A CHILD-REARING TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGNED
TO PROMOTE PARENT AND INFANT COMPETENCE

Thesis for the Degree of M. A
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
LINDA CHRISTINE GIACOMO
1977

 

ABSTRACT

A CHILD-REARING TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGNED
TO PROMOTE PARENT ANO INFANT COMPETENCE
By

Linda Christine Giacomo

The purpose of this project was to develop a parent-infant train-
ing program designed to compare mothers and fathers concerning their
ability to promote infant competence during the first two years of
the infant's life. In order to accomplish this task, the available
literature concerning parent-infant interaction was reviewed, as were
previous attempts at parent-infant intervention. A parent-infant
training program was then designed which included educating both
mothers and fathers hichild-rearing skills which research had shown to
be related to the competent development of the infant. The basic form
of parent education was to consist of having parents model various
child-rearing exercises demonstrated by a tutor in the parent and
infant's own home. The parent tutoring was to begin when the infant
reached one month of age and end when the infant reached his or her
second birthday. A child-rearing manual was developed which outlined
each tutoring session, including child-rearing exercises designed to
coincide with the infant's chronological age.

In order to assess the effects of training parents in child-

rearing skills on parent and infant competence, a number of assessment

Linda Christine Giacomo

techniques were to be administered. The assessment instruments
included: (1) The Bayley Mental and Motor Scales of Infant Development;
(2) Rubenstein (I967) Bell-Pairs Test; (3) Yarrow (l972, 1975) Observa-
tion Scales of the Home Environment; (4) Aihsworth et al.'s (l97l)
Four Scales of Maternal Behavior, amended to include father ratings;
(5) Ainsworth and Bell's (l969) Feeding Scales; and (6) the Neonatal
Perception Inventory developed by Broussard and Hartner (l97l).
Sixty-four first-born infants divided equally by sex and their
parents were to be chosen as the subjects of the parent training project.
The families were to be divided into four major groups which represented
the type of training each family was to receive. The four training
conditions included Mother Training, Father Training, Mother and Father
or Parent Training, and Control (no-training). These four groups or
training conditions were comprised as a means of comparing the effect
of teaching parenting skills to parents on the develOpment of their
infants, as well as to compare the child-rearing potential of mothers
and fathers. The specific hypotheses that the study was designed to
test were that (l) parent training of one or both parents would result
in producing infants who were more competent than infants of untrained
parents, while (2) mothers and fathers would not differ in their
ability to rear competent children, and that (3) child-rearing tutoring
of both parents would result in producing infants who were more

competent than infants who had a single parent trained.

~A CHILD-REARING TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGNED
TO PROMOTE PARENT AND INFANT COMPETENCE

By

Linda Christine Giacomo

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Psychology

1977

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank a number of peOple for their help and
support throughout this project. First, a great deal of thanks goes to
Gary Stollak for his help, guidance, and most of all patience without
which I never would have been able complete my thesis. I would also
like to thank Helen Benedict for the needed structure which actually
enabled me to sit down and write my thesis. I would also like to
acknowledge the vast amount of time Helen Spent reading, and commenting
on my work. Sincere thanks is extended to Ellen Strommen for always
being supportive even after my long absence between the time I first
mentioned my project to her and its completion. Thanks are also
offered to Ellen for her valuable comments during my orals. In addi-
tion, I would like to acknowledge with a great deal of gratitude Larry
Messé for his time and advice on the methodology and statistical
analysis sections of my thesis. Most of all, I would like to thank
my mother, father, and brother for their love and support throughout
this project without which I never would have been able to have the

strength or motivation to complete this arduous task.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .........................

INTRODUCTION ..........................

METHOD

Studies Concerning Parent-Infant Interaction .......
Intellectual Development: Cognitive, Language, and

‘ Perceptual-Motor ...................
Overall Competence--Social and Intellectual .......
Infant Stimulation or Enrichment Programs ........
The Present Study ....................

Experimental Design ...................
Experimental Intervention ................
Subjects .........................
Assessment Procedures ..................
Pilot Testing ......................
Tutor and Assessor Training ...............
Procedure ........................
Data Analysis. .' .....................

APPENDICES ...........................

A. Child-Rearing Manual by Sessions, Age Range: One
to Twenty-four Months ..............

B. Tutor Training Manual ................
C. Assessment Manual ..................

D. Assessor Training Manual ......... ‘ ......

REFERENCES ...........................

iii

20]

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Assessment Techniques and Age of Infant When Administered
Child-rearing Outline of Session Goals .........

Schedule for Practicing Child-rearing Exercises and
Viewing Videotapes ...................

Assessment Schedule--Age Range: l-24 Months ......
Yarrow's Sample Recording Sheet . . . ..........

Assessor Training Schedule ...............

iv

43
44

118
124
158

207

INTRODUCTION

One finds in the investigation of infant competence or optimal
development that a number of researchers (e.g., Clarke-Stewart, 1973;
Beckwith, 1972; Ainsworth, 1973; Yarrow et al., 1972, 1975) have been
able to relate various parental practices to different aspects of
infant development. However, in all of these studies, parental
practices actually represent maternal practices. It appears that one
parent is consistently overlooked in infancy, i.e., the father (Lamb,
1975; Nash, 1965). According to Lamb (1975), there have been few
attempts in the past to even characterize father-infant interaction or
the father's role in the development of the infant.

Recently, an interest in the father has arisen in the form of a
growing debate concerning how attached the iNfant is to his or her
father (Lamb, l977a, b, c; Cohen and Campos, 1974; Williamsen et al.,
1974; Spelke et al., 1973). However, the father's role in child-
rearing concerning infants in areas other than attachment, such as
intellectual development, is still being ignored. This conclusion is
particularly evident when one looks at the various child-rearing inter-.
vention projects which, if they include the training of a parent, only
train the infants' mother in parenting skills (e.g., Gordon et al.,
1974; Schaeffer and Aaronson, 1975). It is the purpose of this project
to partially fill the void concerning the father's role in infancy by
studying the effect of training both mothers and fathers in child-

1

rearing skills. Of particular interest is whether training both
parents will produce a different effect on the competence of their
infants than training mothers or fathers alone. In order to carry out
this project, the available literature concerning parent-infant inter-
action will be reviewed. A detailed examination will be made of
previous attempts at parent and infant intervention as a means of
ascertaining which child-rearing behaviors have been related to infant
competence. These behaviors or skills will then be incorporated into
the present parent and infant project forming the basis of the parent

and infant training.

Studies Concerning Parent-Infant Interaction

 

It is believed that the manner in which a caretaker, typically
the mother, responds to the various needs or signals of an infant
determines the quality, i.e., secure or ambivalent, of the infant's
attachment to her (Lamb, 1974; Bell and Ainsworth, 1972). Specifically,
caretaker responseiveness when feeding an infant, answering his or her
'cries, or during physical contact, has been related to the overall
quality of the caretaker-infant relationship (Ainsworth, 1973). From
these studies, one is able in part to delineate a model of optimal
caretaking behaviors which have the greatest probability of assuring
an optimal attachment of infants to their caretakers.

One of the first and most important opportunities a caretaker
has to establish a positive relationship with an infant is when he or
she is fed (Ainsworth and Bell, 1969). According to Ainsworth et a1.
(1971), feeding not only comprises the major proportion of caretaker-

infant interaction during the infant's first two or three months of

life, but it is also a situation in which the caretaker's manner of
feeding the infant is significantly related to the quality of the
infant's attachment to his or her caretaker. This relationship was
discovered as a result of a longitudinal study of the development

of infant—mother interaction during the infant's first year of life,
part of which was focused on interactions during feeding (Ainsworth and
Bell, 1969).

Ainsworth and Bell (1969) observed, among other things, mother-
infant Teeding behavior of twenty-six white, middle-class, American
mother-infant pairs who, as a part of the overall study, were observed
at home approximately once every three weeks throughout the first
year of the infants' lives. Every visit lasted approximately four hours
and nearly always spanned a feeding. By observing mother-infant
feeding behavior, Ainsworth and Bell(l969) sought to ascertain whether
the degree to which a mother was responsive to her infant's rhythms,
signals, pacing, and preferences concerning feeding was related to the
quality of the infant's attachment to her.

In order to relate the responsiveness of maternal feeding
practices to the infant's attachment for the mother, an assessment
was also made of the quality of infant-mother attachment when the
infants reached their first birthday (Ainsworth et al., 1971). Infant
attachment was assessed by means of a laboratory strange situation
which measured infant attachment behavior in response to eight episodes
in which the baby faced an unfamiliar environment, as well as a
stranger, with and without the presence of his or her mother. Of
particular interest was the infant's attachment behavior directed

towards his or her mother during two reUnion episodes in which the

4

baby and the mother were reunited after a separation had occurred.
Attachment behaviors were defined as those behaviors which served to
promote the proximity of infant to mother including smiling, crying,
vocalizing, approaching, following, reaching, grasping, and clinging
(Ainsworth et al., 1971).

As a result of their observations, Ainsworth et a1. (1971)
were able to discriminate nine patterns of mother-infant feeding inter-
action, as well as three patterns of infant-mother attachment.
Accordihg to Ainsworth et a1. (1971), the nine feeding patterns fell
into three categories, i.e., feeding on demand of the infant, feeding
according to a schedule imposed upon the infant, and arbitrary feeding.
These nine patterns were then ranked according to the degree to which
the infant was allowed a voice concerning feeding (Ainsworth and Bell,
1969). Feeding patterns I-IV represented feeding the infant on demand
or by a flexible schedule which responded to the infant's preferences and
signals, whereas patterns V-IX were comprised of feeding the infant
according to the mother's wishes or in an arbitary manner
(Ainsworth and Bell, 1969).

Ainsworth et a1. (1971) found that the manner in which an infant
was fed was related to the quality of the infants' attachment to their
mothers, represented by three patterns or groups, including subgroups.
In particular, the most secure attachments were found in Group B
infants who were able to seek the proximity of their mothers after
a separation in an unambivalent manner, and who showed an adequate
amount of distress when their mothers were absent. Subgroups of
Group B were also found which differed as to the amount of distress and

proximity seeking they exhibited, i.e., subgroups Bl and 82 exhibited

5

these behaviors to a much lesser degree than subgroup B3. According

to Ainsworth et a1. (1971), Group B infants not only represented the
largest group of infants, and Subgroup 33 the largest subgroup, but also
according to theory, the expected norm in attachment behavior. Less
secure, and more anxious attachments were found in Groups A and C,

which were characterized by contact avoidance, or resistance, or both,
as well as ambivalence.

Ainsworth et a1. (1971) predicted that the most securely attached
infants; i.e., Subgroup B3, would have mothers whose feeding practices
were the most responsive to the infants' signals and preferences, i.e.,
feeding patterns I-IV. As hypothesized, it was found that, the most
securely attached infants had mothers who on all four dimensions of
behavior relevant to infant feeding showed a significantly greater
amount of sensitivity to infant rhythms, signals, preferences, and
pacings than did the mothers of the anxiously attached babies.
Specifically, all but two of the babies classified in feeding patterns
I-IV fell into Subgroup 83, the most securely attached infants, the two
exceptions falling into Subgroup 82, whereas all but two of the infants
comprising feeding patterns V-IX fell into the anxiously attached
Groups A and C, the two exceptions falling into Subgroups Bl and 82
(Ainsworth et al., 1971).

In addition to sensitive maternal feeding practices, the presence
of secure attachments was also related to responsiveness to infant
crying and bids for physical contact (Ainsworth and Bell, 1969; Bell and
Ainsworth, 1972; Ainsworth et al., 1972; Ainsworth, l973). Concerning
crying, mothers responsive to this aspect of caretaking answered all

crying behavior promptly and effectively, typically bridging the

6

distance between their babies and themselves, often coming into physical
contact with their infants. These mothers never ignored their babies'
cries, nor did they hesitate for a period of time before responding. Ac-
cording to Bell and Ainsworth (1972), prompt and effective responsiveness
to infant crying not only resulted in a more securely attached infant
than infants receiving less responsive care, but in infants who by one
year of age cried less frequently, and for shorter durations. These in-
fants also used alternate and more sophisticated modes of communication
(e.g., babbling) to signal their desires (Bell and Ainsworth, 1972).

Other investigators (Schaffer and Emerson, 1964; Beckwith, 1972)
have also shown that responsiveness to infant crying is related to se-
cure attachments to caregivers. In an investigation of some of the major
parameters of social attachments in infancy, Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
found that intensely attached infants had mothers who responded promptly
to their cries, whereas weakly attached infants tended to have mothers
who generally failed to respond to their cries in a prompt Or consistent
manner. This result is further supported by another study, which involved
observations of mother-infant interactions with their eight and eleven
month old infants (Beckwith, 1972). As a result of this study, Beckwith
(1972) found that the more a mother ignored her baby's crying, the less
her infant was found to orient to her, and the less the infant maintained
contact with her, i.e., the less the infant was attached to his or her .
mother.

It has also been found that mothers who tended to excel in the sen-
sitive and responsive handling of their infants when they cried also tend-
ed to physically handle their infants in an appropriate and responsive

manner (Ainsworth and Blehar, 1975). These mothers were found to engage

7

their infants in tender and warm physical contact which was geared to the
infants' preferences concerning such things as the frequency and the du-
ration of the contacts. Mothers whose quality of physical contact was
especially high engaged their infants in a physical manner during care-
taking routines, such as bathing or changing the infant, and they also
"tended to hold their infants for relatively long periods of time during
nonroutine situations. The infants of these mothers appeared to enjoy
physical contact to a greater degree than infants of less appropriate
mothers, and they also appeared to be more positively attached to their
mothers (Ainsworth and Blehar, 1975). This finding is supported by Beck-
with (1972) who found that physical contact of a positive or soothing na-
ture was related to infant attachment as represented by smiling and social
approaches.

Not all of the mothers in Bell and Ainsworth's (1972) sample were
as responsive to their infant's behavior as the mothers described above.
One reason for this difference was suggested by Bell and Ainsworth (1972),
who hypothesized that the less responsive mothers had been influenced by
the belief that if one responded consistently to an infant's signals or
desires, the end result would be a spoiled child. Rather than becoming
spoiled, the children of sensitive or responsive mothers reciprocate the
attention given to them by developing into responsvie, well-adjusted, and
securely attached infants (Stayton et al., 1971). This conclusion is I
supported by Stayton et al.'s (1971) research concerning infant obedience
in which it was found that the infants of mothers who responded promptly
and consistently to their needs and desires tended to obey their mothers'
verbal commands and prohibitions to a significantly greater degree than

did the infants of less responsive mothers. Therefore, it may be_

8

concluded that if parents desire their infants to be happy, responsive or
obedient, and securely attached they must in turn respond to their infants'
own needs, signals, preferences, and desires, or else be faced with the
kind of child they fear, i.e., spoiled, demanding, and unresponsive.

Up to this point, the literature reviewed has dealt with infants
ranging in age from birth to one year of age. According to Clarke-
Stewart (1973), the caretaking behaviors and practices which were found
to foster secure attachments in the first year of life differ somewhat
from thOse necessary for the older infant, i.e., the one to two year
old. Whereas it was of major importance to respond promptly to an in-
fant's distress, as well as feeding and contact desires and preferences
during the infant's first year of life, during the second year it was
found to be more important to respond to the infant's social behavior,
such as play and language, in order to foster secure attachment between
infant and caregiver(Clarke-Stewart, 1973). In an observational study
of thirty-six infants, followed from nine to eighteen months of age,
Clarke-Stewart (1973) found that mothers who not only responded
positively to their infants' attempts to engage them socially, but who
also made an effort of their own to involve their infants in social
interactions produced infants who were much more positively or
securely attached than mothers who did not socially stimulate their
infants. However, although responsiveness to distress, and sensitive
handling and feeding were of less importance to the one to two year old,-
Clarke-Stewart (1973) found that these practices were still related to
infants' overall attachment to their mothers. As a result of her
observations, Clarke-Stewart (1973) was able to outline the major ways

in which caretakers may engage their infants socially in order to

9

develop the infants' own social skills. The guidelines suggested by
this research include modeling language, engaging the infant in mutual,
eye-to-eye contact, and mediating toys and other play materials for

the infant.

One major criticism can be made concerning the social responsive-
ness and attachment literature of the sixties and early seventies
reviewed above, i.e., the role of the father in the infant's social-
emotional development has been virtually ignored. This apperas to be
a major oversight since more recently several researchers (Lamb,
1976a, b, c, d; l977a, b, c; Cohen and Campos, l974; Hilliamsen et al.,
1974; Spelke et al., 1973) have found that infants are not only attached
to their mothers, but to their fathers as well. Specifically, in a
study of infant attachment using a laboratory strange situation
similar to Ainsworth et al. (1971), amended to include fathers, Lamb
(l977a, c) found that infants ranging in age from seven to twenty-four
months of age were as attached to their fathers as they were to their
mothers. A similar study (Hilliamsen et al., 1974) conducted with one
year old infants and their mothers and fathers also found that infants
were equally attached to both parents. Lamb (l977a, c) also discovered
that when he subdivided attachment behaviors into more proximal
behaviors, i.e., seeking proximity, touching, approach, fuss, reach,
and more distal behaviors, which he labeled affiliative behaviors, i.e.,
smiling, laughing, looking, and vocalizing, that infants exhibited more
affiliative behaviors towards their fathers than their mothers, whereas
they exhibited an equal amount of proximal attachment behaviors to both

parents.

1O

Lamb's (l977a, c) and Hilliamsen et al.'s (1974) results are con-
tradicted by Cohen and Campos's (1974) study which found that although
infants were attached to both parents, they were more attached to
their mothers. This discrepancy in results has been addressed by Lamb
(1974) who contends that Cohen and Campos's (1974) findings are
invalid for a number of reasons. First, Lamb (1974) maintains that
since Cohen and Campos's (1974) research was only carried out in the
laboratory and not in the infant's natural environment that its
results can not be considered as a reflection of real life. Lamb
(1974) further criticizes Cohen and Campos's (1974) laboratory procedure
for using separation episodes which were not only too brief, only one
minute in length, but very stressful and unnatural since they involved
placing the infant at a starting point for each episode. According to
Lamb (1974), this procedure may have elicited atypical behavior from
Cohen and Campos's (1974) infants. This conclusion is supported by the
fact that Lamb (1975, l977c) found that infant behavior in the labora-
tory differed from behavior in the home. Although infant attachment for
fathers was exhibited in the home as well as the laboratory, infant
preferences for fathers concerning affiliative behaviors was only
found in the infant's home.

Lamb (1974) also questioned Cohen and Campos's (1974) results
because their procedure did not include having the infants observed with
both parents present, which would have provided the infants with a
real choice as to which parent they would attend to. In any event, the
major conclusion which arises out of all of the father attachment
research is that infants are attached to their fathers. What remains

unanswered by all of these studies of maternal as well as paternal

11

issues is a consideration of which father caregiving variables are
responsible for the infant's attachment to him.

