marital
adjustment, or management skills.8

Both the elementary schools and the high schools
have important roles in educating for useful work, but
they can offer little specialized education fer partic-
ular occupations. High school students are immature
and uncertain regarding their future occupations and
often lack Opportunities for practical experience re-
lated to their training in theory. .Exceptions are
carefully selected students in agriculture and home
economics who often do serious work in the vocational
subjects and lay good foundations for success in their
life careers. Even in these fields, most vocational
education must be provided for persons beyond high
school age.

Changes in science and technology bring about
apparent and striking changes in the ways in which
occupations are conducted. It is usually conceded
that vocational, technical and professional educa-
tion must be continued as long as workers are active.
Many of the most vital and appreciated programs of
adult education are programs which assist full-time
workers in adapting to change, including change from
one occupation to another occupation.9

 

7C. W. Harris, and M. R. Liba, Encyclopedia of Edu-
cational Research, a project of the American Educationa

Researcfi Association of the NEA (New York: The MacMillan
Company, 1960), p. 1175.

8Malcolms. Knowles, ed., Handbook of Adult Educa-

tion in the United States (Chicago: AauIt Eaucation Asso-
ciatIon, I955), p. 53.

9zpid., p. 545.

-11-

Those possibilities have been recognized, also, by

the Ministry of Education of Costa Rica. The Ministry
of Education and the leaders in the Normal Schools felt
that the efforts of teachers would have broader and

more lasting influence if the school programs became
more sensitive to the life of the villages in which they
were located. 0

For instance, one observes that many academic men in
Latin America are loath to work with their hands. They
seem to feel that they will lose social status if they
"teach by doing". Consequently, they rarely go out-
side the classroom or laboratory to engage in demon-
stration work in the field. Likewise, some of them shun
empirical investigations and show little interest in
devising ways and means of applying science to the
day-to-day problems of living. In some of the countries,
the man of etters, the lawyer, the politician, and the
army Officer appear to have a higher social standing
than the scientist, the industrialist, or the busi-
nessman. Furthermore, the curriculums of many Latin-
American educational institutions emphasize language,
rhetoric, mathematics, logic, and moral philosophy

but put relatively less weight on science, engineer-
ing, agriculture, economics, and sociology.11

In summary, it can be safely predicted that the
religious organizations would greatly improve the
quality of their agricultural work in Latin America
if they would (1) reduce the scale of their money-
losing farming operations; (2) center the attention
of their agricultural missionaries on community-
improvement programs; (3) employ national technicians
to work directly with farm families; and (A) emphasize
the adOption of a few simple farm and home practices
that will show immediate results in the early stages
of each community-development program.

 

10Charles P. Loomis and others, Turrialba: Social

3 stems and the Introduction of Chan e (GIencoe, IlIinois:
The Free Press, I953), pp. 253-69.
11
James G. Maddox, Technical Assistance b Reli ious
A encies in Latin America (CEIcago: TEe University of
CRIcago Press, I555), p. 10. '

lzIbido. pp. 117-180

-12-

Specialized agricultural schools, on the other
hand, are more numerous than those in home.economics,
attract more students, and appear to be influencing
the culture slightly but steadily. Most of those that
are under the auspices of religious agencies are serv-
ing young peeple below the university level. They
usually draw their students from among farm boys who
-have had four to six years of primary schooling, and
the boys, most of whom are boarding students, spend
three or four hours each day working on the mission
farm. The course of study, lasting three or four
years, customarily includes training in Spanish, mathe-
matics, geography, and some work in the social sciences,
in addition to the specialized agricultural courses.
Nevertheless, the graduates of these schools are some-
times so poorly prepared in fundamentals that they have
a difficult time finding positions in which they can
capitalize on their agricultural knowledge. In most
of the Latin-American countries the graduates of these
schools are not admitted to universities because they-
have not had the necessary preparation in a recognized
secondary school. It is probable, if this type of
agricultural school is to make a really pervasive con-
tribution to Latin-American agriculture, that it will
have to change its curriculum so as to turn out stu-
dents with a better foundation in non-agricultural
subjects.13

For many years schooling was not only ineffective,
but also disruptive, because it was applied only to the
young. Roles were reversed in the home, so that the
children became the teachers of the parents, creating
confusion in relationships, and resentment on the part
of the displaced leaders. A "younger” generation in
conflict with an "older" generation was created where
there had been no such categories. In some societies,
where the structuring of authority was felt strongly,
the responsibility placed on the young to teach the
old created insupportable conflict fer them. Children,
taught in school not to spit on the floor, to take
baths regularly, to be inoculated against epidemics,
lived in homes which taught the opposite. With the
new conception of education as covering all areas of
living came the recognition of society as the unit

 

1
3Ibide' Pp. 35-60

-13-

to be educated. In China, the mass education programme
initiated by James Yen was directed at adult groups as
well as Children, and covered simplified reading and
writing as well as public health, agriculture, and
similar areas.

In many areas the introduction of a school system
interferes with the established patterns of life. The
Ngone of Nyasaland complain that their herds are in
poor condition, since the boys who were traditional

erders now go to school. In Basutoland and Bechuana—
land there are twice as many girls as boys in school
as boys stay with the herds. In some areas the level
of health is too low to make school attendance easy;
where there is little energy, as in many villages in
India, the children are needed to do their share of
the work. In rural Mexico the children are said to

do hard work at home. Yet school often includes ex-
hausting competitive games and gymnastics. Turkey,
faced with the necessity of establishing schools in

its 40,000 villages, adapted school work to the seasonal
occupation of its villagers, "and class work, apart
from the time devoted to practical training, has been
reduced to 18 hours weekly". Under the rural reconstruc-
tion scheme for the Menouf District of Egypt it was
agreed to introduce schools working on a "full day
system by which the pupils spend the first half of the
day learning theoretical studies and the second half

in practical training.15

Agricultural schools in Burma and Latin America have
not yet had sufficient effect in the agrarian picture
because the graduates will not live with the peasants,
will not soil their hands. After they study veteri-
nary science or agronomy, they are ready to teach these
subjects or work in laboratories, but not to set up
demonstrations in rural areas or cultivate a demonstra-
tion plot. In Panama teachers refused to help with
sanitation problems, in the Netherlands Indies and
Burma nurses refused to do rural work since it involved
manual work which in the urban hospitals was performed

 

thargaret Meade, Cultural Patterns and Technolo ical
Change, UNESCO (New YorE: CqumEIa UnIversIty Press),
p. o

151bid., p. 272.

-14-

by menials. In China higher education tended to
create a group of unemployed, since it was beneath
these people to accept any non-academic position.
Specific cultural attitudes may make gor difficulties
in the specific area of instruction.1

And incentives must be created, strong enough to
counteract the loss of a son who cannot now help in
the fields, and will later feel above such work and
will probably take a job in an urban centre. If the
school can promise enough literacy to enable the son
to read needed literature aloud to his illiterate
father, and keep accounts, continuing his share in
the familial system of interrelationships, a father
might find enough incentive to encourage his son's
attendance; because in this way the education would
be for the family's welfare; it would not lead to
separation, individual ends, atomization. In Lebanon
a visiting emigrant endowed his village with a school
without first educating the villagers in the value

of literacy; in three years, the school was in disuse.17

To carry out this recommendation, reliance
must again be placed on mature human beings. In-
stead of saying that in order to train a public
health nurse we must first have an elementary
school system patterned on the school system of the
West-~in which children will be rebuked and re-
warded for the same sort of mistakes, learn to read
the same kinds of directions, learn to fear the same
kinds of errors in arithmetic and to hate the same
kinds of tasks-~we may experiment with how to teach
particular practices to the most educated young
adults we can find.1

However, great care must be used to gear the
program to the life of the people who surround the
center. There is always danger lest the center be-
come a costly institution with undue emphasis upon
its own deve Opment as a place of demonstration where
guests are welcomed and public functions held.

 

16Ibid., p. 273.

17Ib1d.

131b1d., p. 310.

-15-

Certain schools and other institutions are
dedicated to the welfare of village people. Rural
study courses are given and students and teachers
often take field trips. But a central institution
has limitations as an extension agency. Rural peOple
do not readily lend their confidence to student teams
who only make occasional sorties among them. Their
complex problems are rarely tackled successfully by
sporadic visits from inexperienced people. Such
visits are limited largely to programs and speeches
and they are not considered effective as an instrument
of rura improvement. 9

Pre-College Agricultural Education: The function
of pre-college agricultural education is to give
practical training in progressive farming and in the
processes of a dynamic agriculture at the secondary
school level to boys who are not going to continue
to college.

The strengths of pre-college agricultural edu-
cation are that it may be a good type of secondary
education for skilled farm workers and it can be
used to train operators of mechanized farm equipment.

The limitations of pre-college agricultural edu-
cation as a field for technical co-Operation, are
more numerous:

a) It is of relatively little value to students
who are to be farmers in the absence of well-established
programs of extension education, inasmuch as a con-
stant flow of new infOrmation is essential if these
farmers are to practice what they have learned about
the frequent changes required in progressive, de-
dision-making farming.

b) This kind of education is inadequate fer
students who are to become agricultural technicians
in ministries or who are to find their careers in
other public programs devoted to agricultural de-
velopment. At the present time most of the personnel
of ministries of agriculture in several countries
have had only this type of secondary education, but
this is not an adequate pattern for the future. Such
technicians need the education of agricultural colleges,
and if they are to go on to this, a broad general
secondary education is more apprOpriate to their need.

 

191. W. Moomaw, Better Field Pro rams (New York:
Agricultural Missions Inc., I555), p. 29.

-16..

c) The task of improving this kind of education
is very formidable, since the schools are scattered
in many parts of each country, and results per unit
of effort are likely to be slight.

There are several instances of a technician-from-
abroad making a significant contribution to the im-
provement of pre-college agricultural education, but
this appears to be possible only when there is already
considerable eagerness on the part of the principals
of these schools to improve and/or when a technician
has an opportunity to participate in the normal-school
training of teachers for the secondary schools or for
the Practical Schools of Agriculture.

Experience from other parts of the world reinforces
the conclusion that education must be an integral
aspect of social and economic deveIOpment if the
village teacher is not to find that his education
produces more frustrations than satisfactions.21

Most rural communities have not yet discovered
what the founders of vocational education knew a half
century ago: Effective vocational education must
be provided largely after full-time schooling is over
for persons already engaged in occupations. In far
too many cases, the teaching of vocational subjects
is confined to the schools' classrooms and shops, and
the functional teaching that could be done outside
the schools is neglected.22

Those who are to benefit from an organized and
systematic program of vocational instruction must
have access to Opportunity within their own local
community area. Few can afford either the time or

20Arthur T. Mosher, Technical Co-O eration in Latin
American AgEiculture (Chicago: UnIversity of Cfiicago Press,
01303

21Lyle w. Shannon Underdevelo ed Areas (New York:
Harper and Brothers, 1957), p. LED.
22

 

Gordon I. Swanson ed., Vocational Education for
Rural America: Yearbook 12é8- g? (Wasfizington: Department
0 ura ucat on o E , 5 , p. 141.

-17-

the cost of attending a specialized school some
distance from their home. Any program designed to
equip local people for vocational competence and
vocational adjustment must be accessible.23

Insofar as the experience of the past has value,
it has been demonstrated that rural people eagerly .
take advantage of vocational education programs when
they are accessible to their local community. Through
training, their proficiency, productivity, and adapt-
ability are increased. Experience also shows, how-
ever, that when training opportunity is not within
easy reach, few rural people get its benefits.2

Latin American education even in the rural schools
has a strong urban bias. The school reflects and
inculcates the high prestige accorded to urban life
and occupations and the low prestige accorded to
agricultural labour; programmes intended to adapt
schools and teachers to rural needs have thus far
had only a limited influence. The rural schools are
therefore sometimes accused of stimulating migra-
tion to the cities, although the strength of this
influence is hard to assess. The training of the
teacher, exclusively urban in Character, is actually
a negative factor in the training of future agri-
culturists. For this and other reasons, in the
rural school, teaching merely reading and writing,
has been an efficient factor in rural de opulation.
It has prepared the child for the so-calIed "civil-
ized" life and has created in him to a certain extent,
a distaste of the soil. Unconsciously the teacher
helps drive the people from the farm to the urban
centres.

The preceding quotations, for the most part,

served to point out the inadequacies of traditional classroom

 

23Ibid., p. 158.

2“Ib1d., p. 167.

2
SUN, Re ort of the World Social Situation (New
York, 1957), p. 90.

-13-

education. Nevertheless, these educational programs were
undertaken with the best of intentions and with the needs
Of the people in mind. The problem is not solved by con-
demning them. There are even indications that there is
greater need for education than ever before.

In the great lower-class population, there is
tremendous waste of human resources in the form of
a short life—span, ill-health, malnutrition, illit-
eracy, and lack of incentives. The door of oppor-
tunity, though never completely Closed, is so narrowly
Open to most peOple of lower—class rank that many
of them have little hOpe for significant improvement.
Particularly in rural areas, they continue their
plodding tasks from generation to generation, follow-
ing in the footsteps of their forefathers in an in-
cessant struggle to get their hands on enough food
and clothing to keep body and soul together. In
urban areas the level of living of the lower classes
is usually somewhat better, though thousands live in
slums where housing and sanitary conditions are un-
believably bad. It appears to be around the cities,
however, that peOple of lower-class rank can most
effectively climb the social and economic ladder to
middle-class status. Moreover, the growth of in-
dustry around quite a few of the Latin-American
cities is providing jobs for many illiterate country-
people who a few decades ago had almost no Opportunity
outside their native rural communities. The building
of roads is also doing much to put isolated rural
villages in contact with the outside world and to Open
up new vistas to the people, as we%% as new markets
for both urban and rural products.

Where real physical needs exist to the degree that
they have in rural Cuba, this is a compelling force in
itself toward action. Action can take many forms, from the

most direct, as in the case of giving relief to that of an

 

26Maddox, o . cit., p. 12.

-l9- 7
indirect type, such as education. The needs have been great
enough in recent years to almost warrant direct relief
giving of the basic material necessities in some cases.
But unless resources are unlimited from the outside, than
direct aid cannot continue. Also it is recognized that the
giving of relief is only justified in the most extreme cases
for it defeats the long run objectives of a permanent so-
lution at the local level. The big problem that has faced
agencies working in like situations is, how to develop a
program that will help in solving some urgent problems now,
and at the same time deveIOp the'internal resources for the
future, including leadership.

Private agencies such as the church are further
concerned with the allocation of scarce resources. Govern-
ments and international organizations are likely able to
bring in more outside aid and for a longer time than
churches. For this reason the church officials have only
helped to meet human needs in those areas of endeavor where
the larger organizations have not been able or willing to
,do it effectively. Because of scarce resources and the
human needs that are not being met in the rural areas, it
then becomes of increasing importance to constantly be
looking for those things that most need to be done and to
find out how these scarce resources can be allocated and
organized to do the job. This gives some idea of the need

for constant evaluation of the church related institutions

working in rural areas.

This relates back, then, to the statement of the
original problem, is the training program of the Escuela
Agricola e Industrial the best investment of church re-

sources to help raise the level of living in Cuban rural

communities?

CHAPTER II
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Life in Cuba

Geographically Cuba is found lying only about 100
miles south of Key West, Florida, but at the same time is
even closer to Haiti to the east and Jamaica to the south.
The Yucatan peninsula is also close-by on the western tip.
The size is comparable to the state of Pennsylvania, al-
though the shape is long and narrow so that it stretches
over 800 miles from east to west. It is well within the
tropical zone, so that the climate combines with the rich
soil and abundant rainfall to make it a country with rich
agricultural possibilities. There are numerous mountain
ranges that make transportation difficult in some parts.

The living pattern has aptly been recorded by
Stabler in his study of Bejucal in the following words:1

The rural population (of Bejucal) lives on scattered

family-sized farms for the most part. Sometimes the
rural dwellings are located on the principal rural

. roads, but more often they are situated at the end of
a lane to the house (away from the public rural road).

 

lBejucal is a small village near the city of

Havana.

-21-

-22-

Thus, most rural homes and farm buildings are located
at the center of the farms (fincas). Consequently
many houses are one-third to three quarters of a mile
from any other house. Usually the farm lane leads
off a public road or path, but there are some farms
which must be reached through the private roads of
others.2

The rural zone of Bejucal is today largely
divided into small farms. Some of these are general
farms producing little to sell. These are largely
subsistence farms. There are other farms having one
or more cash specialties. Probably dairying is the
most common, with fruit and vegetable production close
behind. There are only three or four farms producing
sugar cans for shipment to the nearest sugar plant
(Central Toledo) and only one producing any tobacco
for commercial sale. Many farmers raise chickens
(fir eggs and meat) and a few raise pigs for urban
sa e.

This gives a general picture of a part of rural
life in Cuba. Bejucal is an area near Havana which is
influenced largely by this city of over 1,000,000 popu-
lation. In reality, the family farm is not as common as this
might indicate for the census made at the time of the for-
mation of the new Agrarian Reform law indicates that only
about 1.6% of the land owners own A6% of the agricultural
land.4 There are nearly 150 sugar mills that process cane
and most of these have had huge areas Of cane that were

owned directly by them.

 

2GeorgeM. Stabler, Be ucal: Social Values and
Chan es in A icultural Practices in a Rura Communit (Un-
puinshed Ph.D. DIssertation, M.S.U., I953), p. 2?.

31bid., p. 33.

ACuban Government, Agrarian Reform Law (Ley Revolu-
cionnario Numero 3, 1959).

-23-

Fray Bartolome, an early Spanish priest, estimated
that, at the time of the landing of Columbus in 1492, there
were more than 300,000 Indians inhabiting Cuba. Twenty
years after the first landing, 300 Spaniards landed to
settle. The Indian population decreased rapidly so that in
1537 the cross section of the population was as follows:
300 Spanish, 5,000 Indians and 500 negro slaves. Today the
racial cross section of population is given as follows:
white, 73%; negro, 13%: mixed 1A%; and the Indian is not
considered as measurable for there are so few. The total
population of Cuba today is approximately 6,000,000. The
province of Oriente, which is furthest from Havana, varies
from this in that the "white" classification accounts for
only 60%.5

For a more specific view of the conditions in a
typical rural community in Oriente province, the following
infermation is given. It is not an actual community although
it is much like many that are in existance. The figures
in some cases are actually taken from community surveys.

The name of "El Barrio" is used to denote the name of this

community.

SAntonio Nunez Jimenez, afia de Cuba (La
Habana: Editorial Lex, 1959), p. .

-24-

There are 650 peOple that consider themselves resi-
dents of El Barrio and they reside in 95 different homes.
The average family has six children at home but in many
cases there are older ones that are already married and
live nearby. There are 350 children under 16 although only
95 are in school. There are 150 men that can be considered
the adult working force although there are almost 150
older boys and young men that work also.

The families all have some land, varying from A
acres to 15 acres and in all cases the income is suppli-
mented in some way but mostly by working for the sugar
plantation during the sugar harvest. The average income
would not exceed $500 although 10 men who have special jobs
that take them outside the community at least part of the
year, earn up tO«$1000 yearly. There are large land hold-
ings bordering the area but none of these holders live in
El Barrio.

Most of the residents have lived here all of their
lives as did their parents and the land has been subdivided
many times. The adults have had less than 3 years of
schooling on the average and there are 50 peOple over 16 who
do not read or write. Less than half of the couples are
legally married and only half of the Children have their
births registered.

Sixty of the homes have floors of either cement or

wood; the rest are dirt. In 20 homes kerosene pressure

-25-
stoves are used for cooking, in the remainder of the homes
it is done in Open fires with Charcoal or dried wood. Wood
and charcoal are becoming increasingly hard to get. The
water is obtained from the river which is about a half mile
from most of the homes; in 10 cases there are wells that
function except in the dry season. It is not a common prac-
tice to bOil the water in 65 of the homes. All of the homes
have radios. Wick kerosene lamps are used in all of the
homes and in 12 cases there are pressure lamps that are usu-
ally used. The two small stores in the community have small
electric light plants and they also have the only kerosene
refrigerators. Some attempt at kitchen improvement has
been made in 8 homes and great satisfaction was expressed.
In 26 cases, sewing machines were found and these were used
by other women also so that almost all of the women's cloth-
ing is made at home and some of the men and Childrens' also.
A hard surfaced highway borders El Barrio and it
leads to "Sugar Mill Town" five miles away. Here some
credit is available to the families of 72 of the men who
are considered yearly employees of the company. Limited
medical and retirement benefits are given also. The Sugar
WOrkers Union is available for help in some cases of need.
The highway also leads to "Central City" which is 15 miles
away and where many more complete facilities of all kinds
are available. Bus and inexpensive taxi service are avail-

able at alltimes on the highway;

-26_

The local school goes to the 6th grade but would be
extremely inadequate if all children finished the 6th grade.
Further schooling must be done outside the community. About
half of the homes have books for reading and in 75 homes it
is the custom to buy the weekly popular magazine.

The figures given by the United Nations Report of
the WOrld Social Situation published in 1957 give a further
indication of schooling and literacy in Cuba.

TABLE I

UNITED NATIONS REPORT OF THE WORLD SOCIAL SITUATION IN PER-
CENTAGES OF AGE GROUPS IN SCHOOL AND PERCENTAGE OF LITERACY
OF THOSE OVER TEN YEARS OLD AS OF 1957 IN CUBA.*

 

Per cent literate

EA 122-9. 23:13-11 Overja 193$:

 

Havana 77oh 37oh 1209 9500
Total Urban 69.0 27.1 8.A '88.A
Rural

Population 3h.9 7.0 1.6 58.3

 

*United Nations, Re ort of the World Social Situ-
ation (New York, 1957), p. TSP.

Returning to the information on "El Barrio", in all
cases, some animals are raised and in all cases some root
crops are grown for home consumption. 35 homes have fruit
trees and 12 have kitchen gardens. The craps most commonly
grown for sale are plantains and corn. Oxen are the main

source of power used other than hand tools for farming

-27-
Operations. There are 12 yokes of oxen and no tractors in
the community.

From these small holdings the owner or Operator
will market products daily that might be saleable. In
some cases it is a few bunches of bananas, some tubers, some
milk or fruits. This is often sold directly to a store in
the nearest village where he will in turn buy the daily food
needs of rice, beans, coffee, lard, sugar, other small
staples and sometimes meat.- The daily trip to town for
many is time consuming but also serves as a social outlet
fer the men. There is at least one crOp of corn grown in
most localities that brings in a larger amount of money at
one time. The pigs and chickens that are maintained serve
as a savings account to a degree in that in case of emer-

gency they are sold for cash.

Escuela Agricola e Industrial
Dr. Richard G. Milk describes this educational in-
stitution in the following words:

The Agricultural and Industrial School situated
in a little country neighborhood of Playa Manteca in the
municipio (county) of Mayari, with a postal address
of Preston, was founded in July, 19Ah. The United
Fruit Sugar Company which Operates the Preston sugar
plantation, leased 300 acres of land to the Methodist
Church for the establishment of the school, and has
donated generously subventions, water, electricity
and other gracious facilities. Over 500 employees
of the company have given either time or money to the
school in the 15-year period. A Bethlehem Steel Com-
pany subsidiary and the Atlantic Gulf Sugar Co. have
also contributed, as well as a number of other business
men in Cuba. However, the money for nearly all of the

-28..

buildings and over half of the yearly running ex-
penses have come through our Methodist Mission Board
from interested church friends in the U.S.A.

From an abandoned cane field with two buildings
and no fences, there has grown an educational plant
with 22 buildings, and a varied accumulation of
plantings and agricultural capital. Altogether 300
young people.have been given an education. When last
operating there were 75 boarding students and 12
teachers. A four-year course (above the 6th grade
level) in agriculture and home economics is offered.
About 50 young people have graduated from the school.
Many of the early students were older youth still in
primary grades. Educational requirements have been
lifted as the demang for entry far exceeded the
Openings available.

The school is governed by a board of directors which
is a representative group of the church, the United Fruit
Company, alumnae and members elected at large by the board.
The Board of Directors meets twice a year en masse and the
executive committee meets monthly. This group deals mostly
with financial matters and general policy. The director
who is appointed by the church makes the day to day de-
cisions. The faculty as an organized group also help make
many of these decisions. The students have organized groups
that deal with many of the problems of living in a board-
ing school including minor discipline. The alumnae are or-
ganized but as yet they have not been influential in
policy making.

 

6Richard G. Milk, An Evaluation of the Education

Offered at the Escuela A ricoIa e Inaustrial atPreston,
OFiente, CuBa (Unpublished report made at Ames, Iowa, March,

1959)

 

 

 

 

-29-

The school has made a special effort to use effective
teaching methods, as near as possible all classroom teach—
ing is supplimented with special problems and projects to
give actual practice in the skills being taught. Each stu-
dent works in related labors four hours each day and the
work program is rotated to give each student varied ex-
perience.

The school is located in the center of a large
plantation area. The number of day students in the pre-
vocational course has never been more than 10, and they
came from cane workers'families. All of the regular A year
vocational students live at the school for the 9 months
while classes are on. They may go to their homes twice
a month, but as many of them come from some distance away,
they may not visit home except at Christmas time and during
the summer vacation.7

Extension experignce.--One of the major concerns
of all of those connected with the School and particularly
the founders is the level of living in the rural areas. It
has been traditionally a life of poverty and hard work. The
trend has been of migration to the cities, but in many cases
the life awaiting those that left the country for the city

is even more uncertain. The school was founded mainly to

 

7For further details see Appendix II.

-30-

improve the conditions in these rural areas. For this
reason there have been many efforts to make direct contact
with the rural communities.

In the early years special visitor's days were
begun in which special exhibits and demonstrations were
held. These days were entertaining as well as instructional
and they were also directed toward public relations. Later
excursions were prepared by the students and faculty to
take programs directly to the communities using drama as
well as exhibit and demonstrations to accomplish the same
three objectives of the visitor's days at the school. In
an effort to make a more concentrated impact on a particular
problem, students were organized in teams to work over a
period of time in the same area. This was limited by trans-
portation to relatively nearby communities which were mostly
cane field workers and their families living in company
housing. A feeling of greater success was felt in the
projects carried out in the few communities of small farms

that were included.

The Pilot Project in Community Development

From the experience that the early work in extension
had given and the observed results in other areas of the
world, the feeling was of the worth of attempting a project
centered at the community level that would use the school

as one of many resources but not depending entirely on it.

-31-

For this project one of the older graduates was selected
and a small salary from a special grant was provided for
him so that he could use his home farm as a base and work
also in 5 other communities that were nearby. This project
was also related to the Methodist Church that had been work-
ing in all of these communities for more than two years.
Besides the work of religious nature, there had previously
been special projects on such things as literacy, malaria
control, and recreation; these helped to give a favorable
image of the Church.

Many people were interested in the project and were
eager to offer help in the way of suggestions. MOnthly
community meetings were held with resource peOple often
invited to help with expressed problems. The farms and
homes were visited constantly by this young man (agent) and
from these visits further needs became evident. In each case
help was offered in the way of information, demonstration,
or by Contacting other peOple who could be of more immediate
assistance such as others who had solved the same problem.
Surveys were completed in two of these communities and they
served to indicate to the agent and to the people, areas
of concern that they would like to work on as a community.
Based on this, goals were established of things that they
would like to accomplish within a year's time. In general,
goals were established in the areas of agricultural prob-

lems, household problems, health problems and recreational-

-32-
cultural problems. A calendar of events was prepared,
special resources and materials were located and like pro-
grams were coordinated among the communities. After a
year, the progress was evaluated and with great enthusiasm
the second year began, built up on the first year's ex-
perience. The special funds were used up after the second
year although many elements of the program were incorporated
in the general plan of work of the church. The agent is

now working in another area as a full time religious worker.

