EMPATHY AND MODERNIZATION IN COLOMBiA Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICE-{EGAN STATE UNWERSITY Cesar Alfonso Portocarrero 1966 n. We” Nébmtfifii. -.+ . LIBRARY Michigan Stats University n gum; 1%qu 1M m W HIIIJLIIIIJQII EMPATHY AND MODERNI ZA'I'ION IN COLOMBIA By Cesar Alfonso Portocarrero A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Communication 1966 ABSTRACT EMPAIHY AND MODEMZATION IN COLOMBIA by Cesar A. Portocarrero In recent years, empathy has been considered a central factor in the modernization of nations . One which facilitates the interaction of the different elements of modernization. However, very little research has been done to determine the extent of the influence of empathy in the process of modernization. The present study attempts to determine the role of empathy in modernization and how it is related to such charac- teristics of the modernization process as functional literacy, mass media exposure , cosmopoliteness , innovativeness , opinionatedness , achievement motivation, opinion leadership , Jmcwledgeability, and aspirations . Empathy is here defined as the process whereby an individual projects himself into the mind of another person, understands this person' s feelings , and takes them into account when dealing with him. This definition is pragmatic in its intent and purports to be a summary of the two theories which try to explain the concept of empathy. The present study indexed empathy by means of a five—item scale. Direct relationships between empathy and the selected modernization variables were hypothesized. Furthermore, a paradigm of empathy and modernization was developed to explore the possible conditions that en- hance or promote empathy (antecedents of empathy: functional literacy , mass media exposure , and cosmopoliteness) and to compare these conditions with selected indices of modernization (oonsequents of empathy: inno- vativeness , opinionatedness, achievement motivation, opinion leadership, Cesar~A, Portocarrero knowledgeability, and aspirations). Age and social status were used as the control variables between the antecedents and empathy, and empathy and the consequent variables. One hundred and sixty respondents fromlthree peasant communities near Bogota, Colombia, were interviewed by students of sociology of the National University of Colombia. As a first step the data.were analyzed by the use of zero—order product moment correlations. First—order’partial correlations, part- correlations, and.mmltiple correlations were also used. A.cluster analysis of empathy and its correlates was also perfOrmed. The nine general hypotheses in this study were confirmed. The results of the partial correlations show that age does not affect the relationship between empathy and the variables in study. However, ex— cept fer functional literacy and educational aspirations, social status affects the relationship between empathy and the other variables in study. When the effects of empathy were partialed out of the relation— ship between individual antecedents and consequents, it was feund that empathy did not affect these relationships. The multiple correlation analysis, performed to determine the extent to Whidh the antecedent variables would predict empathy, yielded an R2 of 29.9 per'cent. Mass media exposure accounted for 23.1 per'cent of the variance in empathy. However, as shown by the results of the part—correlation analysis, the predictive power of mass media exposure seems to be a fUnction of social status. The three types obtained as a result of the cluster analysis indicate that the indices of modernization selected for this study are Cesar A. Portocarrero not part of a single factor; rather, they clustered around three pairs of reciprocal variables . ACKNOWLEIEMENTS Many people have made this thesis possible. The author is indebted to Dr. Everett M. Rogers, his major professor, advisor, and friend , for guidance in this study and encouragement throughout his ‘ graduate work. He also wishes to extend his sincere appreciation to Dr. Joseph Spielberg and Mr. Tom Carroll, who served on his M.A. guidance committee. Appreciation is also extended to the North. Carolina Mission to Peru, for Sponsoring the author's studies at this university, and to the Programa Interamericano de Informacion Popular for making available the data for this thesis. In addition, gratitude is expressed to Mrs. Ralph Turner, for editorial work and enlightening discussions into English grammar, and to Mrs . Ruth Langenbacher for her cooperation in typing this thesis. Sincere thanks are extended to the author's fellow students, Robert F. Keith, Joe Ascroft, Eduardo and Elssy Ramos, for criticisms and suggestions regarding this thesis . Lastly, the author would like to dedicate this thesis to his parents, brothers, sisters, and fiancee who, though far aviay, gave love and encouragement . ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LISTOFTABLES . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . LISTOPAPPENDICES. . . . . . . . . Chapter I INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . Objectives II THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES . Defining Empathy The Role of Empathy in the Process of Modernization A Paradigm of Empathy and Modernization Antecedents of Empathy Functional Literacy Mass Media Exposure Cosmopoliteness Consequents of Empathy Innovativeness Achievement Motivation Knowledgeability Opinionatedness Opinion Leadership Aspirations Control Variables III METHODOLOGY _ The Setting The Sample and Data Collection 111 10 12 11+ 1'4 11+ 15 16 17 - 17 - 18 18 19 19 2O ,22 22 22 Table of Contents Chapter III (cont'd) Operationalization of Variables Dependent Variable Independent Variables Control Variables Statistical Analyses IV RESULJS Hypotheses Tested Effects of the Control Variables Empathy as an Intervening Variable A.Cluster'Analysis of Empathy and Its Correlates V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . Summary Interpretation of Results Predicting Empathy Control Variables Cluster.Analysis Conclusions Inture Researdh Action Implications for the Change Agent BIBLIOGRAPHY}............. iv Page 24 21+ 26 28 28 29 29 39 39 45 H7 47 H8 50 5m 55 55 56 57 65 LIST OF TABLES Some Characteristics of the three Colombian communities. . . . . . . . . . Matrix of'intercorrelations of the dependent, independent, and control variables . . Zero-order correlation and first-order partial correlation (controlling on age and social status) of the dependent and selected independent variables. . Zero—order correlation and first-order~partial correlation (controlling on empathy) of antecedent and selected consequent variables . . . . . . . . . . Zero—order correlations between empathy and selected variables fromlthree studies in different areas of the world . . . . . . . . . . Page 23 30 31 H0 63 LIST OF FIGURES Figures 1. Paradigm of the Role of Empathy in the Modernization Process . . . . . 2 . Zero-Order, First—Order and Part-Correlations Between Empathy, Mass Media Exposure and SocialStatus. . . . . . . . . 3. Cluster Analysis of Empathy and Its Correlates . Ll. Cluster Analysis of Empathy and Four Correlates in Three Traditional Settings. . . . . 13 33 I+6 6m LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A THE EMPATHY SCALE Criteria for Scoring the Scale Item Responses B CROSS—CULTURAL CDMPARISONS 59 61 62 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In recent years, the desire for modernization has been the reason for most aid programs from the "have" to the "have—not" countries. Where- as historically such terms as Europeanization, Westernization, or Amer- icanization were used, "modernization" is now preferred because suCh termldoes not imply a political ideology. The nationalistic pride of the countries receiving the aid is thus upheld. The process of modernization involves changes at different levels. The first level, the most obvious and so the one Which has been studied the most, involves Changes in technology, education, health, and the learning of new skills. The few economic theories of modernization whiCh have been proposed are primarily concerned with this level of moderniza- tion. .A second dimension entails the acceptance of new values and the changes brought about by the new technology. A third and deeper level of modernization calls for a change in the attitudes and beliefs of the in- dividuals involved. Phrtherg modernization requires that the individual act upon this new set of beliefs and, since he is a group member, his attitudes and beliefs are those of the group. As changes occur, the whole group must Change or the deviant individual must seek another group. These individual Changes are the beginnings of the.modernization of the individual. It is no longer’possible to assume.that individuals in tra— ditional societies will Change their way of life simply by being exposed to the prospects of material well-being. 