It may be assumed that the same caretaking practices found to be
related to mother-infant attachment are also related to father-infant
attachment. Until the infaht's relationship to his or her father is
studied further, nothing can be concluded concerning father-infant
-interaction with any great assurance. In any event, as we will see
below, caretaking practices not only have a positive effect on
the infant's social-emotional development, but on his or her intellec-
tual growth as well. It appears that social stimulation and general
responsiveness play an important role in the intellectual development
of the very young child, as do other practices such as object stimula-
tion especially geared to foster intellectual growth.

Intellectual Development: Cognitive,,
Language, and Perceptual-Motor

 

Similar to the study of the social-emotional development of
infants, an attempt has been made by several researchers (Yarrow et al.,
1972, 1975; Clarke-Stewart, 1973; Rubenstein, 1967; Lewis and Goldberg,
1969) to determine the major factors associated with the intellectual
development of infants. In particular, the infant's intellectual
competence, encompassing cognitive, language, and perceptual-motor
skills, has been related to various aspects of the infant's social
and inanimate environment such as modeling language, and objects used
in play. It is to be noted that the father's role in intellectual
develOpment has been completely ignored by researchers. Therefore the
literature to be presented below only concerns the mother's role in

the intellectual development of her infant.

12

As part of a study of the effects of various aspects of early
stimulation on the intellectual competence of ihfants, Yarrow et a1.
(1972, 1975) sought to determine whether inanimate stimulation on the
one hand, and social stimulation on the other were related to different
facets of intellectual development. In order to answer this question,
Yarrow et a1. (1972, 1975) observed forty-one lower income black
infants and their primary caretakers, i.e., typically mothers, at five
to six months of age, and again at nineteen months of age. However,
only niheteen of the original forty-one subjects observed at five to
six months of age were included in the nineteen month old sample,
as a result of subjects dropping out of the study. Eighteen additional
subjects were included in the nineteen month old-sample who had been
observed during the five to six month old observations, but had been
excluded from the data analysis because of the lack of the presence of
a single, primary caretaker.

In order to ascertain the effects of the inanimate environment
on the intellectual advancement of infants, Yarrow et al. (1972, 1975)
observed three major dimensions of inanimate stimulation, i.e., variety,
responsiveness, and complexity. According to Yarrow et al. (1972,
1975), the variety of the inanimate environment referred to the number
of different objects within reach of the infant during the observation
period. The responsiveness dimension represented the extent to
which objects changed in visual, auditory, and tactile properties as a
result of the infant's behavior, whereas the final dimension, com-
plexity, indicated the degree to which objects provided infbrmation

through the various sensory modalities.

13

Yarrow et al. (1972, 1975) also divided the social environment
into several dimensions including level, variety, contingency, aNd
positive affective expression. The level of social stimulation in the
infant's environment was a measure of the intensity and amount of
social interaction provided by the caretaker, i.e., the frequency
with which the caretaker was within view or reach of the infant,
talked to, touched, held or played with the child. The variety of the
social environment was determined by the presence of different types
of stimulation, such as play, encouraging motor responses, providing
play materials, altering the physical setting in which the infant was
located, and exhibiting a broad range of affects. Two indices were
employed to measure social contingency, i.e., the frequency of
contingent responsiveness to positive vocalizations made by the infant,
and communications signaling the infant's distress. Finally, the
dimension of positive affective expression merely referred to the
characteristic level of the caretaker's demonstrativeness or positive
emotional utterances.

In order to ascertain the effects of both the inanimate and
social environments on the infant's intellectual development, Yarrow
et a1. (1972, 1975) employed a number of methods to assess the infant's
intellectual potential, including a basic measure of cognitive, language,
and perceptual-motor development, i.e., the Bayley Scales of Infant
Development (Bayley, 1969), as well as a structured situational test
of exploratory behavior and preference for novel stimuli. In addition,
Yarrow et al. (1972, 1975) also clustered various Bayley items as a
means of assessing more specific areas of development including four

indices of cognitive-motivational functions, i.e., goal orientation,

14

reaching and grasping, secondary circular reactions, and object
permanence, as well as other areas, i.e., social responsiveness,
language, and fine and gross motor progression.

As a result of Yarrow et al.'s (1972, 1975) observations, it was
found that the effects of both inanimate and social environment were
different for the younger five to six month Old sample as compared with
the older nineteen month old infants. Therefore, the results concerning
each of these samples will be presented separately. Specifically, they
found that for five to six month olds, the dimensions of the inanimate
environment were largely independent of the dimensions of the social
environment, each of which was fOund to play a separate but important
role in fostering intellectual development. Although the inanimate
dimensions, i.e., variety, responsiveness, and cOmplexity, were not
fOund to be significantly related to the infant's language or social
development, they were highly related to cognitive, and perceptual-
motor proficiency. Responsiveness, defined by the feedback potential of
objects, was significantly related to the infant's overall cognitive,
and motor functioning as measured by the Bayley, and its clusters, i.e.,
gross and fine motor skills, goal-directed behaviors (e.g., goal
orientation, reaching and grasping, secondary circular reactions), and
exploration. Complexity, measuring the feedback potential of objects,
was highly related to goal-directed, and exploratory behavior. Finally,
variety present in the inanimate environment proved to be the most .
powerful dimension of the three in terms of the number and strength of
correlations with intellectual accomplishments (Yarrow et al., 1972,
1975). In particular, variety was significantly related to the Bayley,

gross and fine motor ability, goal-directed behavior, problem-solving,

15

object permanence, and exploratory behavior.

In contrast to the inanimate environment, the social environment
proved to have a much broader range of effect on the five to six month
old infant's overall intellectual ability (Yarrow et al., 1972, 1975).
They found that social stimulation was related to cognitive and
perceptual-motor skills, as well as to language proficiency and social
- responsiveness. BOth the level and variety of the social environment
were significantly related to the infant's Bayley Mental Development
Index, goal-directed behavior, and object permanence. Variety was the
only dimension significantly related to language and fine motor develop-
ment, as well as exploratory behavior. Positive affective expression
by the caregiver correlated significantly with social responsiveness,
and goal-directed and exploratory behavior. Another dimension of the
social environment, i.e., contingent responsiveness to the infant's
positive vocalizations, was significantly related to language produc-
tion, and exploratory behavior. Contingent responsiveness to distress
was highly or significantly related to the Bayley, fine and gross
motor development, as well as exploratory behavior (Yarrow et al.,
1972, 1975).

According to Yarrow et al. (1972), there were fewer significant
effects of either the inanimate or social environment when the older,
nineteen month old sample was considered. They discovered that only one
dimension of the inanimate environment, responsiveness of materials,
had a significant effect on the nineteen month old infant's intellec-
tual development. However, as with the younger sample, the social
environment proved to have a greater effect on the nineteen month

old's intellectual accomplishments than inanimate stimulation. A

16

significant relationship was discovered between the infant's intellec-
tual development as represented by exploratory behavior and several
aspects of the social environment including level, mutual regard,
kinesthetic stimulation, and contingent responsiveness to positive
vocalization. One explanation for the differences found between the
five to six month old and nineteen month old sample is the fact that
different subjects comprised the two samples. The two samples also
represented two different caretaking experiences. Whereas the younger
infants were cared for by one significant adult, the older nineteen
month old infants experienced varied caretaking arrangements which
included having them cared for by several rather than one single care-
taker. Therefore, the differences in the results between the older and
younger subjects may have been the result of the different caretaking
experiences the infants had when they were younger. In any event,
they found support for the hypothesis that the social and inanimate
environments play different but important roles in the intellectual
development of both young, i.e., five to six month old, and older,
i.e., nineteen month old, infants. Yarrow et al.'s (1972, 1975) re-
search also showed that the social environment has a much broader role
in infant development than fostering secure attachments: it is also
important to the cultivation of intellectual skills.

A number of other studies have shown the importance of social
stimulation for intellectual growth in infancy. Rubenstein (1967)
found that mothers who were the most socially attentive to their five
and six month old infants, i.e., who looked at, touched, held, talked
to, offered more toys to, and played with their infants to a greater

degree than less attentive mothers, had infants who exhibited a

17

significantly greater amount of exploratory behavior and preference

for novelty than the infants of less attentive mothers. The infants of
the more socially responsive mothers also tended to vocalize approxi-
mately three times as much as the infants of the less responsive
mothers (Rubenstein, 1967). In a similar study, Lewis and Goldberg
(1969) found that the cognitive development of twelve month old

infants was significantly related to the amount of touching, looking,
smiling, and holding exhibited by the infant's mothers. In addition,
they foOnd, as did Yarrow et a1. (1972, 1975), that contingent respon-
siveness to infant crying or distress was related to the infant's intel-
lectual or cognitive development. Other researchers have discovered
that intellectual development in infancy is also related to social
variables such as mutual regard or eye-to-eye contact (Carr et al.,
1975), and positive verbalization (Cohen and Beckwith, 1977), again
confirming the work of Yarrow et a1. (1972, 1975).

One major study failed to confirm Yarrow et al.'s (1972, 1975)
conclusion that the inanimate environment played an important part in
the intellectual development of the five to six and nineteen month old
infant. As part of a study of infant cOmpetence, Carew et a1. (1975)
discovered that for infants ranging in age from twelve to_twenty-four
months, only the social environment had a significant effect on intel-
lectual growth. According to Carew et al. (1975), the inanimate
environment became important only when mediated by people. Essentially,.
they found that four basic experiences were significantly related to
intellectual competence, i.e., verbal-symbolic, perceptual-spatial-
fine motor, concrete reasoning, and expressive-artistic. However,

these experiences were related to intellectual development only so far

18

as they involved the infant in reciprocal interactions with another
person, i.e., by engaging the infant in reciprocal interactions in which
both the infant and adult participated, and by becoming a model for

the infant, who was an attentive but passive partner in the experience
(Carew et al., 1975). According to Carew et al. (1975), the four
intellectually stimulating experiences mentioned above did not neces-
sarily involve lessons or the use of educational materials. They

also occurred in the context of any activity as long as the content of
the experience related to ohe of the categories listed above.

Although Carew et al.'s (1975) results appear to contradict
Yarrow et al.'s (1972, 1975) findings concerning the importance of the
inanimate environment as a separate entity, the discrepancy between the
two studies is minimized when one looks at their results more closely.
Specifically, although Yarrow et a1. (1972, 1975) found that the in-
animate environment was strongly related to the intellectual develop-
ment of five to six month old infants, they discovered that only one
variable of inanimate stimulation, i.e., the responsiveness of objects,
was related to the intellectual competence of the nineteen month old
sample, the age at which Yarrow et al.'s (1972, 1975) and Carew et
al.'s (1975) studies overlap. Neither the complexity nor the variety
of inanimate play objects correlated with the intellectual skills of the
nineteen month old infants (Yarrow et al., 1972, 1975). It is also
to be noted that Carew et a1. (1975) did not attempt to relate the
responsiveness of the inanimate environment to infant intelligence,
but used a much broader measure, i.e., solitary infant play, of in-
animate stimulation to relate to the infant's cognitive development.

Therefore, it is possible that had Carew et a1. (1975) implemented a

19

more precise measure of the inanimate environment, they would have found
as Yarrow et al. (1972, 1975) discovered that to a certain degree
inanimate stimulation is related to the infant's intellectual competence.
In any event, both studies, as well as a number of others (Clarke-
Stewart, 1973; Rubenstein, 1967; Cohen and Beckwith, 1977) were in
agreement as to the overall importance of inanimate stimulation
concerning the intellectual development of the infant, as long as the
inanimate objects and materials were mediated by a person other than the
infant.‘ Therefore, it is apparent that neither social nor inanimate
stimulation should be neglected or absent from the infant's environ-
ment. Both experiences play essential roles in the intellectual

development of the young child.

Overall Competence--Socia1 and Intellectual

One can conclude from the literature reviewed above that a great
deal more than the provision of food, shelter, and clothing is neces-
sary to promote an infant's social and intellectual development. It
appears that a number of different aspects of care including social and
inanimate stimulation, as well as physical routines combine to form an
optimal pattern of infant caretaking (Clarke-Stewart, 1973). According
to Clarke-Stewart (1973), an optimal pattern of caretaking has been
found not only to exist in theory, but in practice as well. In an
observational study of infants studied from nine to eighteen months of
age, she discovered that an optimal pattern of caretaking which was
significantly related to infant competence was actually put into
practice by several of the mothers studied. Essentially, it was found

that optimal caretaking included warm, loving, and nonrejecting care,

20

the provision of stimulating and enriching materials, and contingent
responsiveness to the infant's distress and more positive social
behaviors. According to Clarke-Stewart (1973), the child-rearing
qualities described above were found to be strongly and positively
related to the infant's overall competence as represented by such
variables as cognitive and language ability, motivation to learn, and
positive social attachments.

One may conclude from the literature reviewed up to this point
that at least for mothers, certain child-rearing styles or behaviors
do have a significant relationship to the development of infant com-
petence. In order to test this relatiohship more thoroughly, inter-
vention projects consisting of training caretakers in optimal parenting
behaviors were carried out (e.g., Gordon et al., 1974; Schaefer and
Aaronson, 1975; Karnes et al., 1970). These projects sought to prove
that training caretakers in parenting skills would foster the competent
development of infants. It is to be noted that mothers were always the
focus of training to the extent that a parent was involved in the
project. Therefore, although the intervention studies provide further
support for the relationship of parent education and infant competence,
this is only true concerning mothers since fathers have again been

excluded.

Infant Stimulation or Enrichment Programs
Infant stimulation or enrichment programs which have made use
Of parent participation can in general be differentiated by the degree
0f parent involvement required, i.e., from little or no interaction

With their infants to maximum participation including supervised

21

parent infant tutoring. Three major types of enrichment programs
involving parent participation consisted of home visitations of infant
tutors after whom parents could voluntarily model, parent education
groups, and home supervision of parent-infant interaction. Although
these programs differed in methodology, they all had a similar goal,
i.e., to ensure the optimal development of infants.

Infant competence brought about by home tutoring of the child
was the major focus of Schaefer and Aaronson's (1975) enrichment program.
The enrichment project sought to stimulate the intellectual development
or competence of 31, fifteen-month-old black males of the lower socio-
economic status by means of a tutor, who met with the infant in
his or her home for one hour per day, five days a week, from age fifteen
to thirty-six months. Although participation of the infant's mother and
other family members was encouraged, it was not required.)

After a brief period of training which included lectures on
child development and child rearing, observations of children in their
homes, and supervised tutoring experiences, the tutors began their
visits to the program's infants or subjects. Each tutor was equipped
with a kit which contained a few basic toys, picture books, and
materials to be used during the tutoring sessions. They also had
access to a supply room which contained additional materials to be
used at the discretion of the tutor. Although the overall purpose of
the tutor's visit was to provide the infant with a number of varied
and increasingly complex intellectual experiences, she or he was also

required to incorporate the following activities in their sessions:

22

l) to reinforce positive personality characteristics
that should help a child succeed in school,

2) to encourage the child to develop feelings of
competence and of human worth and to assert him-
self in a positive way,

3) to utilize toys, materials, and varied experiences
to broaden the child's comprehension and meaning-
ful use of language, and

4) to set aside time, preferably at the beginning of the

tutoring session, to spend in varied activities with

books (Schaefer & Aaronson, 1975, p. 14).
These guidelines served the purpose of not only helping the tutors to
structure their infant visits, but also of ensuring the commonality of
sessions across tutors (Schaefer & Aaronson, 1975).

According to Schaefer and Aaronson (1975), prior to the implem-
tation of the tutoring sessions, the experimental infants, i.e., those
chosen to receive home visits, and thirty-three controls were pretested
for differences in intelligence. As a result of the pretesting, it was
found that no significant differences in intelligence between the experi-
mental and control groups existed. However, seven months after the
institution of the home tutoring, i.e., when the infants reached twenty-
one months of age, significant differences in intellectual ability were
obtained which indicated that the experimental infants had surpassed
their controls. Additional testing at twenty-seven and thirty-six
months of age produced similar results (Schaefer & Aaronson, 1975).
However, after the termination of the tutoring, at thirty-six months
of age, follow-up testing, conducted on the children's fOurth, fifth,
and sixth year birthday, revealed that the intellectual gains made by

the experimental children had quickly eroded, to such a degree that no

significant differences remained even one year after the project was

23

discontinued (Schaefer & Aaronson, 1975).

One may conclude from Schefer and Aaronson's (1975) results that
home tutoring of infants did foster intellectual development, at least
initially. However, the positive effects of the program proved to be
rather shortelived. According to Schaefer and Aaronson (1975), a
number of things may have brought about this result. One suggestion was
that by fifteen months of age, the infant's intelligence may have be-
come almost fixed, i.e., the infant's intellectual style or skills may
have become rather permanent as a result of the influence of his or her
intellectual environment, and therefore unamenable to change. Another
explanation offered was that the program had not only begun too late
in the infant's life but that it also had been terminated too soon,
before the effects it achieved had become permanent (Schaefer &
Aaronson, 1975). Finally, the fact that only a minority of experimental
mothers actually were willing to participate in the tutoring sessions
with their infants suggested a third reason why the benefits of the
enrichment program eroded, i.e., that the amount of stimulation neces-
sary to elicit enduring changes in infant development required much
more than the one hour daily provided by the project tutors, something
like the vast amount of time only parents would be able to spend with
the child. Therefore, Schaefer and Aaronson (1975) concluded that the
most ideal infant enrichment program, i.e., One that would elicit
intellectual gains which were stable and lasting, would not only be
focused on the youngest of infants, i.e., the neonate, but would require
parent participation. .

One form of enrichment programs which directed its attention on

making use of parents as the major "teachers" of their young was the

24

parent education group. An example of such a program was carried out
by Karnes et al. (1970) in which child-rearing skills were taught
to mothers in two hour, weekly group meetings for fifteen months.
Their children ranged in age from thirteen to twenty-seven months at
the outset Of the program. Not only were the infants' mothers required
to attend the weekly group sessions, but they were also instructed to
apply the skills or techniques learned in the group to their infants at
home. In order to help mothers do this, monthly home visits were
conducted to reinforce the teaching principles introduced at the group
meetings, and to help each mother establish a positive working rela-
tionship with her baby. I

As a result of Karnes et al.'s (1970) program, the intelligence
and linguistic ability (as measured by the Stanford-Binet and the
Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Ability) of the infants whose mothers
had experienced the group instruction and home visits was found to be
significantly higher than control infants, whose only involvement in
the project consisted of intelligence testing. Although this result
indicated the feasibility of training parents in child-rearing methods
considered to foster competent infant development, the study, itself,
was unable to prove that group training comprised the essential ingre-
dient for the success of the project. It is possible that another
component of Karnes et al.'s (1970) program, i.e., the home supervisory
visits, may have had the most significant effect in achieving the end
result of competent child-rearing and infant development, or that an
interaction of both group and home instruction were responsible for
the results. However, since Karnes et al.'s (1970) study failed to

address this issue, one is unable to determine whether or not

25

parent groups alone could be a successful farm of parent training.