CHAPTER III
A HYPOTHESIS RELATED TO EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

Based on observations made of the program of the
Escuela Agricola e Industrial of Cuba and those observa-
tions stated in the first chapten,a hypothesis can be
stated in the following words: "There are more elements of
effective education for technological Change in the community-
centered program than there are in the training school
program." Stated in another way this says that for the
same amount of outside resources involved, a greater num-
ber of recommended practices will be adOpted because of
the conditions that are conducive to effective learning.
This is also related to the conditions that contribute to
the adoption of educational objectives.

In terms of this hypothesis, the previously stated
goal of EA & I could be restated as follows: "A community
centered educational program will have more elements of
effective education than the selection of qualified young
men and women from the rural communities in order to offer
them further training (outside of the community in a
training school), that they might return to their commun-
ities to help raise the level of living."

-33...

-34-

It should be emphasized here that the goal related
to "the selection of young people from the rural communities
in order to offer them further training that they might
return to help raise the level of living" is not the only
one on which the educational program of EA & I is based.
The evaluation report states this goal.in slightly differ-
ent terms but the program has other aims as can be noted
in the report.1 From the point of view of this study,
this is the only one in question.

From a point of view of those living in the rural
communities, one of the great needs is for some kind of
training for those who must leave because of a lack of
economic Opportunity. It is not uncommon to find four or
five boys in a family and just barely enough land for one
to continue on. The training school can be of real assist-
ance in this case to Open up new vocational Opportunities.
This study is concerned with those who will stay, or are
likely to stay, in the rural communities and not those who
need training for other occupations.

Throughout the world today there is much concern
about education and technological change in rural areas.
There have been many terms and special words used that are

not always fully understood. Even the word "education" is

 

1See Appendix II.

-35-
one that means different things to different people. The
remaining part of this chapter is dedicated to the task of
defining some of these terms as they will be used in this
pgpgg. The first two tOpics deal with the close relation-
ship of "change" and "education".

Change and planned chagge.--One big question that
arises when the idea of planning for better conditions is
whether or not it is necessary. In the thinking of many
people in the world, there is found an attitude of destiny
or fatalism which does not allow man much say in the way
things in the world will go. It is really a basic philoso-
phic question as to whether man has a right to tinker with
the universe or if he is merely to accept what comes and
adapt to it.

Primitive man is fOund to look at change as something
bad, but he also has a concept of the environment as being
at times hostile; nature itself is seen as working against
[him in his fight for survival. There have been different
ideas about change in history; the "lost paradise" idea
which says that the world was once perfect but is constantly
getting worse; the "cycle" idea which indicates that things
are better for a while, then they return to a worse state
and the cycle goes on continually; the "ascent to destruc-

tion" idea which admits that things are getting better,

-36-

but in the end it will all be destroyed.2 No doubt there
could be found traces of this kind of thinking today as
there have been throughout history.

It is felt that the doors to modern progress were
opened by Bacon and Descartes and from their thinking the
doctrine of "indefinite social perfectability" was devel-
oped, in which man is seen to be moving upward continually
in his struggle to make life better as he defines "better".3

It has been said that the only thing certain in
life is change itself; nothing is static, and as Darwin and
Spencer have indicated, the law of change rules every sphere
of life. The following words by Tyler give a good picture
of change:

.Every organism is continually meeting its needs,
that is reacting in such a way as to relieve these
forces (tensions that produce disequilibrium) that
bring about inbalance . . . Prescott classifies these
needs in three types: physical needs such as food,
water, activity, sex, etc.; social needs, such as
affection, belonging, status and respect from his
social group; and integrative needs: the need to

relate one's self to something larger and beyond one's
self, that is, the need for a philosophy of life.“

 

2

Newell L. Sims The Problem of Social Chan e (New
York: Thomas Y. Crowell 50., I959), p. 3.

31bid., p. 19.

l'Ral h W. Tyler, Basic Princi les of Curriculum and
Instruction Chicago: University of Chicago Press, I959),

p. 5.

-37-

There is no doubt that changes come whether we want
them to or not. No matter what theory that one holds about
the future of the universe, it has to be admitted that there
are forces of Change constantly at work that men can do
little about. Also it seems true that there are many changes
taking place that man is responsible fer, although there
may not have been a written plan made out ahead of time.

All men have goals of both immediate and ultimate variety.

As they work toward these goals, changes will take place

and these changes extend into many spheres and over great
distances. Speaking in terms of cultural change, the follow-
ing statements are made:

All cultural Change is planned to some degree

although the planning may be indirect and in

another area, but it brings adaptations and

counter adaptations.5

There is at all times and seasons a vast amount

gfi eifigrfiuzzingogigected toward easing or improv-

g

So we see that to a degree all cultural change has
been planned; many times the planning has been based on
selfish desires of individuals more than a desire to improve
the lot of mankind. At the community level all of this

holds true; changes are constantly taking place; in the

action and reaction of the members of the community things

 

ESims’ 9P. CitO’ p0 2860

61bid., p. 315.

-38-
are usually improving. The big question here then is: CAN
THINGS BE IMPROVED MORE THAN THIS BY ORGANIZED PLANNING?
Sorokin in his book, "The Reconstruction of Humanity" whiCh
is based on the prOposed need to convert egotism into altru-
ism, makes the following statement:

In speaking of the ideal society that we desire,
only by studying these forces and conditions (those
which render human beings, groups, and social and
cultural institutions altruistic) can we draft an
adequate plan for the elimination of social conflicts
and for the establishment of a harmonious and creative
social and cultural order.

Recent experiences throughout the world have indi-
cated that planned change can accelerate the fulfillment of
basic human needs and at the same time eliminate some of
the more undesirable consequences that social change
usually bring.

Change and education.--Education and change are two
closely related terms if we consider that for learning to
have taken place there must be some change in the individ-

ual.8 The change may be one of attitude, understanding or

skill but the educational experience has made an impact at

 

7Pitirim A. Sorokin, The Reconstruction of Humanity
(Boston: The Beacon Press, 19A , p. 5A.

8C. M. Ferguson, Administrator, Federal Extension

Service, USDA, "The Contribution of the Agricultural Mission-
ary to Rural Development Through Extension Methods of Edu-
cation," a talk given in washington, March 1, 1960.

-39-
some point. As we read the following words of Tyler, this
becomes more Clear:

Essentially, learning takes place through the

experiences that the learner has; that is, through
the reactions he makes to the environment in which
he is placed. Learning takes place through the
active behavior of the student; it is what he does
that he learns, not what the teacher does. . . . The
teachers methods of controlling the learning experi-
ence is through the manipulation of the environment
in such a way as to set up stimulation situations
that will evoke the kind of behavior desired.9

Not always has education been thought of in terms
of change. It is interesting to note the trend of education
since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.10 The
present areas covered by higher learning is but one example
of this trend, and it can be seen in the growth of the con-
cept of the "peOples' colleges". This would indicate that
in the areas in our society where needs existed it was felt
that organized planned experience could change individuals
who in turn would.change society to meet these needs.

Many times education has been merely thought of as
that which goes on in the Classroom, or the memorizing of
what a teacher says; it has been thought by others to be
activity for the sake of new experiences; other have sug-
gested that the process must be entertaining. It would

seem that all of these might be a part of education but none

 

9Tyler, Op. cit., p. 41.

10Ibid., p. 11.

-40-

of them alone would fit into Tyler's definition which states
that, "Education is a process of changing the behavior
patterns of peOple."ll Or as Warner has said, "Teaching is
not telling; it is helping others discover."12 Read de-
scribes education from an anthrOpological point of view as,
"in its broadest aspect . . ., a process of cultural con-
tact," (culture being defined as, "patterns of behavior,
methods of earning a living, forms of laws and government,
kinship and family structure, modes of thought, and the
value-attitudes system").13

It is true that change can come by other methods;
revolution brings change but in a free and ideal society
the term of evolution has more meaning. Revolution is an
imposed change by force while evolution works in terms of
change at the level of the individual through new experi-
ences. This brings us back to the two terms, "Change" and
"education"; education means change and evolutionary planned

change in society must come through the introduction of

 

ll .
Ibido , I). he

12K. F. warner, Professor of Extension, University

of Maryland, "Analysis of a Local Situation and DevelOpment
of a plan of Work," talk before agricultural missionaries,
washington, March 2, 1960.

13Margaret Read, Education and Social Chan e in
Tropical Areas (London: Thomas NeIson & Sons Ltd., I956),

p. 9b.

-g1-
the individual to new experiences which is education. So
we find that the two terms are related two ways.lh
Technological change.--For our purposes this term
deals with the adoption of such techniques as are explained
in the following quotation:‘

The term "technical assistance" has traditionally
carried two connotations. On the one hand, it has
meant the introduction of techniques derived from
physical and biological sciences for the solution of
material problems. On the other hand, it refers to
the use of methods developed by the social or behav-
ioural sciences for increasing the smoothness and the
rewards of social interaction and social organizations.

In Latin America, until recently, outside and
local agencies alike have tended to emphasize the
first aspect and to place their confidence in the im-
provement of technology in engineering, industry, agri-
culture, and public health. During the last few years,
however, experts and policy makers have become in-
creasingly aware that technology of this sort does
not Operate spontaneously. It must be put into oper-
ation by the populations it is intended to serve;
it must be assimilated to the customary behaviour
patterns and social organization of the people. And
if this is to take place, a systematic knowledge of
the existing culture and social organization is re-
quired, as well as a scientific comprehension of how
cultural and social systems may be changed under con-
trol. In such "directed social and cultural change"
the level of community development, particularly in pre-
dominantly rural areas like Latin America, is of first
importance, for the reason that most innovations
reach the people through their community organization
and in terms of local culture patterns. 5

 

1A

cation".

l5Phillips Ruopp, ed., A roaches to Communit
Developpent (The Hague: W. VanHowve td., 53 , p. 331.

This does not mean that all "change" is "edu-

-42-
In this study the term "technological change" which
is another way of saying "changes in techniques" (ways of
doing things), is closely related to behavior change (changes
in understanding, attitudes and skills). The preceding
pages have indicated the relation of education and behavior
change.
Community_development.--This is another widely used
term but for our purposes it deals with the eduapipnal
aspect of an even broader concept:

1. The term community development has come
into international usage to connote the processes
by which the efforts of the peOple themselves are
united with those of governmental authorities to im-
prove the economic, social and cultural conditions
of communities, to integrate these communities into
the life of the nation, and to enable them to contri-
bute fully to national progress.

2. This complex of processes is then made up of
two essential elements: the participation by the
people themselves in efforts to improve their level
of living with as much reliance as possible on their
own initiative; and the provision of technical and other
services in ways which encourage initiative, self-help
and mutual help and make these more effective. It
is expressed in programs designed to achieve a wide
variety of specific improvements.

3. These programs are usually concerned with
local communities, because of the fact that the
people living together in a locality have many and
varied interests in common. Some of these interests
are expressed through functional groups organized
to further a more limited range of interests not
primarily determined by locality.16

 

6Hernan Santa Cruz, FAO's Role in Rural Welfare
(Rome: United Nations, 1959), p. A6.

-43-

If we can borrow a term from the field of peda-
gogy, community development is essentially a direct
method of teaching. Instead of standing on the side
lines and assuming that instruction done out of con-
text (say in a night class on municipal overnment)
will somehow automatically lead to a pro uctive attack

on local problems, community deveIOpment helps the
learner make the connection between his learning and
its application directly and without the interference
of intervening factors. It may deal with concrete
data or concepts and at times be highly intellectual,
but in any case relevance is the chief characteristic
of its approach.17 .

It seems possible to isolate, fer purposes of
investigation, at least three distinct types of
situation in which community development can and
does and should Operate. The first is where large-
scale economic changes are taking place;

The second type of situation is one where
urgent action is called for to deal with an emer-
gency. . .

The third type . . . can be described as helping
peOple to pull themselves up by their own bootstraps.18

The movement which in China and Turkey and Mexico is
called "mass education", is now for the most part
called "community development" in British colonial
areas. It can be briefly described as a general
attempt to raise the level of living in underdeveloped
and backward areas, carried out as far as possible by
the people themselves on a self-help principle with
the advice of experts. (conservation; agricultural
extension; homecraft; nutrition; sanitation; health;
markets; co-ops; roads).19

Very often other terms have been used to describe

community development. Examples of these are: "community

 

17Ma1co1m S. Knowles ed., Handbook of Adult Edu-
cation in the United States (Chicago: Adult Education
Association, I969), p. AI9.

18Read, op. cit., p. 89.

19Ibid., p. 78.

-h4-'
uplift", "rural reconstruction", "informal community edu-
cation", and even the term "extension" has been used. Ex-
tension is usually taken to mean "programs that extend out
from an institution" so it does not fit here as well. The
term "community deveIOpment", on the other hand, is a
community centered program that seeks aid, when necessary,
from different sources and does not represent directly an
institution.

Fundamental education.--This term is used widely

 

by UNESCO. It denotes the following kind of program:

Although a precise definition is generally lack-
ing, it is obvious from the literature that "fundamental
education" at the elementary and secondary levels en-
compasses a type of program that is related directly
to the experiences of the peOple concerned, that
utilizes the resources and needs of the students in
the progress of teaching the fundamental tool subjects,
and that is concerned with the creation of "better
living" through attention to such mundane matters
as health and health habits, clothing, dietary practices,
esthetics and practices of housing and home surroundings,
public sanitation, immediate and practical ways of
making a living, the production of a home food squly
and training in vocational knowledge and skills.2

Informal education.--This could best be described as
the kind of education that takes place outside of the class-
room. It is the result of the experiences that one undergoes

in everyday life that give a resultant change in behavior

 

2OC. W. Harris and M. R. Liba, EncyclOEedia of Edu-
catipnal Research, a project of the American Educationa
Research Association of the NEA. (New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1960), p. 117A.

-AS-
in the way of understanding, attitudes or skills. It can

be well organized, as in the case of youth clubs like the
Boy Scouts, or it may be a result of the incidental happen-
ings of daily living.

Training school.--For the purposes of this paper,
this refers to institutions located outside of the local
community where specialized training is offered that usually
takes from a year to three or more to complete. It is the
type of program offered at the Escuela Agricola e In-

dustrial.

 

CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEWED

Literature was reviewed in three general areas,
learning theory, education for technological change and,
special conditions in Cuba related to education. In the
last area mentioned, the amount of literature is compara-
tively limited but in the other two areas an overwhelming
amount has been written. As a means of limiting the field,
only literature that has been written or revised in the
last ten years was used for the most part. Also, the
areas of vocational education, adult education, extension
education and education for social change were used as a
starting point. Books that dealt directly with these sub-
jects then gave references to further materials that were
helpful.

It should be mentioned here that the literature re-
viewed represents only a small portion of all that has been
written. At the end Of Appendix I can be found the list
of references used. Appendix I represents the direct re-
sults of the review of the literature but the volume is
too large to be included in the text of this chapter. Any

summary that could be made will never be able to reproduce

V

-h6-

-47-

the exact thoughts of the original author or the results
of the original experimentation; for this reason Appendix
I is included.

The categories in the summary follow those of the
original review. These are arranged in alphabetical order
according to the term used. These terms are used because
they were referred to by more than one author. If the
data were to be organized logically, it is likely that many
combinations of these categories could be made or that

other categories would be needed.

Learning Theory

All senses.--There is close agreement that learning
must be experience centered and that experience is "all
sensory input to the organism" (Knowles) or in other words
the result of "perception" (Krech and Crutchfield).l Ex-
periments are giving further proof to the observations of
many educators in the past that as sight, hearing, and
touch are combined, the learning situation becomes more
meaningful. Even the senses of taste and smell can be
included in the total experience; much of the literature
also deals with thinking as almost a sixth sense.

Practice and experience are not the same thing if

 

See category, "All Senses" in Appendix I.

~48-

practice means only repetition. Practice is only valid if

each practice results in some further organization and co-

ordination of the parts. This is helped by constant evalu-
ation of efforts. Interesting experiments have shown that

rhythm helps in the organizing and coordination process.

Learning by doing is a term that follows this
recommendation for the whole organism is involved. Learn-
ing is seen as active and not passive.

thavior change.--Learning is generally defined as
being directly related to experience and behavior change.
The educational experience must bring about a change in
behavior of the human organism if learning has taken place.
This change may be manifested in values, understandings,
attitudes, appreciations, abilities, and skills.

Behavior change depends on the active environment
of the individual in the educational experience in planning,
execution and evaluation.

Complexity of material.--As the material becomes
more complex the likelihood of learning is lessened and
only as it becomes organized does it become meaningful. If
there is some central point in common to tie everything to,
then it is more meaningful and in turn becomes useful. Com-
plex material in itself is complex because it has no dis-
tinguishing characteristics that help to integrate it easily

with the products of previous learning.

-g9-

Conditioned response.--This has been shown to be of
greater importance for younger children and is not such an
important process for adults. It is seen to increase up
to the age of four years and then decrease in its importance
as a learning mechanism. This is the manner in which many
childhood fears are deveIOped. It also accounts for many of
our more subtle reactions for it takes place in the learn-
ing organism almost automatically. Things become related
and alike if they are perceived close in Space, time or
appear to have elements of similarity. It is a short cir-
cuited stimulus-response reaction where a new stimulus is
seen like a former one so that the old response is given.
With practice it becomes automatic and may be even stronger
than the response to the old stimulus.

Dipgovery and insight.--In every day life, this may
be one of the most important parts of learning. One im-
portant part of the learning process is the internal reor-
ganization of previous experiences to make some new mean-
ing. This may not come from any sensory stimulus but results
from a synthesis of retained experiences. There is also
indication that this reorganization process may not be done
by conscious thinking for it is often found that new concepts
Or answers appear after periods of rest or relaxation.

The trial and error method of discovering new
relationships is also important. Learning that comes about

in this way is found to be retained longer than rote learning.

-50-

Learning from insight and trial and error increase
with age, a questioning attitude, and ability to evaluate.

Felt needs.--It has been found that unless learning
is motivated by felt needs, then some kind of coercion must
be used, for in its absence, there is no incentive to learn.
Felt needs come from many different sources and in some
cases it would be hard to determine if the motivation for
learning arose from the individuals desire or an artificial
means imposed by the educator which would be close to
coercion.

Felt needs arise from tension within the individual,
and being a tension-reducing organism, learning becomes a
means to an end. Interesting experiments have shown that
if the need is too great then there is blockage so that
there is no possibility for learning, instead usually violent
reaction results.

Needs are seen to be in a hierarchy of order: (1)
pysiological (for oxygen, food, water, etc.); (2) security
(to be loved); (3) to love others; (A) self esteem; (5) self
actualization (the need to know, express, etc.). Maslow's
experiments indicate that these usually come in order; the
first one must be satisfied before the second one is of

great interest, etc.2

 

2M. Rokeach, Lectures on "Psychology of Human Re-
lationships," Spring term, 1960 at Michigan State Uni-
versity.

-51-

Because learning is so closely related to felt needs,
the emphasis is being placed on problem solving activity
as an important part of all educational programs. It is
felt that organized education can help individuals with a
process that can be used all through life whereas it is
impossible to give information and skills in the classroom
that will fit all of the problems that will confront the
student later.

Qp§l§.--Learning is related directly to the degree
that the individual has a clear goal in mind. The goal is
closely related to the felt needs of the individual in that
there has to be a desire to attain it. The goal must be
his and not the educator's. The role of the educator is
best seen as giving help to clarify the goal that will really
satisfy the felt need, for often the student cannot see all
of the aspects of the tension producing situation.

As goals become more specific, they become attain-
able and then evaluation is possible. Here again the edu-
cator can guide the learner. Unless goals are attainable
to a degree that brings some satisfaction, there is likely
to be tension increase instead of reduction. This seems to
block out the repetition of the same process. This has
meaning for educators because they may be rejected as guides
unless some satisfaction is obtained.

Individual difference.--Intelligence does have an

effect on learning but it is not as crucial a determining

-52-

factor as once thought. For any given learning situation
the previous experience of the individual and his motivation
are usually more important. Age is not as important as
experience and felt needs although it is true that behavior
patterns become more rigid as one grows older, this being
due to much repetition. Sex has not been shown as a deter-
mining factor either, in the ability to learn.

An effective educational program must take into
account individual differences, which means that flexibility
and imagination are necessary in an organized situation.

Meaningfulness.--The rate of learning and the de-
gree of meaningfulness are closely correlated. Retention
is also higher if the experience is meaningful. Mere ex-
perience and practice in themselves do not insure desired
behavior change unless they can be related to former
learning.

To be meaningful any experience must ”start where
one is" and then reorganize or add to that. Unless there
is perceived relation it is never integrated into the be-
havior pattern.

Retention.--Retention depends on the amount of
learning, the complexity of the material, the meaningfulness
of the material and the amount of interference that takes
place during or near the time of learning experience.

Forgetting is not merely a gradual fading away but

is closely related to a covering up by later learning. Verbal

-53-

materials are forgotten sooner than motor skills, which re-
lates back to the use of the senses in learning. As the
whole organism is involved there is less likelihood of for-
getting. Overlearning by meaningful practice adds greatly
to the retention.

Rewards.--Perhaps both reward and punishment should
be discussed, for traditional education has often used both
as motivation for learning. To the degree that the motiva-
tion moves avay from a felt need by the individual, the
amount of learning is decreased. The individual will work
more toward the solving the problem that is most immediate
to him.

As artificial rewards are used, the results of
learning behavior can never be completely determined. The
goals that the educator assumes are in effect, may become
distorted and the individual may use strange means to reach
them. Rewards in the way of satisfaction should come close
to the response that follows the stimulus. New behavior
patterns will be adOpted when the new response is more
satisfying than the old.

Fear and coercion are generally recognized as being
self defeating in the learning process for they develop an
unpleasant atmosphere that leads to forgetting.

Seguence.--This is of importance when we realize

that new meaningful experience is built on old meaningful

-54-
experience. As was indicated in talking about age, past
experience is more important in determining the readiness

of an individual to learn new things. For this reason each
individual must start at his own level and he will learn as
he relates the new experience to that. Unless related, the
new experience will soon be forgotten as it is buried by
other more meaningful experiences that are seen as having
relation to things already known.

Social motivatLpp.--As we look at the needs of the
human organism we see that satisfaction is often related
directly to a response from other individuals. The desire
for social acceptance is so great that all behavior except
in an extreme crises situation is effected by it. Experi-
ments have shown that in the majority of cases the individual
will even react contrary to reality as indicated by his
senses if the reaction is felt not to be socially accepted.
Some individufls conform more than others to social expec-
tations to the degree that they have a sense of personal
security.

If learning is directed at changing behavior in
thinking, attitudes or skills, then the social atmosphere
must be considered. For this reason it is found that learn-
ing often takes place to a higher degree when a group is
working together and there is interaction among them. The
educator must know something of the social atmosphere in _

which the learner lives if he is to help him develop new

-55-
patterns of behavior that will be satisfying.

Transfer.--All learning situations are artificial
to the degree that they can never be reproduced again in
exactly the same way. The theory of transfer states that
learning from one experience will be applicable in another
situation. As has been stated, the'more nearly alike the
learning situation and application situation the more trans-
fer of desired behavior.

In organized education it is impossible to even
approach in likeness the vast number of situations in which
the individual will be required to react to meet his needs.
For this reason it is important that generalizations and
ideals be clearly indicated for these are the things that
will be transferred. This can be implimented if the in-
dividual is aided in seeing applications of the behavior
learned to varied situations with which he is familiar.

Whole-part.--The individual cannot retain isolated
facts or experiences in any number. It is necessary to
have some goal, concept or central idea to tie them all to.
In general it is agreed that presentation of the whole thing
at one time is best, when possible. This may mean a super-
ficial experience of the whole so that later the parts can
be elaborated on but the learner has the whole to tie them

to.

Education for Technological Change in Rural Areas

Democratic planning.--All that has been said about

-56..
felt needs, beginning with the individual where he is ex-
perience-wise, involvement of the whole individual, the
effect of social environment, etc., have relation to the
reason why democratic planning helps for effective learn-
ing.

In the adoption of new behavior patterns of action
it is important to think in termsof those who might be re-
sponsible for this area of specialization in society.3 If
there is need to change farming practices, then great help
can be offered by an advisory group of farmers. The ad-
visory Councils, or community committees can bridge the gap
between needs, sources of help and learning.

Felt needs.--This was treated in the section on
learning theory also. In terms of education for technolog-
ical change in rural areas this may be a reason why schools
have not been more effective. The educational program must
start with the problems that are being faced daily if it is
to make any impact.

prg_centergQ.--Realizing the effect of social ex-
pectations on the individual's behavior it is clear why the
home is so important as a molder of the individual. In

the more traditional societies this has even more influence

 

, 3Margaret Read, Lectures on "Patterns of Authority
in Cultural Change," Spring Term, 1960 at Michigan State
University. ‘

-57-
than some of the more advanced technologically. Even in

the latter it is of greater importance than most organized
educational programs.

Organized educational efforts that do not consider
the needs and the resources of the home may have little
effect. The home influence may cancel out the efforts on
one hand, or, even worse, cut the individual off from his
heritage by making his new behavior completely incompatible
with that represented in the home. The home is another
link that can help smooth over the impact of technology on
a traditional culture. _

Integration.--This is related to the whole-part dis-
'cussion of learning. For an experience to be meaningful
it must be integrated with former experiences and some kind
of an overall picture must be gotten from the beginning to
tie the fragments to. ‘

Methodology.--Demonstration has been found to be
very effective as a teaching method in almost all circum-
stances. This is especially so for education for technolog-
'ical change.

The very thing that makes demonstration effective
can be fOund in other methods or combinations of methods.
From learning theory we find that any situation that involves
the whole individual in socially accepted ways will be

effective.

-58..

The process.--Rather than thinking of great techno-
logical advances as the immediate goal of education it is
seen as more of a participation in, and learning of, a pro-
cess. The process once learned leads to problem solving at
the individual and community level which will, in turn,
bring the technological advances necessary to meet the
fundamental needs of the people.

Rgsources.--The educator has often tried to play
the role of the authority instead of a guide. In education
for technological change, no one person can possibly know
enough to be an authority in all of the fields where prob-
lems must be solved. The same could be said of material
items needed for the necessary change.

As the educator becomes more of a coordinator and
guide, then resources of all kinds can be collected to work
on the problem situation. In this way the majority of the
resources are found locally for a sharing relationship is
.inaugurated. In any problem situation, whether on the in-
dividual, family or community level, there is already a vast
storehouse of internal experience as well as material re-
sources and energy that can be applied to solve the problem.

§gpial;and cultural relationship.--As the amount of
literature attests, this is an area of increasing concern.
When an educator works in a cultural setting analogous to
the one in which he was born and reared this is not a major

problem. When, on the other hand, an educator finds himself

-59-
in a situation different because of cultural background or
because of accelerated technological change, he finds there
are factors at work with which he is not able to cope. Such
appears to be the case in many educational situations today.
All of the things that go together to make up what
we call culture are inter-related to such a degree that a
change in one spot will call for a readjusting in others.
The literature is full of situations where technological
change has been inaugurated in one place because it worked
in another in spite of the fact that the cultures were com-
pletely different. Some questions could be asked about any
proposed change that might help prevent undesirable side
effects; "How does this relate to underlying values?"; "Who
is now considered an authority in this area?"; "What
other things are likely to be changed if this is adopted?";
"Who will lose if this is adapted?"; "Who must legitamize--
innovate--if it is to be adopted?"; "What will be the reward
that the individual is seeking if he adopts this practice?";
"Why hasn't this been adopted befbre?"; etc.
§ggzgz.--From individual problem solving all the
way to international planning, survey is an early step in
making changes. In education for technological change
there may be different levels of survey and fOr different
purposes. The anthropological survey may determine all
of the factors that go to make up the culture including the

basic value structure. This is of great help to an educator

-60-

who is an "outsider" to a greater or lesser degree. It has
been suggested that most professional change agents (edu-
cators) are "outsiders".