2 any of the norms of traditional cultures are not conducive to modernization, and may even be opposed to Change. Many a program.has failed because this has not been recognized. It is almost impossible to avoid confrontation with suCh norms. We must confront them and turn themlto our advantage. That we have not done so is evidenced by the aims of the technical assistance programs. They have been geared towards raising the aspirations of the populace while little attention has been placed on raising their level of achievement. How does the process of modernization take place? Many theories have been advanced in answer to this question. One of the best known non-economic theories of modernization is that proposed by Lerner (1958) whiCh was empirically based on a study of Middle East countries and his- torically based on the development of the West. In brief, Lerner's path to modernization involves urbanization, literacy, industrialization, mass media exposure, and political participation. His emphasis is placed on the interaction of these components. They interact in the sense that the efficient functioning of one of themlrequires the efficient functioning of all the others. Central to Lerner's model of modernization is the concept of empathy, whiCh he defines as "the capacity to see oneself in the other fellow's situation." It is empathy which facilitates the interaction among these elements of modernization. In most traditional societies, villages in different parts of the country tend to have less communication with eaCh other than.with nearby urban centers. The pattern resembles the spokes of a wheel connected to a central hub, with no direct connection between individual spokes. These villages must develop the capacity to interact. Lerner contends 3 this capacity can be achieved through empathy, for empathy is the mechanism which makes individual changes deep and social change self- sustaining. Since the appearance of Lerner's theory, many social scientists have pondered on the implications of empathy on the modernization of tra- ditional cultures. Many have criticized the various aspects of this ad— mittedly-unproven theory , but few improvements upon it have been suggested . In general, the literature on empathy in the context of moderniza— tion is scanty; obviously, we need far more information. Furthermore, since the individual is the nucleus of his society, his attitudes and beliefs will, in the end, determine the policies of his country. Objectives The present thesis will attempt to determine the role of empathy in the process of modernization and how it is related to such factors of modern- ization as functional literacy, mass media exposure, cosmopoliteness, in— novativeness , opinionatedness , achievement motivation, opinion leadership, knowledgeability, and aspirations . The objectives of the present study are: 1. to test the validity, unidimensionality, and reliability of the empathy scale . 2. To develop a paradigm of modernization and to indicate how the concept of empathy is related to the process of modern- ization. 3 . To determine the relationship between empathy and selected antecedents of empathy and modernization, such as func— tional literacy, mass media exposure, and cosmopoliteness . 4 To determine the relationship of empathy and selected consequents of empathy suCh as innovativeness, aChieve- ment motivation, knowledgeability, opinionatedness, opinion leadership, and aspirations. CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESES Defining Empathy Ever since Theodore Lipps (1909) coined the German word einfuhlung (later translated into English as empathy), the concept has been subject to a series of varied interpretations. As originally intended by Lipps, the termiwas used to denote a process in whiCh an individual observes the gesture of another, imitates it, evokes through the imitation a previously experienced feeling, and then projects that feeling onto the other person. Consequent to this definition, usage of the termlhas been centered in a phenomenon other than, or only partly constituent of the phenomenon Lipps intended it to denote. At present, there are two theories encompassing the interpretations of the concept. A review of the basic principles underlying these two theories is in order. Inference theory, as stated by Berlo (1960, p. 122), is psyCholog— ically oriented; the theory states that a man can observe his own behavior directly and thus can relate his behavior to his internal psyChological states. In this way man derives meanings and develops a self—concept from his own observations and interpretations. On the basis of his prior inter- pretations of himself, he makes inferences about the internal states of others. The inference theory of empathy makes three assumptions: First, that man.has first-hand knowledge of his own internal states. Knowledge of other people's internal states is only second-hand. Second, other people, in responding to a given stimulus, peritimithe same behavior as one performs to express the same state. Finally, man cannot understand 5 6 internal states in other people which he has not experienced himself. The role-taking theory of empathy is based largely on the writings of Mead (l93H) and his sociological approach to the development of the self. Mead argues that a person, in order to develOp an ability to take the role of others meaningfully, must go through three stages: the pre- paratory, the play, and the game stages. The first stage is evident when the Child begins to take the role of others without any meaning in the action. At the play stage, the Child finds some meaning in these roles. This is a significant stage since, according to the theory, a person does not originally have a self, so the child addresses himself from the role of others. If communication is out here, the Child may keep on doing so; thus he will continue to think of himself in the third person. Through communication he supersedes this stage. The distinctive experience of the game stage is that the child is put in the position of taking a.number of parts simultaneously. He must adjust himself to the demands made on.him1by a variety of people. This is done by adopting a composite picture of the others; the Child builds a "generalized other," a standpoint fromlwhiCh he views himself and his behavior. The role—taking theory of empathy divides this last game stage into two parts; at first, the Child takes the roles of others syme bolically rather than physically and then, in the last step, he forms a . generalized other. Inference theory assumes a concept of self and suggests making in— ferences about the internal states of others; thus, this "self" concept determines how we empathize. The role-taking theory on the other hand, suggests that the concept of self does not determine empathy but rather that communication produces the concept of self, and role-taking allows 7 for empathy. The development of self is coterminous with the development of empathy. Hobart and Fahlberg (1965), commenting on prior approaches to the study of empathy, asserted that there has been a preference by the sociol— ~ogists for the term "empathy" while the psyChologists prefer~the term "social perception" or "person perception." These terminologies seemlto imply differences in underlying processes. The Meadian approaCh conceives of empathy as taking the role of the other, a process basic to socializa- tion and the acquisition of the "self." Empathy implies that there is a process of feeling by WhiCh one identifies with another. "One feels with and for that person whom he knows well enough to be able to feel his situa— tion" (Hobart and Fahlberg, 1965). In the psyChological approaCh the in— volvement of feeling is given little attention; the emphasis tends to be on the accuracy or inaccuracy of perception and on sources of errors in perception. Implicit in Hobart and Fahlberg's summary of the two sChools of thought is the problem.of definition and semantic differences. Strunk (1957), in quoting five definitions of empathy from.different studies, noted that "putting yourself in the other fellow's place" seemed to be consistent throughout all the definitions; however, there is a great variability in the terms used. He also mentioned that there are often attempts to distinguish between empathy and sympathy, empathy and projec— tion, empathy and identification, empathy and insight.1 It is not the intention here to widen fUrther'the gap between the sociologists and psyChologists; rather, after Berlo (1960) and Lerner (1958), it will be argued that both approaches have to be taken into lA.more dramatic presentation of the many ways in WhiCh empathy has been used can be found in Gompertz (1960). 