The third and final model of infant stimulation projects is the
home supervision model typified by the work of Gordon et a1. (1974).
According to this model, since the family was viewed as the
central learning environment and the home as the critical place for
infant education, the parent, usually the mother, was seen as the
child's first and most important teacher. Therefore, Gordon et a1.
(1974) devised a program which was designed to promote the optimal
development of infants by training their parents in the child-rearing
behaviors most likely to achieve this goal. Specifically, their parent-
infant project consisted of a longitudinal study of 133 infants and
their mothers of lower socioeconomic status, who received varying
degrees of child-rearing supervision during the first three years of
the infants' lives, i.e., from no supervision at all for the length of
the project (i.e., the controls) to supervision during the infants'
first, second, or third year of life, or some combination of two or
more of these years (while retaining control status during the non-
supervised times).

According to Gordon et al. (1974), the first two years of their
project, i.e., from when the infants were three to twenty-four months
of age, consisted of weekly visits to the infants' homes by home
visitors whose major task was to instruct the infants' mothers in
various techniques designed to stimulate the intellectual and person-
ality development of their infants. The essential mode of presentation
of various stimulating materials was demonstrated by the home visitor_
or supervisor, and then modeled by the mother. During the second

year Of the Project, a separate group of families received "friendly"

26

visits in which the visitor neither imparted knowledge concerning child
development nor made any suggestions related to child-rearing behaviors
or activities. This procedure was included asha means of comparing the
effects of friendly versus educative visits. The third year of the
program consisted of weekly home visits, as well as the formation of
infant groups which were held two times a week in a parent's home. Each
group consisted of a project group leader, as well as a parent assistant,
in whose home the group met, and five infants. Although the infant
groups provided the children with a separate group experience in which
they were given an opportunity to interact with their peers, its
activities were planned in such a manner as to complement the efforts
of the home visitors. Even though the actual project
consisting of parent instruction and infant groups, was terminated on
the infants' third birthday, follow-up testing was conducted on the
infants'fourth, fifth, and sixth year birthdays as a means of assessing
the stability of any changes which the program might have elicited.

As a means of assessing the effectiveness of their program,
Gordon et al. (1974) not only used basic measures of infant competence,
such as the Bayley and Stanford-Binet, but they also employed measures
of child-rearing competence of parents, such as the Home Environment
Review (HER), a test developed by Garber (1970) and modified by Gordon
et a1. (1974). According to Gordon et al. (1974), the HER was used to
assess a number of parental behaviors and attributes including the
following:

1) awareness of child's development

2) rewards for intellectual achievement

3) press for language development .
4) availability and use of supplies for language development

27

5) learning opportunities outside the home

6) materials for learning in the home, and

7) reading press (Gordon et al., 1974, Appendix 4, p. 2-8).
The HER was administered orally to the infants' mothers when their
children reached six years of age, whereas the Bayley and Standford-
Binet were employed yearly, i.e., the infants received the Bayley at
one and two years of age, and the Stanford-Binet at three through six
. years of age. A

As a result of Gordon et al.'s (1974) efforts, mothers were able
to successfully and permanently raise the overall competence, i.e.,
cognitive, language, and personality, of their children. Not all of
the supervised mothers achieved this result. Only those mothers who
had been involved in the program for all three years, i.e., from when
their infants were three months to three years of age, were able to‘
elicit positive developmental changes in their infants by the
children's third birthday. By the time the infants reached six years
of age, significant differences in competence were achieved both by the
infants whose mothers had participated in all three years of the project,
and by the children whose mothers had only been supervised for either
the first two years, or for only the third and final year of the program
(Gordon et al., 1974). Friendly visits proved to be ineffective con-
cerning any gains in competence.

According to Gordon et a1. (1974), a significant relationship
between maternal competence and the nature or type of involvement
in the program was also found. Basically, those mothers who received
home visitations fOr all three years received significantly higher
ratings on child-rearing competence, as measured by the Home Environment

Review, than mothers who experienced a lesser degree of involvement.

28

Fewer but still significant relationships between parenting behaviors
and competence scores were also achieved by mothers who took part in
the project for at least two consecutive years, or only the third
year (Gordon et al., 1974).

In conclusion, the various forms of infant enrichment programs
cited above have shown that the greater the involvement of the infants'
parents, the greater the probability that the program was a success.
A comparison of Schaefer and Aaronson (1975) and Gordon et al.'s
(1974) projects, in particular provided support for this conclusion.
Although the Scaefer and Aaronson (1975) and Gordon et al.'s (1974)
program both had the same goal, i.e., to provide infants with a
stimulating environment to ensure their optimal development, they
differed both in the manner in which they approached this task, i.e.,
home tutoring versus home supervision, respectively, and in the
eventual success of their projects. Hhereas Schaefer and Aaronson's
(1975) project produced only temporary changes in the competence of
their infants, Gordon et al. (1974) was able to elicit much more stable
or permanent changes. Therefore, it appears that Gordon et al.'s
(1974) success was the result of the practice of using parents as the
major teachers of their young. However, the differences in Gordon
et al. (1974) and Schaefer and Aaronson's (1975) results might be
attributed to differences in the samples chosen. Although both
projects included subjects of the same age, and socioeconomic status,
they did differ in the distribution of sex, i.e., Schaefer and
Aaronson's (1975) subjects were all males, whereas Gordon et al.'s
(1974) sample included both males and females. Since not only Gordon

et al. (1974) but a number of other infant enrichment programs

29

(Robinson & Robinson, 1971; Karnes et al., 1970) failed to discover
any significant sex differences affecting their results, it does not
appear that differences in the sex distribution of Gordon et al.'s
(1974) and Schaefer and Aaronson's (1975) subjects was responsible
for their differences in success, but rather Schaefer and Aaronson's
(1975) lack of results appeared to be caused by their failure to
require the participation of parents.

It is evident from the intervention projects reviewed above
that the infant's mother can be trained to foster the optimal develop-
ment of her child. Whether the training of the infant's father will
produce the same results remains untested. It is the purpose of this
project to determine the effect of training the infant's father as well
as his or her mother in child-rearing skills concerning the infant's

develOpment.

The Present Study

 

The purpose of the present study is to contribute to the litera-
ture concerning the father's role in child-rearing, i.e., specifically
during infancy. Of particular interest is whether fathers can be
trained to foster the development of their infants as mothers have been
in the studies described above. The present study will also attempt to
determine whether tutoring both parents has a greater effect concerning
the development of infant competency than educating just one parent in
child-rearing skills. In addition, a comparison of the child-rearing
capability of mothers and fathers will be made with the expressed pur-
pose of determining whether mothers and fathers differ in any way con-

cerning their styles of parenting.

30

As a means of comparing the effectiveness of training parents
in child-rearing skills, four treatment conditions were developed
consisting of tutoring either the infant's mother or father alone, both
parents together, or neither parent (ho-tutoring control group). Basi-
cally, the parent training or major intervention of the study is to
consist of weekly tutoring sessions conducted in the infant's home
'from the time the infant is one month of age until he or she reaches
his or her second birthday. In order to control for sex differences in
trainihg styles, the tutoring sessions are to be carried out by female
college seniors, who have been trained in child development and child-
rearing techniques. Each session will have the tutor describe and
sometimes demonstrate various child-rearing exercises which the infant's
parent(s) will then be asked to model.

The particular timing of the project to coincide approximately
with the infant's first two years of life was chosen for a number of
reasons. First, it was decided that parent training would be the most
effective if it was instituted soon after the birth of the parent's
infant before the parent had developed less helpful of even harmful
child-rearing practices concerning the development of infant competence.
In addition, for a similar reason only first born infants and their
parents were chosen as the targets for the present study, so that
parents would be truly "naive" or inexperienced. The first two years
of the infant's life was also chosen as the target age of the present
study since it has been discovered that the infant's first two years of
life represent the most crucial time in his or her development, as
demonstrated by the following quote from the report of the Joint
Commission On Mental Health (1970):

31

Research reveals that most of a child's future growth

and development is shaped by the events that occur from

the time of his conception until he reaches the age of

two. These very early years are of crucial importance

and, for better or worse, the foundation is laid--often

irreversibly--for the individual's physical, emotional,

social, and intellectual well-being (p. 314).

Not only are the infant's first two years of life the most optimal time
for a parent intervention project, but as Gordon et al. '5 (1974)

research suggests, one of the few time periods when relatively permanent
changes in infant development can be elicited.

In order to assess the effect of child-rearing training on parent
and infant competence a number of assessment teChniques which are de-
signed to measure these variables will be administered. The Bayley
Mental and Motor Scales of Infant Development (Bayley, 1969) will
comprise the major measure of infant competence or development. These
scales will be given to each infant as a means of comparing the effect
of the four treatment conditions described above on the cognitive,
social, and perceptual motor development of the infants. In addition,
the infant's cognitive development will be measured further by means
of the Rubenstein (1967) Bell-Pairs Test. According to Rubenstein
(1967), the Bell-Pairs Test provides one with a measure of the infant's
exploratory behavior as well as preference for novel stimuli. The test
records the amount of time the infant spends looking atand manipulating
a bell and ten novel items. The bell is first presented alone for ten
minutes and then paired with ten novel items for one minute each. The
infant's exploratory behavior is defined by the amount of time the
infant looks at and manipulates the bell during its first presentation,

whereas the infant's preference for novelty is represented by the

amount of time the infant looks at and manipulates the novel items.

32

As a means of establishing the effect of the present inter-
vention on parent-infant interaction, observations of parent-infant
behavior in the home will be conducted using the Yarrow (1972, 1975)
Observation Scales of the Home Environment, amended to include fathers
as well as mothers. The Yarrow (1972, 1975) Observation Scales are com-
posed of three separate scales, one of which measures parent-infant
interaction and behavior, while the other two scales assess the respon-
siveness and complexity of the inanimate environment. These scales will
not only be used to compare the effects of the various parent tutoring
conditions on how parents and infants behave with each other, and to
measure how stimulating an environment parents establish for their
infants, but they will be used to differentiate the interactive styles
of mothers and fathers. A

In addition to the Yarrow (1972, 1975) Scales mentioned above,
parent-infant interaction will be measured by means of Ainsworth et al.'s
(1971) Four Scales of Maternal Behavior, amended to include fathers,
and by Ainsworth and Bell's (1969) Feeding Scales. _Ainsworth et al.'s
(1971) Four Scales is an observational measure of the degree to which
parents are responsive to their infants on four variables including
the consistency to which parents respond to their infant's needs, accept
their infant's behavior, cooperate with their baby's actions, and make
themselves accessible to their infants. A more specific view of
parent-infant interaction is provided by the Ainsworth and Bell (1969)
Feeding Scales which are an observational measure of the quality of the
parent's feeding behavior concerhing the infant. The Feeding Scales
consist of four items which assess the degree to which parents respond

to the infant's preferences concerning the timing, length, and pacing

33

of the feedings, as well as the kinds of food consumed. As with the
Yarrow (1972, 1975) Scales, the Ainsworth et al. (1971) Four Scales,
and the Ainsworth and Bell (1969) Feeding Scales will be used to
compare the effect of parent tutoring on parent-infant interaction,
as well as to compare mothers and fathers concerning the overall quality
of their interaction with their child. ~

As a means of assessing the effect of parent's attitudes
towards their infants on the development of their children, the
Neonatal Perception Inventory (NPI), developed by Broussard and Hartner
(1971), is to be administered to the parents participating in the
present study. The NPI is a measure of parent's perceptions of their
own infant and what they perceive an hypothesized average baby to be
like. It provides one with a way of determining whether parents have
a positive perception of their infant, as represented by the parents
viewing their child's behavior as equal to or better than the average
baby, or a negative perception, comprised of seeing their child's be-
havior as being worse than the average baby. A measure of parental
attitudes was included in the present study as a result of Broussard
and Hartner's (1971) findings which indicated that parents who perceived
their infants in a negative manner were more likely to have children
referred for mental health problems at age four than parents who had
a more positive perception of their infants. Therefore, it appears that
parental attitudes may effect infant competence as represented by
mental health. It is also possible that the manner in which parents
perceive their infants may effect their participation in the present

study. Therefore, the NPI will be administered to parents in order to

34

ascertain the effect of parental attitudes on their ability to be
trained in child-rearing skills.

In summary, the present study has been designed to measure the
overall effectiveness of a parent training program concerning the
attainment of infant competence, as well as to compare the child-
rearing potential of mothers and fathers. Consequently, the following
hypotheses will be tested:

Hypothesis 1. Parent training of one or both parents results
in producing infants who are more competent than infants of untrained
parents.

Hypothesis 2. Mothers and fathers do not differ in their ability
to rear competent children.

Hypothesis 3. Child-rearing tutoring of both parents results in
producing infants who are more competent than infants who have a single

parent trained.

METHOD

Experimental Design

 

The basic experimental design of this project will consist of
treatment of mother (2) x treatment of father (2) x age of child (whose
number will vary from 2-7 depending upon the particular measure and
how often it is administered), utilizing a factorial design whose last
factor is a repeated measure. Encompassed in this design are four treat-
ment groups which are comprised of training one or both parents, or
neither parent in child-rearing skills. Therefore, the four experimental
conditions will be mother training, father training, mother and father

or parent training, and control, or no training.

Experimental Intervention

The major intervention of this project will consist of sending
tutors trained in child development and child-rearing skills (see
Appendix 13 for training procedures) to the infant's home for approx-
imately one hour weekly during which time the tutors will explain,
demonstrate, and have the infant's parent(s) model various child-
rearing practices which are designed to foster infant cOmpetence. In
order to assure that each family receives the same training, a
Child-rearing Manual (see Appendix A) was developed which presents the
tutors with a step by step guide for each parent training session.
The parent training sessions will begin when the infants are one month

of age and will be discontinued when the infants reach two years of

35

36

age, for a total of ninety-three sessions. All of the treatment
conditions, excluding the control group, will receive the intervention
described above. However, in condition one, only mothers will receive
parent training, whereas in condition two fathers will be the only ones
trained. In condition three both parents will be trained, whereas in
condition four, neither parent will be trained thereby forming the

control group.

Subjects
The subjects of the present study will consist of sixty-four

intact families which are comprised of first born infants and both
parents. The subjects will be selected from Lansing, Michigan and its
surrounding communities with the aid of local obstetricians and prenatal
clinics. Potential subjects will be contacted by telephone during the
third trimester of pregnancy, at which time a brief description of the
study will be given. If the family indicated interest in participating
in the study, a meeting between the family, the project director, and
tutor (except for controls) would be scheduled to be held at the family's
home, at which time the project would be described in much greater
detail. The families would then be given one week to decide whether or
not they wished to participate in the study, after which time they would
be contacted by phone for their decision. Those families which agreed
to participate in the project are to be contacted one week after the
birth of their infant at which time only those infants who were in good
health would be chosen to participate in the study.

37

Assessment Procedures
The Bayley Scales of Infant Development
The Bayley Scales (Bayley, 1969) provide an assessment of an
infant's cognitive and perceptual-motor development represented by two
scores, a Mental Scale score, and a Motor Scale score. Extensive

reliability and validity data have been obtained by Bayley (1969).

Neonatal Perception Inventory

The Neonatal Perception Inventory (NPI) consists of two scales,
the Your Baby Scale and the Average Baby Scale (Appendix C). Each
of the scales contain the same six items which measure the degree to
which subjects perceive certain behaviors such as crying are present for
the infant, using a five-point rating scale. The NPI score is derived
by subtracting the Your Baby score, i.e., the sum of all six items,
from the Average Baby score. Reliability data are reported by Broussard

and Hartner (1971).

Feeding Scales

The Feeding Scales (Appendix C) is a four item measure of an
adult's feeding style with an infant. Each item is rated by an observer
on a nine-point scale representing the quality of the feeding practice,
i.e., from poor to excellent. Reliability data are provided by
Ainsworth and Bell (1969).

Observation Scales of the Home Environment
and Mother-Infant Interaction

An amended version of the Observation Scales to include father-

infant interaction consists of three separate scales, the Parent-Infant

Scale, the Responsiveness of Objects Scale, and the Complexity of

38

Objects Scale (Appendix C). The Parent-Infant Scale is a nineteen item
event sampling scale which is comprised of various events of parent-
infant interaction such as vocalizations and physical contact. After
thirty seconds of observation, an observer records for sixty

seconds all of the events that were witnessed by placing a check mark
under each event observed, thus completing one observation cycle. An
neven is only checked once per cycle. (The observer then goes onto the
next cycle, and so on until the observation period is over. The
Responsiveness Scale is comprised of four subscales which measure the
feedback potential of play objects. Each of the four subscales is
rated by an observer on a five-poiht continuum. The Complexity

Scale is a five-point scale which measures the amount of information a
play object provides the infant through various sensory modalities.
Reliability for all three Observation Scales is reported by Yarrow

et a1. (1975).

Four Scales of Maternal Behavior

The Four Scales (Appendix C), amended to include paternal be-
havior, are comprised of four nine-point scales which measure the
degree to which parents are sensitive to their childrens' wishes and
needs, how cooperative parents are when interacting with their infants,
how well they accept their infants, and how accessible the parents are
to their infants. The Four Scales are completed by an observer after
a predetermined observation period. Reliability on the Four Scales

has been established by Ainsworth et a1. (1971).

39

Bell-Pairs Test

The Bell-Pairs Test (Appendix C) is a situational measure of
exploratory behavior and preference for novelty. It is comprised of
presenting a bell to the subject for ten minutes of free play. The
bell is then paired with ten novel items, with each pair presented for
one minute for a total of ten consecutive minutes. Four scores are
derived from the Bell-Pairs Test including two exploratory scores, and
two preference scores. The exploratory scores represent the time the
infant looks at and manipulates the bell, whereas the preference
scores are comprised of the time spent looking at and manipulating the
novel items. Reliability for the Bell-Pairs Test was established by

Rubenstein (1967).

Pilot Testing

Pilot testing consisted of two different phases. The first phase
involved the administration of all the observational assessment scales
described above including the Feeding Scales, Four Scales, and the
Observation Scales of the Home Environment and Mother-Infant Inter-
action. Three pilot subjects comprised of a two, nineteen, and twenty-
one month old infants and their mothers were administered these scales
in order to ascertain ease of administration. Of particular concern
was how the subjects would react to being observed, i.e., would they
act naturally? Also of interest was whether or not the measures them-
selves could be administered without difficulty. It was found that
after a few minutes the subjects became oblivious to the observer's
presence and acted quite naturally. As a result of this finding,

observers will be instructed to wait at least five minutes while they

40

watch the subjects interact before they begin to officially rate
the subjects' behavior. It was also found that all of the scales were
easy to administer and posed no rating problems.