Another level of survey might indicate felt needs,
related problems and resources. This survey is one that the
individual can best participate in, for while doing it
there is an automatic inventory being made with a built-in
incentive to change things.

Where to edgcate.--It has been suggested that needs
which come to bear on the individual cannot be satisfied
without changes at the international level. This could
also be said for nation, district, the community, and the
family. It is true that educational effort and change in
behavior will have to come in and through the institutions
and organizations represented by these levels; yet it is
the individual as an individual and as a participating unit
that will be changed if the change meets a felt need and the
resultant behavior is satisfying. As Mills said, "Keep your
eye on the image of man" and this is certainly true in edu-

cation for technological change in rural areas.h

‘ Cultural Factors in Cuba
General summagz.--The cultural background has al-
ready been touched in Chapter II. The framework of the

 

“c. wright.Mills, The Sociolo ical Ima ination (New
York: fobrd University Press, I§5§5, p. 515.

-61-
summary written by Del Rio and Laboy can be used to outline
the values and attitudes in rural Cuba.5 This is only a
generalization and no individual would fit completely into
this pattern.

ngQ.--Up to now the majority of the people are
landless but everyone dreams of owning his own farm. Those
who have had means consider land one of the only real se-
curities and thus have invested in it for holding.

Cultural practices and taboos in agriculture.--
There is general belief in following the moon and other
best times and ways to do things but if a new practice can
be demonstrated as practical it is usually adopted.

Solution of local problems.--It is generally felt
that it is the central government's responsibility to
solve all of the public problems. As tax money is collected
locally for federal government only and there is little
local autonomy, this feeling is strengthened.

Goyernmental activities.--There has not been much
confidence in the past in the government as an effective

or efficient organization.

Technical assistance agencies.--There have only been

 

5Fernando Del Rio and.Maria J. Laboy, "Latin America,
The Interamerican Institute of Agricultural Sciences and
Its Project 39," National Extension Services of Selected

Countries in the KEEricas, CE? 3 3 {Few York: Cornell
niversity, 5 , p. . .

-52-
pilot projects in operation in Cuba but the peOple have
accepted them and the agents when the programs were prac-
tical.

Family and kin gggups.--Families are usually large
(at least 6 children) and they remain close together. What
ever differences there may be among the members it rarely
leads to rejection. The family represents a united front.
to the world and the authority of the elder members:is
respected. ‘

figlation of the sexes.--The world is considered a
man's world but the woman has a great deal of influence
over the children. WOmen are revered and protected but
at the same time considered fair game. There is a high
incidence of children born out of wedlock but in many cases
it is a common law marriage that has a stronger bond than
most legal marriages. WOmen have the right to vote and
as jobs open up to them they are exercising more influence.
Education at all levels is open to women.

Division of societz.--There are three divisions,
the upper class who have money, land and high positions in
business; the middle class which is composed of the pro-
fessionals; and the laboring class which accounts fOr the
majority. The middle and lower classes are becoming stronger
politically so that some of the inequalities of fermer times
no longer exist.

figligion.--Catholicism is not as strong as in other

-63- ‘
Latin American countries, particularly in the country areas.
Spiritism and Protestantism are also present. There is re-
spect for the varying religious beliefs and contact of some
kind is maintained with some religious authority that can
be called upon in time of need. There is also a tendency
to ascribe results to things beyond one's control, often
spoken of as "fate" or "destiny".

flQ§§.--The traditional pattern has been for a large
percentage of the pOpulation to work as day laborers in the
sugar plantations under a foreman or small owner (patron).
manual labor is not too highly regarded and a successful
man is seen as one who has gained a position where it is
no longer necessary.

Liyingggtangardg.--Living standards have not been
considered adequate, especially in relation to diet and
sanitary conditions. To be able to buy rice and have it
daily at meals is considered a standard worth achieving.
Vegetables are not widely used even in the country areas.

Public institution§.--The individual is of more
importance than the institution and all relations are highly
personal. Good personal relations are considered of more
importance than getting a job done or of being frank about
all details. Institutions are not considered the source
of benefits as much as individuals.

This concludes the summary of the review of liter-

-64-
ature and again the reader is reminded that Appendix I

contains the quotations that this summary was taken from.

 

CHAPTER v
ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE EDUCATION FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

The exerpts from the literature as found in Appendix
I present only a summary of the tremendous volume that has
been written in relation to this subject. These exerpts
were then summarized again to develop the material that is
found in Chapter IV. The present chapter is in many ways
a further summarization of the already summarized material.

Some of the categories listed in Chapter IV appear
in almost the same wording in the "elements" feund in this
chapter. For the most part, however, the "elements" are
cross-combinations of various categories. There are many
different elements that combine to make up the total that
is called "behavior change". The ten listed below include
the key things that the literature has indicated as im-
portant.

Egmily centergd.--Because of the importance of the
family in Cuban culture this seems to be one of the most
important elements of any educational program. The indiv-
idual depends on his family for meeting all of his basic
needs; it is impossible for any other agency to meet all
of these needs so it should help the family do a better job
instead of trying to compete. New practices adopted by any

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-66-
member should be accepted at least to the point of under-
standing and appreciation by all members of the family
unit.

Democratic.--Each individual should have an Oppor-
tunity, as an individual or through his family or special
interest group, to participate at all levels of education
for change. This would include survey of conditions, an-
alysis of needs, goal setting for desired changes, actual
program of change, and finally, evaluation of results. His
participation should be voluntary at any point, but each
individual should have the opportunity.

Works toward basic skill develogment.--Each in-
dividual should have the opportunity to acquire basic

 

understandings, attitudes and skills related to reading,
writing, calculations and appreciation for the cultural

and natural resource heritage.

Individual pgrticipation motivated by satisfaction
of achieving goals relgted to felt needs.--The satisfaction

may come from increasing material gain to satisfy a physical
need or it may be related to a social or psychological

need but in any case, it brings a direct feeling of satis-
faction as something concrete is achieved. For this behavior
change to become adopted permanently it must continue to
produce satisfaction. Because of this the motivation in

the training situation must be the same as the motivation

in the application situation.

-67-

Use educators (professional change agents) who are
able to identify.-The amount of participation of the agent
in any community will vary but he should see himself as a
guide, a catalyst, a channel, a coordinator, an introducer
of new experiences more than an authority or the final word
in decision making in the process of change. He will iden-
tify if he understands and appreciates the cultural back-
ground of the community.

Key person centered.--This takes into account that
in any behavior pattern (set way of doing things) there are
reasons (sometimes called vested interests) for continuation
of that pattern. Sometimes these reasons are economic but
many times they are based on reasons of personal dignity
and social prestige. Because of personalism and the dignity
of the individual in Cuba, the key people who are affected
directly by a proposed change should become, participants
in the change process. This is not always possible but
change (as an educational process) based on coercion is not
as lasting as change based on satisfaction of all concerned.

Prepared to deal with all areas of life.--The in-
dividual is a unity, and needs in one area that are not met
lead to tension and frustration for the whole organism.

Some have looked at the individual as having physical needs,
intellectual needs and spiritual needs. There have been
other divisions made in relation to other educational pro-

grams but it is merely a way to be sure that the program is

 

-68—
prepared to deal with all phases of life. Often resources
in the way of knowledge or specialists must be sought from
outside the community. In this case the problems that stem
from felt needs are categorized according to the areas of
speciality in the professions.

Similarity in instruction and application situa-
pgpp.--This relates to the use of resources (including
methods of instruction) in the instruction situation that
are the same as the resources in the application situation.
Transfer only occurs where there is similarity seen in the
elements of the learning and application situation. As
artificiality is decreased, the chance of adoption is in-
creased, for this reason the result demonstration has worked
well.

Timely instpuctipp.--The program offers information
and skills at a time that they can be applied immediately
to the problem situation so that new behavior patterns will
be adopted to the degree that the change brings satisfaction.
Retention of understanding, attitudes and skills will de-
crease with the lapse of time unless there is practice.

Self perpetuating.--The program develops understand-
ing, appreciation and skill in the problem solving method
as the way that individuals, families and communities can
meet felt needs. The establishing of some kind of a unit
(organization) within the community that is responsible
fOr guiding the program will help in this. The motivation

-69...
that would foster participation in such an organization would
have to be built-in so that it would continue on its own.

It should be emphasized here that these "elements"
are being considered only in relation to effective education
for technological change in rural Cuba. They are subject
to all of the limitations as indicated by the terminology
defined in Chapter III. Further, these elements have not ‘
been tested beyond the point of being related back to tested
learning theory. They are in themselves more of the nature

of hypotheses than tested conclusions.

CHAPTER VI
COMPARISON OF ELEMENTS IN EXISTING EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM

With the synthesizing of the Elements for Effective
Education for technological change from the large amount of
literature reviewed, we now have some guides to judge exist-
ing programs that are attempting this task. Going back to
the original hypothesis, it was stated that "more of these
elements are likely to be found in a community-centered
program than a training school program." This all is related
to the big question, where should the resources of an agency
such as the church be used to best help in the adoption of
improvement practices that will change behavior patterns
in the rural communities to meet basic felt needs?

In using these elements to look at and compare the
training school program of EA & I and the Pilot Project in
Community Development it is impossible to give statistical
results. All that we can measure are tendencies, fer both
of the programs have a degree of each of the elements. A
rating could be given that could be used to compare‘the two;
but if a numerical rating is used then some attempt will
have to be made to balance the elements, for one may be of
more importance than another. For this reason a rating

system of A, B, C, and D is used to indicate the level of

-70-

-71-

effectiveness, A being the most effective and D being the
least effective level. With this in mind the elements will
be used one by one to make a comparison of the two programs.
At this point it should be emphasized that the judgements

are likely to be inaccurate to the degree of personal bias.

Family Centered
Training school.--Because of the distance to the
homes and the absence of contact in most cases this would
have to receive a very low rating. Rating: D
Community developpent.--The survey is basically
information of present condition and needs at the family
level, so it would be rated high. Rating: A

Democratic

Training school.--The individual at the community
level has little to say about the curriculum. The students
who do attend, study problems related to special interests
in some courses, but any one community would not likely
have more than 3 students at the most in attendance.
Rating: C

Community development.--To varying degrees the people
participated at all stages from "survey" to "evaluation".
Some decisions were made outside of the community as to

setting goals. Rating: B

-72-
Works Toward Basic Skill Development
Training school.--For those who attend, this is
very high, but the other factor is that a small percentage
of the individuals are able to participate in the training
school program. Rating: B
Community developpent.--The program in itself does
not have a systematic program of instruction for these
things although it has a direct interest in a day school
held for the children. Here the quality is lower but it is
available for all children. Through the mobile library and
special adult literacy classes further help is given.
Rating: C
Individual Participation motivated by Satisfaction of
Achieving Goals Related to Felt Needs
Traiping school.--The project method is used in
many of the classes so that the student is motivated to
learn, to complete the project satisfactorily. Still,
grades and graduation figure strongly in the total motiva-
tion. In general the motivation is not the same that would
come from the application situation. Rating: C
Community developpent.--Usually each individual
participated in the particular aspect of the program that
satisfies an immediate need. As he is free to participate
or not, in any or all parts, his motivation in any training
situation is directly related to the degree that the same
satisfaction will come when he applies it. Rating: A

-73-

Uses Educators Who Are Able to Identify

Training school.-In this particular case the edu-
cators for the most part do try to identify. 0n points
like dress, terminology and appreciation for country life
there is a high degree of identification, on the level of
household conveniences there is quite a difference. Rating:
B ,

. Community developpent.--The agent lives in the area

and is one of the people in every way except that of ad-
vanced training. Rating: A

Key Person Centered _

Training school.--0n the community level the key
persons who are usually adults are not directly affected
by the educational program. The only case where they might
be affected is where they were close enough to observe some
demonstrations or exhibitions. If the key person is con-
sidered as the father or mother in the family of a student
then they would be influenced to the degree that they picked
up new practices through their children or upon visiting the
school, if they are close enough. Again this is limited by
the fact that few young people in any one community have a
chance to attend. Rating: C

Community deveIOpment.--There is much more likeli-
hood here of the program reaching directly the one who is
in a position to change to a new way of doing things. The

-7h-
farmer in his fields and the housewife in her home are good
examples. As for key figures in the community that effect
.such big problems as land-holding, roads, etc.; perhaps
these people have not been motivated to participate as yet.
Rating: B

Prepared to Deal With All Areas of Life
Training school.-The very fact that a training

school is a concentration of resources for educational pur-
poses indicates that this is likely to be so. In this case
it is true that a large amount of knowledge, skill, tools
and materials are available to deal with most problems
whether they be spiritual, physical or intellectual.
Rating: A

_ Community development.--This is the area of greatest
need at the community level. Resources of all kinds are
scarce. The agent in himself is not an authority in any
field except to deal with superficial problems so that he
must look fer help outside. Special help is available but
not at hand for immediate use. Rating: C

Similarity in Instruction and Application Situations
Training school.--The motto of "learning by doing"
is uséd in most of the courses. The vocational courses
are spent mostly in the shops and fields so that some of
the artificiality is reduced. Due to the resources avail-

able and the difference in the school farm or shops from

-75-
the resources available at home, it still is quite differ-
ent. Sometimes the absence of some small item at home is
the limiting factor in the adoption of a new practice.
Rating: C

Community development.--In some cases the instruction
is done in'a central location but often it is done in the
homes and on the farms so that the resources at hand are
used. If the instruction is a success it can be applied
in the same way; There is less tendency here to apply
artificial resources for anything available to teach, is
available for use later. It has been noticed that some-
times special tools are needed but if the recommended pract-
ice is practical, this tool will have to be available.
Rating: A

Timely Instruction

Training school.--The instruction program and the
work program are closely coordinated so that teaching takes
place as near as possible to the time that it is to be
applied. From the point of view of the home community this
advantage is lost for it may be two or three years at the
least before the student will be able to apply it in his own
home situation. Rating: C

Community develOpment.--This is the same as the
previous element. The instruction is done at the time of

felt needs which is to say, that the application will come

-76-
.immediately. This is One of the real strong points of edu-
cation at the community level. Rating: A A

Self Perpetuating

Training school.--From the point of view of the.
community there is little that they can do to insure the
continuation of this educational program. Many students
pay fees but in no case do they pay all costs. Neither do
they have a voice in determining policies except indirectly
through church officials and the Board of Directors. The
community is dependent on outside help for the continu-
ation of this program. Rating: D

Community development.--The agent in this case was
supported from a special grant from outside of the com-
munity. The maintainance of the community organization as
a functioning unit was quite dependent on his initiative
so that upon termination of the project, it has not con-
tinued with the same vigor. This appears to be a weak
point. Rating: D

To summarize the ratings so that a closer over-all
picture can be given Table II (page 77) is used.

Tabulation is not possible so as to arrive at data
that will either prove or disprove the original hypothesis
as was stated earlier; there are too many elements of bias

that enter in. The results of this comparison do indicate

-77-
TABLE II

COMPARISON OF SYNTHESIZED ELEMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE EDUCATION
FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IN RURAL CUBA AS FOUND IN TRAIN-
ING SCHOOL PROGRAM AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

 

 

Ratinga
Element nghgéIgb Devaugm egtc
Family centered D A
Democratic C B
Work toward basic skill development B C
Motivation by felt needs C A
Identifying agent B A
Key person centered C B
All areas of life A' C
Similarity in situation C A
Timely instruction C A
Self perpetuating D D

 

aPrograms rated from A to D, A is highest.

bRefers to Escuela Agricola e Industrial, Preston,
Oriente, Cuba, (May 1960).

cRefers to Pilot Project in Community DevelOpment
sponsored by Methodist Church in Cuba, (ended June 1959),
that there are some good reasons why this hypothesis might
be true that can be traced back to tested learning theory.
The same reasons seem valid as we look at the recorded

evaluations of educational programs fer technological change

-78-
in different parts of the world. The evidence is strong
enough to say that the community centered educational pro-
gram is likely to be more effective than the training school
program in raising the level of living in a rural community

for the same amount of input involved.

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The results of this study are more of the nature
of a rationale than a proven hypothesis. The only tested
data that was incorporated was that of tested learning
theory. This makes up only one part of the Elements for
Effective Education that were arrived at. The rationale
that was developed in the first three chapters then has now
become a much stronger rationale.

On the basis of this study it seems safe to recommend
that the Pilot Project in Community Development is a sound
one that is worthy of developing to a larger scale. Here
it should be mentioned that the field evaluations made after
the first and second years of this project indicated the
same thing, but this evaluation was based on the participa-
tion of the people and only superficial recording of prac-
tices adopted.

This study is directed at more than just finding out
if the Pilot Project made educational progress; it is in-
teresting in finding out if the inputs by an outside agency,
namely the Methodist Church, are as well used here as they

are in the training of young people on the campus of the

-79-

-30-

Escuela Agricola e Industrial. If the goal is, the raising
of the level of living in the rural communities, the indi-
cations of this study are that it is even a more effective
way.

Again it should be stated that this is not the only
goal of the Agricultural School and the recommendation from
this study would never indicate a, one or the other, situ-
ation. Perhaps in the final analysis it will be a comple-
menting role that the two programs will play.

The comparison of the two programs is made because
the on-campus program will continue much as it has in the
past because of the circumstances that result from the
material investment already made. At the same time, the
school has been ppp instrument of the church fer work in
the rural area. The results of this study would indicate
that serious thought should be given to the establishment
of a community educational service that would have backing
in resources. The relation to the Escuela Agricola e Indus-
trial of such a program would be a close one, but the use
of funds and personnel should be separate. Experience has
indicated that the resources of personnel and money are
never adequate to do the job that needs to be done on campus
so that it is hard for these resources to be deferred. Also,
according to the present by-laws of the constitution of
the school, funds cannot be used for on-going off-campus

projects.

-81-

Another aspect of having two separate programs is
that it will then offer a situation in which a further study
can be made, in which actual statistical tests can be taken
for the hypothesis that has been treated here.

Assuming that there are prospects for establishing
such a program the following section is devoted to a pro-
posed community development program.

Proposed Organization and Procedures for Community DevelOp-
ment Program

What we are really talking about is an organized
process of change. To best describe this proposed process
the imaginary (but typical) community of "El Barrio" that
was described in Chapter II, on page 23 will be used. In
describing this process many of the things discussed in
the review of the literature and related directly to the
Elements for Effective Education will be pointed out. The
process‘described follows in many ways the one used in the
Pilot Project but it is hoped here to add strengthening
points beyond this.

One thing that was not mentioned is that El Barrio
is chosen as a community to work in because the church has
been working there. This gives a tremendous head start
fer there is already some structure there to work through,
some chance for perpetuation, and the agent has common
ground for identification from the very beginning. It should

be remembered also that the proposed Community Development

-82-
is a church sponsored program.

Previous activitgp§.-4There has been no coordinated
infbrmal educational program in El Barrio in the past, al-
though a great deal has been done. The public school has
had special youth programs on special days such as "Tree
Day". The Cuban Department of Agriculture sponsored a spec-
ial educational mission in 1957 in which food preservation,
sewing, and family health were emphasized; this was for
two weeks duration. The protestant Church has been active
in this community for 9 years. The following list of
activities have taken place during that time: Sunday School,
Daily Vacation Bible School in the summer, Older YOuth
Group, Intermediate Youth Group, Sunday Services, special
plays and dramas of educational nature, organized clinical
visits of doctors, community agricultural fairs, community
night programs held once a month in recent years, women's
group and special campaigns for typhoid vaccination, etc.

All of these activities have had a high degree of
success if measured by participation of the peOple and
~changes in behavior that resulted. At times there has
been a feeling of frustration in that each group seems to
be working on their own activity and almost in competition
with other groups fer the available resources of time,
space and materials. Also it is felt that some projects
that need the backing of the whole community, have not been

pushed by anyone outside of the interested group that

-33-
initiated the project. In short, there has been an ex-
pressed need for more coordination of community activities.

Spyygy.--The first actual step in the process is
the making of a survey. In "El Barrio" it may be possible
to make a survey almost immediately. Here the agent would
work with other natural leaders of the community who have
shown interest in the proposed program. The survey is made
from house to house and in as informal a manner as possible.
Some kind of a written guide should be used that is prepared
to include all areas of life.

To be more specific about the areas of life, the
following are listed:

Tyler suggests the following division: (a) health;
(b) family; (c) recreation; (d) vocational; (e) religion;
(f) consumption; and (g) civic.1 The Report of the l9h6
Extention Administration Workshop held at the University
of Wisconsin lists the following areas: (1) Improvement
of the economic, social and spiritual well-being of the
farm family; (2) Improvement of farm income through appli-
cation of science and mechanization; (3) Encouragement of
peeple to be wiser consumers; (L) Health improvement; (5)

Family living improvement; (6) Improvements of educational

 

1Ral h W. Tyler Basic Princi les of Curriculum and
Instruction Chicago: UnIversIty of EHIcago Press, I955),
___17______.

p. 3. ‘

-3“-
facilities; (7) Better citizenship and (8) The conserva-
tion of resources.2

Dr. Thomas Jesse Jones who was of great help in
setting up the program of Rural Education for the Near East
Foundation work in Greece suggested fOur areas only: (1)
Health and sanitation; (2) Appreciation and use of ones
environment; (3) Household and home; and (h) Recreation
in the broader sense of the'word.3

For the purpose of this program, the following
areas are recommended: Health and Sanitation, Agricultural,
House and Home, Recreational and Cultural, and Spiritual.

After the survey is finished some kind of tabulation
should be done so that all can see the picture of their
community.

Changes anticipated in the situation.--For purposes
of this study it can be assumed that it has been expressed
by the informal leaders in the community, as a desire, that
there be a coordinated program of betterment in the commun-
ity that all groups that are now organized can participate
in, and that it will also offer a way that others who have

 

2Iowa Cooperative Extension Service, The Iowa Ex-
tension Progpam Planning Guide (Iowa State Co ege .

3Harold B. Allen, Come Over Into Macedonia (New
Brunswick: Rutgers UniversIty Press, I953), p. 59.

-35-
not participated in the past can feel free to participate.
There is an expressed desire for more harmony in the commun-
ity, less sickness, better farming practices that will bring
in more money, better Opportunity for education and advance-
ment for the children and better means of recreation for
all. These could be termed as long-time goals and are not
too different from the desires of mankind in all places and
at all times.

Educationg; objecpiygp:for the year ahead.--As a
help in formulating the working objectives for the year,
at hand is the summary of the survey which is tabulated,
there are some general goals or things that are felt desir-
able and needed as expressed by the people of the community;
at hand are some stated goals of the church for its work
in rural areas; there is the amplifications of the ex-
pressed needs of the people by local leaders; and at hand is
an idea of some of the activities of educational nature that
have been effected in El Barrio in the past. At this point
it will be helpful to have a written list of recommended
practices that have found application in like communities
such as: the planting of kitchen gardens, the yearly in-
jection of pigs to prevent cholera, the planting of hybrid
seed corn, the attendance of adults at Sunday School, the
formation of an agricultural equipment cooperative, the
appreciation of reading good books, etc.

With all of this information at hand a list of working

-86..
objectives can be made that will be the basis for the work
during the coming year.“ Here again it should be repeated
that all areas of life should be considered and objectives
listed for each of these areas. As has been pointed out,
it will be wise to choose projects in which a degree of
success can be expected in the beginning of a program and
perhaps not too many so that there can be more concentra-
tion. One of the problem areas that has been obvious, and
at the same time expressed, is that of ill health. The
expression by the peeple themselves of a desire for better
health indicates this. A helpful tool at this point is
the uSe of the question "HOW" and as the answer to this
question is sought, a point will be reached where the
answer will be an expression of a changed behavior pattern
that could be actually observed if it were accomplished.5
In this case, this procedure could be used and would easily
come to, "the use of vegetables for the home food supply."6

In all five areas any number of working objectives

 

hJohn.M. Fenley, Establishin a Ybun Extension
Service, Comparative Extension PuSlication Mimeo Release # l
(Ithaca: Cornell University, 1959), p. 1.

5George Axinn, Class notes from Graduate Extension
Seminar, Michigan State University, Winter, 1960.

6F'enley, o . cit., p. 17.

-87..
should be listed. It would be good to have even more than
can be used so that later some selection can be used. Later,
as the program plan is developed, some may have to be drop-
ped and it will be seen that many can be combined at the
point of specific activities.

Reason§:why these objectives have not already been
achieved.-An interesting question that should be asked at
this point (after preparing the list of working objectives)
is, "If these are such good ideas, why haven't they been
done before?" Some things may be rather obvious to profes-
sional change agents and semi-professional community leaders
but as warner has stated, ”until we arrive at a question
that only the people themselves can answer, we are likely
to be missing the real reasons."7

At this point it would be wise also to ask those
questions about the proposed change that would give an
idea of the impact that it will have on the over-all cul-
tural pattern.8

Taking the working objective mentioned above, that
of "The production of vegetables for the home food supply"

 

7K. F. Warner, Professor of Extension, University
of’Mar land, "Analysis of a Local Situation and DevelOpment
of a P an of Work." Talk before agricultural missionaries,
washington, March 2, 1960.

8See Chapter IV, page 59.

-88-

and following through with it as an example, it is likely
that many reasons will be found why it hasn't been done.
Such things as, lack of reliable seed sources, problem of
insects and diseases, no experience in gardening; no appre-
ciation fer the value of vegetables in the diet, and no
knowledge of how to prepare interesting vegetable dishes,
are a few good examples. Unless these barriers are over-
come, there can never be much hOpe of reaching the desired
Objective.

Audience to be reached.--This particular objective
would be directed at the whole family for as we look at the
implications it is hoped that the whole family will benefit
from better health by eating the vegetables from the gar-
den. But at the same time each member of the family does
not have the same part in reaching the objective so that
they really represent different audiences. In this case
there would be a division into, mothers and young women,
fathers and young men, and younger boys and girls.

Behavior changes in each group.--In speaking of
behavior changes it is good to think in terms of attitudes
and understanding as well as actual skill in doing something.
For the women, the behavior change related to the produc-
tion of vegetables fbr the home food supply is more in the
area of attitude and understanding. This can be worked on
best in the related objective of "the use of vegetables in

the daily diet." At the same time, women would have an

-39-
understanding and appreciation of actual skills that go into
producing vegetables. In some cases even, it is the woman
that will be doing the gardening, but not often.

For the men, unless they in turn have an attitude
and appreciation of the value of eating vegetables, they
are not likely to be as interested in taking the effort of
learning the skills to adopt the practice of planting a
garden. For the children again it will be more of a behavior
change of attitudes and understanding, although they can do
a great deal in developing and practicing skills in vege-
table production.

Resources available for effecting these changes.--
Here, a selection can be made from the total list of re-
sources of such things that seem most helpful as, land, water,
bamboo fer fencing, soil tillage tools, tobacco residue fer
insect control, local individuals who have had experience,
agricultural supply salesmen who are willing to help with
supplies and information, a pressure hand sprayer, a type-
writer, a mimeograph machine, government bulletins, infor-
mation and personnel from the School of Agriculture and In-
dustry, three months time before planting season begins,
etc.9

Also to be considered as a resource or perhaps

 

9The planting season follows the fall rains which
begin after September 15th.

-90-
better stated as channels, are the organized groups now in
existence in the community. If contact can be made in the
public school, in the organized church groups, and in the
special church meetings, then a greater impact can be made
on the family as a unit to accept new practices.

Activities desigped to bring about desired behavigp
changes.--Perhaps a better name for activities would be

 

"educational experiences” or from the point of view of the
professional educator, "teaching methods". Research has
shown that to expect any degree of success in education,

the educator must use from 6 to 9 different methods. Fur-
ther, those that are fOund of the most value are those using
all of the five senses plus thinking during the learning
process. By having a list of teaching methods at hand some
ideas of those that might best fit this objective can easily
be gotten. Here could be used, posters, bulletins, handout
sheets, public talks and announcements, farm visits, radio
talks, drama, exhibitions, slides, tours or field trips,
demonstrations, discussions, etc.