8 account if an acceptable definition of empathy is to be derived. It is evident that man empathizes by utilizing both the psychological and the sociological approaches . We approach empathy first through role-taking, thus constructing a concept of self; based on this concept we begin to make inferences about other people. If our inferences are not rewarding, we go back to role-taking in order to redefine our self so that our in- ferences will become rewarding within our present social system. The process of role-taking, inference, role-taking, inference, goes on con— tinually, thus making a person able to adapt to his environment. This ability of a person to adapt himself to a new situation is what Lerner (1958) calls "mobility." The mobile person, according to Lerner, is characterized by a high capacity for identification with new aspects of his environment and comes equipped with mechanisms of "proj ection" and "introjection" which are needed to enlarge his identity. The former fa- cilitates identification by assigning to the object certain attributes of the self, and the latter enlarges identification by attributing to the self certain attributes of the object. Lerner uses the word "empathy" to indicate the interaction of both these mechanisms. His, it could be argued, is one attempt to bring together the two theories of empathy, pro— jection deriving from the inference theory, and introjection from the role-taking theory. Throughout his book, Lerner (1958) uses several definitions of empathy; in later publications (Lerner, 1963) even uses "psychic mobility," as if he would like to drop the term "empathy." Gompertz (1960), in an extensive review of the literature on empathy, refuses to coin a definition of the term; "Perhaps as someone has said, it [empathy] is impossible to understand unless one is able to empathize," he says . 9 Throughout the literature, particularly in the psychological tradition, many definitions of empathy are found. Most authors prove the correctness of their definitions but replications are virtually non- existent.2 With this in mind, the author is wary of coining another definition, for empathy is a concept subject to many biases which, although easily recognized, are difficult to correct. Empathy is thus defined as file process whereby an individual onects himself into the mind 9_f_ another Erson, understands this person's feelings, and takes them into account when dealing with him. This definition purports to be a summary, as it were, of Lerner's (1958) definitions which he presents in different parts of his book. In keeping with the theme of the present thesis, the definition is pragmatic in its intent . Projection is seen here as part of "anticipatory response" (Young, 1997, pp. 118-9) involving perception and assessment of another's gestures in guiding one's own actions. In the sense of "taking the role of the other," some authors make projection almost synonymous with empathy. This use has its theoretical base in the analysis of interaction and communica— tion. From this author's point of view, empathy is more than projection or role-taking; empathy also involves understanding in the sense of utili- zation of our role-taking skills in structuring and interpreting our social and intra—personal relationships . To be able to project oneself and understand another person's mind 2See, for example, Kerr and Speroff (195M) and for a critique, Thorndike (1959). 10 and feelings, does not in itself make one empathic; one must also act in accordance with this projection and understanding; only then is the process complete. The Role of Empathy in the Process of Modernization Ever since the publication of Lerner's (1958) book, which intro- duced the concept of empathy in the process of modernization, many social scientists have written about and regarded empathy as an important vari- able in the modernization of nations.3 Although, to the author's knowledge, no explicit replication of Lerner's work has appeared, his empathy index has been used repeatedlyu with very little being added to what Lerner said about the role of empathy in the context of modernization. Empathy, as the capacity to see oneself in the other fellow's situ— ation, assumes that an important step on the road to modernity is the ability to conceive of oneself in somebody else's role. While the aChieve- ment of modernization involves the pulling together of a large number of economic and social resources, the development of empathy is more of a personal matter, although the degree to whiCh an individual acquires empathy is in part a fUnction of the underlying social structure (Merton, 1957). While everyone is able to engage in some kind of role-taking, there are individual differences in the ability to identify with others. Some are able to "feel with" other people, but others are detached and can see people only from.the vantage point of a spectator who is not involved in 3Eister (1962), Frey (196M), Rao (1963), Pool (1961+), and Roy (1961+), to mention a few. uSee Footnote 3 supra. Some modifications of the original index were used however. 11 the affairs of his peers. When empathy is absent, even human.beings are treated as if they were simply physical objects. The most callous disre- . gard for others occurs even among those who mean well, simply because they do not identify themselves with the people with whom they deal. Seeing another'person as a "you," as Buber (in Shibutani, 1961, p. 334) put it, instead of an "it" implies a conception of his being endowed with quali- ties muCh like one's own. Past studies (Rogers, 1962, p. 256) in more developed societies have indicated that there is considerable disagreement between the role expectations of the local client systemland the change agent, and the _agent's self-definition of his role. Perceptions of the change agent by his client systemtmay affect his success in securing Change; in a tra- ditional systemu the social distance between the Change agent and his clients is generally large and it remains so for many years. It is con- tended here that utilization of the empathic potential on both sides could facilitate this relationship and thus make for a successful rapport between agent and clients. It can fUrther be argued that it is through this ability to eme pathize that a person becomes acquainted with the norms, attitudes and ideals of his group, community, and nation. The immediate effect of empathy is the control which the individual is able to exercise over his own responses; he now carefu11y considers his neighbor's feelings, or his group's norms, before making some decision. Modifying What Mead (193H) pointed out, it is this control of the individual himself through taking the role of the other-that leads to the value of empathy in that it carries the cooperative process of human beings farther’than that of herds or insect societies. 12 Persuing the Meadian line of thought a little fUrther, it is evident that some people are more able to empathize than others. These high empathizers may become the leaders of their villages because they are able to see the needs of the whole populace, thus unifying the dif4 ferent groups within the village. These leaders then become an important part in the development of cooperative activity whiCh will later involve the nation as a whole. It seems apparent, then, that the empathic ability of an individual can transcend his group, extending into his village and even to his nation. When this happens, isolated villages are better able to COOperate and communicate with one another'to discover common needs and goals and thus participate in cooperative activity whiCh will hopefully Change their mode of living. A.Paradigm.of Empathy and Modernization In order to develop a.better understanding of the functions and importance of empathy in the process of modernization, it is necessary to relate empathy with other variables considered to be relevant to the process. This analysis can be done by exploring the possible conditions that enhance or promote empathy (antecedent variables) and comparing these conditions with selected indices of modernization. This approaCh has its theoretical basis on Rogers' (1966) paradigm, in turn largely derived from the works of Deutschmann (1963) and Lerner (1958). Figure l is a repre— sentation of this type of analysis. It should be cautioned that the terms "antecedents" and "consequents" are here used to imply a.probable time- order'relationship and not necessarily a.cause-effect relation. Further, it should be pointed out that a change in the value of the consequents may cause a corresponding change in the antecedents. 