The second phase of the pilot testing was to actually tutor a
pilot subject or family in child-rearing techniques in order to ascer-
tain how parents would react to being tutored. In order to do this, a
mother and her infant were tutored on a weekly basis from the time the
infant reached nine weeks of age until the infant was nine months of
age. It was found that for the most part the child-rearing techniques
and exercises were easily understood and carried out by the infant's
mother. However, a problem did arise when a particular child-rearing
practice taught to the mother conflicted with a common belief in child-
rearing. This problem arose with the pilot mother concerning whether
or not one should respond immediately to an infant's cries. The
pilot mother had been indoctrinated with the common belief that if she
promptly responded to her infant's cries rather than making her child
wait for awhile that she would be helping her child to become spoiled.
However, after the mother was infOrmed of the research which showed
that responding to infant crying not only helps the child not to become
spoiled but also fosters her development, she was willing to change her
practice and follow the tutor's advice. One may infer from the results
of the pilot tutoring that parents can not only be taught how to rear
their children but that some of their basic misconceptions concerning

parenting are amenable to change.

41

Tutor and Assessor Training

 

The Tutors and assessors will be female college seniors who have
had at least one course in child development. Approximately three
months before the project is to begin, two separate training programs
will be instituted, i.e., one for tutors, and one for assessors.
Basically, tutor training will be comprised of requiring each tutor
-to practice every child-rearing exercise (see Child-rearing Manual,
Appendix A) with appropriate aged infants at a local day care center.
The tutors will be observed by the project director during the practice
sessions in order ascertain whether or not the tutors are carrying out
the exercises according to standard procedure. Tutors will also meet
with the project director weekly at which time they will be shown video
tapes of parent-tutoring sessions, and discuss any problems which may
have arisen in their practice sessions (see Appendix B for a fuller
description of training procedures).

The assessors will be responsible for administering all of the
dependent measures. They will meet weekly with the project
director to discuss each assessment technique, and to observe demonstra-
tions of the various measures (see Assessment Manual, Appendix C).

They will be required to practice each assessment technique with
appropriate aged infants at a local day care center. Once the assessors
have become thoroughly familiar with every measure, the assessors will
be paired for reliability tests. Reliability will be established on ten
trial subjects for each assessment technique (see Appendix D for a more

detailed description of training and reliability procedures).

42

Procedure

Sixty-four first born infants and their parents will be randomly
assigned to one of four conditions, i.e., mother training, father
training, mother and father or parent training, and no training or
control. Therefore, there will be a total of sixteen families in each
condition. Prior to beginning the home tutoring sessions, pretesting of
all four groups will be conducted when the infants are one month of age.
Child-rearing sessions will begin one week after the pretesting for all
but the control group, and will be held weekly until the infants'
second birthday. One week after the infants' second birthday post-
testing will be conducted to assess the infants' developmental progress
and the parents' child-rearing skill. In addition to pre and post-
testing, five additional assessments will be conducted during the
project when the infants are three, six, nine, twelve, and eighteen
months of age. All assessments will take place on different days then
the days with tutoring sessions scheduled. The assessment measures and
the times or ages when they are to be administered are presented below

in Table 1.

Data Analysis

 

Two major analysis of the data will be conducted. An analysis of
variance of mother training (2) x father training (2) x age of child
(Nhose number ranges from 2-7 depending on the particular dependent
measure) utilizing a factorial design with the last factor as a
repeated measure will be conducted. The second analysis of the data
will consist of a product—moment correlational analysis of the relation-

ship between the dependent measures both within and across time periods.

43

 

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

CHILD-REARING MANUAL BY SESSIONS. AGE RANGE:
ONE TO TWENTY-FOUR MONTHS

44

Table A. Child-rearing Outline of Session Goals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sessions
Goal
1-3 4-6. 7-9
Age Range 1-3 months
Crying A. Prompt Response
B. Effective
Response
Feeding A. Sensitive Pacing
B. Prompt Response
C. Responsiveness
to Infant
Desi res
0. Preferences in
Solids
Contact A. Tender, Careful
B. Nonroutine
Language A. Model Infant
Sounds
B. Adult Verbaliza-
tion-Descriptive
Play A. Mediate Toys
B. Mutual Visual
Regard
Percep- A. Focusing on color-
tual & ful and noise pro-
Fine ducing objects
Motor B. Following objects,
visually,
C. Grasping
D. Hold objects
briefly
Gross A. Rotates head
Motor B. Lifts head
C. Elevates self by
arms
D. Sits with support
E. Holds head steady

 

 

 

45

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table A. Continued
Sessions
10-12 13-15 16-18 19-21
Age Range 3-6 Months
Crying
Feeding
Contact REVIEN LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION
Language
Play . Mediate Play . Rattle ‘ A. Mouthing A. Touch or
Objects Games for Objects for Tactile
Tracking & Exploration Experience
. Express Ver- Grasping with Ver-
bally balization
Positive
Affect
. Descriptive
Language
Percep- . Cradle gyms . Reaching A. Viewing
tual and World from
Fine Grasping Parents'
Motor Objects Arms:
Taking a
. Visually Walk with
Tracking Baby
Objects
(mobiles)
Gross A. Stimulate
Motor Head Con-
trol
B. Arm Move-
ment

 

 

 

 

46

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table A. Continued
Sessions
Goals
22-25 26-29 30-33
Age Range 6-9 Months

Crying A. Use Distal

Responses

before

Contact REVIEW LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION

Responses
Feeding

REVIEH LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION

Contact
Language A. Imitate or A. Imitate or A. Songs and

Model Infant Modeling of Rhythm Games

Sounds (Adult) Adult Sounds

(Infant)

Play A. Mediation of A. Social Game: . Object Per-

Play Objects Peek-a-Boo manence

which Change Mirror Play

when Manipu-

lated
Percep- . Visual Tracking
tual and Search,
Fine Reaching & Grasp-
Motor TOO
Gross A. Sit unsupported A. Stand with Help . Turn Body from
Motor Naist
Body A. Mirror Play
Self

Image

 

 

 

47

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table A. Continued
Sessions
Goals
34-37 38-41 42-45
Age Range 9-12 Months
Crying REVIEW LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION
Feeding A. Self-feeding
with Help
REVIEN LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION
Contact A. Respond to Infant
Signals to be
Picked up and Put
Down
Language A. Label Objects In- . Language Compre- A. Teach Simple
fant is Looking hension: Commands
at, Shown, or "Where is" Game
Playing with.
Play A. Allow Extensive
Floor Freedom REVIEH LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION
B. Childproof House
C. Give and Take . Object Permanence A. Spatial Rela-
Games Games tions
O. Outdoor Play REVIEN LAST 10 MINUTES OF EACH SESSION
Percep- A. Manipulation of
tual Objects Varying
Fine in Size and
Motor Shape
Cross A. Practice Standing . Balancing and A. Cruising
Motor With Help Leaning in
B. Sitting to Crawl- Sitting Position B. Nalking when
ing Position . Creeping & Crawl- Led
ing
Body . Where is Baby,
Self Others?
Image . Hide and Seek

 

 

. Mirror Play

 

48

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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49

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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10.

50

Child-rearing Manual
Age Range 1-24 Months
Sessions 1-93

General Instructions

Always set up the tutoring appointments one week in advance. Call
up the day of the visit to remind families you are coming. Re-
schedule, the same week if possible, if baby is sick.

If you are going to cover a particular topic during a session,
like feeding, make sure the session is scheduled at a time when
the families typically feed their babies.

Each session is to be approximately one hour long except for
the first and last sessions, which are to be one and one-half
hours long to give you time to introduce the study to the
families and to terminate with them.

Four sessions before the last child-rearing session, tell the
families that there are only four sessions left, and give them a
few migutes to talk about how they feel ending (see Tutor Training
Manual

If you are unable to cover all of the goals of a session, cover
them the next session. This will be easy to do since all sessions
are repeated at least once.

Even if a family already does a particular behavior with their
infant that you want to teach them, have them practice it anyway.
Use it as an opportunity to give them positive feedback, and

to see how their infant responds.

If at any time a parent tells you that she or he doesn't want
to carry out a particular task, ask her or him the reason, but
accept her or his wishes. Find out if the parents have any
preconceived notions that the practice is bad for their baby.

If a parent asks you a question such as about the infant's develop-
ment, answer it if you can. Otherwise tell the parent that there
are a lot of different age ranges when things happen, and that you
would like to check up on it before you give an answer. Then tell
the parent what you found out next visit.

If parents become concerned that their infant is not doing a
particular behavior, reassure them that their baby will eventually
learn how to do it, and that the purpose of the sessions is to
show the parents how to do things with their babies, and not to
get the baby to perform immediately. You may need to remind
parents of this from time to time.

Encourage parents to practice what they learn in the sessions on
their own during the week.

11.

12.

13.

51

Spend the first and last five or ten minutes of each session
answering any questions and parents have about past goals or
things they have done in the session.

The ChikPrearing Manual is written to include the participation of
both parents. If only one parent is being tutored, then only

that parent is to be present and to practice the parenting
techniques.

Praise all of parent's efforts to carry out chin-rearing goals,
when they succeed, and when they are trying. However, let them
know when they are doing something correctly, and offer them
suggestions on how to improve their performance.

52

Child-rearing Manual
Age Range l-3 Months
Sessions 1-3

General Instructions

 

The overall purpose of these first three sessions of home tutoring
is to introduce families to what a parent training session is like, as
well as to the specific goals of each session. This is also the time
‘during which you and the family will get to know each other, and most
importantly, become comfortable in working together. Always remember
that each tutoring session is to be scheduled in advance with the
families, but that the time of the sessions should coincide with the
particular goals of a particular session. Specifically, since infant
feeding is one of the major goals of sessions 1-3, these sessions must
be scheduled so as to include a feeding. Each tutoring session is to
be one hour in length, except for session number one, which will run
for 1 1/2 hours because of the additional time needed to familiarize
families with the way the sessions are to be carried out. In addition,
since sessions are grouped together by childrearing goals, some
sessions will repeat the goals taught of previous session, e.g.,
sessions 2 and 3 repeat the goals taught in session 1. Therefore, the
focus of the session in which specific goals are first mentioned will
be training parents how to perform the goals, whereas the focus of
the repeated sessions will be to review the procedures taught, as well
as to solve any problems parents are having carrying out the child-

rearing skills taught to them.

53

Session Format _

 

Session #1

 

This session is to begin 1/2 hour before the time when the infant
is to be fed. Go to the family's home and introduce yourself in the
following manner:

Hello, Mr. and Mrs.______: I'n1 from the childérearing

project. I spoke to you over the phone and told you a little

bit about what the project is about. As I told you over the phone,

tOday is our first session and it will last for about an hour and

a half. Basically what we'll be doing is to practice and learn

about the kinds of things to do with your baby which research

has shown will help her (or him) to grow up knowing how to get

along with other people and how to get along in the world, as

well as how to learn about and discover new things. The way
we'll do this is by my telling you about ways to do things with
your baby, by showing you how to do them, and by having you try
out the things yourself, and by letting you know how you are
doing. But most important is that these sessions are supposed

to be fun for both you and your baby. Some of the things we'll

be doing will probably be things you already know about. Others

may be new. Whatever the case, think of each task as something
to learn how to do with practice, and not something which you'll
succeed at the very first time you try it. Each new thing we
cover will be repeated for one or more sessions to give you
plenty of time for practice. Since most of what we'll be doing
will directly involve your baby's interest and participation,

our goal will be to introduce new things to her (or him) and

54

attempt to capture her (or his) interest. If there are times when
your baby does not become interested in what you're doing, as
there certainly will be, we'll just go on to a new task. He
want your baby to learn about new things, but at her (or his)

- own pace. Once you learn how to do a certain thing, such as a
game, with your baby, then you can keep trying it out with her
(or him) until your baby becomes interested and takes part in the

game. Do you have any questions so far? (Answer any questions).

Now that you've had a few weeks to settle in to being parents, is
there anything you'd like to know about or questions you have
about (baby's name) as you've been getting to know her (or him)?

(Answer questions).

I'd now like to go over the things we're going to talk about and
do today with (baby's name). First of all, we're going to talk
about how to respond when (baby's name) cries. Then we'll go
over how to feed a baby to make it fun for both you and your
baby, and try it out when its time for (baby's name) to be fed.
He'll also talk about how a baby should be touched and held so
that your baby will enjoy it. Let's begin with what to do when

your baby cries.

em
The first way a baby has of letting a parent know how she (he)
feels is by crying. A baby cries for a number of different
reasons, such as when she's (he's) hungry or in pain or some dis-

comfort. It is the only way a baby is able to signal to a

55

parent who is some distance away, since a baby of this age cannot
get to a parent of her (his) own accord, or by herself (himself).
In order to let your baby know that when she (he) calls out

for you, you'll be there to comfort her (him) it is important that
you respond immediately, within a few seconds (5_20 seconds) by
going to the baby and picking her (him) up. If your baby continues
to cry she (he) might be hungry and needs to be fed. Other ways
of responding to your baby's cries are to approach and touch or
caress her (him), to offer her a toy to mouth, or to talk to

the baby. You'll know you've tried the best thing when your baby
stops crying. What I've told you to do may surprise you since
most people have heard the old saying that picking up a baby or
responding promptly to her (his) cries only spoils her (him). But
this saying is totally false since several studies of parents

and infants have shown that if parents respond promptly and
consistently everytime their baby cries, their child will begin

to cry less as she (he) grows older and use other ways to let

you know how she (he) feels, such as by using words or gestures.
Answering your baby's cries also tells your baby that she (he)

can rely on you or trust that you will meet her (his) needs, and
that she (he) is able to take part in helping you to know what _
she (he) wants. It has also been found that babies who have had
their cries or needs responded to or fulfilled, when they grow
older will be more likely to respond to or follow their parents

wishes. How do you feel about what I've just described?

56

Beginning now, and for the rest of the session, I would like each

of you to take turns responding to (baby's name) cries.

Now I'd like to discuss the next topic, feeding your baby.

Feeding

For the first few months of your baby's life, feeding takes up a
major proportion of the time you spend with her (him). It is
important that this is a pleasurable activity for both you and
your baby. Studies of parents feeding their infants have shown
that if parents feed their babies in a sensitive way, their babies
will not only enjoy the feedings but they will become very
attached to their parents. There are 5 basic things to remember

when you feed your baby.

#1. The first thing to do is to time the baby's feedings accord-
ing to when she (he) signals or lets you know that she is hungry,
like when she (he) cries. Once you know your baby is hungry, feed
her (him) as soon as possible. Do not wake your baby up to be fed.
If you want to control how much your baby eats, you may give the

baby snacks, such as water or juice.

#2. The second thing to do when you feed your baby is to let
her (him) decide how much food she eats, and when the feeding

is stopped. Your baby will let you know she's (he's) had enough
food by doing things like turning her (his) head away, not
sucking on the bottle, or by falling asleep. When she (he) does
these things, try not to coax her (him) to eat more. Stop the

feeding and wait till your baby signals she's (he's) hungry again.

57

These practices will make your baby's feeding very pleasurable
and will help your baby to learn how to become an active partner

in feeding.

#3. Another thing to do when you're feeding your baby is to pace

the speed at which she (he) eats according to your baby's wishes.

This is more important when your baby begins to eat solids, around
3 months of age. If your baby begins to choke or if more milk

is being spit out than swallowed, the milk may be coming too fast.
Check the hole in the nipple to see if its too large, or too small

if the baby is sucking hard but getting very little milk.

#4. When your baby is around 3 months of age she'll (he'll)
probably begin to eat solid food. You'll know she's (he's)

ready for this when your baby can swallow the food without choking
or sputtering. The way to help your baby accept solid foods is

to give her (him) as much choice as is possible as to what foods
she (he) eats. Sometimes mixing a favorite food with a disliked
food will help. But, please check with your pediatrician for when

to begin giving solids to your baby.

#5. The fifth and final thing to remember when feeding your baby
is to hold your baby in your arms while feeding her (him),
looking into her (his) eyes and smiling and talking to her (him).
This will let your baby get to know you, your face, voice, and

touch, and make feeding a fun and nice time to be together.

Are there any questions you have about feeding your baby?

58

When your baby is ready, decide who's going to feed her (him)
today. Since we're going to repeat the same topics for the next
two sessions, you can take turns practicing feeding your baby.
While you're feeding your baby feel free to ask questions, and

I'll make some suggestions when necessary.

(One parent will then feed the baby, after which you will talk
about contact or holding a baby. If the baby is not ready to be
fed, go onto the next topic, contact. If the baby does not
signal to be fed for the entire length of the session, tell the
parents that you'll wait till the next visit to observe a

feeding.)

The last topic we're going to talk about today is how to hold and
touch your baby in a way your baby will like.

Physical Contact

 

The most important thing to remember when you pick up and holdv
your baby is to do so gently, being careful not to shake or jar
your baby. Slow, careful movements are the best. Make sure your
baby is well supported, especially her (his) head. Tender
caressing and kissing will help your baby enjoy being held even
more. It is also important to pick up and hold your baby more
than just during some routine, such as feeding or changing.
Babies who are held tenderly and often will learn to enjoy being
held tenderly and often will learn to enjoy being held by you and
will respond by giving you back physical affection, such as by

cuddling or "sinking in." Do you have any questions?

59

I'd like each of you to hold (baby's name = B) for about 5 minutes
each, trying to make the time as pleasurable as possible for you

and your baby.

(After completing the session's topics or goals, end the session

by saying the following:)

Our time is up for today. Next week, and the week after we'll go
over what we've discussed and practiced today. Before I leave,
do you have any questions or things you're wondering about? See

you next week then. (Leave home.)

Session #2 and #3

 

These sessions will repeat the topics of session 1. Begin the
sessions by asking the following questions?

Now that you've had a week to try out the things we went over last

session, what has it been like to respond to your baby's cries?

Have there been any problems?
How have the feedings gone? Any difficulties?
How has holding your baby been? Any concern?

Let's spend the rest of the session practicing responding to 8'5.
cries, holding her (him), both of you taking turns, and when your
baby's hungry, feeding her (him) (have the parent who did not
feed the baby last session, feed the baby this session, e.g.,

#2. Either parent can feed the baby the third session; ask which
one wants to). Do you have any questions about what we've done

today? We're at the end of our time today. See you next week.

60

Sessions #4-6

 

The major goals of these three sessions are to be presented to the
families in the following manner:

Session #4: Today we're going to talk about and try some new things

 

with B. BefOre we begin, do you have any concerns or things you've

been wondering about B that you'd like to ask? (Answer questions.)

Let's begin with today's topics. Today we're going to talk about
how to talk to your baby, and how to help your baby make sounds
which will help her (his) later language development.
Adult Spontaneous Verbalization
One of the most important things a baby must learn in order to
get along in the world is how to understand what other people are
saying, and how to talk to other people. But learning language or
how to understand and speak words is not something a baby can
do by herself (himself). She (he) needs the help of the peOple
around her (him). One way to help a baby learn how to talk 15’
by hearing other people talk around her (him). Hearing you talk
will help your baby learn the. sounds of words, and eventually,
when she's (he's) older, the meaning. The easiest way to talk
to your baby is to describe what you're doing with her (him)
at the moment. Let me show you what I mean. (Go to baby and
tell the baby what you're doing such as in the following example:
"Hi B. I came over to say hello to you. I'm going to see
if you'll follow my voice when I move around."
You can also talk to your baby and talk about what she's doing at

the moment like this:

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"You're yawning B. You look sleepy."