A calendar for work.--Unless the "when" part of the
educétional experience relating to working objectives is
stated, the plan is of little practical value. It has been
found that the sequence of learning experiences is often the
important factor in actually achieving the desired result.
This is important from the standpoint of the learner but

-91-

from the point of view of the educator it usually is the
difference between reverting back to the old and often times
ineffective teaching methods for lack of time fer prepara-
tion, or by good timing, the use of methods that produce a
higher impact-output for the same amount of effort-input.

Assuming that this program starts in July; then a
calendar like this for the stated objective, "the production
of vegetables for the home food supply": gply: farm visits
by agent that brings up question of vegetables and gardens
among other things; a drama relating to "Better Health
Through Kitchen Gardens" presented at the annual Agricultural
and Industrial Fair fer the area held in "Sugar.Mill Town";
simple information sheet distributed at the fair; Apgppp:
Slides at monthly Community Night held at the church; special
sermon during month on related subjects; posters prepared
and placed in the two stores, the church and other points
of congregation; give material to the Sunday School teachers
in their area wide meeting that they can use in class related
to the subject; hold organized discussion at monthly women's
group meeting relating to vegetables and diet; September
special program in the public school with picture, trying
to stimulate interest in planting a school garden and
small home gardens; special program with young people's
groups and give out more literature; farm visits with in-
dications of plots of ground that "could.make good garden
spots" and emphasizing early plowing; October: planned

-92-
trip of men to an area that has an earlier planting season
to see what others have done; community night meeting in
which public expression of interest in actually planting
gardens is expressed; demonstration prepared and given on
preparing seed beds and planting; Ngyember: help given
where requested in actual planting; public demonstration
given on control of insects and diseases; time given during
monthly Community Night for expression of experiences re-
lating to gardening; demonstration and practice in women's
group on tasty ways of preparing vegetables; December:
idea presented of having a local garden products fair in farm
visits, at public school and in women's group; further dis-
cussion of fair and date set during Community night meeting
for January 15th, each group takes some responsibility for
fair; Januapy: Special discussion with men on the growing
of vegetables "off season" and literature handed out. Women
introduced to related tOpic of "preservation of home grown
vegetables"; February, Mappp, Appil, ng_and‘gppp: frequent
reference made to gardening in farm visits, casual meetings
and organized meetings; some kind of simple information
given out each month at Community light.

Evaluation of activities.--The main evaluation has

to be made in relation to the stated working objective;lo

 

loFenley, op. cit., p. 43.

-93-

did we get the behavior change of the production of vege-
tables for the home food supply or no? At this point it can
be seen that the more measurable an objective is with the
common tools of measurement, the easier that_it is to
evaluate. It would be better fer this reason to actually
state the objective a little more specifically, such as

"The produCtion of vegetables fer the home fOOd supply in

20 homes that have never done it before."

If a program has many objectives and has had a lot
of experience it may be enough just to count the number of
new gardens, but usually it will be helpful to evaluate
such things as timing and educational methods used so that
future programs can be more realistic. It will be helpful
to break down the skill area in jobs such as, "how to pre-
pare the soil for a garden;" "how to make a seed bed;" "how
to plant different vegetables;" "how to control diseases
and insects;" etc. By attacking these as separate skills
to be learned and by observing the results as indicated in
farm visits and the conversations that are overheard, one
can evaluate the areas of weakness. Some activities such
as demonstrations, dramas, discussions, practices can be
evaluated to some degree on the spot by the participation,
expression of approval and questions asked, but much cannot
be really checked until the actual families that have made

the change are counted.

-9h-

Further data for evaluation could be collected on
such questions as: How much area is there in your garden?
What vegetables did you grow? How many days in the year
did you have home grown vegetables to eat? What economic
value does your garden represent in food produced?

Here only one of the objectives from one area has
been carried through and it should be remembered that ob-
jectives will be formulated in all of the five areas.' It
is interesting to note that this particular objective will
lead up to higher long-time or general goals in three areas
as the question"why?" is asked. It leads us up to Improved
Health, Improved Agricultural Practices and Improved Home
practices. This is true of almost any working objective
and any activity that is used to reach the objective. For
this reason one must be careful in the methods and educational
experiences used so that our efforts of reaching another goal
_ are not cancelled. An example of this would be to intro-
duce a highly competitive activity in the community to
reach the objective of home vegetable production. Here the
harmony and unity within the community which has been stated
as one of the general goals of betterment by the people
themselves might likely be reduced.

Summary.--The program plan that would be written
out and serve as a guide fer the coming year should include

the fbllowing items:

-95-

l. A general statement of overall goals.

2. A number of working objectives in each of the
five areas stated in terms of behavior changes
fer a specific person or group.

3. For each of the working objectives: (a) a
list of reasons why this is not now being
practiced; (b) a list of learning experiences
(teaching methods) that will help to accomplish
it; (c) a list of materials and resources avail-
able that can be used to accomplish it; (d) a
schedule of activities by the month for the
whole year; and (e) a means of evaluating the
outcome.

A. An integrated calendar of work for the year for
the complete program in El Barrio.

Resources would never be such as to allow an agent
to dedicate full time to a community the size of El Barrio,
but it is felt that each community should be planned as a
unit and then these individual plans be integrated at the
points of use of the agents time and combined area activities.
It is doubtful that the particular problems of any two com-
munities are enough alike that a whole area can be planned

for, simultaneously, from the beginning.

Selection and Training of Agents

The process as outlined above is of little value

-96—
without the right kind of a person to direct it. To a
greater or lesser degree everyone that lives in the commun-
ity is somewhat of a change agent in that he brings unique
experiences to it. Also visitors act as change agents as
they come and go in the community. The agent that we are
concerned with here is the trained educator who feels a
special responsibility toward implimenting the process. It
is beyond the scope of this study to do an exhaustive an-
alysis of the selection and training of agents but a few
points should be touched briefly. What kind of a person
should he be and how can he be trained, are two questions
that need answering.

In the review of the literature that was done for
Chapter IV some direct references to these questions were
encountered that are included here. First of all, related
to the personal characteristics of the individual:

Was he a man of the people?

Could he work in his own community?

What concerns had he shown for the problems of his

community?

What were his attitudes toward authoritarianism?

was he a secure person?

Did he have a set of moral values which he used on

all situations and all people indiscriminately?
What was his attitude toward the opinions of others?

was he a static personality or did he possess the
capacity for growth? 1

 

11Lyle W. Shannon Underdeveloped Areas (New York:
Harper and Brothers, l957)fl pp. 25 53.

-97-

An examination of the role of the fieldworker
makes it clear that no group organizer thinks of him-
self as a "leader" in any community in which he works.
In no way does he accept this function or title. He
is alert to see that the peOple do not look to him to
solve a problem, to make contacts for them, to plead
special privileges with influential people.

Though an accomplished technician in his own field
of educational orientation, no group organizer con-
siders himself a professional in the specialized areas
of health, sanitation, agriculture, labor, or other
related subjects. He knows personally many in these
professions through his period of training and through
contacts he has made in his area. He does not try to
duplicate these services. Instead he orients the
community to seek out the professional and to ask for
his technical assistance.

The group organizer does not assume that until he
arrived on the scene no community action existed in
the island. He is aware of the history of the ”juntas,"
and during training he has visited a number of centers
where community activity is already underway. There
is no problem of his competing with "already established
programs" or existing committees," for it is not in his
thinking or in his way of working to "establish com-
mittees" or "organize" people. Any action taken will
be action taken by the community itself.

In this close relationship with people a group or-
ganizer can best be described as a catalytic agent.
When he visits a community, he takes the time, whether
he is distributing books, putting up posters, or
showing a film, to listen to all the talk and discus-
sion of the peOple around him. His manner is easy and
permissive. He never pushes people into a reaction;
he never himself states in a declarative way which he
believes should be done; he does not try through words
to mould opinion or to have the people come to a de-
cision he himself may consider sound. He is not in a
hurry. He wants the people to meet together when the
desire it and to discuss all matters that they themselves
deem most important. All of this takes time. 2

 

12Verna A. Corley, "Community Education and the

School," Education for Better Livin , Bulletin # 9 (U.S.
Office of Education, I955), p. ESS.

-93-

If we were to'pursue this even deeper and go into
the suggestions for leaders in the informal group situa-
tion, we can find some good suggestions in George Romans
book, The Human Group. Among the many suggestions for
leaders stated in this book, the following seem to be par-
ticularly important: the leader will keep in mind the
values held in common by the peeple with whom he works and
will try to live up to them himself; he will lead the group
by being the initiator of activities, either directly or
indirectly; he will be careful not to give any orders that will
not or cannot be followed; he will use established channels .
for his communications and orders; he will not thrust him-
self on his followers in social occasions; he will not blame
nor praise members of the group before other members, (in
general, "praise in private”) although with care it might be
used in some circumstances in front of the group; he will
try to create the conditions that help the group discipline
itself, instead of trying to inflict punishment himself;
he will listen because he knows that the followers tell a
leader what they think he wants to hear, so he will want
to hear everything; and finally, the leader will know him-
self and find out what are his own weaknesses that he
must battle against.

If therefore, he (the leader) must know his men

well, he must know himself still better. He must
know the passions in him that, unchecked, will destroy

-99-

him as a leader, and he must know their sources in
his personality. For how can we control a force,

the source of whose energy we do not know? Self-

knowledge is the first step in self control.13

The following excerpts deal with the kind of train-
ing best suited for agents:

a. To provide the group organizer with an under-
standing of his historical and cultural past.

b. To give the group organizer a broad view of
our present-day social and economic problems.

c. To acquaint the group organizer with the pro-
grams of the various agencies working in the rural
areas.

d. To help the group organizer analyze existing
attitudes and practices and community participation.

e. To make a start on the never-ending process of
deveIOping methods and techniques for helping communities
find democratic means for solving some of their own
problems.

f. To help the field worker organize a program of
work, keep adequatelzecords, and have a positive attitude
toward supervision.

These interests led to the organization of
special short courses for rural teachers of the Turrialba
area and the inclusion of a course in the Normal School
curriculum on community development. These courses
‘were designed to alter the concept of the teacher in
his role as community professional by enlarging his
interests in the area of broad community development.
Teachers were encouraged to stimulate the processes of
community development without neglecting the training
of the children. The suggestion was advanced that
many activities of community develOpment could be in-
tegrated with the training of children. It was expected
that this would enhance the value of the training with-
out causing a net increase in the teacher's work load.

 

13George C. Homans, The Human Group (New YOrk:
Harcourt, Brace, 1950), .435,

thhannon,o pp. cit., p. 35h.
1SCharles P. Loomis and others, Turrialba: Social

S stems and the Introduction of Chan e (GIencoe: THe Free
Press, I953), p. 559.

-lOO-

The implications of this study for technical aid
programs seem to be quite clear. If the extension
system in a country to which technical aid is to be
extended has a stated policy "not to force peOple to
do anything against their will," then it must be recog-
nized that adoption of new practices can come only
if the people involved understand their importance,
see them work out successfully in practice, and find
in them distinct advanta es over the old practices.
This means that althoug the conditioning influences
can come through mass media, yet the influences lead-
ing to adoption must come from trusted and reliable
agents in the community, who can find and convince
those of influence among the peOple to try out and use
the new practice. Technological training is important
but it is not enough; agents must have training as well
in how to analyze local social situations and how to
work wiig the people and the groups of which they are
a part.

In most teacher-training institutions, the
staff does not really know how to participate in the
preparation of teaching personnel for community edu-
cation. The professors, themselves, are almost cer-
tain to be products of highly formalized educational
systems based on status, persons who had had no first-
hand experience with informal functional types of
education. Even the most brilliant lacks acquaintance
with the ABC's of democratic educational procedures.
They do not know, for example, what is involved in
learning how to chair a meeting; how to participate
in group discussion; how to plan for cooperative
problem-solving; how to be the kind of group leader
who encourages each individual member of a group to
contribute as much as he can to the solution of a
common problem, who feels and shows a sincere respect
for each individual contribution, who can analyze and
present the outcomes of discussion so that a group is
able to evaluate its programs in terms of its needs
and objectives, a preciating material gains but valu-
ing more the deve Opment of self confidence, faith in
cooperative educational processes, skill in applying
tgem, and determination to continue to improve through
t e r use.

 

16David E. Lindstrom, "Diffusion of Agricultural and
Home Economics Practices in a Japanese Rural Community,"
Rural Sociolo , Vol. 23, No. 2, June 1958, p. 183.

17Corley,‘0p. cit., p. 285.

 

 

~101-

In the way of summary concerning the agents that
will be responsible for the community educational programs
for technological change in Cuba, the personal qualities of
the individual are the starting point. It would seem advis-
able that he have at least the equivalent of a general high-
school education plus some special training in the many
facets of working with people in informal education. This
special training could be accomplished by a short-course
as introduction and continued help while actually working
later.

At least to begin the program, young men would fit
in better than women and they should have enough maturity
'to be able to gain the respect of the adults. Graduates
of the EA & I that have had some experience since gradu-
ation, rural pastors and rural school teachers could all
be used. It would not even seem necessary that the person
be able to give full time and might be doing this work in
addition to his own regular job; in some cases a fully paid
worker, in other cases on part-time salary, or, a completely
volunteer worker. In all cases the compensation, whether
_it be material or other benefits, should be suffiCient to

insure a personal responsibility for the program.

Further Recommendations
Related directly to the training of agents, many

questions are left unanswered. The actual course of

~102-
training needs to be outlined that will include what things
are needed and how the agents are to be taught. This is
important for the "process" of community education for
technological change is quite different from traditional
educational programs. Other than traditional methods will
need to be used in training the agents also.

The basis for this whole study is that it is used
to establish a program that can be closely observed and
that the original hypothesis, relating to the most effective
way to educate for technological change, be tested. It
is recommended then, that an outline be developed for the
continuation of this study.

The best point of measurement of results appear to
be "the adoption of approved practices". This should be
measured in the rural communities. The variables must be
controlled so that a direct relation of "adoption training
school programH can be compared to "Adoption-Community
DevelOpment program".

At this point some questions should be asked about

the instruction program at E A e I. If there are strong in-
dications that the training school program is not too effec-

tive in preparing young people to return to their home com-
munities to live and work, would it not be better to use the
facilities to train those who must leave the community to
seek economic opportunities elsewhere? Also, could the

training school facilities be used for short-courses during

-103-
some period in the year to compliment the education offered

in the communities for those who will continue to live

there?

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ItEEca: Cornell Universlty, I959.

Leagans, J. Paul. Develo in Professional Leadershi in
Extension Eaucatlon, CEP NumEer 3. Itfiaca: Cornell

n vers ty, 5 .

 

~110-

Mosher, Arthur T. ‘Varieties of Extension Education and
Communit Develo ment, CEP NumEer 2. ItfiEca:
Cornell Unlverslty, I958.

Unpublished.Material

 

Alers-Montalvo, Manuel. "Cultural Change in a Costa Rican
Village." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation,.M.S.U.,
1953.

Leagens, J. Paul. "Educational Interests of Farm Operators
in North Carolina as Related to work of Agricultural
Extension Service." Ph.D. Dissertation, University
of Chicago, 19A8.

Milk, Richard G. "An Evaluation of the Education Offered
at the Escuela Agricola 9 Industrial at Preston,
Oriente, Cuba." Unpublished report made at Ames,
Iowa, March, 1959.

Stabler, George M. "Bejucal: Social Values and Changes in
' Agricultural Practices in a Rural Community." Un-
pUblished Ph.D. Dissertation, MeSer' 19580

Other Sources

Axinn, George. Class notes from Graduate Extension Seminar,
Michigan State University, Winter 1960.

Ferguson, C. M., Administrator, Federal Extension Service,
USDA. "The Contribution of the Agricultural Mission-
ary to Rural Development Through Extension Methods
ggégducation," a talk given in Washington, March 1,

Read, Margaret. Lectures on "Patterns of Authority in
ggégural Change," Muchigan State University, Spring

Rokeach, Milton. Lectures on ”Psychology of Human Relations,"
Michigan State University, Spring 1960.

Sabrosky, Laurel, Extension Analyst, Youth Program Research
Branch, Division of Extension Research and Training,
USDA. "How to Evaluate Your Program." A talk given
in Washington, March 3, 1960.

Warner, K. F., Professor of Extension, University of Maryland.
"Analysis of a Local Situation and DevelOpment of a
Plan of Werk." Talk before agricultural missionaries,
washington, March 2, 1960.

APPENDIX I

REVIEW’OF LITERATURE

RELATED TO EDUCATION FOR
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE IN CUBA

by Edgar G. Nesman

JMuch has been written about the learning process as it relates
to technological change. It has been attacked from as many different
points as it has been related to different programs throughout the
world. For this reason any review of literature could be organized
in any number of ways. To cover the areas of special interest for
this study the following general sections are used: (1) Learning
Theory; (2) education for technological change, and; (3) special

conditions in cuba related to education.

May 1960

SECTION I LITERATURE RELATED TO LEARNING THEORY

In reviewing the literature, the same areas of interest were treated
by most of the authors dealing with the psychology of learning in general;
also are included the results of special studies. It would be difficult
to organize the following quotations in an order of importance for they
are all inter-related. It is found also that different authors use
slightly different terminoloy. For this reason the categories are ar-
ranged in alphabetical order according to the idea that is predominant
in the excerpt. At the and are some quotations of some sumaries of
overall views of the educational process .

ALL SENSES: This covers some of the findings about the use of the 5
senses and the results of practice in learning skills.

"The addition of kinaesthetic to visual or auditory stimulation
exerts a positive effect which is more uniform in appearance and usually
larger in amount thant that of combined auditory and visual stimulation.
While the conclusions stated in this paragraph have been reached pri-
marily by the use of disparate serial lists, there is evidence that they
hold in some cases for connected meaningful materials." (37-161 )*

"Learning must be experience-centered. All sensory input to the
organism is, of course, "experience". The problem for the teacher who
is to develop a climte for learning is to help provide the optiml
kinds of experiences that will relate to the problems of the learner.
The learner must get data upon his problem." (26-58)

"A distinction should be made beween practice and repetition.
Drill is required for the acquisition of any skill. Mere repetition,
however, does not automatically ensure a perfect result . Attention must
constantly be directed toward a clear defined and result, with evaluation
of the effectiveness of the practice at each step of the procedure.
Failure to attain skill is often due to this lack of evaluation or self-
criticism. "Am I doing it right? If not, wherein am I wrong?"

 

*(37-hel) 37 indicates source number and #81 indicates page number. A
numbered list of references will be found at the end of Section III.

112

-113-

One should know immediately after each practice just what the score
is. Did you do it right or wrong? Knowing at this time aids the person
to get the feel of the right way and to make corrections when the per-
formance falls short. Merely doing an act over and over does not make
for perfect performnce. .

Imgination also can come to your aid. Once you know how a proce-
dure ought to be done, by vividly imagining yourself carring out the pro-
cedure you will experience a gain in real practice." (36-1710

"Learning by doing", to be effective, as emphasized by Dockeray,
means that each trial is an opportunity for hitting upon the proper or-
ganization. When you read material once and with apurpose to understand
its content, you my partially succeed. A second reading with the same
purpose in mind should further your success. Understanding content,
however, calls for relationship thinking. In trying to see relation-
ships, you are organizing as you read. 0n the other hand, if you "read
over" your assignment two or three times, doing exactly the same thing
each time, little or no additional learning occurs. "It is not the
number of repetitions but the organization that takes place with each
repetition that counts." (l3-9h)

"Thus, in the acquisition of any skill it should be remembered that
the total organism is always involved. Recall your first efforts to
swim; you were taught how to breathe correctly, to hold the head and
body in a certain position, kick your legs, use your arms, and relax--all
isolated movements which did not propel you in the water. Only as you
were able to integrate, to react as a whole, did swimming result. It is
the integration of all these partial responses into a higher-order act
that produces skill.

Not alone in motor skills but in all man's reactions, the total
organism is involved. But remember that no organism exists in a vacuum.
There must be an environment which will not only stimulate the organism
but also provide the situations to which it responds. " (36-180)

"Acts of skill are often regarded as being less well-adapted than
verbal materials to rhythmization. The timing of gold shots, typing,
and msmr other perceptual-motor acts lies close, however, to the cate-
gory of rhythm. Harding (1933) has studied the behavior of trained
typists and has found that the more rhythmical group in the typing of
test words was the faster. The attempt to superimpose a rhythm aided
some learners and hindered others.

The effectiveness of rhythm probably results in part from the way
in which it assists in organizing the material into units which are
readily perceived together, in part from the accent it gives to certain
words as serial positions, which makes them stand out as reference
points, and in part from the fact that it assists an active attitude on
the part of the learner". (37-1477)

@HAVIOR CHANGE: Most of the literature reviewed is related closely to

 

behavior change but these exerpts deal directly with it.

"Social psychologists, psychotherapists, and other social scien-
tists, working in relative independence of traditional learning theory,

-m-

are discovering the conditions under which people may make behavior
changes of significance. These conitions include intrinsic determina-
tion of goals, emotional participation in the experience of decision
making, active involvement in planning the learning experience, express-
ion of feelings and integration of feeling into the learning process,
and various forms of person centering". (26-58)

"The term BEHAVIOR CHANGE, then covers more than the term LEARNING.
Ihe behavior of the individual can change when l. the individual is
placed in a problem situation, 2. when significant changes occurs in
his physcological state, and 3. through the operation of the dynamic
factors involved in retention." (27-111)

COMPLEXITY OF MmTERIAL: This includes the learning of meaningfu1.mater-

 

ial also as well as attention getting factors.

"Mbral: Everything else being equal, the number of persons who will
adopt a recommendation varies inversely with the number of points of com-
plexity in the recommendation itself." (6-355)

"These studies relate to the memorization of rote material rather
than.meaningful material. But when subject matter is full of meaning,
the advantage of the short, distributed practice periods is not main-
tained". (36-185)

"When relative size does influence rate of learning, it seems to do
so by virtue of novelty and "attention value" and by serving to introduce
pattern and isolation into what would otherwise be monotonous materials".

(37-h75)

"Introduction into a series of an item of unique color, shape, or
size may be a method of producing "isolation" of that item." ( 37-1475)

QQNDITIONED RESPONSES: This could have well been included in another

 

category on "rewards" or on "generalization" also.

"Attaching the old response to the new stimulus requires learning.
Much ofthis type of learning occurs during the first few years. Find-
ings conclude that susceptibility to conditioning increases up to the
fourth year, and then dhminishes, to adulthood." 36-173)

"In conditioning you do not learn new skills or how to pronounce
strange words. What you learn is how to form.a new connection between a
stimulus and a response already learned." (36-170)

"The concept of conditioned emotional learning accounts for many
of our human fears. A child grows up mortally afraid of thunder storms
because he was frightened in very early life; or he is afraid of the dark
and refuses to go to sleep without a light. But conditioning is not
limited to fears. Since it is a law of learning, it operates in acquir-
ing many kinds of learning. Conditioning can be adapted to large groups
of people or to abstract learning of the highest level. Whole nations

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are conditioned by a political philosOphy. Even Paul, in preaching
to the Athenians, took cognizance of the altar "To the unknown God" to
present the living God." (36-171)

DISCOVERY AND INSIGHT: These are related to a great deal of learning

 

that goes on outside of the formal organized school. But it has also
received some attention from.school teachers interested in teaching for
creativity. One item on incidental learning is included here also.

"One phase of the psychology of learning which has been somewhat
neglected experimentally, but which is of great significance in the
everyday learning of people, is the "discovery" phase. In almost every
learning situation, a certain.amount of so-called trial-and-error be-
havior precedes the making of study of learning, and, for that matter,
in many of the formal educational situations provided by the school,
this discovery phase iszminimal in scope. On the other hand, in.many of
the informal learning situations which abound in every day life, the
discovery phase is often the most prominent feature of the learning

process. " (37-572)

"In this type of learning you see a relation between parts and
whole, or a solution to a problem.or puzzle. It is under standing.
This experience comes suddenly. Once a solution occurs with insight
not only can it be repeated promptly but it can be applied in new sit-
uations. What is learned is not a specific stimulus-response pattern
but a relationship between the parts or facts as they bear upon the
problem. Insightful learning is far more valuable to the student than
rote learning or mechanized skills. It is the good teacher who will try
to arrange problems so that their essentials are brought out, from which
the student seeks the understanding of their basic relationships.

Learning with insight increases with age, intelligence, knowledge.
A questioning attitude aids in its development." (36-175)

"By this means, the child in school may not only acquire certain
skills in, let us say, geography, but he may simultaneously learn habits
of studying and emotional reactions to the school situation which will
facilitate and/or inhibit the present course of learning of geography
and which will influence further

school achievement in various ways."

(37-373 )
EEDT NEEDS: This is one of the most often encountered terms to be found

 

in the educational literature. It is interesting to note that it is
dealt with in all levels of educational organization and for all ages.

"If adult education is to broaden the base for participation it
must move away from traditional institutional approaches and concepts
of participation. Research is needed to discover whether the better-
educated.participate more because their previous experience prompts them

-ll6-

to seek solutions to needs through traditional and familiar patterns:
while the less-educated, with less experience in organized education,
do not perceive that pattern as the way to solve their needs." (8-110)

"a- whatever boys and girls learn in school results from the way
they perceive themselves and the demnds of the situations with which
they must cope.

b- changes in perceptions lead to changes in behavior.

c- to the degree that these perceptions correspond more ad more
closely with reality--physical and socialubehavior becomes more appro-
priate.

d.- a mar responsibility of the high school teacher is to help
boys and girls extend their perceptions, diffeentiate cause and effect
relationships among them, and generalize more effectively from behavior
that is based upon them." (145-61)

"Lorge's paradign for the stunt of incentives for learning in adult
education offers many items under the categories of what "people want to
gain" , "want to be", "want to do", and "want to save". If this formula-
tion were found to be truly useful for research, it might serve to define
the types of learning in specified areas of adult education according to
their effective incentives". (8-32)

"Extension peOple must recognize and meet the interests (expressed
desire to learn, sudy or gain more information about some object in the
environment which he believes will give him satisfaction) of farm people.

They must use the known interests as "spring-boards" for developing
further interests; for their responsibility is not . . . merely to
"serve" the people, because this is saying in reality that the actual is
the same as the ideal." (30) _

"It was found that geographic accessibility influenced attendance
at five types of adult education activities studied. The lower the
socio-economic status of the area, the higher was the prOportion of
persons who wanted such activities located within their neighborhoods .
This was not merely a question of physcial accessibility. Even more the
factor of "psychological accessiblility" was determinative. Persons
from er-status areas in unaccustomed surroundings had feelings of
"not belonging" and of being unwelcome." (8-l3h)

"Forual programs such as lectures and courses attracted the better
educated, economically advantaged persons from the higher ranking areas.
Among these was some overlapping of offerings. Increasing the number
of possible activities resulted in increasing the aggregate attendance.

mile W of the factors covered in this study are discussed in the
chapter on participation, this last finding has a definite bearing on
program building, especially in situations where an attempt is being
made to develop a coordinated program of adult education on a calamity
basis." (8-l3h)

"The principal that people learn most readily (or only) when they
are interested leads us to conclude that local people should participate
both in the analysis of their current problems and in selecting objectives
for the extension program. Hence, in all discussions of program building,

-117-

we give considerable attention to the methods whereby this local partic-
ipation in program building can be made effective." (ls-18)

"learning must be problem centered. For the most significant kinds
of learnings that adults do, the problem must be a problem for the
learner, not a problem.of the teacher. When the learner sees a real
problem.he is motivated to seek some kind of solution. The teacher can-
not "give" another person a problem, cannot expect "read chapter four"
to be a guiding problem. In the learning situation the problems must
arise in the experiences, perflexities, doubts, and thinkings of the
learner."