13 . mmooonm Bfipungmooz 93 CH mfiugem m5 oaom 05. “Ho sawogm .H mos—swam mCOHEwHamm/w/ oflgoommq Bongo // mmooompucoafiao / -2 xxx- mmocoefiomoamoo fidflwmmaflzofi/ ,.\\\-\\\ I\W; m a < a z m T wamoaxm mam: mam: £03930: Hanna/mafia, A\\\\\\m / .,/ mmoogwfimewog Conga Hoooaeooom k \ mpcosdmmcoo gauge, meant/nova ._ mpoooooopé 11+ Antecedents of Empathy Functional Literacy The recent definition of fUnctional literacy by Rogers and Herzog (1966) is pertinent to this study. They state, "FUnctional literacy is the ability to read and write adequately for carrying out the fUnctions of the individual's role in his salient social system," This definition, in keeping with a statement by UNESCO (1963) experts, clearly implies that literacy is more than the simple skill of reading and.writing; it is a process whiCh is different for different roles, requirements of which change as the individual Changes. It is in this sense that Lerner (1958) uses "literacy" in his pro- posed model of modernization, in.which he considers it both the index and the agent of the second phase of the process. In relating literacy to empathy he contends, "The very act of aChieving distance and control over a formal language gives people access to the world of vicarious experience and trains them to use the complicated meChanismlof empathy which is needed to cope with this world." (Lerner, 1958, p. 64). He reports that data from.Syria and TUrkey show a strong relationship between literacy and empathy. General Hypothesis I: E§§£§§.2£ empathy varies directly with degree of_fUnctional literacy. Mass Media Exposure Mass media is here broadly defined as an impersonal means of com- munication by whiCh visual and/or verbal messages are transmitted from a source of one or more individuals to an audience of many. Whereas historically physical mobility was the only means of 15 keeping contact with the rest of the world, the mass media now provides a.way of imaginative expansion to faraway lands. Poor'roads, or the laCk of them, cannot stop the flow of some kind of mass communication WhiCh, in some instances, enhances the people's empathic skill to a.point where they can easily imagine themselves as strange persons in strange situa- tions and.places. This contention is supported by the findings of Prey (196%) in Turkey where peasants had higher empathy with the Prime Minister of the country than with an extra—village lesser government official. Frey noted that the empathic role with the Minister could be related to the Minister's wide exposure via the mass media of communication. Frey agrees with Lerner in considering the mass media as the mobility multiplier. Rao (1963), on the otherihand, sees the mass media.as the great smootheriof transition, for when information arrives in a community, it is used first by the power’holders. However, when the community notices the Changes effected by the use of the information, questions are asked; if the Channels of information are few and.controlled, the resentment of the populace may increase. If, on the other hand, these Channels are numerous and unrestricted, the Changes can be smoothly effected. The economic, social, and political ideas brought in by the mass media.increase the villager's sphere of action, thus promoting the understanding and consensus necessary for a modern society. General Hypothesis II: Degree_of empathy varies directly with degree of mass media exposure. Cosmopoliteness Based on the assumption that an individual's empathic ability can be enhanced by cosmopoliteness, defined as the degree to whiCh an 16 individual's orientation is external to his social system.(Rogers, 1962, p. 17), it can be argued that in the process of modernization cosmopolite- ness is indeed an antecedent of empathy. As Lerner (1958, p. 52) points out, "The historic increase of psychic mobility begins with expansion of physical travel." If an individual is going to Change his mode of life, he needs to be able to look beyond his village, and in so doing his empathic skills should become more efficient because of the newrroles and situations he will be exposed to. It Should be pointed out that the "external orienta- tion" to which Rogers' definition refers is to be interpreted in this study as "urban orientation," the extent to WhiCh the villagers travel to urban centers. Obviously, the villagers' desire to travel can be curtailed by their economic condition and by the availability of transportation to the urban centers. Nevertheless, when Rao (1963) tried.to reconstruct what had happened to make his two Indian villages so different from.one another in modernity, he concluded that the key difference between them was the existence of a.road that had been put through the one modernizing village to a.nearby small city. Over this road villagers contacted.the urban center, and when a small industry moved to the village, the people were prepared for it; their receptivity had been modified by their cosmopoliteness. General Hypothesis 111: Degree of_empathy varies directly with degree g cOSmopoliteness . Consequents of Empathy The following indices of modernization were selected as consequents of empathy: innovativeness, aChievement motivation, knowledgeability, 17 opinionatedness, opinion leadership and.aspirations. Innovativeness Innovativeness, defined by Rogers (1962) as the degree to WhiCh an individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than are the other'members of his social system, is believed to be one of the Char- acteristics of a modernizing person. Whereas a modernist welcomes Change, a traditionalist resists it. One of the generalizations in the diffusion of innovations re- searCh tradition is that innovators have a.type of mental ability dif- ferent from.that of later adopters; innovators must be able to adopt new ideas mainly from.the mass media, and since they are the first to adopt, they cannot copy the adoptions fronttheir'peers. What makes the innovae tors behave in this manner? Perhaps it is a difference in.the nature of their mental ability. Rogers and Beal (1959) found a.high relationship between innovativeness and the ability to deal with abstractions, a type of mental ability they measured by responses to pictures. Rogers (1961) found low but positive relationship between innovativeness and "cloze" scores, which are a crude measure of intelligence. On the basis of this evidence, it could be argued that innovative— ness is a consequent of empathy, in that an empathic individual has a broader, more ample view of'the.world. General Hypothesis IV: Degree of_innovativeness varies directly with.degree o£_empathy. AChievement Motivation AChievement motivation or need.ftr*aChievement is defined by MCClelland (1961) as a desire for excellence in one's occupation. He 18 argues that the desire for achievement is a cause of national and economic development and individual modernization. Although, to the author's knowledge, there is no research evidence to support this contention, it could be argued that since an empathic individual is always looking away from his own group, it stands to reason that such an individual would also have a high need for achievement. Thus empathy would have to come before the need for achievement. General Hypothesis V: Degree g achievement motivation varies directly with degree of empathy. Knowledgeability It is contended here that the empathic ability of an individual would make it easier for him to become involved in many different roles and, in that process, learn about them. Thus a highly empathic person would have a more comprehensive knowledge of what is going on in the world. General Hypothesis VI: Degree g knowledgeability varies directly with degree of empathy. Opinionatedness Opinionatedness is defined as the willingness of a person to ex- press his opinions on impersonal matters. Lerner (1958, p. 71) contends that a person becomes participant, thus modern, by learning to have opinions; further, if modernization is the transition to a participant society, the trend of the individuals in that society should be to a constantly expanding opinionatedness . It could be concluded that an empathic person will have more opinions about matters that concern other individuals; indeed Lerner (1958, p. 79) reports high correlations be- 19 tween top opinion—holders and high empathizers . That opinionatedness is in fact a consequent of empathy is srpported by Lerner (1958, p. 72) who found that empathy was the only satisfactory way to account for some divergent respondents . Such respon- dents, like most of their peers, were illiterate, rural and non—participant but nevertheless they had a keener interest in impersonal matters and a deeper desire to become participants in the opinion arena. General Hypothesis VII: Degree g epinionatedness varies directly with degree ef eepathy. Opinion Leadership Opinion