Do you have any questions? I'd like you each to spend about 5
minutes talking to B.

Modeling:Infant Sounds
Now that you've practiced talking to your baby, let's go over ways
to help your baby learn how to in some way "talk back." At this
age, the only way a baby "talks" is by making sounds. By encour-
aging or helping her (him) to use the sounds which she'll need to
knOw to make words and finally to speak or talk. The way we can
help B make sounds is to repeat whatever sounds she makes, right
after she makes them. I'll show you what I mean as soon as B
makes a sound. (Demonstrate modeling the baby's sounds; then

have each parent do the same for 5 minutes each.)

By repeating your baby's sounds, as we've just done, we're not
only helping her (him) to hear those sounds from another person,
but we're also letting her (him) know that when she (he) makes-
sounds, she'll (he'll) get a response. When she's (he's) older,
this will help her learn that when she talks, someone listens,
and talks back. It will also encourage her to make more sounds

and later on words.

Do you have any questions as to what we've covered today, or in
past session? For the next 2 sessions, we'll go over the same
things we've practiced today.

Sessions #5 and #6
Repeat the exercises of session 4 and answer any questions the

parents may have wondered about. Do not repeat the rationale of

62

the goals or topics unless the parents ask you to go over them
again.

Sessions #7-9
The major goals of these sessions are to be presented as follows:

Session 7: Today we're going to do two things with B. We're going to
help her (him) to learn how to use and control her (his) body,
such as her (his) hands, arms, and head, and we're going to prac-
tice ways of getting B interested in exploring things around her
(him).

Perceptual, Fine and Gross Motor Skills
As your baby grows older, she (he) will develop the ability to
control various parts of her (his) body. She'll (he'll) learn
how to follow objects with her (his) eyes, reach for and grasp or
hold objects in her (his) hands, turn her (his) head, lift and
support or hold her (his) head steady, lift or raise herself
(himself) by her (his) arms, roll part way to the side, and from
side to back, and sit with support. There are several things
you can do with your baby which will help her (him) to do these
things.

Plgy_
All of these things can be done while playing with B.

Visual Tracking;
Let's begin by helping your baby to focus on and watch things,
standing still and in movement. Two major things will catch your
baby's interest at this age, yourself, especially your face and
voice, and colorful and noise producing toys. (Have baby laying

on her (his) back in crib or where the parents would like her

63

(him) to lay).

Let's start with using your face and voice to attract B's
attention. I'll demonstrate. (Go over to baby and stand close
to her (him) placing your face one foot away from her (his) face.
Call out B and smile. Hhen baby looks at you move your face to
the left, then the right, continuing to smile and talk to the
baby, e.g., "Hi B," slow enough so that the baby can follow you
with her (his) eyes.)

I'd like each of you to do what I've just done. Now, instead

of using your face and voice, let's use a toy. Do you have a
rattle? (If not, provide one.) Use the rattle in the same way

as you did your faces, but shake the rattle rather than talk,
beginning a few inches in front of B's face and then moving

it to the right, then left. (Have each parent practice this a
few times.) You can also use other toys or objects to get your
baby's attention (e.g., spoon, stuffed toy, plastic measuring cups
or spoons, etc.).

Reachingfiand Grasping:

 

Now let's try to get 8 to use her (his) arms and hands. Take the
rattle and shake it within reach Of the baby's hands. See if
she'll (he'll) try to reach it, such as by moving her arms and
hands closer to it. Then place the rattle in her (his) hand,
until she (he) drops it.

Head and Arm Control:

 

Now let's focus on helping your baby to control her head. The

first exercise we did with moving our faces and the rattle from

64

side to side let your baby practice turning her (his) head from
side to side. Now, to give your baby practice lifting her (his)
head begin by placing her (him) on her (his) stomach. I'll now
try to get 8 to lift her (his) head and raise herself by her
(his) arms by using my face and voice again, then the rattle
(stand at the baby's head and call her (his) name until she (he)
looks up, raises her (his) head, and uses her (his) arms to do so.
Repeat with rattle). Now I'd like each of you to try the same
thing.

Now, let's give B some practice in holding her (his) head steady.
Place B on her (his) back. Take hold of each of her (his)

hands. Now slowly raise B to a sitting position, placing your
hand behind her (his) head so it won't fall back if she (he)
doesn't support it. (Have both parents do this.) This exercise
gives B a chance to hold her (his) head somewhat steady. You can
also give B practice doing this by placing her (him) in a sitting
position, supporting her (his) back, and seeing if she (he) can
hold her (his) head steady. Why don't each of you try this

and see what happens.

End the session.

Sessions #8 and #9: Repeat topics of Session 7.

 

Age Range 3-6 Months
Sessions 10-12

 

Session 10: Present the major topics in the following manner:

Today and for the next two sessions we're going to talk about and

65

practice how to help B to explore different toys, and objects,

how to use her (his) hands to do this, how to talk to B while

playing with her, and how to let B know that you love her (him).
Play with Baby,

 

Let's begin with how to interest B in exploring or learning about
Objects and toys. Two major things are needed to do this. One
is to collect a number of interesting objects to present to B such

as any of the following things:

d
.

elastic or rubber bands

pieces of clothing such as a glove, mitten, sock
plastic measuring cups and spoons.

bracelets

clothespins

2

3

4

5

6. rattles

7 stuffed toys
8 sound toys
9 pictures with large detail of people, animals, objects

10. rope or elastic to hang items from, or wooden stand

The second thing which is very important in making new objects and
toys interesting to your baby is that someone that B cares about
is actively involved in showing the items to her, how they work,
and the different ways one can play with objects. Your partici-
pation will make learning about objects doubly enjoyable for B
because it will provide her with time with you, but also with new
and interesting things. Any questions? I'd like you both to

collect as many of the items I mentioned and any others which

66

you feel would attract B's attention. (If parents don't have a
rope to hang items from, provide them with one). Now, I'd like
you to place B in her crib. I'd then like each of you to divide
the items in half, each taking half and then first one, then the
other presenting your items to B. The way to do this is to show
your baby the object, and what it can do. For example, show your
baby the rattle, then shake it, showing your baby that a rattle
makes noise when it is shaken. If you have a squeak toy, show
it to B and squeak it while you're doing it. One other thing
I'd like you to do while presenting the toys to B is to talk
to her (him) while you're doing this, describing your actions in
words. For example, while showing your baby an animal squeak toy
you might say the following:

"Hi 8. Look at this. It's a dog. It makes noise when

you squeak it."
Now, why don't each of you try the things I've talked about
with the objects you've collected. (Let parents practice for.
about 5 minutes each.)

Pictures:

We've just practiced what to do with toys and objects with your
baby when you're present. (However, since you can't always be with
your baby, it's important to make the baby's sourroundings, like
her room as interesting a place as possible. You can do this
in a number of ways. First Of all, you can find large, colorful,
familiar pictures to put up on B's bedroom walls. Pictures such
as of people, especially their faces, animals, and nature, such

as trees are some ideas to be used. You can find these pictures

67

in magazines, or you can draw them yourself, or buy posters in a
store. Let's look at 3'5 bedroom and see where we can place some
pictures, if you haven't done so already. (Check baby's bedroom.
If it needs some pictures have the parents get some old
magazines or paper and crayon and make some. Place the pictures
on all the walls.) The pictures should be placed where B can
see them, at crib height, and a foot from the floor if B plays on
the floor.

CradleIGyms:
Another thing B can explore or play with by herself (himself) is
a cradle gym. You can make one by tying a rope across the baby's
crib, and then tying various toys and objects to the rope with
elastic bands. Place the toys on the rope so that they hang
within arm's reach from B when she's (he's) lying on her (his)
back. He can use the objects you showed B earlier in the session.
It is important to choose objects which are too big to be
swallowed if B were to get them loose somehow. Let's make one
now and place it on B's crib. Now, wiggle the toys or objects
until B looks at them, and tries to reach and grab them.

Positive Affect:

Verbal:
Now let's talk about the final goal for today, letting your baby
know you love her (him) in words. A few sessions ago we talked
about how to let your baby know you care about her through phy-
sical contact, such as by hugging, kissing, caressing her (him).
You can also let your baby know you love her (him) through words.

One way of doing this is to hold your baby in your arms, look

68

directly into her (his) eyes, smile and say caring things like
the following:

"I love you, you're a nice baby, I like to hold you, I love

it when you smile at me."
I'd like each of you to do this with B for a couple of minutes.
If you'd like to use your own phrases for telling your baby you
love her (him), go right ahead. In fact, it will be better if
you use your own words so that you'll feel more comfortable.

Sessiohs 11-12: Repeat topics of session 10, except for the cradle gym

exercise, since you've already made one with the parents. But you
can have parents substitute new toys on the cradle gym. Also for
the picture exercise, have the parents put up new pictures for

the baby to look at.

Sessions 13-15

Session 13: Today we're going to talk about a topic we've discussed
before, how to help your baby learn how to use her body, especially
her eyes and hands. Before when we went over this topic, we gave
B the chance to gain control over her hands and eyes by giving
her things to try and reach and grasp in her hands, and things
to follow with her eyes. But because her body had not matured
very much, she was unable to reach and grasp things very well.
Now that your baby is older, and her body has developed to a
greater extent, she is able to learn better control of her body.
Today we're going to practice ways of helping B to follow things
visually, with her eyes, and to reach and grasp objects with her

hands.

69

Visual Tracking: Babies will follow things with there eyes if they are
given something interesting to look at. A mobile made up of a
few objects hung at various lengths which move with currents of
air is something which should attract B's attention. It should
be hung from the ceiling where your baby can easily watch it.
I brought a mobile today for you to look at, and place in your
baby's bedroom. Let's do that now. (Have parents hang mobile
over baby's crib, and then place their baby on her back in the
crib, if she isn't already there.) Now lets point to, blow on,
and talk about the mobile until 8 looks up at it and watches it
for a few seconds. A

Reaching and Grasping; Now lets give B practice in reaching and grasp-
ing for objects. Let's use B's rattle to do this, or any noise
making object which is small enough for your baby to be able
to hold it, (e.g., bell, squeak toy). Also, B should be lying on

her back.

First, I'd like one of you, then the other to take the rattle, and
standing out of your baby's sight, behind her head, to shake the
rattle, holding it about one foot over the baby's face, till she
looks at it. Then move the rattle down towards the baby's

stomach within arms reach of B. Keep shaking the rattle until B
grasps it in her hands. Then release the rattle and let B

play with if for a few seconds. Then pull on the rattle, raising
it slowly until your baby releases it. (Demonstrate for parents,

then have each of them copy you.)

70

Now, let's give B some practice reaching and grasping objects while
she's in a sitting position rather than lying on her back. Let's
take B to the kitchen table (or any substitute) where you can set
down and seat B on your lap so that her head, arms, and chest is
above the table. (You may need a pillow on your lap to raise her to
the height needed so that she can easily reach objects placed on
the table. Bring the rattle (or other toy) with you. (Have the
parent take baby and seat themself with the baby and do the exer-
cise. Then have the other parent do it). Now that you're seated
place the rattle on the table within B's reach. Shake it till

B looks at it, and reaches for and grasps it. (Have each parent

do this 2 or 3 times with their baby.) Although we used a

rattle for these exercises today, you can use any toy or

object which attracts B's interest and is small enough for your
baby to hold, such as keys, a small rubber doll or animal, a

bell, etc.

Sessions 14-15: Repeat topics of session 13.

 

Sessions 16-18

 

Session 16: Today we're going to introduce your baby to new and differ-
end things in her surroundings. We're going to do this by giving
your baby a number of objects to play with, and by showing your
baby her (his) surroundings, from your arms.

Mouthinggpbjects: At your baby's age, the part of the body through
which babies learn about things is the mouth. You may have
noticed this already. By mouthing objects, babies learn how
they feel, how hard they are, their taste, and shape. It is the

best way they have for exploring the world, and learning about

71

the things in it. You can help your baby to do this by giving
her (him) as many different objects to mouth as possible. I'd
like you to gather a number of things that we could introduce to
B. Be careful to choose toys and objects which are too big
to be swallowed. Here are some ideas of what you might select,
things like metal and wooden spoons, stuffed toys, plastic or
wooden blocks, cups, rattles, rubber toys, and balls. Go
ahead and collect some things. Now, place B either in a sitting
pOsition on one of your laps, or lying on her back. Then I'd
like first one of you, then the other to hand one object at a
time to B, and let her mouth it. After a few seconds, show ahother
toy to B while gently taking away the other object, and give
it to her (him). But if your baby won't let go, or begins to
fuss or cry, let her (him) keep the object because we want her
to enjoy this game. To make this game more interesting to your
baby, talk to her (him) while you're giving her (him) the objects,
describing what you're doing. I'd like each of you to try this
now with two or three objects each. (Let each parent try this.)
To keep this game interesting to your baby, but not too unfamiliar,
mix in some new objects, which your baby has never seen, with
some familiar ones, which she's (he's) played with before.
You can do this during the week and when we go over this exercise
again next week.

Walking with Baby: Now let's do something different. Until babies can
move around themselves, such as by crawling, they can only see a
small part of the world on their own power. They need the help of

others to move them about, showing them things to look at. One

72

was to do this is to take a walk with your baby in your arms,
holding her (him) at your shoulder, with her (his) head high enough
to be able to see. Even if your baby could already move about on
her (his) own, being held at your shoulder gives her (him) a
new view of the world, from a different height. I'd like each
of you to take B for a walk through the house, telling her
(him) as you go about the things and places you're looking at.
(Let each parent do this.) You can also take B for walks
oOtside when the weather permits, and to as many different places
as you can think of.

Sessions 17-18: Repeat topics of Session 16.

Sessions 19-21

 

Session 19: For the last few sessions we've been introducing your baby
to different objects and toys to learn about. Today we're going
to help your baby begin to learn more about the things she (he)
plays with. We're going to help her (him) find out that one way
toys and objects differ is by the way they feel.

Tactile Experience: Let's begin by collecting things of various
textures or surfaces. Some ideas are different kinds of materials,
like nylon, wool, cotton found in stockings, socks, and shirts,
silk, leather found in scarves and shoes. Also, toys with smooth
and rough surfaces would be good. Let's see what you can find.
(After parents collect items continue explanation.) Hith B
seated with support, such as on your lap, or on the couch, held
with one of your arms, or lying on her back, I'd like first one,
then the other of you to introduce the object to B. Do this
by taking your baby's hand and rubbing it on the object, if she'll

Head

73

(he'll) let you, or by just rubbing the baby's hand with it.

I would also like you to talk with B while you're doing this,
asking her (him) to feel the things, and telling her (him) what
the things feel like, such as soft, rough, smooth. At this age
your baby won't understand what you're saying. Connecting words
with what you're doing will make it easier for her (him) to learn
to talk and understand words when she (he) is older. Talking

to your baby while you're playing with her (him) in this way,
will also make learning about things feel more fun because it
lets your baby know you're there, through your voice. Each of
you try this for 5 minutes.

and Arm Control: Now, let's use the same exercise to help your
baby get more practice using her arms and hands, and controlling
her (his) head. Instead of stroking B's hands with the materials,
hold them out to her (him) and let her (him) reach for them

with her (his) hands and arms. Nhen she (he) gets them, then
label how it feels. Also, hold out the objects in different
places, such as to one side of the baby and above or below her
(his) head, to give her (him) practice turning her (his) head to

look at things.

Sessions 20-21: Repeat goals of session 19.

Age Ragge 6-9 Months

Sessions 22-25

 

Session 22: Today we're going to give your baby a chance to play with

 

you, using toys and objects which change in some way when played

with. We're also going to help B control her (his) body to a

74

greater degree, to sit alone.

Cryigg; Before we begin with playing with B, I want to spend a little
time talking about how to respond to your baby when she (he)
cries. In earlier sessions, we talked about responding immediately
to your babies cries, usually by going over to her (him) and
picking her (him) up. Now that your baby is older, close physical
contact when she (he) cries may not always be necessary. You may
begin with more distant responses, such as entering whatever
roOm B is in when she (he) cries, calling out to her (him),
or coming into her (his) sight when she (he) cries. Since she
(he) is now familiar with your voices and what you look like, the
sound of your voice, and your presence may be enough to sooth
her (him). But if she (he) doesnt' stop crying in a few seconds,
then go to her (him) and touch her (him), or pick her (him) up.

Sitting, Unsupported: Let's go on to the next topic. Now that your
baby is older, and has had more time for learning how to control
her (his) body, and her (his) body has had more time to mature,
she (he) may be ready to practice sitting without anyone or
anything holding her (him) up. Is she (he) sitting alone already?
(If not, go on to exercises.) You can help your baby learn how
to sit alone by giving her (him) brief chances to do so. You
can do this by sitting your baby on the floor, with her legs
spread a few inches apart in front of her (him). Support her
(his) back with your hands, then slowly remove them. If B begins
to topple over, put your hands back and keep her (him) from
falling. The more chances B has to practice sitting, the easier

it will be for her (him) to learn how. But, it's important to

75

remember that her (his) body has to mature enough for her (him)
to be able to sit alone, no matter how much practice she (he) gets.
I'd like each of you to try this with B (demonstrate if parents
do not understand your verbal instructions) making sure you
don't let her (him) fall, and that this is supposed to be fun
for you and the baby.

Play Hith Objects That Vary Hhen Manipulated: Now let's keep B sitting

 

on the floor, in your lap if she needs help sitting up, and
iNtroduce her (him) to some toys which she (he) can have some
effect on, that is, toys which change in some way when they are
played with. For example, toys or play objects which change
their shapes or appearance, make noise, and bounce, can be used
such as balls, rattles, squeak toys, measuring spoons connected
together, cloth, pieces of paper, and anything else you can think
of. Go and collect some of these kinds of play objects and

bring them to where B is sitting. Then show each object to B,
how it can be made to do something or change, like a ball drOpped
will bounce, or a squeak toy when squeezed makes a sound, then
hand it to her (him) and let her (him) play with it. After a
minute or two, offer B another toy, showing her (him) again how
it works (make sure toys are safe, i.e., can't be swallowed, no
sharp points, etc.).

Modeling Infant Verbalizations: Also while you're playing with B in
this way, imitate any sounds that she (he) makes. For example,
when your baby ways "da," say Ada," etc. This will encourage
her (him) to make more sounds, and when she's (he's) older to

speak. I'd like each of you to spend about 5 minutes playing

76

with B in the way I've just talked about.

Sessions 23-25: Repeat goals of session 22.

 

Sessions 26-29

 

Session 26: Today we're going to play some new kinds of games with B.

 

We're also going to help B practice making sounds which in a few
months, she'll (he'll) be able to put together to make words.
Finally, we're going to give more practice in learning how to
control her (his) body, by letting her (him) stand with help.

Social Games: One game which babies really enjoy at this age is peek-

 

a-boo, where you hide your face behind your hands, and then
remove your hands saying "peek-a-boo." Babies enjoy this kind
of game because it involves direct play, without distracting
toys, between the infant and someone they care about. This

game is also fun for babies because it involves some surprise,
like when you're going to say “peek-a-boo." Seat B where she can

see you and then each of you do this game a few times with 8.