"Learning must be motivated. The problem.serves to provide energy,
direction, and sustaining force to the activities of the learner. To be
mximlly effective the motivation must be intrinsic. The problems
cannot be imposed from.an extrinsic need system: the teacher's ideals
society's demands, the textbooks's admonitions, the grading system."

(26-58)

"Teaching in terms of the child's life and surroundings is the best
way to teach or to preach, no matter what my be his or her future bus-
iness or occupation." (6-52)

"Learning becomes interesting and challenging when the learner is
aware of his need. Even though the task is difficult, the learner is
motivated in prOportion as he understands his goal.

Appeals based on reason or facts seldom influence people: to be
effective the appeal to reason must be coupled with some want or need.
The goals students set for themselves, the training they desire, and
their interests make learning a dynamic process." (36-185)

"The cues to learning are largely in terms of need. As pointed
out in the chapter on motivation, unfulfilled needs create tensions
which lead to a variety of activities in an effort to reduce tension.
An activity that restores equilibrium tends to be repeated when the
same need re-occurs." (36-155)

"Under the stress of great need, the cognitive organization involv-
ing the goal object and the most obvious and imediately perceived pos-
sible route to the goal object become simplified and isolated from all
other objects and events in the individual's field of experience. The
inmediately perceived barrier to the goal becomes a more and more dom-
inant object, attention tends to become centered on this one object,
and the result is a very narrow isolated, rigid organization. The
stronger the tens ion, the stronger the emotional "tone" of the situation,
the less likely that cognitive reorganization will occur. A man des-
perately in need of food will persist in maintaining his original notion
of how to get the food--he will not be able to "think through" new solu-
tions, discover new round about routes. The maxim "Necessity is the
mother of invention" is true only if the necessity is not too great."

(27-lhl)

"In terms of the propositions already examined in this book, the
result of the above two experiments can be summarized as follows: 1.
Cognitive reorganization will take place when a blocked goal exists in

-113-

the individual's field; 2. at any given moment, the objects in the
problem situation that will be perceived and hence available for the
cognitive reorganization will be selected in terms of the need; 3.

under conditions of intense need, the resulting cognitive reorganizations
my prove to be inadequate or bizarre ; h. but whatever the nature of
the cognitive-reorganization, it can be seen as directed toward tension
reduction." (27-115)

"There is evidence that when learning activities are related to
the needs and interests of some students but unrelated to the needs of
others, the former will learn more rapidly and their learning will have
greater permanence. In a situation free from coercion the latter will
make no effort to learn. This principle applies frequently without
receiving conscious attention from the teacher. It is of course, part
of the problem of the relation of meaning to learning. The teacher can
do much to make clear the relationship existing but not apprehended by
the students at the beginning of their learning experience. When this
is done, learning is facilited: when interest or need leads to contin-
ued use, retention is superior. Anderson and Gates have pointed out
that the best kind of practice is that which occurs in a functional
educational experience . Under such conditions students use skills and
apply facts previously learned and thus maintain learning in a meaning-
ful context." (21-857)

GOALS: This section is closely related to "rewards" and "felt needs".
There is an indication here also of how the goals should be arrived at.

"These findings are consonant with the analysis made by a psychia-
trist of cast studies of individuals 25-35 years of age. Dr. Billings
finds that this period of "mid-life is a transition period in which
bodily changes and social role changes necessitate a re-ordering of
personality organizations. . . . The major focus of reorganization
seems to be the new perception of time as no longer unlimited; there is
greater awareness of past, present and future, and actions of the
present are more clearly defined as means to a future end. As a re-'
sult, goals must be modified and made more specific. The implication
for adult education seems clear--for personal adjustment, as well as
for learning, it is important that goals be well-defined and clearly
related to action." (8-38)

"The goals must be set and the search organized by the learner.
Several experiments indicate that the active learner is a more effective
learning organism than the passive learner. In order that problems be
problems to the learner, it is significant that the goals of the broad
learning quest be set by the learner. It is also significant that the
learner participate in the organization of the total learning situation.

For maximum learning the learner must interact with other learners
in such a way as to expose his attitudes and gaps in knowledge and
skills to himself and to others." (26-59)

"The above findings, as they stand, seem to have strong implications
for adult
education program planning and policy. They stress particu-
larly the importance of well-defined goals for particular programs; of

-119-

clear statements about the difficulties and possibilities of achieving
these goals, and if total achievement is remote, of planning the program
in clear stages which can.be successively attained; and lastly of al-
lowing each individual to have some knowledge of his achievement at
appropriate points." (8-31)

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCEi Such things as age, sex and personal motivation

 

are contained in these exerpts.

"Learning, in its rate and amount, is partially determined by in-
telligence. This relationship is not impressively high, however, and
it would be unwise to assume that ability to learn and intelligence may
be identified, or, indeed, that there is a general learning ability.
The specific correlations between rate of learning and intelligence
which have been obtained probably are too low, however, due to the
homogeneity of the samples studied, the unreliability of the scores
obtained, and the lack of variety among the learning tasks employed."

(37-562)

"Sex differences in rate of learning are small and do not con-
sistently favor one sex or the other. Which sex will prove superior in
a given experiment is a function of amount of specific practice involved
in the measurements and of the character of the activity or material.
Both conditions are a.matter of training, the first of training at the
specific test activity, the second training at related things."

(37--555)

"Nicholson found, as did the authors just cited, that there were
usually several motives with one or more dominant, and.that most people
had some specific educational motive. The most significant variables
were sex and amount of formal schooling; if these were shmilar for
several people, their motives tended to be similar. vocational motives
were dominant at ages 20-h0, and for married men, separated or divorced
women and for people planning an occupational change. Intellectual--
cultural motives were highest for women, single men, and people with
higher previous education." (8-hh)

"It was suggested that precisely because of their previous inter-
ests, many people were not satisfied or stimulated by a program aimed
at the general community, which often did.not reach their own levels
of knowledge in the respective fields." (8-80)

"The evidence available at the present time does not reveal any one
best approach to teaching method. Certainly it does not support the
belief that successful teaching is possible only through the use of
some specific methodology. A reasonable inference from.sxisting data
is that methods which provide for adaptation to individual differences,
encourage student initiative, and.stdnmdate individual and group par-
ticipation are superior to those methods which do not. waever, there
are a number of approaches to teaching method which incorporate these
features, and it is a:mistake to suppose that they are attributable only
to one type of approach. It may be said further that some methods per-
mit more flexibility, give teachers more opportunity to use intelligence

-120-

and.imagination in the teaching process, and.are more adaptable to
varying conditions. These are values of considerable importance in a
decentralized and pluralistic system of public education such as that
of the united States." (21-853)

"Experience must be meaningful to the learner. The experience
that bears upon the problemwmust be suited to some degree to the
learner's innate capacity to perceive, his age, his interests, his
readiness, and his capacity to understand." (26-58)

MEANINGFULNESS: These deal in general with meaningfulness and a further

 

relation of learning, perception and experience.

"It is probable, on the basis of the available data, that there is
a very high positive correlation.between meaning and rate of learning."

(37471)

"The conclusion that there is a high positive correlation between
meaningfulness of material and rate of learning holds under a very wide
range of conditions. The greater effectiveness of the logical than of
the rote method seems to hold over almost as wide a range. The first
conclusion implies the generality of positive transfer: the second sug-
gests that learning is not a passive chaining of adjacent items, but
requires instead an active, analytic mode of response.

All these are not radically different from.the logical method in
verbal learning. In both cases the learner is seeking to organize
meanings to the end of controlling overt response thereby. The per-
vasive presence of representative devices and.meaningful relations in
the learning of perceptual-motor acts emphasizes the ubiquity of mean-

ing." (37-h79)

"Learning from experience: The generalization that it is not the
frequency of occurrence of an event or the objective sequence of cause
and effect which.determines the nature of the resulting cognitive or-
ganization but that only those things which are perceived and attended
to will play a role in the new cognitive organizations can help us to
understand the apparent failure of people to learn.from experience."

(27-120)

"People do learn from experience, but not from the sequence of
events as experienced by the political scientists, by the economists,
or by the social changer. PeOple learn from.the sequence of events that
they themselves perceive--and their perceptions may not include monopo-
lies or imperialism or graft." (27-121)

"Thus, the tendency of the human.mdnd to organize and simplify may
be invoked by grafting new forms of behaviour onto old forms so that
the new’seems old and familiar, or by letting one break in traditional
behaviour carry a number of other breaks.

As memory is selective just as perception is, great attention.must
be given, in all educational efforts, to allowing for sufficient time
and enough repetition so that facts which are less easy to assimilate
are not lightly forgotten.

-121-

Sometimes a perception will be so dependent upon an underlying set
of fundamental beliefs that it will not be possible to change a practice
without altering the whole structure of belief. Thus, a desire to lower
the infant death rate may not develop until there is a new concept ion
of the importance of each human individual, or a desire to compete with
other nations in the field of vital statistics." (38-301)

RETENTION : Retention or the factors related to forgetting are of in-
terest to educators in all of the fields. As it can be seen these same
items are related to other sections.

"Significant material is more slowly forgotten than nonsense syl-
lables. Nonsense material barely learned is almost forgotten in four
months, but poetry barely learned has been known to be retained after
twenty years. Material in which the elements are related as parts of a
whole is more readily learned than nonsense material. This is due to
interrelationships, which in turn depend on past experiences. The
reader would probably have not such background to utilize in committing
to memory a sentence written in Greek." (36-187)

"The conclusion for verbal materials has been that some degree of
recall (or recitation) with prompting during practice is a more effec-
tive condition of learning than is presentation alone. The few experi-
ments which have studied recall without prompting have obtained a similar
result.

(1) Recitation furnishes the subject with progressive knowledge of
results. This information (9.) acts as an incentive condition, (b) brings
the law of effect directly to bear, (c) favors early elimination of wrong
responses, and (d) by informing the subject which items have been learned,
promotes a more effective distribution of effort over the mterial.

( 2) Recitation favors articulation of the items and leads to the
utilization of accent and rhythm. ( 3) It likewise promtes grouping of
the items, localization in the series, and the search for meaningful
connections. ('4) In recitation, the subject is practicing the material
more nearly in the way in which it is to be tested and used--that is,
without direct stimulation from the copy. It constitutes, therefore,

a more imediately relevant form of practice." (37-507 )

"The cause of forgetting has often been considered a fading out due
to time. But investigations indicate that factors other than time in-
crease forgetting. If a learning session is followed by a period of
passive activity, more is retained than would result with an active
period following the learning interval. That is, intervening activities
between the times of learning and recall decrease the retention."

"There are variations in the kinds of material to be learned. Motor
learning obviously involves the use of muscles. learning to sew, cook
type, barber, or play ball are samples. These learnings might be classed
as nonverbal. Arithmatic, foreign languages, and reading are examples of
verbal learning. This classification involves the use of words. Many
tasks involve a combination of verbal and motor learning, such as dra-
natics and piano playing."

-122-

"The rate of forgetting verbal material is more rapid than the rate
for nonverbal. Typing skill can be brought back to par after a long
period of disuse, with a short refresher practice period, but this is
not true for a foreign language skill. However, verbal material ac-
companied by motor activity of some sort will be retained for a longer
period. The writer can still recall her first class period in high
school German when the teacher had the class actually perform her
German commands. Think of the boy who complains about his poor memory
in history but knows the names and batting averages of an astonishing
number of baseball players."

"Passive learning is not as effective as active learning. How often
have you reread your assignments and then commented "I don't remember a
thing"! But if you question the content, relate it to previous learning,
or organize it, you will find a plus result. This is active learning."

"Effective retention is dependent upon the kind of material learned
as well as the type of learning carried on."

"A great deal of study has gone into this problem of "whole" and
"part" learning. The investigations are somewhat contradictory. For
children and certain individuals the part learning is more effective.
They sense a feeling of immediate accomplishment. Probably the real
crux of the problem.is in the material to be learned. That is, "whole"
learning is recommended for learning those associations or skills which
form an integrated, functional unit." (36-189 to 192)

"For the sake of convenience, the distinction between learning and
retention has been given a different meaning than the logically analytic
one, learning being used to designate the acquisition of changes in be-
havior during a specified thme or up to a certain level, and retention
being used to mean any measured persistence of these changes after
practice ceases. Any failure of such persistence is called forgetting.

Fixation and retention thus mutually interact in the course of what
we call learning. It may also be stated briefly here, to be elaborated
much later, that learning pervades retention in the sense that one of
the conditions of forgetting is the learning of their responses. That
is, one forgets by learning other things." (37-6)

REWhRDS: This, like the section on felt needs is an area that is much
written about.

"In.a.similar fashion, the academic student may acquire habits of
flashy, but superficial scholarship which bring him.immediate rewards
at an.elementary level, but which.may prevent his success in.the rig-
orous work of professional or graduate college." (37-577)

"When educational activities are essentially voluntary and do not
lead.to degrees and formal institutional approval, the motivational
patterns leading to learning shift radically and impose new demands
upon an engineering-learning theory." (26-62)

-123..

"The learner must have feedback about progress toward goals. Stu-
dents of learning have long emphasized the importance of knowledge of
results in acquiring skills. Evaluation of progress toward goals,
particularly when goals have been set by the learner, is highly important.
Some indication of success or failure, some frame of reference for deter-
mdning adequacy of problem solution, some corroboration that the alley
is not blind, some reality factor with which to assess one's achievement
against one's level of aspiration, some knowledge of success or failure--
all are necessary in the functional feedback process." (26-60)

"There are a few important general principles concerning the use of
reward in training situations. First, and perhaps most important, is
the desirability of insuring frequent and regular experiences of suc-
cess-or reinforcement throughout all phases of learning, but particu-
larly in the earlier, and generally more difficult, phases."

"A second.maJor principle concerns the desirability of continuous
use of knowlege of results. The operation has two important functions
that go beyond its direct reinfbrcing role. First, it provides infor-
mation that is often necessary to gauge and adjust performance; this
is most apparent in regard to the improvement of motor skills. Second,
it is a very important motivator in its own right; this is particularly
necessary in training situation where original interest is low or strong
extraneous competition is present for attention and effort."

"It is generally recognized that the deliberate use of fear as a
motivator, or the use of punishment or threat of punishment with fear
as an almost unavoidable consequence, may have highly undesirable
effects."

"As advertising practitioners have long realized, one of the most
effective ways to motivate people is to allow them to sample at least
a small amount of the incentive in advance of the instrumental activity."

(21-896 to 898)

"Teachers are typically cautioned not to put too much dependence on
such extrinsic motivators as prizes, gold stars, and the like."

"Recent experimentation on curiosity and exploratory motivation
has initiated experimental and theoretical interest in these important
sources of human.motivation. . . . . for example, the most effective
experimental treatment was that in which the student was carried through
the entire process of inyestigation, including a full account of diffi-
culties and the attempts to overcome them.

Judicious use of external incentives can also be helpful in pre-
venting initial discouragement. This is a most important problem, be-
cause using general social or schoolroom.pressures to force students to
go through the motions of studying difficult material without sufficient
relevant motivation is one of the surest ways to produce a permanent
loss of interest and ability in a subJect matter; mathematics is prob-
ably a prhme example here." (21-898)

"Evidence of this kind would appear to indicate that one of the most
effective means of motivation available to the teacher lies in arranging

l-th-

learning situations so that every student experiences a reasonable degree
of success. The evidence is strong that success breeds success and a
failure breed failure.

The results of such studies favor individual rewards over group
recognition." (21-856)

"The strongest safeguard against an undesireable use of these
psychological principles will be in leaving new learning in the hands
of the group involved and helping them to develop means of making the
new learning rewarding, and the old learning unrewarding. Where people
do things themselves, for themselves, but with expert help in the pay-
chological principles which they invoke, the dangers of exploitation
and manipulation, although never absent, are minimized.

To sumnarize: The learning of desired new behaviours and attitudes
can be achieved by the learner's living through a long series of situ-
ations in which the new behavior is made highly satisfying-without ex-
ception if possible--and the old not satisfying." {38-2933 291*)

"The more effective educational program will be based on desire to
learn based on a desire to know the thing being taught instead of arti-
ficial motivations such as grades, titles, etc." (21-850)

"As a rule, an individual's behaviours, beliefs and attitudes grow
and change only to the miniml extent that is called for by the demands
of his imediate situation in life. All that is required is that his
daily behaviours and his daily perceptions have meaning and integration.
So a boy, when he marries, must alter his behaviour to that of a narried
nan; a married man must learn to be a father; a newly elected official
must alter his behaviour to suit his new role. But when an individual
is confronted not by an expected change in role, but by a chaotic ex-
ternal environment to which he cannot adJust with emotional satisfac-
tion, and which he cannot explain to himself, he is impelled to seek
a new adjustment-which relieves his tension. He tends also to seek
a new explanation of changed environmental situation, and his new ex-
planation also relieves his tension." (38-299; 300)

"PeOple are motivated to learn if they can satisfy a basic need
through learning. Basic needs, wants, desires, motives, incentives, or
urges have been classified in a variety of ways. The following cate-
gories are reasonably adequate for extension teaching purposes: 1.

The desire for security--economic, social psychological, and spiritual
security. 2. The desire for new experience--adventure, new interests,
new ideas, new friends and new ways of doing things. 3 . The desire
for affection or response--companionship, gregariousness, and social-
mindedness; the need for a feeling of belonging. h. The desire for
recognition--status, prestige, achievement, and being looked up to."

(66-5)

"Stimulation should slightly precede response for the learning to
be most efficient. It may also be noted that the mediation of language
can operate in man to reduce the need for close temporal contiguity.
Thus, we can learn to respond to the symbolic representation of a situ-
ation and later transfer that learning to the situation itself. The

-4L25-

success of such training probably depends upon the degree to which the
appropriate symbolic-motor habits have been established in the past.

Temporal contiguity, alone, however, is not productive of learning.
Reinforcement or reward is also necessary. This reinforcement, in
order to be effective, must closely follow the response which is to be
learned. we thus have two laws of contiguity, the one between stimulus
and response and the other between the response and the reward. The
concept of reinforcement, in turn, implies the condition of motivation.
This motivation.must operate either at the time of learning or must
have operated at some prior time, in order that the reinforcement will
be effective." (37-571)

"Satisfactions result principally from four major causes: (1) Eco-
nomical saving of money, time, and energy; (2) self-preservation--health,
accident-prevention, food, clothing, shelter, and temperature; (3) imi-
tation--following the example set by those worthy of being imitated;

(h) helping others.

Annoyances result principally from.four major causes: (1) Fixing
new habits of though or action; (2) breaking old habits of thought or
action; (3) prejudices and jealousies; (h) fears.

It must be stated once more that we are teaching persons as well as
subjects. Of the two, persons probably require the greater knowledge
and skill on the part of the teacher. He must keep in mind the five
impulses--group loving, sympathy or understanding, imitation, egoism,
and altruism.

Whether working with an individual or a group, giving approval
to the saving of time, energy, or money, or all of them, gives satis-
faction; the withholding of warranted approval produces annoyances; it
shows lack of understanding; it does not appeal to the ego as does
approval or recognition." (6-22h)

SEQUENCE: This section could also be entitled readiness for it deals
with the timing of learning acitivities.

"In order to bring about the desired changes in the behavior of
people, the extension teacher needs to organize activities so that there
will be repetition of the desired behavior, each successive repetition
building on the one before it. This conscious attention to organization
of teaching activities in a sequence greatly increases the efficiency
of learning. This is the advantage of an educational program over in-
cidental and occasional exposure to learning. The extension teacher,
therefore, plans and arranges situations and activities whereby the
thing to be learned is called to the attention of the prospective
learner; his interest developed, desire aroused, and action promoted."

(66-7)

"It cannot be emphasized too strongly that readiness for learning is
a factor at all educational levels. Readiness programs limited to just
kindergarten and the first grade are not enough. The unevenness of
development in the various aptitudes is all too apparent. As Cook
has demonstrated, intraindividual variability is 80$ as great as inter-
individual variability. A curriculum which places a standard and in-
flexible seriers of topics by grade level and which by implication

-126-

results in an expectancy of common learnings at each grade is bound to
miss the mark with nany students . For Optimum individual development
which leaves no child behind and holds none back there must be curricu-
lar arrangements which make it possible to meet each student at his own
level." (21-1085)

"Thorndike early in his career developed a number of laws of learn-
ing. One of these was known as the Law of Readiness. This law describes
the circumstances under which an individual will become annoyed or sat-
isfied during the learning process. The law has three parts, as follows:
a) when a conduction unit is ready to conduct, conduction by it is sat-
isfying, if nothing is done to alter its action; b) fer a conduction
unit ready to conduct, not to conduct is annoying and provokes whatever
responses nature provides in connection with that particular lack; c)
when a conduction unit unready for conduction is forced to conduct,
conduction.by it is annoying. This law clearly emphasizes that sat-
isfaction or frustration of the individual depends to a great extent
upon what he is prepared to do. An individual is ready for a learning
experience when he has an.appr0priate set for that experience; he is
unready when he does not have it. This notion of readiness is still
very prevalent today and has much validity. The child who is interested
and.motivated is certainly partially prepared for learning a given
activity. This represents one aspect of readiness." (21-1081)

"It should not be forgotten that the development of an ability-any
ability-is, in general, merely the final phase of a four step teaching
process. That process begins, as we must understand by now with the
developnent of an INTEREST in the ability to be acquired. After this
comes the teacher's effort to lead the pupils to adopt the IDEAL, or
purpose, of becoming genuinely skillful, or proficient, in such ability.
The UNDERSTANDING of the process to be performed.may then be taken up
separately; or instead, the understanding and ability may be taught to-
gether. This does not matter. ‘The important thing is to see that all
of these together constitute a single continuous teaching process, which
may extend through several class periods, and that in this ongoing pro-
cess, each phase passes over into the next so easily and naturally that
the pupils are not conscious of the slightest change or break at any
point." (28-88)

SOCIA1.MDTIVNTION: As education has left the classroom this area has

 

been increasingly important. There are two aspects, the social atmos-
phere of the learning situation and the social atmosphere of the loca-
tion.where the resulting change in behavior is applied. This last
aspect comes out in the literature of the section dealing with education
for technological change which follows.

"learning is most rapid when motivation is strong and goals are
clear, and in all adult educational programs the social situation in

both community and group terms influences both participation and out-
comes." (8-23)

-127- '

"we may also take into account psychological findings about re-
sistance to new learning.

New information psychologically avialable to an individual, but
contradictory to his customary behaviour, beliefs, and attitudes, may
not even be perceived. Even if he is actually forced to recognize its
existence, it may be rationalized away, or almost immediately forgotten.
Thus, a people who insist that majic is necessary to grow yams may have
it pointed out to them.that the foreign missionaries are growing larger
yams by using improved agricultural techniques instead of magic. They
will counter the evidence of their senses about the size of the mission
yams by insisting that the yams are a different kind, or that the
missionaries used their own magic, not an improved technology.

Individual exposed to facts or experinece contradicting a strong
system of behaviours, beliefs and attitudes can withdraw themselves
from them, sometimes even physically. Such withdrawal permits the
system to remain unchanged. It is, as we have noted above, one of the
less beneficial consequences of sustained tension or frustration. The
dismissal of any political information which is uncongenial as the
propaganda of an anew country, which sould not be attended to, is a
common contemporary examples of this mechanism,

Finally, as an individual's behaviour, belief and attitudes are
shared with members of his cultural group, it may be necessary to effect
a change in the goals or systems of behaviour of the whole group before
any given individual's behaviour will change in some particular respect.
This is particularly likely to be so if the need of the individual for
group acceptance is very great--either because of his own psychological
make-up or because of his position in society. Thus, it may be the
chief or prince who can most easily adopt a new practice, or, on the other
hand, a group may force such a leader to maintain the staus quo after
all the rest of the group have changed, providing a sort of anchorage
for the rest of the group. no knowledge of the way an individual of a
given constitution and capacity may be able to accept or reject change
can ever be used alone, without giving due weight to the nature of the
culture of which he is a part, and his position in the particular social
group within which he lives." (38-29h; 295)

"For instance, Kelley and Vblkart found that the extent to which a
group member's attitudes will be influenced by a communication, the
content of which runs counter to group values, is inversely related to
how highly he values his membership in the group. Duncan and Krietlow,
also, found that the more cohesive or homogeneous a neightborhood area
was as to certain cultural attributes, i.e. religious and ethnic group
affiliation, the less likely that area was to adopt new attitudes and
techniques. (8-61)

"When social competence and adjustment are accepted as important
objectives of the educational process, available evidence supports the
concept that the social climate of the school must be in consonance
(ith8zgj social ideals of the society in which the school exists."

21-

"Members of this group--whose teachers had superior knowledge of
their students--made greater gains in achievement, had better attitudes
toward school, enjoyed school more, showed more mutual acceptance,

-128-

exhibited fewer feelings of personal inferiority, revealed a decrease in
personal maladjustments, and possessed a more logical motivation toward
school work. Ojemann and Wilkinson also concluded that the attitudes of
teachers toward their students were improved as a result of increased
knowledge of their problems of adjustment." (21-8h9)

"It was in connection with this point of view that Hopkins developed
his theory of democratic interaction. His analysis involved the prin-
ciple that an educational theory based on democratic interaction will
place more importance on the quality of the process of learning than on
the outcome of learning. He mintained further that the kind of social
climate which obtains in a democratic group is one which provides for a
high level of cooperation on the part of all members of the group in
a. determining purposed to be achieved, b. making plans for achieveing
these purposes, c. devising methods for carrying out plans, d. evalu-
ating results, and, e. selecting new purposes involving continued
cooperative planning and action.

A number of studies have indicated that social climate is related
to productivity and to the quality of interpersonal relations . "

(21-850)

"The learner must be free to look at the experience. Much has been
written about the appropriate climate for learning. This climate is
described in various ways, as permissive, supportive, accepting, free,
spontaneous, reality-centered, or person-centered. learning is a
social experience." (26-60)

TRANSFER: This is an area in which there has been a great deal of dis-
cussion and experimentation. The results have effected the traditional
view of education.

"In its broader sense, something like transfer of training is basic
to the whole notion of schooling. Those who support schools, like those
who conduct them, must assume that the thing being taught at this par-
ticular moment will have some value at a later moment and in a somewhat
different situation. We assume that today's lesson in geometry will
surely help in tomorrow's lesson in the same subject, that it may also
help somewhat later in the study of analytic geometry, and, more am-
bitiously, that it may induce an apprereciation of logic that will
profoundly affect the student's entire way of life. Without some re-
liance on transfer, teaching would be hopelessly specific. It would be
necessary to train each student in every specific situation he might
ever face.