leadership, as defined by Rogers and Herzog (1966), is the ability to influence informally other people's attitudes in a desired way and with a relatively high frequency . Homans (1961, p. 311+) states that leaders obtain their positions of influence by rendering valuable and rare services to their groups . It stands to reason that these leaders are preoccupied with impersonal matters; thus it could be argted that empathic individuals would have a better chance of being opinion leaders . This contention is supported by Mead (1934) when he points out that a leader is able to "take in" more roles than his peers and thus put himself into relations with whole groups in his community. General Hypothesis VIII: Degree 31: opinion leadership varies directly with degree 31: empathy. Aspirations Aspirations are defined as the desire to achieve something higher or greater. In this study, educational and occupational aspirations will 20 be used as indicators of the villagers aspirations. Educational aspira- tions and occupational aspirations are defined as the level of education and the kind of occupation parents desire for their'childrene As Lerner (1958) points out, peasants are not aware of the Opportunities the "outer world" can afford their Children. As a person is exposed to the mass media and becomes a cosmopolite, greater opportunities, which he did not have for himself, become apparent and he may desire them.for his children. It follows that a man with high aspirations fOr his Children will also have a corresponding high level of empathy whiCh.will enable him to per— ceive the different status levels his Children may be able to aChieve. General Hypothesis IX: Degree 9f aspirations varies directly with degree ef_empathy. Control variables This study incorporates two control variables, age and social status of the respondents. These were included in orderito determine the degree to which they affect the relationShip between the selected ante— cedents of empathy and the selected indices of modernization and empathy. Past researCh has shown that there is an inverse relationship be- tween age and modernization variables.5 Respondents over 40 years of age score consistently lower on most modernization variables than those from 15 to #0 years of age. Since age is a factor'which cannot be Changed in the process of modernization, it can be assumed that the age of the respondents will some- what reduce the effect of the relationship between the antecedents and empathy and the consequents and empathy. 5See DeutsChmann (1963) and DeutsChmann, Mendez, and Herzog (in preparation). 21 Social status, on the other hand, is one of the targets of.modern— ization, and a high social status is expected to have an enhancing in- fluence on the relationship between empathy and its antecedents and empathy and its consequents. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY , The Setting The data for the present study are part of a larger research project, begun in 1963, on the role of opinion leaders in the diffusion of agricultural innovations in Colombia. A number of other reports provide detailed information on the different characteristics of the three villages selected for this study.1 Pueblo Viejo, San Rafael, and Cuatro Esquinas are located about 60 miles west of Bogota, the capital of Colombia, in the foothills of the Andes Mountains in Central Colombia. All three villages , or veredas as they are called in Colombia, are characterized by intensively-cultivated small-sized farms on steep slopes. The inhabitants are of mixed Indian- Spanish stock, with relatively low mass media exposure, low levels of education, and limited economic opportunities . Table 1 shows some of the key characteristics of the three veredas in study. The Sample and Data Collection Data were gathered from the chief farm decision—maker by means of a structured personal interview. There were 192 eligible households , but only 160 interviews were obtained. See Table l for the percentage of interviews in each village . Students from the College of Sociology of the National University of Colombia, Bogota, carried out the interviewing. Similar data-gathering lSee Rogers and van Es (1961+) and Rogers and Neill (1966). 22 23 Table 1. Some Characteristics of the three Colombian communities. Pueblo San Cuatro Characteristics Viejo Rafael Esquinas 1. Total number of households 93 61 73 2. Total number of eligible respondents -77 45 68 3. Number of completed interviews 67 36 57 Percentage of completed interviews from.eligible respondents 87% 80% 84% 5. Mean years of education of the respondent 1.6 2.1 2.2 6. Percentage of respondents with formal education 70% 50% 68% 7. Percentage of respondents who are functionally literate 27% 39% 49% 8. Percentage of respondents reading* a newspaper at least once a week 54% 61% 67% 9. Percentage of respondents reading* a magazine at least once a.month 18% 17% 19% 10. Percentage of respondents having seen a.film1in the past year 69% » 72% 63% 11. Percentage of respondents listening to radio at least once a.week 55% 56% 68% 12. Percentage of respondents having watched TV in the past year 10% 17% 14% 13. Percentage of respondents using chemical fertilizer 90% 94% 95% 14. Percentage of respondents using a.weed sprayer 79% 89% 82% 15. Percentage of respondents possessing a latrine 8% 78% 60% 16. Median farm size in acres 14.2 21.8 19.7 17. Major crop grown potatoes potatoes potatoes *These figures also include someone else reading to the respondent. methods were utilized in eaCh of the three villages. 24 Operationalization of Variables Tependent Variable Empathy is the major dependent variable of this study. It is defined as the process whereby an individual projects himself into the mind of another person, understands the person's feelings and takes them. into account when dealing with him. In order to measure this concept a five-item scale was developed. The scale distinguished five public roles and placed them in order from the most local to the most national in responsibility (see Appendix.AD. Except for the village's President of the Community Board role, the area of concern was also specified, i.e., improvement of the highway, and the respondent was asked to address himself to this problem in his answer. An example of a typical itemlwould be: "If you were the Minister~of Education, what would you do for rural sChools in Colombia?". The cri- teria for scoring these items are also presented in Appendix A. The reliability, internal consistency, and validity of the empathy scale were determined. 1. Reliability .A scale is said to be reliable if, when applied to the same sample of reapondents, it consistently yields the same results. In the present study the splitéhalf'method of determining scale reliability was used. The items in the scale were divided into two subscales and Parsonian cor~ relation between the two subtotals was computed. The items in the two subscales were determined by selecting the Odd? and even—numbered items. Since eaCh of the subscales has only oneéhalf'as many items as the original scale, its degree of reliability has been decreased accordingly. In order 25 to determine the reliability of the total scale, the Spearman-Brown cor— rection formula was used. When corrected by this formula, the coefficient of reliability for the empathy scale was determined to be .750. 2 . Internal Consistency The degree to which scale items are interrelated is the internal consistency of the scale; it was tested by (1) item-to—total score cor- relations, and (2) item—to—item correlations . (1) The five item-to-total correlations varied from .668 to .753 with a median r of .726.2 (2) The 10 item—to—item correlations vary from .323 to .480 with a median r of .407. It can be thus concluded that the scale is internally consistent . As a check of the scale's unidimensionality, a McQuitty Elementary Linkage Analysis was performed (McQuitty, 1957) . This indicated all items to be linked together, confirming the unidimensionality of the scale. 3. Validity One of the crucial tests of a scale is its validity or the degree to which a scale measures what it purports to measure. The validity of the empathy scale was tested by the use of three judges . Inter-judges correlations were .830, .840, and .860. Furthermore, after a lapse of one year, the items were scored again by one of the original judges with a resulting correlation between his judgments over time of .970. 