Now let's try another game. Babies of B's age usually enjoy play
involving mirrors. Mirror play is not only fun for your baby, but
it can help her (him) to know herself (himself), what she (he)
looks like, and to learn about what is a reflection and what is
the real object. Let's do this by using a large hand mirror or
any mirror hung on the wall. I'd like you to take B to the
mirror and direct her (his) attention to her (his) image by
pointing to the mirror and saying, "Look, there's B. You can

see yourself." Also point to B and then to her (his) image

while doing this saying, "Look you're here and you can see

77

yourself in the mirror." Then making sure you can be seen in the
mirror too, point yourself out to the baby. To help B learn

to understand the difference between things and their reflections,
take an object, like a ball, and hold it in front of the mirror,
out of reach of B. Then direct her (his) attention to its
reflection and to the object, itself. Then have her (him) touch
the image in the mirror and then let her (him) touch or hold

the ball. Each of you try this for a few minutes.

Sound Imitation by Infant: Now, let's do something different. In the

 

past we've talked about and practiced repeating any sounds your
baby makes, as one way of helping her (him) to learn how to talk.
Another way of encouraging B's efforts to speak sounds is to try
to get her (him) to copy you when you make a sound. At this
age, the best way to do this is for you to choose sounds you've
heard B make in the past. Some common sounds babies make at
this age are ma, pa, fa, da, ba. You can use these if you've
heard 8 make them or others you've heard. Say the sound several
times, facing your baby, looking into her (his) eyes, then

pause and see if she'll (he'll) imitate or copy you. If she
(he) does copy you, smile and hug or caress her (him) to let

her (him) know you're pleased. This will encourage her (him)

to copy what you say. I'd like each of you to try this 3 or 4
times each.

Standinggwith Help: The last thing we're going to do today is to help
B learn how to stand. At this age, she (he) probably will only
be ably to do this when she's (he's) held up by someone else.
Take B and facing her (him), hold her (him) with your hands placed

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under her (his) arms. Pick her (him) up slightly off the floor
and then lower her (him) until she (he) supports her (his)
weight with her (his) feet and legs. If she (he) cannot support
her (his) own weight, just lower her (him) slowly until she's
(he's) sitting on the floor. If she (he) looks like she (he) is
able to stand with some support to help her (him) keep her (his)
balance, you can try letting her (him) go very briefly, but
catching her (him) immediately before she (he) falls. I'd like
each of you to try this two or three times.

Sessions 27-29: Repeat goals of session 26.

Sessions 30-33

 

Session 30: In earlier sessions we've practiced talking to your baby
and modeling or imitating your baby's sounds. Another way to help
B's language development is to introduce her (him) to another form
language as found in songs and rhythm games. We'll do that today.
Also, your baby is at the age when she (he) can learn about the
idea that people, things, or objects are permanent, or still exist
even when she's (he's) not looking at them.

Songs and Rhythm Games: A child of B's age usually enjoys songs and
rhythm games which are played face to face with people she (he)
cares about. Babies of this age also like songs which involve
finger play. Songs involving rhythm and order will not only help
your baby's language development, but it will help her (him) to
learn that things sometimes come in a certain order and amount.

Here are some songs which are popular at this age:

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This Little Pig

 

This little pig went to market;

This little pig stayed home;

This little pig had roast beef;

This little pig had none;

This little pig said "Nee, wee, wee!"

All the way home.
In this song, take your babies hand or foot and hold one finger
or toe for each little pig verse.

Row, Row, Row Your Boat

 

Row, row, row your boat,

Gently down the stream.

Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily,

Life is but a dream!
I'd like each of you to sing a sOng with B. You can use the
songs I've suggested or any of your own that are popular in your
family. Go ahead and do this now, with B seated in front of you.

Object Permanence: Let's do something different. For babies of B's

 

age and younger, things out of sight are out of mind. A baby
has to learn that people and things exist even when she's (he's)
not looking at them. There are some games we can play with B

which will help her (him) to learn this idea.

First of all, seat B on the floor. Sit in front of her (him) so
that she's (he's) looking at you. Now, crawl around to her (his)
back and see if she (he) will turn around to look for you. You

can help her (him) if she (he) doesn't turn around by calling

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out her (his) name. Soon she (he) will learn that even though

she (he) can't see you, you're still around. This game also helps
your baby to develop skill turning from her (his) waist. I'd

like each of you to try this game twice with 8.

Now, for the next game you'll need a blanket, or cloth, or towel,
and a toy which B likes. Put the towel and toy in front of B.
Now play with the toy until B notices it, then quickly place it
partially under the towel, so part of it can still be seen by B.
Then say, "Where did it go? Find the toy." These words will
attract your baby's attention even though at this age she (he)
won't understand what they mean. If 8 doesn't get the toy, or
looks like she (he) doesn't understand what she's (he's) supposed
to do, show her (him) by finding the toy yourself. Then repeat
hiding it again. If your baby does get the toy, smile and let
your baby know in words that you're pleased by saying "Yea, you
got it." Then see if B can find the toy when it's completely
covered, but its shape can be seen, so that your baby knows

there is something under the towel. Hide the toy completely,
having your baby watch you as you do this. See if she (he)

tries to find it, as before. Find the toy for her (him) if

she (he) doesn't get it herself (himself). Each of you try this.

Another form of this game is to get a container with a lid that
can be easily removed by your baby, like a shoe box. I'd like you
to get a container and bring it to your baby. Then, taking

the same toy, place it in the box, so that your baby can see

what you're doing, then put the lid on the box, or cover it

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with a towel, and see if B will find it. Show her (him) how
to get it if she (he) doesn't get it. Then repeat the game.
Each of you try this one or two times.

Sessions 31-33: Repeat tOpics of session 30.

 

Age Range 9-12 Months

 

Sessions 34-37

 

(Session 34: Today we're going to talk about and try out some new ways
of playing with B, helping her (him)to learn the names of things
as we play. We're also going to give her (him) a chance to prac-
tice moving around, by standing with help and moving from a
sitting to crawling position. We're also going to talk about how
to give B some control in feeding herself (himself), and when
she (he) gets picked up and put down.

Partial Self feedigg; Now that your baby is able to reach for and pick .
up things, and bring them to her (his) mouth, she (he) is ready
to help feed herself (himself). Feeding herself (himself) will
not only help your baby to improve her (his) hand coordination,
but it will help her (him) to do things for herself (himself).
From now on, whenever you feed B let her (him) hold her (his)
bottle herself (himself), if she (he) can. Also, give her (him)
finger foods like a crust of bread, piece of apple, piece of
cooked carrot or stringbean. Letting your baby feed herself
(himself) with her (his) fingers, will make it easier for her
(him) to learn how to spoon-feed herself (himself) when she's
(he's) older. But at this age, you must also feed her (him)

since she (he) won't be able to feed herself (himself) as

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much as she (he) should eat. Try this the next time you feed her

(him).

Infant Controlled Contact: We've talked about in past sessions how

to sensitively hold and touch your baby. Now that your baby is
older she (he) can help let you know when she (he) wants to be
picked up and put down. She'll (he'll) do this by raising her
(his) hands up towards you when she (he) wants to be picked

up, and squirming in your arms when she (he) wants to be put down.
If you respond to your baby's wishes to be put down or picked

up, it will make her (him) enjoy being held by you even more,
because she'll (he'll) have had some say in it. During the rest
of the session, I'd like you to respond to your baby's wishes

or signals to be picked up and put down.

and Naming_Objects: Now let's talk about playing with a baby B's
age. 'First of all, there are a couple of things to remember when
playing with B. The first thing is that since B can now crawl
around on her (his) own power, she (he) is more likely to get
into things that you'd rather not have her (him) touch. Rather
than having to constantly take away things from B that you don't
want her (him) to play with, it is better to childproof your
house, that is, put all the things you don't want B to play with
out of her (his) reach. That way you won't have to discourage
your baby's exploration or learning about things by taking

things away from her (him). But leave her (him) toys and other
play objects within reach. Also, the more floor freedom or

space which your baby has to explore or play in, the more she'll

(he'll) learn about new things, and her (his) world. She'll

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(he'll) also learn more about what's around her (him) if she's
(he's) allowed to play in different places, like outdoors as
well as inside. There are lots of things a baby sees, and can
play outside that aren't usually inside, like trees, grass,
flowers, birds, airplanes, rain, and snow. Give her (him) a
chance to see these things by taking her (him) outside at times.
Now, let's try playing a game which babies B's age usually
like a lot. The game is give and take, where you do just what
the name says, give your baby toys and objects and then ask for
them back or ask your baby to give you something, then give it
back to her (him). I'd like you to collect a number of B's
favorite play objects and sit B on the couch or on the floor
next to you. While you're playing this game, I want you to
name the object you give your baby, or she (he) gives you.
This will help her (him) to learn the names of things. Also,
while you're playing the game, when you want to take a toy
from your baby, try asking for it first, letting her (him) give
it to you, or pull on the toy gently but don't take it if your
baby doesn't want to let it go. Use words or short sentences like
"Give me the ball, I'm taking the ball," at times, and just the
name of the object too. Also use gestures, like holding out
your hand when you say give or take. Go ahead and each of you
try this with B for about 5 minutes each.

.Sficggs Motor Skills: The last thing we're going to do today is to give
your baby some more practice standing with help, and getting
from a sitting to a crawling position. First, let's begin

with standing your baby up, with your hands under her (his) arms.

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Once she's (he's) standing, see if you can take your hands from
under her (his) arms and then take her (his) hands and hold her
(him) up that way. Try only holding one hand, but catch her (him)
if she (he) begins to fall. Both of you can now try this. But
these exercises are very tiring to a baby so only do them for

as long as the baby enjoys it and doesn't begin to fuss or
protest. Now, I'd like you to place B in a sitting position

on the floor. Then move a few feet in front of her (him), calling
her (his) name, and see if she (he) can get herself (himself)

into a crawling position and come to you if she (he) wants to.

You may use an interesting toy to attract her (him), also. Each
of you try this once or twice now, with B.

S_essions 35-37: Repeat goals of session 34.

Sessions 38-41

Sission 38: Today we're going to help 8 learn the names of things, and
to see how many names she (he) already knows. We're also going
to play some more games which will help 8 learn about the per-
manence of objects, that they exist when out of her (his) sight.
And we're going to give 8 some more practice in moving around her
(his) body.

ngnguage Comprehension: One way of seeing how many names of things
your baby knows, as well as teacing her (him) new names is to play
the "where is something" game. To do this, all you need to do is
to collect a number of objects your baby plays with, and you have
named in the past, and then to ask your baby where a particular

toy or object is, by saying, for example, "Where is the ball, show

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me the ball." You should also ask B where certain people are, like
"Where is Daddy, Mommy, Baby." At this age, your baby is not
able to tell you in words where things are, but she (he) can
show you by pointing to, patting, while the baby is looking at
you, touching, or picking up the object. If she (he) picks up or
shows you the thing you asked her (him) to find, you'll know
she's (he's) learned the name of it. If your baby picks up the
wrong toy, or points to the wrong person, smile but tell her
(him) the correct name, and then point out or pick up what you
asked for. For example, if you ask B where the ball is, and
she (he) picks up a block, you might say, "Oh, that's the
block, here's the ball," picking up the ball and giving it to B.
This game will not only show you how much your baby knows, and
teach her (him) names of things, but when you ask her (him),
"Where is baby, or B," she'll (he'll) learn to know herself
(himself) from others. Another way to help 8 recognize herself
(himself), is to play the "Where is" game in front of a mirror,
where B can see herself (himself), and point to herself (himself)
when she (he) is asked "Where is 8?" I'd like each of you to play
the "Where is" game for about 5 minutes each with B.

Slbject Performance: Now let's do something different. Let's play
a game which lets your baby know that things out of his (her)
sight, are still around. One popular game which helps babies
learn this idea is 'Hide-and-Seek," where you hide and have your
baby find you. You can begin this game by only hiding part
of you, say, behind a chair, with your head held out where your

baby can see it. Call to her (him), getting her (his) attention,

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and see if she'll (he'll) come and find you. If she (he) does
this then try hiding completely out of sight, calling to B to find
you, and see if she (he) does. Why don't each of you try

this a couple of times with B and see what happens.

Now let's try another "hide-and-seek" game where you hide toys
instead ofyourself. We've done this before with hiding a toy in
_only one thing or container. Now let's make it a little harder
for B by putting a toy in two containers, like, for example,
putting a toy in a small covered box, which is then placed in a
larger box with a lid. Go and find some toys and containers and
then each of you try hiding something in 2 containers, while B

is watching. Then give her (him) the box or container and see

if she'll (he'll) look-for it. Encourage her (him) to do this by
saying such things as "Hhere is the toy, find the toy."

Gross Motor Skills: The last thing we're going to do today is to help
B keep her (his) balance, when she (he) sits and has to bend from
the waist, and to practice crawling. First of all, place 8 in a
sitting position. Then get some toys and take one and place it
a few inches away from B where she'll (he'll) have to bend forward
to pick it up. Call her (his) attention to the toy by showing it
to her (him), naming it, and then placing it down in front of
her (him), asking her (him) to get it. This game will help B
learn to keep her (his) balance and not fall over when she (he)
leans. I'd like each of you to do this two times with 8. Now
let's encourage 8 to practice crawling. You can do this by

placing B on the floor, on her (his) stomach. Then crawl away

87

from her (him) on your hands and knees, turn around and face 8
and call out to her (him) to come to you, and see if she (he)
does. Once she (he) starts to come to you, you can back up
further away, but then after a few seconds let your baby catch
you, and give her (him) a hug. I'd like each of you to try doing
this.

Sessions 39-41: Repeat topics of session 38.

 

Sessions 42-45

 

Session 42: Today we're going to see how far B's understanding of words
has come, by asking her (him) to carry out simple requests. We're
also going to play some games with B which will give her (him) a
chance to play with toys and objects of different sizes which
can be put in different pOsitions, and finally, we're going to
help 8 practice cruising, and walking when led.

Language, Simple Commands: For the last few sessions, we've been
helping 8 learn the names of things. Now we're going to see if
we can get B to understand and carry out simple requests, and
thus increase her (his) language development or understanding.

One request you can ask 8 to carry out is to find someone she
(he) knows, like her (his) mother, or father. With both of you
in the room, one of you can pick up 8 and bring her (him) to

one side of the room. Then let her (him) go, and tell her (him),
the following, '60 find Daddy, or Mommy, go to Daddy." I'd

like each of you to try this. A variation of this game is to

ask your baby to come to you. Try this too.

Play

88

Another simple request you can teach your baby is to wave good-bye.
You can do this by having 8 watch someone leave a room, like one
of you, who waves good-bye, saying:"bye-bye." You can help 8

learn “bye-bye" by taking her (his) hand and waving it. Try

this with 8 now, taking turns who leaves. But remember that it
probably will take a lot of practice before your baby learns how

to do this.

Another request game is to ask your baby to go and fetch or get
you things. Start out doing this by taking a toy, such as a

ball, and rolling it away from your baby while she's (he's) look-
ing at it. Then ask her (him) to get it. Show her (him) how
other toys work, and then toss them some distance away and ask

B to get them. Once your baby does this, you can then start asking
your baby to get you things in the room, without playing with

them yourself. I'd like both of you to try this out now.

With DifferentlygShaped Objects, Spatial Relations: Now let's

do something different. Let's give 8 experience playing with
objects or toys which differ in size and shape. This will help
your baby learn that things come in different sizes and shapes.
Blocks of different sizes and shapes are something which will help
get this idea across to B. Also, balls of various sizes, and just
assorted toys are good to use. Using various toys together

will make this game even more fun for B. One way to do this is

to get a container, like a box, and fill it up with different

toys and objects in front of B. Then empty the box. See if B

will copy you. Babies of this age usually like to empty and

89

fill things up. Use words when you're doing this like "It's full.

or all-gone." Try this with 8 now for a few minutes each.

Babies of this age also like to open and close things. You can
use an old shoe box with an easily removable lid, which is also
easy to put back on, or any other kind of thing which can be
opened and closed. This game and the emptying, and filling game
will help your baby learn that things can be found in different
positions, like open or closed, or inside or outside of something.
Go ahead and each of you try this a few times with 8. Now, let's
get some things, like blocks which can be stacked, or made into
a tower. Build a tower in front of B and then give 8 some blocks
and see if she'll (he'll) copy you. Also, build your tower,
then knock it down. Build it again, and see if B will knock it
down. Remember to use words to tell 8 what you want her (him) to
do, even though she (he) may be able to copy you without them.
Go ahead and each of you try this 2 or 3 times with B.

Gross Motor Skills: ‘If your baby's body has developed enough, she'll

 

(he'll) be able to practice cruising, that is, stand up while
holding onto something like furniture and walking, and walking
when led, with you holding her (his) hand. Let's begin with help-
ing your baby "cruise." You can do this by standing your baby up,
and then placing her (his) hands on something like the couch.

Let go of her (him) and see if she'll (he'll) hold herself
(himself) up. If she (he) does, then move a few feet further

down the couch and ask her (him) to come to you, and see if

she (he) does. Both of you try this, one at a time.

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Now, let's give B some practice walking while led. Stand her (him)
up again and holding onto one or both hands lead her (him)

forward. You can stand behind or in front of her (him) to do this,
or if you're just holding one hand, to her (his) side. Why don't
each of you take 8 for a little walk.

Sessions 43-45: Repeat topics of session 42.

 

Age Range 12-18 Months
Sessions 46-47

Session 46: Today we're going to talk about some familiar topics,
like what to do when your baby cries, or eats, and how to increase
the number of things she (he) knows by name. We're also going
to help her (him) practice using her (his) hands and help her
(him) to learn more about herself (himself).

gryigg; Now that your baby's word knowledge has increased, you may
be able to sOoth her (him) when she (he) cries by using words.
Hhenever B cries from now on,try telling her (him) she's (he's)
alright, but describe how she (he) must be upset, or how she's
(he's) feeling, such as by saying "You fell down and hurt yourself,
but you're alright." Your baby won't understand all of the
words you use, but she'll (he'll) be able to tell by your tone
that she's (he's) alright, and that you're there. You can also
use words to tell your baby to come to you when she (he) cries.
But if your baby continues to cry, go to her (him) and pick her
(him) up, and try to find out what's wrong.

Feeding: As much as possible now, let your baby feed herself (himself).