It is in the field of the curriculum that the problem of transfer
has had the most interesting and most storm history. In some ap-
proaches to the curriculum, of course, the problem of transfer plays
little part. It may be held, for instance, that knowledge of literature
is a good thing in and of itself, or that such knowledge is necessary
if we are to achieve the prestige and acceptance that we desire. Here
transfer is involved only slightly, if at all. When the curriculum is
justified on the grounds of utility, however, the case becomes very dif-
ferent. What, then, can we say in defense of subjects that have little

-129-

obvious claim to immediate utility? The proponents of the modified
residual theory would have us invoke an exceedingly remote future utility.
These theorists claim that at any given time some societies my culti-
vate mny skills as making designs on a rock "just for the fun of i ",
and that later generations my suddenly find these playful skills to
have tremendous utility when their usefulness for such a thing as com-
nnmication is unexpectedly appreciated. But this modified residual
theory is rarely stressed. Much more frequently the "useless" subjects
have been justified by claiming a substantial transfer value for the
subjects in question. The tendency to endow certain subjects with
tremendous transfer powers received its most systematic development in
the classical doctrine of formal discipline. According to this doc-
trine, the study of cultural subjects such as Latin could be depended
upon to transfer to a great may activities. In most versions of the
doctrine it was held that this transfer took place by improving the
entire "mind" , or by strengthening some very broad "faculty" of the
mind, such as memory, jent, or ability to reason. This entire

issue has received a tremendous amount of attention and has played an
important part in the history of education." (21-1535)

"This conclusion is reasonable on the grounds of what is known
about transfer. Practice at learning keeps active one ' s methods of
study, yields an increasing body of potentially transferable knowledge,
and my indirectly increase motivation. The operation of continued
practice may be a powerful determiner of the increasing scores with age
up to early maturity, and its absence my be a determiner of the decline
during later mturity." (37-5hl)

"The increase in rate of learning with age over the years to early
maturity, its relative constancy during the next decade, and its slow
decline thereafter appear over a very wide range of conditions and are
among the more general facts of the psychology of learning." (37-5hh)

"Thus , children my master motor skills more slowly than more
nature learners because of a less well-developed motor equipment, while
the aged my learn more slowly because of sensory, connecting or motor
mechanisms which are less effective than they were at maturity. Chil-
dren my learn ideational materials more slowly than the mature because
of less retained experience which will transfer positively to the new,
and perhaps because of less effective motivation to learn such mater-
ials . The aged my learn similar things more slowly than the mture
because of negative transfer, or because they are less highly motivated
to learn them. In many ways, the two sets of conditions may operate
together; and, to extents now unknown, my be functions of each other. "

37 -551

"This same philosophy is inherent in Judd's writing when he states
that education is training in generalization, that experience is changed
in quality by its organization, that no item of experience has signifi-
cance except as a part of some larger whole or organized consciousness.
Abstraction is not a particular item of experience; it is a method of
thought. The highest powers of mind are general, not particular.
Mental development consists not in storing the mind with items of know-
ledge but with power to think abstractly and to form general ideas.

-13 0-

When these ends are attained, transfer has taken place.

Surely unless there is transfer in teaching the principles, ideals,
and attitudes of good conduct we waste our time. Humn nature is some-
thing more than mechanistic connections. Training a nurse to keep a
patient's room neat may not carry over to keeping her own room neat.
Only by teaching the ideal of neatness can a carry-over be expected.

In determining transfer, how you study is far more important than
what you study. Transfer does not occur automatically. You must plan
for it. Relationships must be noted; applicability of principles must
be ascertained. Then try to relate what you read with other knowledge .
Transfer takes place because experience and learning are generalized.

A most promising subject can be turned into an intellectually barren
performance if presented by an instructor who has no breadth of outlook
and does not know how to teach students to generalize their experience. "

(36-173)

"A second argument for the study of contemporary life grows out of
the findings relating to transfer of training. As long as educators
believed that it was possible for a student to train his mind and the
various faculties under whatever conditions might be appropriate, there
was less need for analyzing contemporary life to suggest objectives.
According to this view the important objectives were to develop the
several faculties of the mind and as life developed the student would
be able to use this trained mind to meet the conditions that be en-
countered. Studies of transfer of training, however, indicated that the
student was much more likely to apply his learning when he recognized
the similarity between the situations encountered in life and the situ-
ations in which the learning took place. Furthermore, the student was
more likely to perceive the similarity between the life situations and
the learning situations when two conditions were met: 1. the life
situations and learning situations were obviously alike in mny respects ,
and 2. the student was given practice in seeking illustrations in his
life outside of school for the application of things learned in school.
These findings are used to support the value of analyzing contemporary
life to identify learning objectives for the school that can easily be
related to the conditions and Opportunities of contemporary life for
use of these kinds of learning." (60-12)

“HOLE-PART: Recent findings indicate that there is particular need to

 

take this concept into account when beliefs and attitudes are being
dealt with.

"A fourth variable is whether the beliefs of a new system (politi-
cal, religious, scientific, etc.) are exposed, imposed, taught, or pro-
mulgated all at once or gradually. In those with relatively closed
systems , problem- solving is clearly facilitated when the parts of the
new system are presented all at once "on a silver platter" . The dish
is very tempting, and therefore swallowed whole. There is no need to
pre-digest it beacuse little or no resistence to synthesis is offered
by the everyday belief system. Consequently, problem-solving proceeds
more smoothly in closed persons when new beliefs are presented all at
once than when presented gradually. However, it makes no difference to

-131-

those with relatively Open systems whether the beliefs are presented
gradually or all at once. The total solution of problems takes just

as long in either case, suggesting that open persons genuinely feel the
need to work through, to reconcile the new with the old, even if they
do not have to." (67-287;286)

"There is reason to believe, however, that meaning and unity are
important conditions favoring the whole method, but that they may be
outweighed by other conditions, when these are present in sufficient
degree. Conversely, disparateness of mterials and relative lack of
meaning, which seem to favor the part methods, my be counterbalanced
by other conditions which give advantage to the whole methods." (37-503)

"Many learning curves do not show plateaus. In certain areas it is
possible to mnage your learning effort in such a way that no plateau
will occur. Investigations have shown that if the learner deals with a
whole performance as a unit rather than with its specific elements,
plateaus do not appear. By attacking the problem of wholes at the be-
ginning of his learning task, the individual fuses the various elements
and a smoother learning curve results." (36-195)

"One very broad generalization will aid teachers and curriculum
workers on any level; the items within any given learning situation
should have some relation to each other, and all of them must be related
to some whole which is the real reason for the given learning situation.
This holds for all levels of general or special education.

Stated in extreme form for emphasis this means that separate,
fragmentary items , be they fact or concept, have no meaning for the
learner. They have, in fact, no meaning for anyone. This reemphasizes
the absurdity of learning all sorts of facts and skills (dates, capitals,
geographical locations, names of prominent persons , battles successions
of kings or presidents, grammar rules, and ten thousand other items) in
isolation and by themselves, apart from use in meaningful situations.
Valuable useful learning arises out of meaningful situations and includes
relationship as among the most important outcomes." (9-216)

SUMIARIES 0F IEARNING: A number of authors have sought to summarize the
laws of learning for their specific situations. Almost all of the pre-
vious literature cited deals with the same items covered here although
some were related to specific experiments.

"1. Principles of good pedagogy apply to adults as well as to
school children.

2. Learning is more rapid and efficient when the learner is a par-
ticipant rather than simply a spectator.

3. When a visible and tangible product appears as a result of a
learner's activity, interest is greater and the learning will be longer
continued. There is a high interest in knowledge of the results of
learning.

h. Group learning is better, i.e. more effective, than individual

-]_32-

5. The greater the number of sensory channels used in the learning
process, the greater is the actual amount of learning.
6. learning must be used to be retained." (ll-chit)

"l. The learner is a behaving organism. Activity is primary and
continuous.

2. The learner is a goal-seeking organism. Activity is directed
toward and controlled by purposes. The remote general purpose is to
restore and maintain equilibrium and comfort.

3. The learner reacts to whole situations or total patterns and
not to isolated or abstracted parts thereof.

h. The learner reacts as a whole. He reacts all over, intellect-
ual, emotional, and physical reactions being simultaneous.

5. The learner racts in a unified way. Unless interference occurs,
his total reaction, intellectual, emotional, physical, is coordinated
and integrating toward achievement of purpose." (9-212)

"1. Society and education are static and authoritarian.

2. The learner is passive and receptive

3. The learning process is associative or additive (the terms ato-
mistic and mechanistic are often used).

1:. The teacher is a task-setter and drill-mater. . . . . .

.- or -

1. Society and education are dynamic and democratic.

2. The learner is a behaving organism, an active participant in
his own education.

3. The learning process is continuous, interactive, purposeful
experienceing.

h. The teacher is a participating guide.

The two teaching procedures cannot possibly produce the same re-
sults. The one aims at molding individuals in conformity with a static
and authoritarian society through unrelieved imposition of selected
segments of the cultural heritage . The other aims at develOping re-
sponsible, creative individuals who will realize their unique possibil-
ities within a flexible, cooperatively determined society. This group
will discover the cultural heritage instead of having it thrust upon
them. More important, they will discover how it was produced, and hence
what it means." (9-230)

"1. Adults learn best (most rapidly) when they have a strong de-
sire to learn.
2. Adults learn best when they have clear goals.
3 . Adults learn best when they put forth an effort to learn .
h. Adults learn best when they receive satisfaction from what
they have learned." (66-6)

"It is practical education, applying science to real-life situ-
ations on a learn-to-do-by-doing basis.

It is education for action, action by individuals in improving their
farm and home skills and mnagement, their health and other individual
needs, action by groups to improve such environmental, economic, and
social factors as mrketing, purchasing, community health, recreation,
soil conservation, and the like.

It is education that through participation builds the individual

-133-

mentally to exercise effectively his own thinking, judgment, and leader-
ship in solving his own problems and, in cooperation with others to
solve group problems .

It is education that recognizes the psychology and habits of the
people in each community and utilizes those techniques that, in terms
of local interest and understanding, have mximum effectiveness." (53)

"The first law seems to be that we learn by action, rather than by
absorption.

We learn to do by doing, rather than by talking about doing.

We learn to think by thinking, rather than by memorizing what some-
one else has taught.

We learn to live by living, rather than by having someone tell us
how to live.

The duty of a college is to be a supplement to experience.

The temptation of a college is to become a substitute for experience.

All he expected that first school to do was to direct his sons in
getting their experience in the least wasteful way.

We, his successors, have too often thought we could deliver canned
experience to our sons--in textbooks and lectures .

We cannot, and the sooner we organize all our schools in terms of
learning by action, rather than by absorption, the better." (18)

"I. The perceptual and cognitive field in its natural state is or-
ganized and meaningful.

II. Perception is functionally selective.

III. The perceptual and cognitive properties of a substructure are
determined in large measure by the properties of the structure of which
it is a part.

1. When an individual is apprehended as a member of a group, each
of those characteristics of the individual which correspond to the
characteristics of the group is affected by his group membership, the
effect being in the direction either of accimilation or of contrast.

2. Other things being equal, a change introduced into the psycho-
logical field will be absorbed in such a way as to produce the smallest
effect on a strong structure .

IV. Objects or events that are close to each other in space or
time or resemble each other tend to be apprehended as parts of a cannon
structure." (27-107)

"I. As long as there is a blockage to the attainment of a goal,
cognitive reorganization tends to take place; the nature of the reor-
ganization is such as to reduce the tension induced by the frustrating
situation.

II. The cognitive reorganization process typically consists of a
hierarchiacally related series of organizations.

III. Cognitive structure, over time, undergo progressive changes
in accordance with the principles of organizations.

IV. The ease and rapidity of the cognitive reorganization process
is a function of the differentiation, isolation, and rigidity of the
original cognitive structure............The conclusion is made that
simple and isolated structure are more amenable to reorganization by
direct attack whereas differentiated and interdependent structure are
more amenable to restructuring by indirect attack." (27-lh2)

-134-
"GENERAL DEFINITION: Learning is the process of acquiring useful respon-

ses and controls of response through experiencing them."

"1. The learning process is experiencing, reacting doing, under-
going. Scores of different learning activities are utilized.

2. The learning products are responses and controls of response,
values, understandings, attitudes, appreciations, special abilities,
skills.

3. The learning process proceeds best when the numerous and varied
activities are unified around a central core of purpose, when the
learner's interest is in the activities and products, when the learner
identifies himself with the purpose through originating or accepting it.

h. The learning products accepted by the learner are those which
satisfy a need, which are useful and meaningful. learning products which
are extraneous to need and purpose are either rejected or learned only
superficially. (Actually they are not truly learned at all.)

5. The learning process proceeds and the learner grows through
continuous individuation of new patters out of original wholes and the
reintegration of the new wholes into the total personality pattern.

6. The learning products are perfected through a series of dis-
crete, identifiable experiences. The number of experiences necessary for
the production of a change in the learning organism will vary from.one
to a great number depending upon: the type of learning, the adJustment
between difficulty of learning and.maturity of the learner, the relativ-
ity of the learning situation to the life of the learner, the speed with
which insight deveIOps, and many other factors.

7. The process of organization implied in 5 and 6 may be slow and
gradual, or relatively rapid, or sudden. Good learning situations will
stimulate continuous changes in the pattern of response toward an ever
better organization. The better organized into systems the learning
experiences are, the less likely they will be forgotten. Isolated
and fragmentary items are soon forgotten.

8. The learning products when properly acquired, are complex and
adaptable, not simple and.static. They are transposable from situation
to situation, or more supply, there is transfer of training.

9. The learning experiences, to be of maximum value, mat possess
lifelikeness for the learner. They must satisfy a current purpose, be
continuous with on-going experience, and be interactive with a wide and
rich environment.

10. The learning experience, initiated by need and purpose, is
likely to be motivated continuously by its own incompleteness. Further
stimulation through subsidiary purposes suggested by the teacher may be
necessary.

ll. The learning process and its products are conditioned by heredity
and environment.

Hereditary factors: a plastic nervous system, glandular balance,
chemical composition and secretions, the various physiological systems,
organic drives, etc.

Environmental factors are: the cultural heritage, the mores,
customs and institutions of society, pressures of many kinds, economic
status, informal educational influences, the school system, etc.

12. The learning process and its products are affected by the level
of maturity of the learner as indicated by various measures of chrono-

-13 5-

logical, mental, emotional, physiological, and social age: by the nature
and amount of previous experience as indicated by tests of informational
background, interests, needs; by fatigue, etc.

13. The influence of previous experience upon learning is regarded
quite differently by the two maJor schools. The associationists stress
its hmportance and note the value of knowing the learner's background
of experience. The principle of "apperception" is important. The
field-theory group places more emphasis upon the clarity and organiza-
tion of the field of pattern, upon subsequent differentiation through
insight. The sensible view would seem to be that both emphases are
important.

1h. The presence of many errors in a learning experience is usually
though not always an indication that the experience is too difficult for
the learner's level of maturity. Better pacing is needed.

15. The learning process and the acquisition of products are ma-
terially affected by individual differences among the learners.

16. The learning process proceeds best when the learner has know-
ledge of his status and progress. The satisfaction accruing from
success, from challenge to overcome difficulties, and to rectify failure
definitely aids learning. Failure imposed by others, or by arbitrary
standars beyond the control of the learner, is not an educative situation.

17. The learning process is unified functionally, but distinguish-
able types of learning may be separated for discussion; perceptual,
sensori-motor, memoriter, problemrsolving or conceptual, efffective.

18. The learning products are interrelated functionally but may be
listed separately for discussion. values, understandings, attitudes,
appreciations, abilities, and skills are all interrelated in any one
given learning product possessed by the learner.

19. The learning process proceeds more effectively under that type
of teaching)which guides and stimulates without dominating or coercing."

9-212; 213

SECTION II EDUCATION FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

DWRATIC PLANNING: Most of the experiences listed here deal with

 

other than classroom education but the same topic was often referred to
in general learning theory.

"Departments of vocational agriculture also have pioneered in the
use of lay advisory committees. Citizens comittees and lay advisory
comittees for school systems as a whole only recently have come into
rather general use. In many states lay advisory committees have been
assisting in the planning of curriculum content and the use of facili-
ties for vocational education in agriculture for a number of years.
Like many other educational innovations the use of lay assistance is a
procedure which has undergone major development in vocational programs
before being adopted in other school activities." (59-180)

"Application of "dynamic factors" to adult education. When control
of the direction of the program or activity is not widely and denocrati-
cally distributed, identification with the program and with the offering
agency is inhibited. Activity will take place only in terms of the spe-
cific benefits and satisfactions derived. When, however, participation
also means a measure of control over direction of the programs and re-
sponsibility for development and achievement of its goals, the partici-
pant will tend to identify himself more closely with the group and its
objectives. His motivation for participation is thereby increased.

At the same time the institution (or the teacher) loses a measure
of control over the process and direction of the activities of the
group. The passive conception of participation frequently expressed by
adult educators (class attendance, public relations, etc. ), by commity
planners (limited advisory committees) , and by organizational personnel
(docile membership), may well reflect a feeling of insecurity resulting
from partial recognition that active participation involves a transfer
of control from the "leader" to the group." (8-113)

"As a general recomendation, then, it is possible to say that it
is dangerous ever to make any plan, or to try to execute any plan, with-
out the active participation of members of the culture, of the particu-
lar professions, and of the administrative apparatus concerned; as soon
as any planned change has a specific population group as its object,
members of that grouputhrough demonstration villages pilot projects,
etc.--must be brought into the planning.

Whether we focus on the need for homogeneity in type of practice or
on the need for reconciling widely different basic ideologies and val-
ues, this procedure is necessary. The arrogant self-assurance which
makes more industrialized countries force their methods on the less in-
dustrialized, the touchy eagerness to prove themselves that character-
izes young nations, the missionary zeal of the apostles of the scienti-
fic viewpoint, and the defensive measures of the religiously orthodox,

-l36-

-137-

may all be welded into a working whole if exponents of each position
plan together.

It will be recognized that this recommendation is again'based.on
the principle that culture is mediated through persons, and that a cul-
ture, or a.profession, or a level of administration, or a.point of view,
cannot be represented by a charter, a diagram, or a printed description,
but only by living human beings who themselves embody the position which
is to be taken into account." (38-307; 308)

”Experience has taught us that change can.best be introduced not
through centralized planning, but after a study of local needs. In
China the mass education programme was carried out by intellectuals who
lived in the villages and learned the needs of the peeple. When this
principle is not followed, the education programme fails, or even works
harmm In many Latin American demonstration farms, for example, ways of
keeping records on the basis of tractors and combines are shown to ferns
ers who use only a foot-plough, and agronomist, trained according to
principles developed on the national level, present to the cultivator
material which is inapplicable on the local level." (38-27h)

"The development of a curriculum designed to prepare individuals
for a.particular occupation or family of occupations for which a need
has been identified should be based.upon a careful analysis of the occu-
pation. Such an analysis is based upon a systematic study of what it is
that a successful worker does and.needs to know in the practice of his
occupation.

The same technique is used in revising courses and curriculums so
as to reflect changes in the practices in the occupation." (21-1560)

"Advisory committees are important because training young peeple
and adults is a cooperative undertaking shared by the school and the
community. The committees' function is to counsel with and advise the
school with respect to improving the vocational program, to foster clo-
ser cooperation.between agriculture, industry, business, the home, and
the school, and thus to aid in the development of an educational program
that will more adequately meet the needs of the community. They have
no administrative or legislative authority and are not created to usurp
the prgrogatives of boards of education and administrative staff."

21-15 0

FELT NEEDS: This is another category that is repeated.

 

"Extension education.moves along the line of the current interests
and needs of rural peeple. The extension.process follows the line of
the interests of rural people because it is along lines of existing in-
terest that people want to learn and are most ready to move and.to make
responsible decisions. Some people would not add the word "needs" at
all, since this opens the possibility of substituting emphasis on the
allegedly greater needs of people (as Judged'by extension personnel)
for emphasis on matters in which the people are currently interested.
However, while following the current interests of peeple for the most
part, the extension process may rightfully include helping people learn
to identify, understand, and'become concerned about needs which they had

-13 8-

not previously "felt" Hence, "current interest" is named first, but
"needs" are also included." (kl-l3)

"Rural education involves the development of curriculums based upon
the experiences, environment, and life interests and needs of the stu-
dents involved- -both children and adults--and the preservice and inser-
vice education of teachers who can develop and use such curriculums.
Rural education as a distinctive field arises from the premises that in-
dividuals learn in terms of their past experiences and from environmen-
tal influences and that rural children and youth have unique experience
and environmental influences. These aspects are designated as qualita-
tive, philosophical, and internal." (21-1166)

"Excellent results, on the other hand, are reported cases where the
programs of education was based on local needs. In the village of El-
Msnayel in Egypt the building of a schoolhouse, carried out on the basis
of discussions with the villagers, according to specific local needs,
meant village co-operation in the filling in of an unhealthy pond for
the school site, the levelling of the village streets to get material
for filling in the pond and, as an indirect result, better comunica-

tion. " (38-275)

"The needs felt by the people, as distinguished from those felt by
the innovators, constitute one of the most important factors pertaining
to the acceptability of an innovation in any particular case. If the
people fail to feel or to recognize the need for an innovation, it may
prove impossible to introduce it on a voluntary basis." (Sh-297)

HOME CENTERED: Although this comes out in other categories, much space

 

is dedicated to it in the literature dealing with technical change. It
is not only present in relation to Home-economics education but is re-
lated to the family as one of the fundamental units of society.

"It is also realized that the great force that readjusts the world
originates in the home. Home conditions will ultimately mold the man's
life. The home eventually controls the viewpoint of a man; and you may
do all that you are of a mind to in schools, but unless you reach in and
get hold of that home and change its conditions you are nullifying the
uplift of the school. We are reaching for the home. If the home lacks
culture and the boy fails to get the right training, there is a weak
spot in his character that no future teaching can help very much.

The matter of paramount importance in the world is the readjustment
of the home. It is the greatest problem with which we have to deal, be-
((2.113: )it is the most delicate and most difficult of all problems."

"Probably no other single phase of our educational program has done
more to bring parents into close contact with the affairs of the second-
ary school and with the progress and the problems of their youngsters
than has vocational agriculture. Since each student carries on some
form of supervised work-experience or project activities, generally at

~135%-

home, it is mandatory that vocational agriculture teachers visit and
confer with these boys to instruct and guide them in the conduct of
these activities. Home projects necessarily involve the use of facili-
ties on the farm, and parents, almost without exception, are brought
into the picture and.become a.part of the instructional program of the
school. The following statement made by one farmer would.undoubtedly
apply in thousands of cases throughout this country: "The only time any
other teacher comes out here is when my boy is in trouble. Naturally,
we welcome the vo-ag teacher's visits."

The value of using conmunity resources in teaching at all levels is
increasingly being recognized. This commendable, development offers
limitless possibilities for a.meaningful and adaptable curricular ex-
perience for children. Use of local resources and.real experiences has
been inherent in the teaching of vocational agriculture from its begin-
nings, for agriculture is not a subject which can be confined within a
classroom, Realizing that the farms of the community offered a rich
laboratory for putting into practice many of the principles and theories
learned in the classroom, vocational agriculture teachers long ago
accepted this method of teaching. Even yet, unfortunately, agriculture
departments are perhaps the only place in our total educational effort
where one might report with confidence that community resources are
regularly used." (59-179; 180)

"Basic to the philosophy of every homemaking program.is a convic-
tion that educational efforts can contribute most to individual growth
and development when they are directed toward.particular backgrounds,
needs, interests, and concerns. It becomes important in implementing
this belief for the homemaking teacher to:

1. Think in.terms of the values and.practices of different families in
our own communities, and not of families in general.

2. Recognize the worth and dignity of each individual in the family.

3. Believe in.the importance of cooperative effort in solving family
problems.

h. Deal with all phases of subject matter, not in isolation, but to use
problems in teaching which cut across several areas of family
living; and

5. Believe in the importance of choice making because individuals and
families face and solve problems in different ways." (59-2h3)

INTEGRATION: In planning educational programs there is usually a divi-

 

sion made of specialities dealing with different areas of life. This
literature deals with the need to have all dimensions dealt with in an
effective program,

"Extension work in Latin America, being in the formative stage,
could well avoid some mistakes made in other countries. In various
parts of the world, experiments have demonstrated that most progress is
made when the different agencies work together on the whole range of
needs and wants of the local community. If different, poorly-integrated
administrative units are established for all activities of separate
bureaus, much competition, overlapping duplication, and frustration of

-140. ‘

work and.purpose and general inefficiency are the inevitable results.
It, therefore, is common sense to recommend that the extension program
should be established in such a.manner that the extension agent utilizes
the resources of all bureaus to solve rural problems." (7-132)

"The agents of change have a wide choice of methods; they can at-
tempt to influence the perceiving individual directly; they can alter
the environment so that it will in turn alter his perception; they can
create situations within which he will continue to remain in contact
with the new situations; they can attempt to satisfy the needs and emo-
tions which lie at the root of the existing behaviours in a way which
will include the proposed change; they may create social support for the
individual who adopts the new‘behaviours. Taken together, these methods
involve working through many or all of the personality-forming agencies
in a society--institutions, individual people, objects. Any programme
aimed at successful change needs to be multi-dumensional." (38-301)

"The cultural development of several of them shows that, in this
respect, no advance is possible, even for energetic and.progressive c
community, unless an overall plan, supported.by the State, is brought
into effect. Any such undertaking must be based on a firm, determina-
tion to improve conditions in the communities. This means that a com-
prehensive' campaign is necessary." (61)

"Today there is fairly general recognition that the promulgation
of Christianity cannot be limited exclusively to preaching. Leading t
theologians agree that a wide area of social service activity is a.ne-
cessary'part of church responsibility. Meat denominations will insist
that "the source of these social services must always be the redeeming
Gospel, never mere humanitarianism," That salvation is in Christ, not
in modern technqiues and technology, is a.point emphasized by Protestants
and Catholics alike. There are doctrinal differences, but most modern-
mdnded church leaders will agree that "the fruits of creation and.re-
demption.must be used and enjoyed by the integral man. The work of the
missioner cannot be one-sided." (35-17)

"Point Four Administration has come to the viewpoint that special
projects, at least in agriculture and health, are not as effective as
integrated community projects, and these, in turn, are not as effective
as regional projects." (Sh-#16)

METHODOLOGY: Methods of education is a complete study in itself but it

 

is so closely related to educational theory that it naturally enters in-
to the discussion. It has often been suggested that it is at the point
of application that educational programs break down.

"It has been ascertained that the actual demonstration of a thing
is the most effective. A farmer is rather prejudiced; he is conserve»
tive and.rather hardpheaded; he is a man of sense and wants to be shown;
and he is skeptical until he is shown. If you can take his farm.and
show him that things can be done on it differently from the way in which

.141...

he is doing those things and that results can be secured, then he is
likely to follow. That seems to have been the conclusion from the de-
monstrat ion work that the federal government and the state departments
of ayiculture have undertaken. Personally I know today of no better
way of reaching the farmers than through this demonstration process."

(6-97)

"Everywhere, however, demonstration techniques carefully carried
out have been found to be effective; in the Middle East they are indis-
pensable, and have worked even when religious tenets threatened the
effectiveness of the programme. Demonstration has been effective in
India, Africa, Greece. Films of the entire process are sometimes ef-
fective , but only when they are taken against a local background. Lam-
bert showed New Guinea groups graphic representations of the progress of
hookworm through the intestinal tract, with good results. In the Middle
East, however, where "slowly-slowly" is a maxim, movies are not entirely
effective, as they move too fast for people who have to mull over

thinsS- " (38-275)

"For example, a critical observer, watching from a distance, may be
impressed with the way in which local officials in the Indonesian Repub-
lic have adapted the traditional shadow play to their programes of
keeping the people of the villages informed about the changes which are
being vigorously pursued throughout Indonesia. . . .If, however, some
programme of information is entrusted to village leaders, who entertain
no such scepticism and who themselves feel the shadow play to be a most
appropriate way of educating the people to take part in the work of de-
veloping their country, then there is no such question as compromise or
insincerity. The play will be furnished with new pages of new agricul-
tural practices and new health measures, in the mind of the script
writer and in the minds of his audiences, a new synthesis will take
place, which is organic because it has occurred within the same human
organisms, which is harmonious because it is an expression of individual
human beings' efforts to make sense of their own lives.

As each culture is a whole, however sorely torn at the moment--
whole in the sense that is is the system by which and through which its
members live-~in all relationships between cultures, each must be ac-
corded dignity and value. Much of the present phrasing of technical
assistance planning, and much of the present evaluation of change with-
in a country, is conducted with explicit or implicit denial of the dig-
nity of members of those countries which, while often the inheritors of
much older traditions, have not been in the vanguard of those aspects of
culture which stem from modern science. This is self-defeating, in that
it arouses violent resistances and attempts at compensation and retalia-
tion from those whose feelings of self-esteem have been violated; it is
also contrary to the findings of modern psychiatric practice, which in-
sist on the recognition of the patient's validity as a human being."