2An r of .189 is significantly different from zero at the one per cent level. i , > I - x l J . . - . i , . . c - . . - v r ‘ ' r . v - . . . . . r y , , - ' . . , I 26 Independent Variables 1. Functional Literacy As originally suggested by Mendez and waisanen (1964), this vari— able was measured by handing eaCh respondent a small card on which the sentence (in Spanish) "The eee_moved.his hand rapidlyin a gesture of respect," was printed. The number of key words, here underlined, that the respondent was able to read correctly was used as a.measure of fUnctional literacy. Since its inception, this measure of functional literacy has been used successfully in various forms with peasant respondents in Cesta Rica, Mexico, Guatemala, Chile, and India. 2. Mass Media Exposure Exposure to the mass media.was measured.by an index of contact ‘with radio, newspapers, cinema, magazines, and television. The respondents were asked to state how many times per week they read a newspaper, how many times they listened to the radio, etc. These raw scores were con— verted.into "sten" scores (Canfield, 1951) and then combined into a mass media exposure index. 3. Cosmopoliteness In this study, cosmopoliteness was indexed as the number of trips per*year taken by the respondent to an urban center. 4. Innovativeness As it is usually measured, an innovativeness scores is obtained by asking the respondents how many recently-introduced ideas he has adopted and.when. In this case, agricultural innovativeness was measured by a score indicating the composite time of adoption of 16 new farm practices. Home innovativeness was measured similarly by using seven new home practices. 27 5. Achievement Motivation AChievement motivation or need for achievement was measured with eight sentence completion items, a projective teChnique developed fOr Colombia by Rogers and Neill (1966). An example of the items is: "What the farmers in my country need is . . ."; "A good farmer has to . . .", etc. Scores were assigned on a 0 to 5 scale according to criteria previously established.3 6. Knowledgeability The knowledgeability scores consisted of the number of correct answers to five questions on Latin American politics, business, and farming. 7. Opinionatedness The respondent's opinionatedness score was obtained by subtracting the number of'"no opinion" answers given.from.the total of'ten selected items on the interview sChedule. 8. Opinion Leadership In the present study, opinion leadership was measured as the number of sociometric Choices received by a farmer in response to questions asked his peers relating to whose advice they would seek in matters involving new farming ideas, health practices, etc. A single opinion leadership score was formed by combining the scores of the six items used. 9. Aspirations Levels of occupational and educational aspirations were measured 3For a detailed discussion of the achievement motivation scale see Rogers and Neill (1966). 28 by asking the respondent the number of years of education and the kind of occupation he wished his oldest child to have . The occupational aspira- tion was coded in terms of levels of occupational prestige. Control Variables Of the two control variables, age and social status, the latter was measured by the interviewer's own assessment of the social status of the reSpondent among his peers . Statistical Analyses Data for all the hypotheses were analyzed using zero-order product- moment correlations . Thus the data were assumed to have interval qualities . The second step was to control for _age and social status in the relationship between the antecedents and empathy, and selected consequents and empathy . A third kind of analysis was the computation of first—order partial correlations between the antecedents and selected consequents partialing out the effects of empathy. It was this comparison which explicated the intervening properties of empathy . The fourth step was the computation of a multiple correlation co- efficient to determine to what extent the antecedent variables , functional literacy, social status, and mass media exposure were able to predict empathy . As a final step, a cluster analysis of empathy and its correlates was performed, using the simplified technique developed by McQuitty (1957). CHAPTER IV RESUETS Hypotheses Tested General Hypothesis I General Hypothesis 1: Degree_e£ empathy varies directly with degree ef_functional literacy. Empirical Hypothesis I: Empathy scores vary directly with func- tional literacy scores. Zero-order correlation (Table 2) between empathy and literacy is .363, which is more than the .189 required for signifi- cance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supported. The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that fUncticnal literacy accounts for 13.2 per cent of the variance in empathy. The first-order'partial correlation (Table 3) between empathy scores and literacy scores, controlling on social status, is .203, whiCh is signif- icant at the one per cent level.1 The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-crder*partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level.2 This shows that social status does not intervene in the relationship between empathy and fUnctional literacy. The first-order partial correlation between empathy scores and literacy scores, controlling on age, is .325, WhiCh is significant at the lSignificance from.zero was tested by the t test. See MCNemar (1962, p. 167). ’ 2The significance of the differences was obtained by transtrming the r's into Z scores and testing the difference between the Z8. Sig- nificant differences of the Z scores means that the two r's are signif— icantly different (MCNemar, 1962, pp. 139-140). 29 30 cazrnoomoa cowcaco .oH mmoco>aem>occa Honopaooanw<. .m mBBm 980m .3 mmoqoopoooafioo .m mmooopfloooeooo .ll om< .mH meaaaouowooazocz .m mesmocxo uaoofi mom: .m mcoaemssmmm Hucoweuooom .NH coaem>apoe pomam>oacg< .s eousopaa Hucoapocpm .N mcoaemnacmu Hucoaymcoooo .HH wmoco>aem>occa meow .o >ceucem .H "oooaocfl moacoanm> when I- . _ . . as «emmN. II ma «emo:.«eoma.I II NH «asthma: teams. I- Hoe/ma E8 moo m at so pqtoflahflm .3. 3 team. toot- moo. $2. I- Hosea. too poo H at so permanent e S III. Ii: III III II III m «amom.««mmN.I «teem. «tmma. «emmN. I II II m eammN.«e:HN.I «flea. Hmo. «mma. I II «emmN. II N «anom.etmma.I «tuba. «eon. «eamN. I II «teem. «emaN. II o tamer. ammH.I «and. «med. «area. I II «esma. mac. «aamN. II m «smm3. «NmH.I stoma. «emom. aemmm. I II «amen. «emmm. «amom. «mmfi. II : «immm.«eNHN.I «roar. «aiom. «emam. 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N.mH «emom. soohoeaa Hocoeooeam oaao> .o.o mseopm apex. oaao> .a.o om<.apaz o.o.o h ohoN moaomaht> N Heavens N awesome pioooooofi moeupm co mcaaaonpcoo om< co mcaaaospcoo scumcam . . .moacoanm> pcoocomooow oopooaom ecu Homecomoo ocu.wo Andaman Huaoom one own co wcaaaospcoov cowpmaosnoo Hoaehoc noUQOIemnflw ocu coapmaonuoo noULOIonoN .m canoe 32 one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first—order'partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that age does not intervene in the relationship between empathy and functional literacy. General Hypothesis II General Hypothesis II: Degree ef empathy varies directly with degree e§:mass media.e§posure. Empirical Hypothesis II: Empathy scores vary directly with.mass media exposure scores. Zero—order correlation between empathy and mass media is .520, whiCh is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supported. The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that mass media exposure accounts for 27.0 per cent of the variance in empathy. The first-orderIpartial correlation between empathy scores and mass media exposure scores, controlling on social status, is .290, whiCh is signif- icant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-order~partial correlation between these two variables is significant at the one per cent level. This shows that social status intervenes in the relationship between empathy and.mass media exposure. The first—order partial correlation between empathy scores and mass media exposure scores, controlling on age, is .500, whiCh is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlah tion and the first-order partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that age does not intervene in the relationship between empathy and mass media exposure. 33 At this point, a part-correlation analysis was performed. When in the zero-order correlation between empathy and mass media, the effect of social status is removed fromImass media alone, the resulting part- correlation is .335. Howeverg when the effect of social status is re- moved from.empathy and not from.mass media exposure, the part-correlation is .040, whiCh is not significantly different from zero. Thus, social status affects the relationship between empathy and mass media exposure largely through its effect on empathy. Figure 2 may help to clarify this point. .520* .290* Empathy 1 A P91 Empathy ye _ ‘ MM .595* ‘\\\ SI{//fl .556* .1 S SS .A. - Zero—order r B. - First-ordeIIpartial r SS 88 C. - Part-correlation D. - Part—correlation SS out of MM only SS out of Empathy only * Significantly different from zero at the one per cent level. Figure 2. Zero—Order, First-Order and Part-Correlations Between Empathy, Mass Media Exposure and Social Status. General Hypothesis III General Hypothesis III: Degree ef_empathy varies directly with degree 9f cosmopoliteness. 