At this age you can give her (him) a spoon, and put some sticky

Play

91

food on it, like mashed potatoes and hand it to your baby. You
can also pour some milk, a very little, in a cup and first bring
it to your baby's lips yourself, letting her (him) drink from

it, and then giving the cup to your baby. You can also drink from
the cup yourself, to show B what you'd like her (him) to do.
Gradually, your baby will learn to master the spoon and cup, but
expect her (him) to be very awkward at first. Also, let her (him)
use her (his) hands to finger feed.

aNd Body_Knowledge: Now that B is learning the names of things,
she (he) can also be helped to learn the names of the different
parts of her (his) body; and get to know herself (himself) better.
You can do this by first pointing to the different parts of her
(his) body, like her (his) hair, eyes, nose, mouth, ears, arms,
legs, and so on, and naming them. Then you can see hOw many
names she's (he's) learned by asking her (him) to show you
whatever body part you ask for, saying things like "Show me

your hair, eyes," and so on. This game is easiest to learn when
you begin by doing it in front of a mirror, where B can see

what you're pointing to. Once your baby can point to her (his)
body parts when named in front of the mirror, you can try it
without the mirror. I'd like you both to try this with B using
the mirror. Later on, on your own, you can play the "show me"

game without the mirror.

Language and Fine Motor Skills: Let's do something different. Babies

 

of 8's age like to play with small objects. This kind of play
helps them to use their hands and fingers with better and better

skill. Collect some small things like coins, marbles, beads, and

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whatever else you have around. Then place the objects on the
floor with your baby and ask her (him) to pick them up. Show
her (him) how to do it yourself if she (he) doesn't respond.

Also name all of the things, and when you want 8 to get them,
you can say "Where is" and then their names. The only thing

you must be careful of is your baby putting the things in her
(his) mouth. Try to stop her (him) from doing this by saying no,
and if necessary stopping her (his) hand from going to her (his)
mOuth, or by taking the object away, but giving her (him)

another bigger toy to distract her (him).

Session 47: Repeat goals of session 46.

Sessions 48-50

 

Session 48: Today we're going to introduce your baby to books, water

play, and standing alone.

Book

Use: The first thing to help your baby get interested in books
is to find some books with lots of pictures, point to the
pictures in the book, while B is watching and name them. Try
and pick out pictures of things your baby has seen before, that
is, the real thing, not a picture. Also, go and find the

actual object and then point to the object, then the picture,
naming them both. For example, if you found a picture of a ball,
you could go get a real ball and show them both to B while saying
something like "Here's a ball, and here's a ball." If your baby
points to any pictures, on her (his) own, name them, using

short sentences, like iThat's a ball.‘I Using books in this way

will not only help your baby use her (his) hands better, but it

93

will help her (him) to learn more language, and to learn the
difference between something and its picture. I'd like each of
you to spend about 5 minutes, showing 8 a book in the ways I've

just talked about.

The next thing which will help 8 learn how to use books is to
show her (him) how to turn the pages. Take an old book or maga-
zine and first give it to B and let her (him) play with it in any
way she (he)likes. Now take the book and turn the pages while

B is looking, again pointing out pictures, then give the book
back to 8. She (he) may or may not copy you. But keep showing
her (him) how so she (he) can get the idea of what you want her
(him) to do. Her (his) first attempts will be awkward, and she'll
(he“TD probably use her (his) whole hand to move the page. But
after awhile, when she (he) gets more practice with the book,
she'll (he'll) eventually use her (his) fingers to turn the
pages. Now I'd like you to find a book or magazine and see if

B will turn its pages. You may want to get a book with thick or
hard pages to make this task easier for your baby. Such books
can be found in the infant section of stores.

Hater Play: Now I'd like to talk about something else babies of 8's
age like to do, play with water. Babies can learn a lot of
things playing with water, such as that things float, that
things can be emptied and filled, and that water changes its
shape depending on what container it's in. One easy way to
introduce your baby to water play is in the bath tub while you're

bathing her (him). Give her (him) toys to float, and a plastic

94

cup or rubber one. Take the cup and fill it with water, then
pour it out while B is watching, then give it to B and see if
she'll (he'll) copy you. Do these things the next time you bathe
8.

Gross Motor Skills: Now, let's see if we can give B some practice

Sessi

standing alone. Take B and stand her (him) on her (his) feet,
holding her (his) hand. Then let go and see if whe'll (he'll)
stand alone. If she (he) sits down, just laught and make it
ihto a game. Then try it again. I'd like both of you to try
this two or three times with B.

ons 49-50: Repeat topics of Session 48.

 

Sessi

Sessions 51-52

 

on 51: Today we're going to have B play some games she's (he's)

 

Play:

done before, but because she's (he's) older, they should be
easier for her (him).

Building and KnockinggDown: The first game involves building
things, like a tower out of blocks, and knocking them down. You
can use blocks, or small boxes, or cans, or jars, or anything
else that can be stacked. Collect some of these things now.

Let 8 Sit on the floor, then I'd like each of you to take turns
building something for B, then letting her (him) knock it down.
Label or name whatever you play with, and use short sentences to
ask 8 to build a tower, like you, and to knock it down. This game
will not only help your baby's coordination, and use of her

(his) hands and eyes, but it will also show her (him) that she

(he) can make new things out of old things, like a tower out of

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blocks. Go ahead and try this with 8.

Play: Filling and Emptying;_ Now, another game we've played with B

 

before is filling things up and taking them out, or pouring

them out. Gather some toys or objects and something to put them
in, like a box or can. Now, put the toys in the box, one by
one, naming them as you do. When the box is full, say "it's
full" to 8. Then pour the toys out. Show 8 the empty box and
say "All gone, or empty." Then see if B will copy you. You

can also vary this game by taking turns with your baby putting
things in the box, but don't expect 8 to wait for her (his) turn.

Try this with B for 2 minutes each.

Now, collect some small things like marbles or coins or poker
chips, and we'll make this game a little harder for 8. Then get
a coffee can with a lid or a closed box and make a small opening
in the top of it. Then take one of the coins or whatever and drop
them through the slot. Ask your baby to do the same thing. Show
her (him) again if she (he) doesn't copy you. If she (he)
wants to shake the box let her (him), or if she (he) looks like
she (he) wants to see where the coin went, open the box and show
her (him). Each of you try this with B for a few minutes.
Remember to label all of the things you're playing with.

Gross Motor: The last thing we'll do today is to help B to practice
walking, alone if possible. You can do this by standing 8 up
and then holding her (his) hand and walking with her (him). Then
let her (his) hand go and see if she'll (he'll) take some steps

on her (his) own. Then try another way of doing this. Stand B

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up in front of you then, while you're facing each other, let go
of her (him) and back up a couple of feet. Call to B and see if
she'll (he'll) walk to you. Each of you try this now with B for
a few times each.

Session 52: Repeat topics fo Session 51.

 

Sessions 53-55

Session 53:. Today we're going to show 8 how to play pretend games,
and how to follow requests that ask her (him) to do some action.

Language--Action Commands: One way that makes it easier and fun for
a baby to learn words is to be able to act them out. You can help
your baby to understand these words by putting them in the form of
a request. We've done this before with B when we asked her (him)
to get things. Now let's ask 8 to do some more things. If
your baby doesn't do what you've asked her (him) to, repeat
the request3or 4 times. Then if she (he) still doesn't do it,
show her (him) what you want her (him) to do by doing it yourself
first. Then try just using words, and hugging her (him) to
show her (him) what you mean if she (he) doesn't understand.
Now, ask her (him) to kiss you. These requests will also show
her (him) how to show affection or that she (he) loves you. Now
see if she'll (he'll) do the same things with a toy, like a doll.
Ask her (him) to hug the doll, then ask her (him) to kiss the
doll. Show her (him) what you mean if necessary. Now try
some other requests like 'give the toy to Mommy," or "Daddy."
You can use some of yOur own ideas, too, if you'd like. Go ahead

and each of you do this for 2 or 3 minutes each.

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Pretend Play: Now let's show your baby something new. One kind of

 

game which you can play with your baby at this age is pretend
play or make-believe. This kind of game will help your baby
learn that things can be made into something else in make-
believe. First of all, you can take a stuffed animal and pretend
it's alive by making it run, bark like a dog, or meow if it's a
cat. Try this with 8. Another form of make-believe is using
puppets to imitate real things. If you don't have puppets,

yOu can easily make one by getting some small paper bags or
boxes which will fit over your hand. Draw faces of different
things like cats, dogs, and people, and then place one of the
puppets over your hand. Show it to B and make it speak, or
bark, or whatever it should say. Let's make some puppets and
then both of you try this with 8.

Sessions 54-55: Repeat goals of Session 53.

 

Sessions 56-57

Session 56: Today we're going to help B's language development and

 

body control, and show her (him) how to do a simple puzzle,
and practice going upstairs.

Language-Action Songs: Now that your baby has learned to move around
better, and she (he) has a better understanding of what words mean,
she (he) should enjoy what we call action songs, songs which have
you do some action or more in some way when they are sung. One
song like this is "Ring Around the Rosie." The words are:

Ring around the rosie
A pocket full of posie

Ashes, ashes;
All fall down.

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To do this song, you take your baby by the hands, dance around
with her (him), then sit down, or gently fall down with the last
line of the song. I'd like each of you to try this with B. How-
ever, if you have your own songs you'd like to sing that involve
some action, use them instead.

Puzzle Play: At B's age, she'll (he'll) have the hand control to do
very simple puzzles. One piece puzzles will be the easiest for
her (him). If you have puzzles we'll use those, otherwise you
can make one with cardboard by cutting out a shape from the middle
of it, like a circle. Show the puzzle put together to 8. Then
while she's (he's) looking at it, take out the piece then put it
back in. Then take the piece out again and hand it to 8. Point
to the piece then the hole in the puzzle, asking B to put the
piece in while B is holding onto it. Try this now with 8.

Gross Motor Skills: The last thing we'll do today is to help your
baby learn to crawl upstairs (or just talk about it, if there
are no stairs in home). This exercise will help your baby to
eventually learn how to walk upstairs. You can do this by
bringing B to the stairs and then placing an interesting toy
several steps up, and see if she'll (he'll) try to climb up the
stairs. Stay right behind her (him) to catch her (him) if
she (he) slips or falls. Try this and see what happens.

Session 57: Repeat topics of session 56.

Sessions 58-60
Session 58: Today we're going to have your baby practice using words

herself (himself). We're also going to show her (him) how to

99

divide things which look the same, and how to stoop down and pick
up something while she's (he's) standing.

Language--Hhat Sound Objects Make: One way to encourage your baby to
talk and help her (him) to talk better and better is to ask your
baby what different things say or the sounds they make. You can
do this by pointing to the thing, like a dog, real or toy one,
and saying "What does the dog say?" Your baby is supposed to make
some sound like "ruff, ruff." If she (he) doesn't then make the
sOund yourself, and then see if she'll (he'll) copy you. You
can point to any thing that's familiar to your baby and ask her
(him) to make its sound. For example, you might see if she'll
(he'll) say "moo" for a cow, "meow" for a cat, "tick-tick" for a
clock, "Rmm, Rmm" for a car. Try this for a minute or two each
with B.

Play--Dividing Objects: Now let's do something else with 8. Let's
introduce her (him) to the idea that things can be divided by
what they look like. He can do this by you first finding four
each of two different objects, like four balls of the same
size, and four blocks. Give them to your baby and let her (him)
play with them for awhile, for two or three minutes. Then,
with B watching you take the four balls one by one, name them,
and describe them, by saying they're round, they roll, and then
put each ball down together. Then a foot away from the balls
do the same with the blocks. Then collect the balls and blocks
into one pile. -Take oneball and put it down on the floor,
starting its own pile, then put one block a foot away, asking B

to copy you. Do not stop your baby if she (he) puts the wrong

100

thing in a pile, but just take it out again, saying, this goes with
these, because they are the same. Just watching you divide the
objects will help your baby learn about how things are the same

and different. At this age she (he) probably won't be able to

do it right herself (himself). But in a few months she (he) will.

Gross Motor: The last thing we'll do today is to see if we can help

 

8 learn how to bend or stoop over and pick up something while
she's (he's) standing up. She (he) may bend her (his) knees while
she (he) does this. Begin by standing 8 up. Then place a toy

on the floor and ask her (him) to get it. Do this a few times
each with 8.

Sessions 59-60: Repeat goals Of session 58.

 

Sessions 61-63

 

Session 61: Today we're going to see how many names of people your

 

baby knows and can say, and show B how to order objects by size.
Language--Naming Pegple: The first thing we're going to do today is
see how many names of people your baby can speak. He can do
this by having you point to yourself and say "Who's this?" and
wait and see if B will say your name. You can also play this
game by getting out pictures of people your baby knows, showing
them to her (him) and saying, while pointing to the picture,
"who's this." You can also see if your baby can say her (his)
own name by pointing to her (him) and saying "Who's this?" I'd
like each of you to try this with B for a couple of minutes.

If she (he) can't name something, name it for her (him).

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Play--Ordering Objects by Size: Let's play a different kind of game
with B. This game will help 8 to learn that things can be ordered
by size, like from big to little. A fun way to show your baby
this is by building a pyramid or a tower with different sized
blocks, or objects, beginning with the largest block, and placing
the blocks one by one, on top of each other, from the largest to
the smallest. See if B will copy you with another set of blocks.
She (he) probably will just stack the blocks without placing them
in the right order, but eventually, as she (he) gets much older
(around 42 months), she'll (he'll) learn to understand the idea,
and do it correctly. Try this game with B for five minutes each.

Sessions 62-63: Repeat goals of session 61.

Sessions 64-66

 

Session 64: Today we're going to see how many names of things your
baby can say, and help her (him) learn to climb onto things.
Language--NamingThing§: For the past few sessions we've had B naming
people, now let's see how many things she (he) can name. You can
do this by giving B different toys and things and saying, "What's

that?" You can also take her (him) in your arms and carry her
(him) around the room saying "What's that?", as you point to
different things. Remember to ask your baby "What's that?" a
few times for each thing, and name it yourself if she (he)
doesn't say its name. Also, take your baby to a mirror and
pointing to various parts of her (his) body, such as her (his)
eyes, nose, mouth, head, arms, and so on, ask her (him) to

practice saying words, but it will also help her (him) to learn

102

to connect more and more names with the objects they represent.
Try this now with B for a few minutes each.

Gross Motor Skills: Now let's do something different. Bring B to a
couch or chair and ask her (him) to climb onto it. Show her (him)
what you mean by doing it yourself. Also, if she (he) tries
to climb up onto the couch, help her (him) up as she (he) does

this. Try this with B.

 

Sessions 65-66: Repeat goals of session 64.

Sessions 67-69

 

Session 67: Today we're going to have your baby engage in small con-
versations with you. We're also going to show her (him) how to
use her (his) hands and wrists, and how to walk backwards.

Conversations: At your baby's age you can have small conversations
with her (him) by answering her (his) questions, like when she
(he) points to something and says "What?", or "What's that?",
or its name. Answer her (him) in small sentences, such as by say-
ing "It's a girl," or "Yes, it's a dog." By answering in sentences,
your infant will learn that words go together to form a new
meaning, and when she's (he's) a few months older, she'll (he'll)
begin to combine words herself (himself). She'll (he'll) also
learn that when she (he) talks to someone, that person talks back.
You can also leave blanks open in sentences for B to fill in,
such as iThis is a ____,V point to a dog, and see if your baby
will fill in the sentence with "dog." You can also use prompts
when your baby points to something she (he) wants by saying "What

do you want?" If your baby says "more," say "More what?“

Fine

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Throughout the rest of the session, try small conversations with
B by answering her (his) questions, or by responding to anything
she (he) says.‘ You can also ask her (him) questions.

Motor Skills: Now let's do something new with B. At your

 

baby's age, babies not only have learned to use their hands well,
but they are beginning to use their wrists, as well, such as

when they twist things like jar tops on and off. I'd like you

to collect some things, like jars with twist-on lids, or toys
with knobs that can be turned. Bring them to B and then show her
(him) how the lid or knob can be twisted. Then give the jar with
a partially loosened lid, or the toy with the knob, and see if B
will twist it. Use words to tell your baby what you want her
(him) to do, to help her (him) learn the words connected with her
(his) actions. Go ahead and try this with B for two or three

minutes.

Gross Motor: Now let's see if your baby will do something more active,

 

like walking backwards. You can help her (him) do this by getting
a large pull toy and show your baby how to pull it while walking
backwards and see if she'll (he'll) copy you. Try with with 8 now

for a few minutes.

Sessions 68-69: Repeat goals of session 67.

 

Age Range 18-24 Months
Sessions 70-74

 

Session 70: Today we're going to talk some more about feeding your

baby, and how to teach your baby to carry out some more simple

requests. We're also going to show her (him) some new

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make-believe games, and try and get her (him) to copy whatever you
do. Finally, we're going to give her (him) practice climbing
up and down stairs and jumping.

Feeding: By now 8 is able to feed herself (himself) to a greater degree.
She (he) should be able to use her (his) fingers, as well as a
spoon and cup with some skill. You can now introduce her (him) to
a fork, the next time she (he) eats. Show her (him) how to use
it and then sticking some food on its prongs, give the fork to 8.
Then see if she'll (he'll) eat from it and copy its use.

Language--Simple Requests: In past sessions we've had your baby respond
to simple requests. You can continue to give her (him) practice
doing this, giving her (him) somewhat more difficult things to
do. Some ideas are to have her (him) make a doll sit in a chair,
or to put a toy in a container, or to have her (him) climb onto
the couch. Try some simple requests now and see what 8 does.

If she (he) doesn't understand or do what you want her (him) to,
then show her (him) what you mean.

Play-~Make-believe and Imitating:, Babies of this age like to copy
what you do. One fun thing to have your baby imitate is make-
believe. One idea you might use is to make believe you're talking
to someone on a play or real telephone. Then give the telephone,
or another telephone to B and see if she'll (he'll) copy you.

You can also put two chairs next to each other, seating your-
self in one and B in the other, and then pretend you are
driving a car. Try these things out now and see if you can make

up some of your own games.

105

Gross Motor Skills: 8 is now around the age where she (he) will
climb up and down stairs on her (his) hands and knees. You can
have her (him) do this by going up the stairs with her (him), by
her (his) side, or else by putting an attractive toy first
at the top of the stairs, then the bottom, while she (he)
climbs up, then down. (If parent have stairs). See if you can

interest 8 in climbing today.

Another thing you can do is to teach 8 how to jump. You can

help her (him) learn to do this by showing her (him) yourself and
then see if she'll (he'll) copy you. You can jump just on the
floor. Go ahead and try this for a couple of minutes. Remember
that B's attempts will probably be very awkward and not that
accurate.

Sessions 71-74: Repeat goals of session 70.

 

Sessions 75-77

 

Session 75: Today we're going to show 8 how to take turns, play
with some different puzzles, and practice running.

Taking_Turns: One idea that your baby will need to know to be able

 

to get along with others is how to take turns. You can help her
(him) understand what this means by playing a game with her

(him) which requires you to take turns. An example of this

kind of game is playing catch with a ball. Go and get a ball.
Then seat 8 on the floor with her (his) legs apart and sit the
same way in front of her (him). Then take the ball and roll it
to her (him) saying "my turn." Then when she (he) gets the ball,
see if she'll (he'll) push it back to you, asking her (him) to do

106

this in words like "push it back" or "give it back," and when
she (he) touches the ball say "your turn."