(38-31h)

"In the choice of methods to be used for introducing change, whe-
ther technical or compensatory, the criteria of involvement of the whole
personality should be used. A great deal of discussion is wasted over
the relative desirability of using print or radio, films or discussion
groups, cartoons or dramas, practice or demonstration or illustration,

.Jlgz-

as ways of teaching new procedures and attitudes. These discussions
tend to ignore the fact that all media for dissemination of new knows
ledge are to be judged in terms of effectiveness, and effectiveness in
turn is a function of the extent to which the new'practice becomes part
of the way of life of the people among whom.the change is to be intro-
duced. Any reliance on a.method which is purely intellectual, or purely
aesthetic, purely emotional, or purely moralistic, purely social or
purely individual, will necessarily restrict the area of involvement."

(38-317)
The PROCESS: This is methodology thought of in broader terms. Here we

are thinking in.terms of the human relations aspect of technological

change.

“1. The client system discovers the need for help, sometimes with
stimulation by the change agent.

2. The helping relationship is established.and defined.

3. The change problem.is identified and clarified.

h. Alternative possibilities for change are examined; change goals
or intention are established.

5. Change efforts in the "reality situation" are attempted

6. Change is generalized and stabilized.

7. The helping relationship ends or a different type of continuing
relationship is defined." (32-123)

"For the Division of Community Education the "process" comes first.
It is more important than the material accomplishments, for it is the
mind, the heart, and the spirit of the growing community. The "process"
will build the community and if it is successful, the community will
build the "things".

"we are trying to bring deeper insights into the community: 1. a
greater understanding of cultural values a.people posses or may posses,
2. broader general information, and 3. advantages to be gained when
people work beside their neighbors in the solution of their problems."

(63-29)

RESOURCES: This too is like methodology in that, for any given situa-
tion a large number of resources can be solicited to help in the change
process.

"Rural communities are rich in resources to draw upon. Individuals,
the local school, the facilities of the agricultural extension service,
nearby local branches of the state-federal employment service, farm.or-
ganizations, community organizations of various kinds--all are avail-
able. Any individual or group could spark a systematic inventory of
vocational Opportunities and training needs. All could assist in bring-
ing together the best possible knowledge of local conditions. Such
group activity will not occur without leadership and organization. . . .
without community recognition and.acceptance and responsibility."

(59-168)

-143-

"If, instead, we draw on an image in which two adults--one exper-
ienced in one skill, another in a different skillo-pool their knowledge
so that each can use the skill of the other for a particular task, as
when foreign explorer and local guide venture together into a forest,
much more viable relationships can be set up. Leaders of the newest
countries, only recently established by revolution or mandate or nego-
tiation, are young adults, not children--less experienced but not less
adult than those upon whose skills and resources they need to draw."

(33-315)
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS: As the amount of literature attests,

 

this is an area of increasing concern. When an educator works in a
cultural setting analogous to the one in which he was born and reared
this is not a major problem. When, on the other hand, an educator finds
himself in a situation different because of cultural background or be-
cause of accelerated technological change, he finds there are factors at
work that he is not able to cope with. Such appears to be the case in
many educational situations today.

"In the first place the educator will need to consider the char-
acter structure of the people, those regularities in their behavior,
which can be attributed to their having been reared in a cannon culture.
These regularities can be conveniently described under the headings of
motivation, incentives and values, on the one hand, and ways of thought
on the other . Our educational systems are bound up almost inextricably
with our own character structure, so that it seems natural to us to
build an educational system on such concepts as competition, reward and
punishment, graduated success and failure, etc. But in working within
other cultural contexts it is necessary to discard these cultural lim-
itations and study first what are the incentives under which an indivi-
dual will study and learn, and what are the conditions which may make
the use of our methods definitely inappropriate.

It is apparent, therefore, that any system of education should be
developed against a very thorough background of a knowledge of the cul-
ture of the peeple to be educated." (Sh-31:3; 319+)

"This need for a new awareness of different values and attitudes
applies obviously to foreign workers in a backward area. It applies
also to the town-bred educated nationals of the area who are almost as
far removed, .....Highly qualified scientists often make poor educators
because their own thinking is so far removed from the point of view of
the people they have to instruct. . . . . .and one essential of the new
techniques in instruction is .....WHY people carry out certain activi-
ties as well as HOW they perform them. " (RB-80)

"The most important social systems that probably will receive
lesser emphasis following change will be those carrying on the religious

-144-
and familial functions. These to receive greater emphasis will be
systems related to the production, distribution, financial, and profes-
sional functions. Rural locality systems of all types, particularly
neighborhood groupings, will become of lesser importance. Locality
systems of cities and towns will become of greater importance. These
same changes are to be anticipated in those societies which follow the
communistic road to industrial technology. However, in such societies,
at least for a time, the governmental and production functions must
merge and be handled by those in the status-roles to which high rank,
power, and facilities are given." (33-h56)

“Nevertheless, the social systems which carry the responsibilities
of the professions and vocations, which come more and more to operate
outside the family will receive much higher priority than the family,
the dominant system in most underdeveloped areas." (33457)

"Social change can only occur if human beings themselves change,
and can only be lasting if human beings find it rewarding to develop new
ways of valuing time, material goods and even social relationships."

(5-376)

"In a very sumary form these principles are: every culture is a
living unity, and a change in any one aspect will have repercussions on
other aspects of the culture; changes within a culture will produce
changes in the personality of individuals living within the changing
culture; purposive technologi cal change involves responsibility for the
effects of such change upon the lives of the people concerned; each
change is unique, and therefore it is impossible to lay down general
prescriptions but, through an identification of the process as it occurs,
experts will be able to act in terms of the fullest knowledge, changes
should be introduced with the fullest possible consent and participation
of the people and in ways that are familiar and acceptable." (5mm)

"Young-farmer organizations have been the central point, and the
instruction given by teachers and visiting instructors has been more or
less at the request of members of the organization to meet specific and
imediate needs. Those who have participated in this type of program
attest to the benefits they have received, both from the point of view
of technical assistance and technical education as well as from the
opportunity to socialize and to participate in an organization of young
people with mutual interests. Yet, the fact is that the number of young
farmers involved in these programs has been small." (59-181)

"We may also take into account psychological findings about resis-
tance to new learning.

New information psychologically available to an individual, but
contradictory to his customary behavior, beliefs and attitudes, may not
even be perceived. Even if he is actually forced to recognize its ex-
istence, it may be rationalized away, or almost immediately forgotten.
Thus, a people who insist that magic is necessary to grow yams may have
it pointed out to them that the foreign missionairies are growing larger
yams by using improved agricultural techniques instead of magic. They
will counter the evidence of their senses about the size of the mission
yams by insisting that the yams are a different kind, or that the

-1hgy.
missionaries used their own magic, not an improved technology."

{38-2910

"Individuals exposed to facts or experience contradicting a strong
system of behaviors, beliefs and attitudes can withdraw themselves from
them, sometimes even.physically. Such withdrawal permits the system to
remain unchanged. It is, as we have noted above, one of the less bene-
ficial consequences of sustained tension or frustration. The dismissal
of any political information which is uncongenial as the propaganda of
an enemy country, which should not get attended to, is a common contemp-
orary example of this mechanism.

Finally, as an individual's behavior, belief and attitudes are
shared with members of his cultural group, it may be necessary to effect
a change in the goals or systems of behavior of the whole group before
any given individual's behavior will change in some particular respect.
This is particularly likely to be so if the need of the individual for
group acceptance is very great-~either because of his own psychological
make-up or because of his position in society. Thus, it may be the
chief or prince who can.most easily adopt a.new practice, or, on the
other hand, a group may force such a leader to maintain the status quo
after all the rest of the group have changed, providing a sort of an-
chorage for the rest of the group. No knowledge of the way an individ»
ual of a given constitution and capacity may be able to accept or reJect
change can ever be used alone, with out giving due weight to the nature
of the culture of which he is a part, and his position in the particular
social group within which he lives." (38-295)

”But from.the standpoint of mental health, the hazards of change
are actually not as great for those who are involved thus immediately
as they are for their children. The peasant who comes to the city
brings with hum all the stability derived.fram a childhood spent within
a traditional and coherent social order. His personality reflects that
experience and he often withstands enormous pressures, and.meets crisis
after crisis with courage and imagination. It is not among the first-
generation immigrants fram country to city, from agricultural country
to industrial country, from simple levels of life to complex levels,
that we find the principal disturbances which accompany technical change.
Rather, it is in the lives of their children, reared in conditions with-
in which no stable patterns have been developed, by parents who, while
they may be able to weather the storm.themselves by drawing on a dif-
ferent childhood experience, have no charts to give their children.“

(38~302)

"In brief, if there is to be purposive change, directed by those
with power and resources, to introduce programmes of vast sc0pe with
unprecedented speed, so as to add 20 years to the expectation of life
within a single generation, or alter the level of literacy from.lO per
cent to 90 per cent within a decade, it is necessary to develop substi-
tutes for "experience", so that pe0ple may learn in a few weeks what
they once learned in a lifetime, and.yet learn it with all of the comp
plexity of genuine human experience. Failure to provide such correc-
tions carries automatic penalties, for either the desired changes cannot
be carried out at all, or methods of force and manipulation have to be

-1419.

used which, while introducing a particular technology, decrease the
well-being of the people as a whole." {38-317)

"In order to preserve the process of change in each culture as a
living one, through which each generation of human.beings increasingly
are able to use the knowledge of every part of the human.race to solve
their emerging problems and.advance towards a realization of their
highest aspirations, efforts should.be directed towards the establish-
ment, within each country--and often within each localityb-of institu-
tions which will make it possible to assay this ongoing process. In-
stead of working our blueprints for health and welfare, nutrition and
longevity, towards the fulfillment of which populations are relentlessly
propelled, it is possible to establish patterns of social evaluation, so
that communities and countries may take stock of themselves, assess the
present state of nutrition against the present state of agricultural re-
sources and present state of community facilities, match.the proJected
population curve against the present rate of building elementary schools
or homes for the aged, project needs for new kinds of personnel and be-
gin to train them 10 years before the need develops." (38-318)

"Background of problem, In the past the introduction of new tech-
niques and.practices into the life of so-called under-developed.peoples
has usually been undertaken without adequate consideration of the ef-
fects of such changes on mental health and social adjustment. The
changes planned will undoubtedly affect many areas of activityb-sanita-
tion, nutrition, wages and conditions of labor, agricultural techniques,
pediatrics, obstetrics, preventive medicine, etc. Such changes are
bound to alter the "way of life" of the group, the relations between
parents and children, the hierarchy of authority, the acquisition of
status and prestige, etc. These are precisely aspects of existence
which are important for personality development and which give to indi-
viduals their feelings of happiness or unhappiness, security or insecur-
ity, respectively. No programme of technological develOpment can hope
to succeed in the long run if it leaves people unhappy and.madadJusted.
In the long run also, such unhappy and.maladJusted.people are the ones
who are more likely to turn to violence and.aven war, because of their
dissatisfaction with the conditions under which they live. This is not
a necessary consequence of technological development, but it is a.pos-
sible one. It can.be rendered.much less probable if adequate attention
is paid to the effect of technological development on people. The most
important single fact to be kept in mind is that new techniques must be
introduced with proper regard.for the existing culture and with as
little violence as possible to the folkeays of the groups concerned."

(38-319)

"Finally, it has been proved by experience that the vernacular is
the most effective and the most emotionally satisfying medium of instruc-
tion. In this way literacy is not merely associated with the foreign,
but becomes an instrument in familiar life. Learning to read and write
can be experienced within the security of the known, and the hurdle of
a.new medium need not be surmounted. And in educating in areas of liv-
ing, the use of the vernacular provides the greatest facilitation, as it
can express immediately the meanings and specific concepts of the cul-
ture. What is true of the vernacular is true of all aspects of living.

-147-

Working through the known patterns and the existing social groupings
has proved to be the most effective procedure in fundamental education."

( 38-278)
SURVEY: This is another word that is coming into the educational liter-

 

ature with more frequency.

"For purposes of planning local programs of vocational education,
more specific information is needed in regard to the kind and character
of the manpower needs of the community served.by a.particular school or
school district. Surveys made in order to determine the specific nature
of manpower needs for purposes of planning vocational training programs
are sometimes done on a county or regional basis.

Obviously the first step in the development of a vocational educa-
tion program is to discover training needs. The community occupational
survey is, perhaps, the most frequently used technique; such a survey
might be comprehensive enough to provide a complete picture of the labor
force in the area to be served." (21-1557)

"Whether dignified.by the term survey or not, studying the situa-
tion is unquestionably a useful device in promoting successful adult
education programs.

There is practically unanimous agreement in all studies that the
maximum.involvement of potential and actual constituents in program
building produces the best results." (8-131)

WHERE TO EDUCATE: This could also be intitled, "How to Organize". It

 

suggests the manner in which people are grouped.for organized educational
programs.
I. COMMUNITY LEVEL

"Community development originates, develops, operates with refer-
ence to a single community, which remains the locus of al controlling
decisions. What is done may be unique or may be an adaptation of that
tried earlier elsewhere but which local people accept as an answer to
their situation. Planned activities are largely within resources of the
single community.

Indigenous lay leadership may be wholly responsible, although out-
side consultants may have played a catalytic role.

Objective is to help that specific community.

II. REGIONAL OR DISTRICT

This focus is used in dealing with problems commonly affecting
many communities and.beyond resources of any one.

Stress is upon consideration of services of several specialists,
any one of which can be made available temporarily to a local community.
Problem is that of tying in services available to felt needs of
people, of developing local leaders who will incorporate as their own a

program.formulated outside of their community. Local communities are

-143-

not ends in themselves but units through which regional or district
personnel must work.

III. NATIONAL

This focus is frequently expressed in terms of national needs to
bring a country to a more advanced technological stage. Allocation of
personnel and funds as well as scheduled quota of accomplishments is
determined by agencies of national government or organization. Specific
program details may be worked out at regional or conmunity level but
within carefully defined options set at national level.

Generally speaking, the community is the beneficiary rather than
the active agent in basic decisions but is a.partner in carrying out de-
tails of the program," (51-8)

”The Report states that "in order to be fully effective, vocational
training programs in.agriculture should normally include:
a. prevocational training in rural primary schools
b. agricultural teaching in rural secondary schools
c. technical agricultural schools, of a general or specialized nature;
d. short courses for general or specific training;
e. training on the owner's farm and, where appropriate, apprenticeship;
f. agricultural extension
g. the training of teachers and.rural leaders;
h. the production of teaching aids and.materials;
i. agricultural research." (h2-62)

QEEERAL SUMMARIES: As in the previous section, there are many authors

 

who have made a summary of the important points in relation to educa-
tion for technological change.

"The four great principles underlying extension services are:
(1) the individual is supreme in a.democracy; (2) the home is a funda-
mental unit in a civilization; (3) the family is the first training
group of the human race; and (h) the foundation of any permanent civili-
zation must rest on the partnership of man and the land." (6-172)

”The Division's personnel must have a clear, strong and motivating
goal
a. total community involvement
b. unified and cOOperative effort
0. satisfaction of community members' individual needs
d. active means for communication and expression
e. inter-individual respect
f. general self-direction
g. positive motivation

subsidiary principles are, for instance:
1) Progress can only be made at the pace set by the group and cannot
be accelerated‘by an element within or outside the group unless it is
accepted and assimilated.by the group.
2) The content of action must be the content of community problems:
relevance is determined by the community.

-145».

3) The stimulus for development must be group stimulus.

h) Progress is impossible without conmunication and shared perceptions
of needs, plans, consequences, goals, means, etc.

5) The process is continuous, requiring continued growth, readJustment,
new insights, etc." (lo-Sh)

"Characteristics of County Extension Program.
1. Built on needs of pe0ple
2. Flexible
3. Educational in character and attracts all to help people change in-
terests, attitudes, and Judgements as well as to give information.
. EmphasiZes over all well-being instead of profit only.
. Adapts to resources (available for program.implimentation)
. Cooridinated with.program of other agencies.
. Preserves family unity.
. Starts where people are.
9. Uses local leaders
10. The program should.be timely.” (25)

m-QO‘tUI-F

"Learning does not occur: -when the attitudes to be learned would
contradict deep-lying personality orientations.

-in the face of defensive stereotypes which one nation maintains
about another.

-at the points where two cultures differ widely in values or con-
ceptual frame of reference.

Learning does occur: -when new information can.be assimilated to
a.pre-existing frame of reference. (relates to concepts, information,
values, emotional attitudes)

-takes place at points where people of two cultures seem to be ap-
proaching the same problem.from.different points of view. Under these
conditions, there is no possibility of discarding the different be-
havior as irrelevant." (6h-h8; #9)

"1. New techniques should.be fitted, whereever possible, into the or-
ganizational principles of the native society.

2. Optimum.use should.be made of local values. Their rightout de-
struction is likely to lead to severe strains and, in extreme cases,
to anomie and social disorganization.

3. An effort must be made to single out the person or persons who are
most appropriate as carriers of the innovation.

h. A.technical assistance worker should look at the problems of intro-
ducing a new technique not from.the purely specialized.view’point of the
science or art in which the technique is located, but he should be a-
ware of the totality of the adopting culture and the interdependence of
its parts. In particular, he should try to become aware of the function
which the new technique will play in the cultural whole and what other
parts of social behaviour will be affected by it.

5. The overriding requirement for the technical assistance worker is
that he gain the trust of the people with whom.he works. Familiarity
with their culture and habits, non-ostentatious behaviour, humility,
consideration, and.kindness, are only some of the external traits
necessary to acheive this result." (Sh-#13; hlh; #15)

-150-

"A very general formula on a specific aspect of change follows
from the analysis which was made in the preceding chapter: in the fields
of agriculture, health, and nutrition (other things being equal), an
item or practice will be accepted by a group so long as a need is felt
for it; it fits into the culture of the group and there is objective
proof of its workability." (2-156)

"7. Recognition of responsibility of the local community to assist in
developing the program.
9. Broad involvement of the comunity in building the program.
10. Increasing use of qualified citizens under adequate staff super-
vision.
ll. In-service training for all having responsibilities in the program.
12. Continuous evaluation of the program.
13. A wide range of offerings tailor-made to meet the needs of the
community.
1'4. Willingness to take the program to the people where they are.
15. Use of a variety of appropriate materials, such as pamphlets,
films, recordings, etc.
17. Flexibility in schedule as to time of day, length of class period,
and of unit of course, thus adjusting so far as possible to the needs
of the participants.

DeGroat found, for instance, that an informal atmosphere permit-
ting contact and sociability with persons of similar interests was a
very real factor in winning a "success" rating." (8—129)

"Social change can sometimes occur with great rapidity, especially
if new procedures offer a welcome release from a crippling traditional
system. However, revolutionary transformations are rare, and the ex-
pert should not depend on them.

Social change is related to the size of the comunity under pres-
sure . The larger the conmunity the more numerous will be the different
statuses and occupations, the more numerous also the misfits and rebels.

Social change always takes place over a process of time. Perhaps
like the flight of a bird a social group advances rapidly in some
phases, and at other times tends to remain stable and unchanging as if
consolidating its gains. The past history of the group may give in-
sights into its probable present reactions.

Social change is more probable where the groups in contact are what
Levi-Strauss calls 'natural partners' , having similar value systems,
though their expression will be superficially very different. Similar
value systems should make themselves evident in projective personality
tests and in an objective 'creative symbiosis'.

Social change depends upon differential receptivity among members
of a peasant society. Age, sex, and occupation--as these statuses are
culturally phrased- -will often provide clues to probable change. Some
authorities fend women more conservative than men, others less so.
Closer analysis of the social structure would enable us to define the
manner in which the cultural conditioning of sex roles leads to freedom
of choice or resistance to change.

Social change depends upon the evident utility of the goods or
practices that are offered by technology. Sewing machines, bicycles,
iron fish-hooks and soap all fulfill this criterion and are usually
highly desirable. 0n the other hand effort is culturally valued. Even

-151-
though something is useful the effort to attain it (harder work, longer
hours, migration from home) may not be judged worth the result.

Social change may be blocked if the expert sees underdeveloped com-
munities through stereotypes he has built up about the nature of pea-
sant societies. Not all peasant societies are co-operative by nature,
not all possess traditional associations that can be modernized into
credit unions, co-operative marketing or producing groups. Keeping the
gap between stereotype and reality as narrow as possible is a first rule
for the change expert.

Social change cannot occur if a people are too impoverished to
afford the risks of even small technological changes. It is only in
those sectors of life where needs are less imperative that willingness
and freedom intelligently to experiment with a new technique can be
expected.

Social change that occurs readily and quickly may be neither deep
nor lasting. It may only be peripheral change adopted because of novel-
ty or politeness. Time, therefore, is required for new elements to be
absorbed into the social and economic life of the group. After 50 years,
the West is still learning more about the implications of the invention
of the automobile .

Social change may come to a standstill when new techniques, at first
bringing imnediate advantages, are seen to result in long-range economic
and social disorganization, making the rich richer and more powerful,
the poor more impoverished and exploited. One change at a time may not
be enough. A wide programs of changes may be required in a given
socio-political situation.

Social change may slow down because the expert cannot realize that
what is obvious to him is not so obvious to the peasant. DDT kills in-
sect pests. It is not so clear that boiling water kills typhoid germs.

Social change may also be slowed down because the expert is either
unwilling for a scientific technique to become part of a magico-reli-
gious tradition, or is himself unwilling to play a magico-religious
role in addition to being a change agent trained in a western scientific
tradition. The expert must re-examine his scientific conscience if he
is to solve this problem.

Social change will be hastened if energy is concentrated on the
persons most likely to change their ways in a given time. Pin—pointing
the key group for a specific progranme will avoid much wasted effort.

Fundamental social change always takes longer than the experts'
sober estimate, far longer than his or the administrator ' s Optimistic
estimate. It is probably correct to say that more action projects have
failed because of administrative and financial time limits than for any
other single reason. Though true, this is only a partial truth. It
does not absolve the expert from the responsibility of learning all he
can about the process of social change." (5-3815; 385)

"Rural adult Education (with emphasis on the extension process
should:
I. be based on conditions that exist (local, regional and national).
II. involve people in actions that promote their welfare.
III. develop programs gradually.
IV. aim basically at people's interests and needs.
V. use democratic methods.
VI . keep progams flexible.

-152-

VII. work through understanding of the culture.
VIII. use local leaders.

IX. use existing agencies.

X. utilize trained specialists.

XI. work with all members of the family.

XII. make programs as broad as needs of rural peOple.
XIII. evaluate continuously.

XIV. work with all classes of the society.

XV. keep in line with national policies.

XVI. use the community approach.

XVII. help people recognize their needs." (17-9)

"1. What, if anything, will be introduced trait replace?

2. What other tools and techniques are likely to be modified as a re-
sult of the introduction?

3. What other tools and techniques will have to be modified if the new
trait is accepted?

h. For what new tools and techniques is there likely to be a.demend
as a result of the introduction?

5. Who in the society will have to abandon or change their occupations,
if there is replacement? Who will be likely to modify their occupations
and who will be given new occupations?

6. Who within the society will benefit immediately from the intro-
duction? Will the benefits be in terms of economic advantage, in-
creased.prestige, or what?

7. Who, if anyone, is likely to suffer immediately? In terms of real
or fancied threat to economic security? In terms of social status?

8. Will shifts in occupation affect the division of labor between
men and women?

9. What are the formal and informal social organizations in which
those affected.participate?
10. How are these social organizations likely to be affected? Will
their power or social position be enhances or lowered?
11. Is there a.possibility of the introduction Opening up new forms of
cooperation? 0f conflict?
12. Do the individuals and group leaders affected understand the nature
of the introduction?
13. Who has participated in the planning of the change? Who has not
participated?
1h. What customs, other than the technology, are likely to be affected?
Food habits? Relations of young and old? Marriage customs? Cere-
monials? Religious beliefs? Major values?
l5. Does the change reinforce these customs or conflict with them?
16. What are the attitudes toward the innovator (the field worker) as
a.person? Toward the ethnic group of which he is a.member?
17. What is the recent history of the relations between the introducing
group and the people?
(88 What is the history of similar introductions to this group?"

S -91

SECTION III SPECIAL CONDITIONS IN CUBA RELATING TO EDUCATION

From a psychological point of view, the learning organism is the
same no matter what the culture. Never-the-less, as was indicated in
the previous two sections, learning at any one time is dependent upon
all of the experiences that the individual has had up to that moment.
For this reason, the cultural setting becomes important for it tells us
something about the composite of experiences that have come to bear on
the individual .

The review of the literature in this section is limited to Cuba
and Latin America where like conditions exist. This particular cultural
type has been described by Gillen in his article, "Latin America" as
follows:

"The fourth culture type of Latin America may be termed Modern Latin
American. In Spanish it is often called la cultura criolla. This is
the dominant culture type of the area today. Although it shows many lo-

cal and class sub-varieties, its fundamental characteristics are found
in all significant parts of the area." (149-333)

 

The following review of material has been divided into categories
as were the two preceding sections. Most of the material is found in
the excerpts giving a broad general sumary in the last category.

EDUCATIONAL TRENDS: Some of the data concerning education in Cuba has

 

been already presented in the background information of Chapter II of
the related thesis.

"Bejucal farm people learn most of their habits and attitudes with-
in the family group. It is there that they learn the habits of language,
of personal care, of proper behavior toward others, and of conventional
ways of thinking. It is there that boys learn the occupational skills
of farming and girls the skills of homemaking."

"Farm people in Bejucal have ambivalent attitudes toward formal
education for their children. Some education in reading, writing, and
simple arithmetic is believed necessary, but additional formal education

-153-

-151}...

is often looked upon as unnecessary.” (57-70)

"cuba:
8#% literate
6253 public schools with 20,000 teachers, 520,000 students
635 private schools (182 religious), l#0,000 students
Primary school 567,000 (about 50% of school age children 5-13 yrs.
in school)
1813 grade " 180,370
8th grade - #,852
High school - 26,000 (2500 graduates a year)
21 high schools, 10 normal schools, #5 trade schools
Other total enrollment about 5#,000 or under 10% of ages 13-18
university of Habana - l#,000-l8,000 enrollment
(Catolica, Masonica, Santa Clara, Oriente, Candler, Holguin,
Camaguey, Pinar del Rio are private universities, rather
recent in foundation).
(b) Rural education:
Percent of population of school age in school in l9#2-#3:

Havana.Province, cuba - 68.6%

All Cuba - 35.1%

Oriente Province - 20.#%

Schools for rural children's education for 7th and 8th grades, 39
in cuba with about 30 boys each.

Extreme centralization of all education, even rural, in the minis-
try of education in Havana
(c) Agricultural education:

The university curriculum in agriculture is essentially an
engineering course, with no education courses included. In each pro-
vince there is an agricultural school with a 3 year course (above the
8th grade) for about #0 boys.

There is no agricultural extension service." (#0)

"In general L.A, rural schools have suffered from neglect. In most
of the countries few'pupils receive education beyond the fourth grade
of the primary school. In some countries, the majority receive no more
than one to two years. School buildings are inadequate. Rural teachers
are meagerly paid. There is an inadequate supply of teachers, and.many
of them have not only had no teacher training but may have themselves
received not more than # to 6 years of primary schooling. Curriculums
in the rural schools have been identical with those for the urban
schools. Until quite recently rote learning was almost universal.---
Instruction has little bearing on pupil's environment and.needs."

(20-57)

"On the other hand, the number of educational institutions has
doubled since the middle thirites, according to the statistics here used.
An effort is also being made to adapt the rural schools to the require-
ments and characteristics of the population which is to use them and to
modernize the educational curriculum with stress on instruction in prac-
tical matters, with training in agriculture to receive foremost atten-
tion in rural primary schools as well as in normal schools and in special

-155-

agricultural training establishments. Educational policy is moving as
way from.the classical system.of the three R's and rote learning and
toward relating schooling to the daily life of the rural dweller, par-
ticularly the Indian." (50-65)

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION: There are two articles of interest here and.more

 

will be found in the summary materials.