34 Empirical Hypothesis III: Empathy scores vary directly with cosmopoliteness scores. Zero-order correlation between empathy and cosmo- politeness is .282, which is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supported. The zero—order correlation between these two variables shows that cosmopoliteness account for 8.0 per cent of the variance in empathy. The first-order partial correlation between empathy scores and cosmopolite— ness scores, controlling on social status, is .036, which is not signif- icant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-order partial correlation between these two variables is significant at the one per cent level. This shows that social status intervenes in the relationship between empathy and cosmopoliteness. The first-order partial correlation between empathy scores and cosmopoliteness scores, controlling on age, is .259, which is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correla- tion and the first-order partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that age does not intervene in the relationship between empathy and cosmopoliteness. When fUnctional literacy, mass media exposure, and cosmopoliteness were analyzed together to determine their effect on empathy scores, they yielded a multiple correlation, R, of .547, or an R2 of .299. The amount of variance in empathy scores explained by each antecedent is as follows: Individual Variables Variation in Empathy_ Mass Media Exposure 23.1% FUnctional Literacy 6.7% Cosmopoliteness 0.1% Total 29.9% 35 General Hypothesis IV General Hypothesis IV: Degree pi innovativeness varies directly, with degree pf empathy. Empirical Hypothesis IVa: Agricultural innovativeness scores vary directly with empethy scores. Zero-order correlation between agricultural innovativeness and empathy is .255, whiCh is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. Empirical Hypothesis IVa is supported. The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts for 6.5 per cent of the variance in agricultural innova- tiveness. The first-order’partial correlation between agricultural inno- vativeness scores and empathy scores, controlling on social status, is .011, whiCh is not significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero—order’correlation and the first—order~partial correlar tion between these two variables is significant at the one per cent level. This shows that social status intervenes in the relationship between [agricultural innovativeness and empathy. The first—order*partial correlation between agricultural innova- tiveness scores and empathy scores, controlling on age, is .227, whiCh is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero- ordericorrelation and the first—order'partial correlation between these ‘two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that age does not intervene in the relationship between agricultural innovativeness and empathy. Empirical Hypothesis IVb: Home innovativeness scores vary directly_ with empathy scores. Zero—order correlation between home innovativeness and empathy is .366, whiCh is more than the .189 required for significance 36 at the one per cent level. Empirical Hypothesis IVb is supported. The two empirical hypotheses derived from.the General Hypothesis IV were supported. Therefore, General Hypothesis IV is also supported. General Hypothesis V General Hypothesis V: Degree pf aChievement motivation varies directly with degree ef_empathy. Empirical Hypothesis V: AChievement motivation scores vary directly with empathy scores. Zero-order correlation between aChievement motivation and empathy is .279, whiCh is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supported. The zero—order correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts for 7.8 per cent of the variance in aChievement motivation. General Hypothesis VI General Hypothesis VI: Degree eflknowledgeability varies directly with degree pf empathy. Empirical Hypothesis VI: Knowledgeabilipy_scores vary directly with egpathy scores. Zero-order correlation between knowledgeability and empathy is .448, whiCh is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supportedl The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts fOr 20.1 per cent of the variance in knowledgeability. The first-orderIpartial correlation between knowledgeability scores and empathy scores, controlling on social status, is .222, Which is signif- icant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero—order 37 correlation and the first-order partial correlation between these two variables is significant at the one per cent level. This shows that social status intervenes in the relationship between knowledgeability and empathy. The first—order partial correlation between knowledgeability scores and empathy scores, controlling on age, is .418, WhiCh is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero_order correla- tion and the first-order partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that age does not intervene in the relationship between knowledgeability and empathy. General Hypothesis VII General Hypothesis VII: Degree ef_epinionatedness varies directly with degree ef_empethy. Empirical Hypothesis VII: Opinionatedness scores vary directly with empathy scores. Zero-order correlation between opinionatedness and empathy is .338, WhiCh is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supported. The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts for 11.4 per cent of the variance in opinionatedness. General Hypothesis VIII General Hypothesis VIII: Degree 9: opinion leaderShip_varies directly with degree pf empathy. Empirical Hypothesis VIII: Opinion leadership scores vary directly, with empathy scores. Zero-order’correlation between opinion leadership and empathy is .281, WhiCh is more than the .189 required.for significance at the one per cent level. The hypothesis is supported. , . . , 1 . . .. '/ ‘» , I ‘ l I ' ‘ . p e . . . , r , . s l ‘ ‘, . . I ‘ I . t e - \. | . . , I 1 u . . . .' _ . _ . , , , _ . .. ‘ . , . \ ' ' . , , 2 _I ‘ o 38 The zero-order~correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts for 7.9 per cent of the variance in opinion leadership. General Hypothesis IX General Hypothesis IX: Degree ef_aspirations vary directly with degree eilempathy. Ihpirical.Hypothesis IXa: Occupational aspirations scores vary directly with empathy scores. Zero—ordeIICtrrelation between occupational aspirations and empathy is .268, which is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. Empirical Hypothesis IXa is thus supported. The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts for 7.2 per cent of the variance in occupational aspirations. Empirical Hypothesis IXb: Educational eepirations scores vary directly with empathy scores. Zero-order correlation between educational aspirations and empathy is .417, which.is more than the .189 required for significance at the one per cent level. Empirical Hypothesis IXb is supported. The zero-order correlation between these two variables shows that empathy accounts for 17.4 per cent of the variance in educational aspirae tions. The first-order partial correlation between educational aspira- tions scores and empathy scores, controlling on social status, is .249, which is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-order*partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that social status does not intervene in the relationship between educational aspirations and empathy. 39 The first-order’partial correlation between educational aspirations scores and empathy scores, controlling on age, is .398, WhiCh is signif— icant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first—order'partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that page does not intervene in the relationship between educational aspirations and empathy. The two empirical hypotheses derived from.the General Hypothesis IX‘were supported. Therefore, General Hypothesis TX is also supported. All the general and empirical hypotheses tested in this study were supported. Effects of the Control Variables Social status acts as an intervening variable in the relationship between empathy and mass media exposure, cosmopoliteness,_agricultural innovativeness, and.know1edgeability. Social status does not intervene in the relationship between empathy and fUnctional literacy, and educa- tional aspirations. Age does not intervene in the relationships between empathy and functional literacy, mass media.exposure, cosmopoliteness, agricultural innovativeness, knowledgeability, and educational aspirations. Empathy as an Intervening Variable This section will report the results of the statistical analyses done in order to detect the function of empathy as an intervening vari- able between antecedents and selected consequents (Table 4). l. The zero—order correlation between fUnctional literacy scores and agricultural innovativeness scores is .207, significant at the one per cent level, showing that literacy accounts for 4.3 per cent of the 40 Ho>oH pooo moo m may no poooamaomem «e Ho>oH homo goo H may at pooosuaowam e ms. N.ma eeoem. a.mH eeoma. meofiomoaomo docoaHooom so. o.oa eeoma. m.oN «emoo. suaaaooomooazooe mm. a. :mo. m.H «mma. mmoco>flpo>oooa. 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This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of fUnctional literacy and the consequent vari— able of innovativeness. 2. The zero-order'correlation between functional literacy scores and knowledgeability scores is .421, significant at the one per cent level, showing that literacy accounts for 17.7 per cent of the variance in know— ledgeability. The first—orderipartial correlation between literacy scores and.know1edgeability scores, controlling on empathy, is .310, whiCh is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero— order correlation and the first-order partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of fUnctional literacy and the consequent variable of knowledgeability. 3. The zero-order*crrrelation between fUnctional literacy scores and educational aspirations scores is .273, significant at the one per cent level, showing that literacy accounts for 7.4 per cent of the variance in educational aspirations. The first—order'partial.correlation between literacy scores and educational aspirations scores, controlling on empathy, is .140, whiCh is significant at the five per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-order partial correla— tion between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent 42 level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of functional literacy and the consequent variable of educational aspirations. 4. The zero-order*correlation between mass media exposure scores and agricultural innovativeness scores is .320, significant at the one per cent level, showing that mass media exposure accounts for 10.2 per cent of the variance in agricultural innovativeness. The first—order partial correlation between mass media exposure scores and agricultural innovativeness scores, controlling on empathy, is .230, whiCh is signif4 icant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first—order*partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of'mass media exposure and the consequent variable ofagricul- tural innovativeness. 5. The zero-order correlation between mass media exposure scores and knowledgeability scores is .595, significant at the one per cent level, showing that mass media exposure accounts for 35.4 per cent of the vari- ance in knowledgeability. The first-order partial correlation between mass media exposure scores and knowledgeability scores, controlling on empathy, is .467, which is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero—order correlation and the first—order~partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relation- ship between the antecedent variable of mass media exposure and the consequent variable of knowledgeability. 43 6. The zero-order correlation between mass media exposure scores and educational aspiration scores is .419, significant at the one per cent level, showing that mass media exposure accounts for 17.6 per cent of the variance in educational aspirations. The first-orderipartial cor- relation between mass media exposure scores and educational aspiration scores, controlling on empathy, is .260, whiCh is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first—order partial correlation between mass media exposure scores and educational aspiration scores, controlling on empathy, is .260, which is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first—order~partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of mass media exposure and the consequent variable educational aspirations. 7. The zero-order correlation between cosmopoliteness scores and agricultural innovativeness scores is .135, significant at the five per cent level, showing that cosmopoliteness accounts for 1.8 per cent of the variance in agricultural innovativeness. The first—order partial correla- tion between cosmopoliteness scores and agricultural innovativeness scores, controlling on empathy, is .064, whiCh is not significant at the five per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-orderipartial correlation between these two variables is not sig- nificant at the five per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of cosmopo— liteness and the consequent variable of agricultural innovativeness. 44 8. The zero-order~corre1ation between cosmopoliteness scores and knowledgeability scores is .503, significant at the one per cent level, showing that cosmopoliteness accounts for 25.3 per cent of the variance in knowledgeability. The first-order partial correlation between cosmo— politeness scores and knowledgeability scores, controlling on empathy, is .436, whiCh is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first-order*partia1 correlae tion between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of cosmopoliteness and the consequent variable of'knowledgeability. 9. The zero-order correlation between cosmopoliteness scores and educational aspiration scores is .436, significant at the one per cent level, showing that cosmopoliteness accounts fOr 19.0 per cent of the variance in educational aspirations. The first-order partial correlation between cosmopoliteness scores and educational aspiration scores, con— trolling on empathy, is .370, which is significant at the one per cent level. The difference between the zero-order correlation and the first- order partial correlation between these two variables is not significant at the one per cent level. This shows that empathy does not intervene in the relationship between the antecedent variable of cosmopoliteness and the consequent variable of educational aspirations. Adthough these results show that empathy does not intervene sig— nificantly in the relationship between the selected antecedents and con- sequents, a rapid examination of Table 4 indicates that in all nine cases the partia1.r decreases. 45 A Cluster Analysis of Empathy and Its Correlates The MCQuitty method of cluster analysis performed on empathy and its correlates yielded three clusters or "types" WhiCh located, through the size of r's, the variables more closely related (McQuitty, 1957). Figure 3 presents these types. As a further probe, the same procedure was applied, this time using the next to the highest r's; this resulted in one cluster (see Figure 3). mopupm Hmaoom I mm . oEmhooofl ooflfioo .. .83 .oo . mcoautunamm/w Hmooapoxwoooo I .cm< .ooo . coaeo>apoz ecoao>oaco< I .co< z . oaomocxm meow: wmuz_I z: . sueaaotoaooazooe I .3oax . mmoco>aym>occH oaom I .coH meet . somnopaq Hucoapocom I .pfiq .ocom . mcoautmhwcma, Hucoaohooom I 85% .om . mmocopaaomoEmoo I .coEmoo . mmooo>aeu>occH Hunovaooasw< I .ocH .w< . gum 6 u. .aot 2 RN. R .moEmoo ..mm< .om mam. k E... B s e III Ill . cw cam QNm. z: mom. ommm 89% mNmQ as luv .83 ll mm amt .mt 30:. .oo mom. .ooo . 8938.80 mpH oer zfiuaam no mamemg scenes .m oedema d” 3. some .oo . a m mom. . s .EH .3 M mos. % a steam «ll. mm .IIII. eo0ng3 atmospoé I #3 .05 . mmmcmfiuaomofimoo I .erwoo . r-{Nmzt HnQVT.» .ermoo mmH. ZZIIIIV .PE .0 Illa. Tl! \n m 3mm. Sm mm:. mm mom. neg nunUGH biog 94m. * 22 III» SEQ .OQPM lulu mm mmm. mmm mmm . e . @9500 #mtm mHUUHZ #3 .oé mag? >p all Tl .moEm e85 Imam... mm 8m. :2 was. l. 8 £6680 BIBLIOGRAPHY ' Berlo, David K. (1960), The Process o_f_ Communication, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Canfield, A. A. (1951), "Sten Scale: A Modified C—Scale," Educational and Psychological Measurement, II. Deutschmann, Paul J. (1963), "The Mass Media in an Underdeveloped Village," Journalism Quarterly, L#0: 27-35. Deutschmann, Paul J. ,Alfredo Mendez and William Herzog (in preparation), Adoption__ of New Foods and Drugs in Five Guatemalan Villages, Programa Interamericano de Informacion Popular. Eister, Allan W. (1960), "Critical Factors in the Modernization Process in West Pakistan," Yearbook o_f The American Philosophical _S_____ociety, 362- 365. Hey, Frederick W. (1964), The Mass Media and the Peasant, Paper pre- sented to the Association for Education in Journalism, Austin, Texas. 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