"The plantation system.of agriculture, with feudalistic tenure re-
lationships, a strong military class with important political power,
highly centralized.government, and Catholic tenets, with the church
having close ties to the state, were four institutions imported from
sixteenth-century Spain which have had great influence in shaping the
broad outlines of Latin-American society. These institutions have
undergone significant changes over the last four centuries and have lost
much Of their original force, particularly in such countries as Mexico,
uruguay, and Costa Rica. Nevertheless, the large landowner, the army
officer, and the Catholic priest are still important influences in.most
Of the Latin-American -ountries. They, along with a growing group of
well-to-do industrial and commercial femulies, tend to constitute an
elite class, the size and strength of which varies from country to
country but which usually exercises significant political power and
often sets the norms of opinion with respect to many types Of economic
and social relations." (35-9)

"Experience in fundamental education in a number of countries
points to the importance of working through local leadership, both for
the acceptance of the project and for ensuring its continuing success.
In Costa Rica the peasants look to both lay and church dignitaries for
direction; but these must be their own dignitaries, with whom they are
in an established.PATRON relationship!" (38-277)

GENERAL SUMMARIES OF CUBAN AND LATIN AMERICAN CULTURE: The special dis-

 

tinguishing characteristics Of general Latin American culture and more
specifically, the cultural type found in Guba can be seen at specific
points. It will be noted in the following quotations that importance
is placed on family and.kinship ties, individualism, class structure,
land ownership, attitudes toward work, religion and the attitude toward
authority. These summaries are generalizations and the Observations of
Stabler in Bejucal give a.more specific view of how close in some cases
and how different in other cases these generalizations are. In a
country changing as rapidly as Ouba is today there is likely to be some

shifting Of the former patterns and even the underlying value structure.

-156-

"Cultural Characteristics Significant for Extension Work:
Great Importance Of Personal Relations
Superiority and Subordination.
Lack of Local Responsibility for Local and National Welfare.
The Great Importance of Familism.
The Importance Of the Village." (7-ll8 to 122)

"Anyone who looks mainly at our public life, which leaves so little
scope for liberal practices, or our social life, which is but rarely
distinguished by respect for other peOple's privacy, may wonder wherein
lies this individualism, which is as Often vaunted as it is condemned.
There is no doubt that, generally speaking, we do not consider our
neighbour as an individual who, as such is a priori possed of the same
rights and obligations as anyone else. Nor do we consider a member of
the conmunity to be entitled to our respect solely because he is a mem-
ber of it. .....For it is clear that, with this basic attitude, each
man's ego is the central and supreme doing of reference, the measure of
every value. This means that we are governed by personal sentiment,
which affects us both for good and ill. Hence that lack of a sense of
social unity, which accounts for the rarity in our countries, in con-
trast to the Anglo-Saxon world, Of charitable foundations, benevolent
institutions or privately organized public charity. We are more in-
clined to conceive and practice charity from man to man, which is of
little use in modern, industrialized society, with its mass populations
and its giant cities.

It is for this same reason that we have so little respect for public
institutions. The state is merely a fictitious person, not considered
as deserving of the probity of dealing which would be demanded in rela-
tions between individuals, so that our people refuse to admit that it
has any moral claims. .....All this is no doubt wrong and distressing,
but it is characteristic of that type of individualism which values the
particular individual above everything, and therefore refuses to respect
impersonal values. It is in fact the concimitant of the rule of per-
sonal sentiment.

Yet this type of radical individualism, which is not an ideology
but an attitude of life, has, along with its defects, great virtues.

The most important of these is that it tends always to treat the indivi-
dual as a human being, endowed with moral responsibility, and not as a
means or tool to allegedly higher ends. Even in dealing with an enemy,
the man-tO-man relationship is close, direct, and strong, so that while
anger or bitterness may rage, we do at least avoid that cold inhumanity
which has in recent years been such a horrible feature Of some forms of
social technique." (1-238)

"1. Kinship ties are much more important than in present day United
States or England, for example. Not only does the individual have im-
portant interaction patterns with kinsmen by blood and by marriage, but
'ceremonial' kinship plays an unusually important role (the so-called
compadrazgo system). Until these kinship systems weaken it is impossi-
ble to organize effective units of co-operation without taking into
account the affiliations (and the antagonisms) based on kinship.

2. Latin American society is strongly class-organized. The mid-
dle class is numerically small in most countries and middle class values,
which are said to be dominant in the United States and England, do not

~157-

permeate Modern Latin American Culture. Traditionally there has been
a large gap between the upper and the lower classes, and the relation-
ship between them has been one of dominance-submission and an unequal
distribution Of privileges in favor of the upper classes.

3. Wealth“ and economic power have been based on land, the larger
part of which has been held by a relatively few owners in great estates
worked by landless peasants or by small landowners ekeing out the re-
turns from their own inadequate holdings. There are exceptions to this
rule, of course, but latifundismo (the large estate system) is almost
everywhere recoguzed to be not only an economic problem, but also a
hindrance to comnunity develOpment. For the large estates are almost
invariably organized on an authoritarian basis, with the owner or his
administrator in complete charge. The workers, who in many cases num-
ber in the thousands, are allowed little or no Opportunity for political
freedom, individual or group economic initiative, or voluntary organi-
zation for community and civic welfare. The same patron (authoritarian)
system was extended to mining and manufacturing industry. Labour or-
ganizations in some countries have within the last twenty years succeeded
in Obtaining certain rights for workers in industry, and more recently
have advocated the right Of agricultural workers to organize into unions.
(This right has been constitutionally guaranteed in Guatemala, for in-
stance, since l9#5.) However, experience in independent commity or-
ganization, either by private citizens or in the form of co-operative
or communal groups (communidades), is not very widespread among the
common people of the region. I

#. The Roman Catholic Church is virtually ubiquitous among
Latinos, all but an insignificant number of whom are at least nominal
members. The Church, as an institution, is of course an authoritarian
structure and during colonial times had a pervading influence in poli-
tics and economics as well as in religious life. Although the 'liberal'
revolutions of the later nineteenth century reduced the Church's Official
privileges in some countries, the tradition and practice (although some-
times indirect) Of the Church's influence in 'worldly' affairs can
seldom be overlooked even today. Furthermore, the Church monopoli zed
certain functions--education, charity work, administration of hospitals--
which in certain other areas were much earlier regarded as obligations
Of the local community or Of the state. The Church still attempts to
carry on these activities, in some cases in competition with government
or lay agencies. Sodalities and cults of saints are prominent and
afford laymen an Opportunity for voluntary participation.

5. Many socalled 'bourgeois virtues' do not exist in the form en-
countered in North American or British society, so that the planner of
comunity development must attempt to instill them or else must capi-
talize on those virtues which are present. For instance, voluntary
charity of the 'civic’ type is not traditional; neither is the habit of
thrift general, in the sense of saving money to be put into banks or in-
surance policies; service clubs of the Rotary type are recent innovations
in some of the cities, but the secular organization supposedly devoted
to civic betterment is not traditional. Since wealthy people do not
identify themselves with the lower classes, they do not on the whole show
much of that responsibility for the community as a whole which is ex-
pected Of them in the United States. On the other hand, there is in
Latin America a tradition Of co-operation in comnunity work, as when all
the able-bodied men turn out to clean up the plaza or repair a bridge.

 

 

to.
(It

-158-

There is also a tradition of frequently getting together in fiestas
and other forms of merrymaking. Social clubs for the more well-tO-do
exist in all but the smallest localities, while the cantina or bar
serves as a daily'meeting place for poorer peOple. In general, there
is a great deal Of sociability in Latin American life which can be
channeled for community development." (#9-335; 336)

"Both Latin America and the United States grew out of the great
stream of Western European culture. We have much in comon that will
not be discussed here. Furthermore, any general discussion of the cul-
ture of an area is bound to be an oversinplification, since there are
important differences from country to country in Latin America and even
among the regions of the United States. Finally, cultures change and no
description can adequately reflect the flow of change.

Nevertheless, for all of these qualifications, we can present a
picture of contrasting cultures that should help the North American to
orient himself in Latin America.

As a result of this, social relationships in Latin America are more
rigidly structured than they are in the United States, and are patterned
along the lines of dependence and submission rather than independence
and freedom. In such a. system people are brought up to believe that a
person is born to a social position in life and that little that he does
during the course of his career is likely to affect this state Of
affairs. Rather, in much Of South America the aristocratic tradition
still holds away and a well-defined middle class has yet to emerge.

This does not mean that social mobility is lacking in Latin-American
society, for we know that people of a very modest social heritage have
gained entrance to upper-class groups and are doing-so now at an accel-
erating rate. It is simply that the Opportunities for social mobility
were relatively restricted in the past so that the people who today

fall between the high and the low status groups have not yet crystallized
into a group we may properly term a middle class.

The social structure then, was built upon dominance and sub-ordina-
tion.

Almost everyone who has written about the cultures of Latin America
has called attention to a phenomenon called personalism, a characteris-
tic, which, like the outlook on the structure of society, was inherited
from the mother country of Spain. In a sense, personalism may be re-
garded as a variety of individualism, but it is not the same kind of
individualism that is either practiced or preached here in the United
States. In Latin America it is more than the doctrine that the indivi-
dual and not society, is of paramount importance in human life. Per-
sonalism goes even deeper than this. Not man in the abstract, but man
in the concrete, becomes the center of the universe. And the concrete
man in the center of the universe is the person himself.

The differential emphasis and value placed on the personalized re-
lation in Latin America as compared with the United States can hardly
be overemphasized. Here we tend to assign high value to the status and
role which an individual occupies; we tend to respect an Office which he
holds or a position which he fills, such as the presidency of the country,

-159-

or the head of a large corporation. This, however, does not seem to be
so much the case in.most of Latin America, where prime emphasis is
placed on the person who occupies the office, on the individual who
holds the position. It is more the particular human being, the unique
personality, that becomes the focus of attention and respect and.not so
much the status and role which he occupies. To a large extent, of
course, this difference in emphasis is a.reflection of a difference in
the concept of the individual himself. Here an individual, despite his
personality, is deserving of respect because of his position; there an
individual, despite his position, is deserving of respect because of his
personality. This is borne out by the emotional reactions that accomp-
any a breach of these norms. In the United States a violation of the
dignity of an office is considered a serious offense; in.Latin America
an insult to the personal dignity of an individual constitutes the su-
preme affront.

Another point of prime significance for an understanding of human
relations prOblems in Latin America is the high value placed on the
family as an institution and on kinship relations in general. While the
family, of course, is a fundamental institution in all societies, in
Latin America.kinship and.family play'a.more significant role in the
patterning of human relations than they do in the united States. Descent
and family name are highly significant distinguishing marks of an indi-
vidual in Latin America, particularly in those countries where the
aristocratic tradition still prevails.

The North American can best understand.the Latin-American.famdly if
he recognizes that it performs different functions from our own. In
Latin America, family relations are extensive and stable while govern-
ments (in some countries) are notably unstable. In.the united States,
the family is relatively unstable, while our governments (state and
federal) are among the most stable in the world. If we look only at
government in some parts of Latin America, we get a highly misleading
impression of a chaotic society. There, it is the family which provides
for society the stability we acheive through other institutional forms.

In connection with the family, same mention should be made of the
relationship between the sexes. 0n the whole, Latin America has been
and still is a.male-dominated.society. This does not mean that men are
necessarily regarded as superior to women in all departments of life,
but the notion of the equality of the sexes, like the equality of people,
is certainly not a.part of the cultural heritage. 0n the contrary,
there has always been a fairly sharp separation, recognized'by both
sexes, between the roles of women and those of men in.Latin-American
society.

In Latin America, there has been frequent contact among people of
different status levels, and yet, in the past such contacts have tended
to follow a standard, formalized.pattern such as we find in the rela-
tionship between master and servant.

In Latin America, we can assume, in general, a greater tendency to
accept the authority of the boss. This does not necessarily mean that
Latin-American workers will be content with actions of the boss which
would.be offensive to NOrth American workers. They may be Just as

4k.

-160-

resentful, but they are less likely to challenge authority directly, in
a face-to-face situation. At the same time, the Latin-American boss--
at least if he comes from a social status higher than his sub-ordin-
ates-~is less likely than the NOrth American to haye self-doubts re-
garding the Justification of his own authority.

IMuch.more than the Latin Americans, we try to avoid.referring our
local problems to some remote and.higher authority. The pattern of
thinking we use in.problem.solving conforms to the organizational level
at which we feel problems should be solved. we like to try to solve
prOblems in terms of the practical details rather than in terms of some
general, abstract principle.

The Latin American differs with us in these respects. He does not
look upon frankness as a virtue. He places a.much higher value on
courtesy. He tends to express himself in such a way that personal re-
lations will remain harmonious--at least on the surface. Our simpli-
city and.brevity may seem.abrupt to him. He tends to couch his state-
ments in a.much.more ealborate framework.

In.most of Latin America work is necessary for some people at
least, but it is not a.particularly esteemed or dignified activity. It
is nothing in itself to be rewarded for. It is rather a necessary bur-
den that must be borne by some peOple as part of the pattern of living.
Particularly unfortunate are those who must performithe undignified hard
labor of everyday life, but that is the way of the world. It is the
nature of things that some are born to leisure and others are born to
work, even though the latter may not be particularly happy with their
lot nor value the work activities they perform, Thus on the part of
socially mObile people, who were not fortunate enough to be born to the
leisure class, there is almost everywhere in Latin America a tendency to
avoid the stigma of manual labor, for it identified one with the lower
class. A true gentlemen, if he works at all, works only with his mind.
He regards it as undignified to dirty his hands on anything that is
identified with physical labor.

The reason for such attitudes toward work, of course, is simply
that higher value is assigned to other activities. There is much more
to life than work, than the humdrum activities of everyday life. These
are a necessary part of living, to be sure, but they are not the things
in life that count. There is something more dramatic, more poetic in
the universe than can be captured through the routine activities of
life. It is rather through deep emotional feeling and.axpressive be-
havior that one experiences the greatest rewards in life.

It certainly does not fit the classic model of economic man.
Understanding it lies in appreciating the fact that the Latin American
places higher esteem.on emotional gratification.and.spiritual values
than on the pursuit of wealth of wealth's sake.

To us, time is money, as we often say. Our conception of time
tends to color our view of other people. The responsible, dependable
individual is not only the man who does what he says he will do; he is
the man who does it at the time that he says he will. In general, Latin

-161-

Americans do not submit so easily to the tyranny of the clock. Even
men in business and governmental circles are not likely to attach any
great importance to the time of appointments. There the time element
plays a.much less important role in the evaluation of the responsible
and dependable man.

The prevalent view held in Spain.and introduced into Latin America
was that, for the large mass of people at least, this was a naturally
ordained world of inequality, oppression, and suffering which if endured
according to holy scripture, however, would produce its reward in the
end--eternal bliss in heaven. There was little that one could do to
change this static state of affairs. Thus one had to resign himself to
his fate and his destiny; one had to put himself in the hands of higher
powers and.bope for the best through religious activity.

It is perhaps in.past due to such attitudes as these that Latin
Americans sometimes seem.unwilling to assume personal responsibility,
especially in cases of failure. One is constantly at the mercy of
forces beyond his control so that if something goes wrong the respon-
sibility lies there, not with oneself. If someone misses an appointment
some force beyond his control prevented him from.making it on time; if
someone misses a train or plane, it is they that are at fault, not he.”
(65-2 to 11)

"Because Latin American countries have similar racial and cultural
backgrounds, the following list points out some of the more common at-
titudes and.values held by Latin American peoples.

1. While the vast maJority of the peOple are landless there is in
general a high regard for land ownership.

2. Cultural practices among the small farmers need great improvement.
Some taboos and beliefs among the less educated.people inhibit the
adoption of certain.practices.

3. There is a widespread feeling of dependence upon the central govern—
ments to solve local problems.

h. In seeming contradiction to this, there is a lack of confidence in
many governmental activities. It generally requires great effort and a
lot of lost motion on the part of government officials to break through
this barrier.

5. Despite these feelings of apprehension, there is usually a relatively
favorable attitude toward.programs of the technical assistance agencies,
which not only'must change attitudes of the people but must also face
governmental resistance.

6. Throughout all of Latin America a high value is placed on the family.
In addition to the nuclear family, relatives are frequently organized
into it, giving the larger or extended family.

7. On the whole, Latin American society has always been.mele-dominated.
This is not to say that men are necessarily regarded as superior in all
departments of life, but the notion of equality of the sexes is cer-
tainly not a.part of the cultural heritage. There has always been a
fairly sharp separation between the roles of men and women.

8. Society may be divided into three main classes. The upper class
includes people with money, land, education, family name and high posi-
tions in government and church. Middle class people are mostly profes-

h162-

sionals, and the lower class is made up of the uneducated masses, the
landless, and the poor.

9. Catholicism.is the main religious faith, and people in general have
deep religious feelings. The church is the most important social in-
stitution outside the family.

10. A large portion of the agricultural population lives and works as
peons on huge haciendas controlled by a land-lord or patron.

11. Living standards are very low for rural people. Housing is inade-
quate, nutrition is low, and delibitating disease are numerous.

12. Although manual work is necessary for most people, it is not highly
esteemed or dignified. This feeling is a direct carry-over from.the
colonial period.when.manual labor was done only by the peons, allowing
the rich and educated to live a life of idleness." (ll-15)

CLOSING COMMENTS:

 

The number and length of the exerpts in the three sections of this
review of the literature has‘been large. It is by no means all that has
been written that would have bearing on Education for Techological
change in Cuba.. In reality, each one of these sources leads to further
ones at a multiplying rate. There has been an attempt to review sources
that might give a representation of all aspects of the problem.

As will be noted by the authors and the publishers, the madority
of this literature is of NOrth American origin. It would seem likely
that by including more writers from other countries greater breadth
could be added to this review. There are many reasons why more of this
literature is not available but the level of development of the social

sciences and publishing facilities could be included.

APPENDIX I
List of References

for

Review of Literature Related to Education for Technological

l.

2.

3.

h.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

Change in Rural Cuba

Alaya, Francisco. "The Place of Spanish Culture," Inte;-

relations of gultures. UNESCO, 1953.

Algers-Montalvo, Manuel. Cultural Change in a Cospa
Rican Village. Unpubl s e . . ssertat on,

O O 0' 0

Allen, Harold B. Rural Reconstruction in Action. Ithaca:
Cornell University ress, 53.

Anderson, John E. "Teaching and Learning," Chapter A in
Education for Later Maturity. New York: JMorrow,
Beaglehole, E. "Evaluation Techniques for Induced Tech-
nological Change " International Social Science

gulletin. UNESCO, o . um er 3,

Blissi R.WK.fi (e%.). hi The §pirit and Philosophg of gfipgp-
s on or as ngton: ra uate c 00 an
Epsilon Sigma Phi, 1952.

Brunner, E. do 3., (ed.). Farmers of the WOrld: The
D velo ent of A ricultura Extens on. eW' or :
ColumEEa University Press, I945.

. An Overvieg;of Adult Educational ngearch.
Chicago: Adu t E ucat on Associat on, 5 .

Burton, William H. The Guidanc of Learnin Activities.
New Ybrk: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., I933.

Cannell and Whithey. "Community Change: An Action Pro-

gram in Puerto Rico, " Thg Journal of Social Isgues,
Volume IX, Number 2. ew’ or ssociate ress,

1953.

~163-

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

-16h-

Del Rio, Fernando and Laboy, Maria J. "Latin America
. . .," National Extension Services of Slected Countries
in the Americas, CE Number . t aca: orne

University, February, 1959.

Di Franco, Joseph. Differences Between Extension Ed -
cation and Communit Develo ment, CEP Number 5.
thaca: Cornel Un varsity, 58.

Dockery Floyd C. Psychology. New York: Prentice-
Hall:Inc., 1942.

Dubin, Robert, (ed.). Human Relations in Administration.
New York: Prentice-HE] , nc., .

Fenley, John M., (ed.). Establishing a Young Extension
Service, Comparative Extens on icat on mac 3-

Iease Number 1. Ithaca: Cornell University, 1959.

 

Fenley, John M; and others. National Extension Services
of Selected Countries in the Americas, CEP Number 8.
Tthaca: Cornell University, 5 .

Fenley, John M., (ed.). A Collection of Princi les and
Guides, CEP Number A. Tthaca: Cornell University,
1958.

Frank, Glenn. "The New Education," The S irit and
Philosophy of Extension'WOrk, edited By R. K. Elias.
Washington: Graduate School USDA and Epsilon Sigma
Phi, 1952.

Gillin, John. "Latin America," Approaghes to Community
DevelOpment, edited by Phillips Ruopp. e ague:
W. VanHoeve, Ltd., 1953.

Click, P. M; The Administration of Technical Assistance:

Growth in the Americas. Chicago: University 0
Chicago, 1957.

Harris, C. W., and Liba, Mt R. Enc clo edia of Educational
Research a project of the American Educational Research
IEEBEIEEion of the NEA. New York: The MacMfillan
Company, 1960.

 

 

 

Romans, George C. The Human Group. New York: Harcourt-
Brace, 1950.

Hutchison, E. D. How to Think Creativel . Nashville:
Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, I9h9.

2h.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33-

34.

35-

-165-

International Cooperation Administration. Community
Develo ment Bulletin, Number 2. washington, Sep-
temEer, l 5 .

Iowa Cooperative Extension Service. The Iowa Extension
Program Planning Guide. Iowa State Co ege.

Knowles, Malcolm 8., (ed.). Handbook of Adult Education
in the United States. Chicago: Kddlt Education

Association, .

 

Krech David and Crutchfield Richard S. Theor and
’ ' rk: fic draw-

Problems of Social Ps cholo . New Yo
Hill Book Co., 19h8.

Lancelot, W. H. Permanent Learnin . New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 195h.

Leagans, J. Paul. Developing Professional Leadership
in Extension Education, CE Num er 3. t aca:

Cornell University, 1958.

 

,__. Educational Interests of Farm 0 erators in
Nortn Carolina as Related to WOrE of‘A riculturaI E -
tension Service. Ph.D. Dissertation, finiversity of
Chicago, l9h8.

Lindstrom, David E. "Diffusion of Agricultural and Home
Economics Practices in a Japanese Rural Community,"
Rural Sociolo , Volume 23, Number 2 (June 1958).

 

Lippitt, Ronald; watson, Jean and westley, Bruce. pp;
D amics of Planned Chan s. New York: Harcourt-
Brace and Company, 1958.

Loomis, Charles P., and Beegle, J. Allen. Rural Sociol-

o : The Strate of Chan e. Englewood i s:
Prentice-Hall, Tnc., I957.

Loomis, Charles P. and others. Turrialba: Social S stems
and the Introduction of Change. Gdencoe, Tilinois:

The ree ress, 53.

 

Maddox, James C. Technical Assistance by Religious

A encies in Latin America. Chicago: The University
0% Chicago Press, 1956.

36.

37.

38.

39.

#0-

#1.

#2.

#3.

Ah.

#5-

A6.

A7.

A8.

-l66-

Madigan, Marian East. Ps cholo Princi les and A 1i-
cations. St. Louis: The C. V. MosBy Company. I857.

McGeoch, Hocn A. The Psychologygof Human Learnin . New
York: Longmans:Creen and Company, 1 5 .

Meade, Margaret. Cultural Patterns and Technolo ical
Change- UNESCO. New York: Coiumbia University Press/

Mills, C. Wright. The Sociolo ical Ima ination. New
York: Oxford University Press, i959.

Milk, Richard C. An Evaluation of the Education Offered
at the Escuela A ricola e industriai at Preston,
Oriente Cuba. Unpublished report made at ides, Iowa,
March, i959.

Moomaw, I. W. Better Field Pro rams. New York: Agri-
cultural Missions, inc., i959.

Mosher, Arthur T. Technical Co-o ration in Latin Amer-
ican Agriculture. Chicago: University 0? CHicago

r333, 57.

. Varieties of Ext nsion Education and Commu-
nity Developpent, CEP Number 2. ithaca: Corneli

University, 1 5 .

 

Nelson, Lowry. Rural Cuba. Minneapolis: University of
,Minnesota Press, i955.

Henry, Nelson 8., (ed.). Fift -Second Yearbook of National
Societ for the Stud 0? Education. Chicago: Uni—
versity of Chicago Press, i953.

Penders, J. M. A., (ed.). Methods and Pro ram.Plannin
in Rural Extension. -Wageningen (The NetHeriands):

H. Veenman and Zonen, 1956.
Pedersen, Harold A. "Cultural Differences and Acceptance

of Recommended Practices," Rural Sociolo , Volume 16,
Number 1. (March 1951).

Read, Margaret. Education and Social Chan e in Tro ical
Areas. London: Thomas Neison and Sons, Ltd., i855.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

-167-

 

Ruopp, Phillips, (ed.). Approaches to Communit Develo -
ment. The Hague: W. VanHoeve, Etd., i953.

Salz, Beate R. “The Human Element in Industrialization:
a Hypothetical Case Study of Ecuadorean Indians,"

Economic Develo ment and Cultural Chan e, Volume IV,

Number 1, Part E, (Cctober, I955).

Sanders, Irwin T. i'Theories of Community Development "
Rural Sociolo , Volume 23, Number 1, (March, 1958).

 

Santa Cruz, Hernan. FAO'S Role in Rural Welfare. Rome:
United Nations, 195 .

Schlup, Lester, "Fourteen Basic Features of Cooperative
Extension Work," The Spirit and Philosophy of Extension
Work, edited by R. . B iss. washington: raduate
School USDA and Epsilon Sigma Phi, 1952.

Shannon, Lyle W. Underdeveloped Areap. New Yerk: Harper
and Brothers, 1 57.

Sims, Newell L. The Problem of Social Chan s. New York:
Thomas Y. Croweii Company, 1939.

Spicer, Edward H., (ed.). Human Problems in Technolo ical
Change. New York: Russei Sage Foundation, i952.

Stabler, George M. Bejucal: Social Values and Changes
in A ricultural Practices in a Rural Communit . Un-
pubiished Ph.D. Dissertation, M.S.U., i953.

Stogdill, Ralph M. Individual Behavior and Grou Achieve-
ment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1959.

Swanson, Gordon 1., (ed.). Vocational Education for Rural

America: Yearbook lgfi8-52. washington: Department
of Rurai Education 0 A, 1959.

Tyler, Ralph W. Basic Princi les of Curriculum and In-
struction. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1955.

UNESCO, flhternational Social Science Bulletin: Economic

Motivations and Stimulations in UnderdeveIoped Countries,
Volume VI, Number 3, (1951.).

 

62.

63.

6h.

65.

66.

67.

-l68-

UN Bureau of Social Affairs. Social Progress Through
Community Develgpment, (1955 .

US Office of Education. Education for Better Livin ,
Bulletin Number 9. U. S. Office 0 Education, 56.

watson, Jeanne and Lippitt, Ronald. Learnin Across
Cultures. Ann Arbor: University 0 chigan, 55.

Whyte, William F. and Holmberg, Allan R. "Human Prob-
lems of U.S.'Enterprise in Latin America," Human
Organization, Volume 15, Number 3, (Fall, 1956).

Wilson, Meredith C. and Gallup, Gladys. Extension Teach-

in Methods, ESC 495. Washington: Federai Extension
Service, USDA.

Rokeach, Milton. The 0 an and Closed Mind. New York:
Basic Books, Inc., i959.

APPENDIX II

Excerpts from:

"An Evaluation of the Education offered at the Escuela Agri-
cola e Industrial of Preston, Oriente, Cuba"

Ames, Iowa .March 1959 Richard G. Milk

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.seasse Heeoaeaeeae use see» one peasants

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