Puzzle Play: We've had 8 play with one piece puzzles before. Now

 

you can make or buy a puzzle with two separate pieces, not
connected. It is helpful if the pieces are of two different
shapes, or if they can be put together to make something familiar,
like the top and bottom part of a person. You can also make

a puzzle with one piece missing, like a circle, then make a
different shaped piece, like a square. Give your baby the

circle puzzle and the two pieces and see if she (he) can place
the correct one in the hole. Show her (him) how to do it firSt.
Go ahead and try some puzzles with 8.

Gross Motor: Now that B is walking, she (he) will enjoy learning how

 

to run. You can encourage her (him) to do this by running
yourself, seeing if she'll (he'll) copy you, and by asking her
(him) to catch you. Or you can try to catch her (him), saying
"I'm going to get you!" Go ahead and try this a few times with 8.

Sessions 76-77: Repeat goals of session 75.

 

Sessions 78-80

 

Sessions 80: Today we're going to help your baby know more about

 

herself (himself) and yourself. We're also going to play some
more games where we hide things, and she (he) must find them,
and we're going to introduce B to pencil and crayon use, and to
walking upstairs. .
LangwageuFunction‘of Body Parts: In the past we've had B name the

parts of the body, now let's see if she (he) knows what they do.

107

You can do this by playing the "stop me from doing something
game," like seeing, hearing, talking. Ask your baby to stop
you from seeing. What you want her (him) to do is to cover
your eyes. It's alright if she (he) covers her (his) eyes
instead because it will still show you that she (he) understands
you see with your eyes. Cover your own eyes after you ask Bto,
if she (he) doesn't respond. Then do the same with your ears,
asking B to stop you from hearing, and so on. Try this now for
a couple of minutes.

Object Permanence: Now let's play some different hide-and-seek
games using toys with B. Take 3 cups or open boxes and a small
toy, like a ball that can fit under them. Line up the 3 cups in
a row and then tell your baby you're hiding the ball. 00 this
while your baby is watching. Then ask 8 to get the ball. You
can substitute different toys for the ball and hide the toys
under different cups. You can also, then, hide the toy using
a book to cover up where you hid it. Then remove the book and

see if B will search for it. Try this now.

~ Another form of this game is guess which hand. Place the toy in
one hand and close your hand, then hold out your hands to B and
say "Find the toy." Do this while your baby is watching. Then
try hiding the toy in your hand behind your back and then show
your hands to B and see if she (he) looks for it and finds it.
Try this now with B.
Crayon and Pencil Pley: Now that your baby can hold small objects and

knows how to copy you, you can show her (him) how to draw with a

108

crayon or pencil. Get some paper and crayons. Then while B is
watching, take the crayon and make a line on the paper. Then give
the crayon to B and see if she'll (he'll) copy you. She'll
(he'll) probably only produce faint scribbling. You can also
scribble or draw pictures but don't expect your baby to draw

that well. Go ahead and draw with B. At some time your baby will
learn to recognize drawings and may even ask you to draw a certain
picture.

Gross Motor Skills: Let's see if we can improve B's walking and climb-

 

ing skills by seeing if she'll (he'll) walk upstairs, holding your
hand. Go ahead and try this out. You may use words like "let's
go up" while you do this.

Sessions 79-80: Repeat goals of session 78.

 

Sessions 81-83

 

Session 81: Today we're going to introduce your baby to singing songs
and playing a musical instrument, and how to jump off of something.

Language and Play: "Siggjng Songs": Let's begin first by finding

 

some things that make sounds or music, like a drum, or a make-
believe one made out of a pot and a spoon, or a guitar, or a
home-made one with a cardboard box and rubber bands. Let's see
what you can find or make. Now, take the instrument, like the
guitar and strum it. Then see if B will strum it, too. Now,
sing a song while strumming it, like songs we practiced before,
and we'll see if your baby tries to sing. At this age she (he)
may just say one word of the song, or else use short syllables

in a singing rhythm, like "da, da, da" to the music. Go ahead

109

and try this out with 8.

Gross Motor Skills: In the past you showed B how to jump. Now let's
see if you can get her (him) to jump off of a small step. Begin
by showing her (him) how to do this, then hold her (his) hand
while she (he) tries. Then let her (him) do it by herself
(himself).

Sessions 82-83: Repeat goals of session 81.

Sessions 84-87

 

Session 84: Today we're going to introduce your baby to the use of
pronouns, like I, you, we, and how to divide objects by size
and texture, or how they feel.

Language-Pronouns: One way to help your baby to use pronouns is to
use them yourself whenever you can to describe what you're doing.
For example, you might say "I'm sitting down," "You are sitting
down." You can also help your baby to use pronouns by getting a
number of items which belong to your baby and other people, like
clothing. You can then show B something like one of your shoes
and say "my shoe," then you can point to your baby's shoe and
say "your shoe." When you both are doing something together
you can say "We are playing," or if you are watching two other
pelple playing you can say "They are playing." Try this out now
with B and see if she'll (he'll) copy you.

Play--Dividing Objects bygSizengexture: Let's do something different.
I'd like you to get 3 or 4 of the same object, but of two differ-
ent sizes, like 2 big blocks, and 2 small blocks. Also get 4

things of 2 different textures, like 2 soft things, and two hard

110

things, like cotton and marbles. Now, beginning with the blocks,
put them into two piles, one of the big blocks, and one of the
little ones, while saying "The big blocks go here, and the

little blocks go here." Then gather the blocks and just put one
in each pile. Then give a big block to B and say "Put it with the
big one." If she (he) puts it somewhere else, pick it up and
match it to the big block and say "See, it goes with this one."
Then give your baby the block again. Try this with the small
blocks, then with the cotton and marble.

Sessions 85-87: Repeat goals of session 84.

 

Sessions 88-91

 

Session 88: Today we're going to teach B prepositions like onto,

 

under, and next to, and how to divide objects by shape and weight,
and how to kick a ball.

Lagguage--Prepositions: The easiest way to teach your baby preposi-
tions is to act them out yourself, while B is watching, then
asking her (him) to do what you do. At first your baby will
only copy your actions and not understand your words. It will
take her (him) a long time and a lot of practice to learn this
so don't expect too much right away. But later on she'll (he'll)
understand the words themselves. You can teach your baby
prepositions by setting two different toys, like a block, and a
box open on only one side. Then do things, one at a time, giving
your baby a chance to copy you like placing the block on top of
the box, and saying, "I'm putting the block on the box." Say ion"
a little louder to help 8 notice the word. Do the same thing

111

but put the block in the box, under something like a chair, and
next to the box. Go ahead and try this out for a few minutes.
If she (he) does copy you, then try using just the words without
showing her (him) what to do.

Play--Sorting by Shape and Weight; Now we're going to give 8 some more
practice sorting or dividing objects by their shape and weight.
Get some, 2 of each, round and sqaure toys, and some heavy and
light toys. Then, as you've done before, divide the toys into
piles in front of your baby, then put them together again, and
start the piles again with one item each, like one round ball
and one square block. Give your baby another ball and ask
her (him) to put it with the other round ones. Remember to
use words to describe what you're doing at all times. Now go
ahead and try this.

Gross Motor Skills: Now let's see if we can teach B how to kick a ball.

 

First take a ball while your baby is watching you. Place it on
the floor and kick it a short distance like a foot or two, saying
"I'm kicking the ball." Then stand your baby up and place the
ball right in front of her (his) foot and say "Kick the ball."

Go ahead and try this and see what happens.

Sessions 89-91: Repeat goals of Session 88.

Sessions 92-93

 

Session 94: Today we're going to help your baby learn how to divide
objects by color, and by who owns them. We're also going to
talk about how to help your baby to learn how to help you dress
her (him).

112

Play--Dividing Objects by Color, and Ownership: For the last few times

 

Fine

we've showed your baby how to divide objects by size, shape,
texture, and weight. Now, let's show her (him) how to divide
objects by color and by who owns them. Get four blocks of one
color, like red, and four blocks of another color, like blue.
Also get clothing your baby has seen family members wear, like
Dad's shoes, socks, shirt, har, and Mom's shoes, stockings,
blouse, and purse. Now, as before show 8 how to divide the
objects, like the colored blocks into separate piles, and see if
she'll (he'll) copy you. Go ahead and try this for a few minutes.

and Gross Motor Skills: Now, I'd like to talk about something

 

different. Now that your baby has learned to control her (his)
body better, you can have her (him) do things to help herself
(himself), like helping you dress her (him). You can do this
by asking her (him) to hold out her (his) arm, or leg, or foot
hwen you're putting on her (his) shirt, or sock. After some
practice you can give your baby a blouse with a wide hole fer
the neck and ask her (him) to put it on, waiting to see if she
(he) can put her (his) head through the right hole. You can
also have her (him) try and put on her (his) socks, unzip
zippers, put mittens on, and pull them off, put a hat on and off.
You can help her (him) do this herself (himself), and you can
show her (him) how to do it by putting something on yourself.

Try these things the next time you dress 8.

Session 93: Repeat goals of Session 92. Also, this is the last ses-

sion. Remember to say goodbye to the family and thank them for

113

their help. Tell them you'll send them a cOpy of the study if
they'd like it.

APPENDIX B

TUTOR TRAINING MANUAL

114

Tutor Trainigg Manual

Outline

Session 1
1. Overview of project.
2. Introduction to Child-rearing Manual.
Session 2
1. Discussion of Child-rearing Manual.
.2. Set up practice schedules at Infant Day Care Center.
3. Set up schedule for viewing tutoring training videotapes.

Sessions 3-10

 

1. Review practice sessions with infants.
2. Review videotapes.
Session 11
1. Subject recruitment.
2. Review general guidelines of Child-rearing Manual.

3. Schedule supervisory sessions.

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3545.13;

As you already know, you have been chosen to work on a parent-
infant project which is designed to train parents to become excellent
child-rearors. However, before this goal can be accomplished, you
must know two essential things, i.e., what is Optimal development
concerning the infant's first two years of life, and what skills do
‘parents need to learn in order to ensure the optimal development of
their children? Fortunately, a number of research projects have
already answered these questions for us.

This project is also based on a number of assumptions concerning
infant development and parenting. First of all, infants are not
born with all the skills necessary to survive in, cope with, or
learn about the world, and the people in it. Without the guidance and
stimulation of other people, and the environment, the infant would
not only be unable to survive, but he or she would accomplish little
more than some body control as a result of physical maturation. Cogni-
tive and social-emotional skills, such as how to communicate with others,
show affection, and problem-solve must be taught to the infant.

Another basic assumption of this project is that parents do not
naturally possess the skills or knowledge concerning how to raise

their children. In fact, they even behave in ways which negatively
effect the development of their children. In addition, parents are
typically unaware of developmental norms concerning when their infants
should acquire certain behaviors, such as talking. However, you should
remember that norms are only the average age when a behavior is seen
and not a fixed age. As a result of the fact that parents do not

know the best ways to interact with their infants, the major assumption

116

of this project is that adults need to be trained as parents as if
it were any other profession.

A third and final assumption of this project is that parents are
the most important teachers of infants since it is they who spend the
greatest amount of time with the baby. In fact, research has shown
that parents are the most successful teachers of the infant. There-
fore,this project will focus on training but not replacing the infant's
parents.

The basic design of the project is that parent-infant tutors,
your role, will go to the family's home once a week from the time the
infant is one month old until his or her seCond birthday. The major
purpose of these visits will be to demonstrate and have parents model
various child-rearing exercises. Depending upon which treatment group
your family falls in, you will be tutoring either the infant's mother
or father, or both parents simultaneously. The goals of each visit
have been outlined in a Child-rearing Manual which I will now give
each of you. I want each of you to read and become thoroughly
familiar with the Manual. You will then get to practice the exercises
outlined in the Manual with actual infants. The practice infants are
located at a local day care center. You will be required to attend
three to five practice sessions per week for approximately eight
weeks. We will also meet weekly to review the practice sessions. I
would like you to read the Child-rearing Manual for next weeks

meeting.

117

Session 2

The goals of this training session are as follows:

1. Answer questions concerning the Child-rearing Manual.

2. Hand out practice schedules (see attached forms) and
explain to the tutors the purpose of these sessions. Specifically, the
tutors will be told that the child-rearing practice sessions are
-designed to thoroughly familiarize the tutors with every exercise
that they will be teaching to the actual subjects of the study. The
sessioNs are also designed to give the tutors actual experience in
working with infants. All of the practice sessions will be
observed by the project director in order to give the tutors feedback
on their performance. I

3. Inform the tutors that the next eight supervisory sessions
will include the presentation of videotapes of training sessions with
actual parents. These tapes will be used to familiarize the tutors
with what a parent's reaction to tutoring is like. The videotapes
will also serve as a model for the way the tutors should interact

with the parents.

118

Table B. Schedule for Practicing Child-rearing Exercises and Viewing
Videotapes

Tutors will follow the schedule outlined below which presents
when the various sessions incorporated in the Child-rearing Manual are
to be practiced. In addition, each practice week a videotape of an

actual parent tutoring session will be shown.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Child-
rearing
Manual
Sessions 3-6 6-9 9-12 12-15 15-18 18-21 21-24
for Age ~
Range
1-3 mos.
I” Training
eek Session
1 3 1, 4, 7
10,13,
2 4 16.19
22, 26,
34, 38,
4 6 42
46,48,
5 7 51,53
56,58,61,
5 3 64,67
70,75,
7 9 78
81.84.
8 10 88,92

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

119

Sessions 3-10

 

The goals of these training sessions are as follows:

1. Discuss practice sessions of infant exercises especially con-
cerning topics such as what it is like to work with an infant, i.e.,
what problems may arise? Discuss any difficulties the tutors are
having administering a particular exercise.

2. Show one videotape per session of a parent tutoring example.
StOp the videotape whenever the tutors have questions, as well as to

point out the important points of a particular exercise.

120

Session 11

 

The goals of this session are as follows:

1. Review the general guidelines of the Child-rearing Manual.

2. Discuss how subjects are to be recruited. Give the tutors
a copy of the outline for the recruitment home visit (see attached
outline).

3. Give out schedules for recruitment visits and tell tutors
that they will be assigned subjects to tutor as the families agree to
participate in the study.

4. Set up weekly supervisory sessions to be initiated once
tutoring has begun. These sessions will be held until the project is

completed.

121

Home Recruitment Visit

 

After a brief phone call inviting families to participate
in the parent-infant project, a home visit will be made to interested
families. The project director and the family's potential tutor
will conduct the home visit for all but the control family's (who do
not receive any tutoring) who will only be visited by the project
-director. The general format for the home visit is presented below.
It only applies to the families who would receive tutoring. An
abbreviated form of this visit which only described the assessment
procedures and the time involved in participation in the study would

be conducted with the control families.

Home Visit Format

 

Hello, Mr. and Mrs. . I'm (director's name) and

this is (tutor's name). We're from the parent-infant

 

project I sopke to you over the phone about. We're here to explain
in much greater depth what this project is all about, and to see if
you would be interested in participating in the project. Basically,
we have found that being a parent is the one job which we never get
any training for. We have also found that there are certain things
that parents do with their children that actually help the infant

to develop to his or her fullest potential. What we would like to do
is spend time with you (specify whether it is to be with one or both
parents) and your baby talking about the having you practice different
things you can do with your baby to help her or him develop. For
example, to give your infant practice learning how to control his or

her eyes, you would be shown how to hold an attractive toy and have

122

your baby follow it with his or her eyes (explain other exercises if
the parents require more examples). (tutor's name) would

be the person who would be doing these things with you. You would be
visited once a week for approximately one-and-one-half hours from the
time your baby is one month old until his or her second birthday.

This means that involvement in the study would be for quite a long
~time, i.e., almost two years. Although this is a rather long time

to participate in any study, parents who have done this in the past
have really enjoyed the experience, including having someone knowledge-
able in child-rearing to discuss their child with, and having the
opportunity to learn new ways of being with their infants, such as

by learning new games to play. At no time will you ever be asked to

do something against your principles, and you may refuse to do anything
which you prefer not to try. You may also drop out of the study at

any time. However, we would prefer that this does not happen since

it would negatively effect the results of the study. An additional
part of the study is to measure your child's develOpment and observe
his or her behavior before the tutoring sessions begin as well as during
and at the end of the project, for a total of seven times. These
observations are held to measure your baby's progress and to see if the
things we're teaching you are actually helping your infant to develop
and to learn new things. All of the observations would be held in
your home and would be carried out by two people, working in pairs,
from the project. At the end of the project we will give you feedback
on how your baby is doing. We do not want to give you any results
during the project because it might effect your behavior and cause you

to act unnaturally. In summary then, this project would require two

123

years of your cooperation, hopefully of an enjoyable nature. However,
it may involve some inconvenience to have us come into your home and
take up your time. I'd like you to take a week to think it over,
at which time I'll call you to see if you would like to take part in
the study. Do you have any questions? Thank you for your time.

If the family agrees to participate in the project when they
-are contacted by phone, they will be sent a consent form which they
must sign,in which the family agrees to participate in the study
including home tutoring (when applicable) and assessment visits. The
consent form will also include the statement that the family may
withdraw from the study at any time, as well as refuse to participate

in a particular tutoring or assessment procedure.

APPENDIX C

ASSESSMENT MANUAL

 

124

Table C. Assessment Schedule-~Age Range: 1-24 Months

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Visit
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7
Instruments
1 Mo. 3 Mos. 6 Mos. 9 Mos. 12 Mos. 18 Mos. 24 Mos.

Bayley
Scales x X
Neonatal
Perception X X X X
Inventory
Feeding X
Scales
Yarrow
Scales a»
Ainsworth's
Four
Scales For 1%.
Caregivers

Ruben-

stein's

Bell-

Pairs

Test

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

125

General Guidelines for All Assessment Visits
1. Scheduling: One week before each assessment visit, Assessor #l
is to call each family and remind them of the visit's time and date.
Assessor #1 should have at hand alternate dates (already agreed upon
with his or her partner, Assessor #2) if the appointed date cannot
be made by the infant's parents for any reason (i.e., going out of
-town; one or both parents, or infant sick, etc.), and these dates
should then be Offered until a definite date is set.
2. PrOcedures:
a. At all times make sure the infant's parents are ready to
begin a particular assessment item. If for any reason they
wish to discontinue a particular assessment visit before all
the procedures for that visit have been completed, end the
procedures immediately and reschedule.
b. If certain procedures require that the infant is to be
awake, do not have the parents wake the baby but wait until
the baby wakes up by herself or himself.
c. Whenever there is a pause between test items, e.g., because
baby fell asleep, sit quietly reviewing test procedures unless
the infant's parents engage you in conversation.
3. Conversation with Parents:
a. At no time tell the infant's parents how their child is
doing on the tests and observations, explaining to the parents
that you want to learn what babies are like and are not compar-
ing their child to any model, and that there are no right or

wrong responses, if they ask.

126

b. 00 not give the parents child rearing advice, explaining

to the parents if they ask for advice, that you want to learn
how they and their baby live together and therefore, do not
want to effect how they act by telling them how other people
raise their children.

c. You may talk with the parents about their experiences with
their child, how they feel about children, etc., as long as you

do not share your own opinions or experiences.

127

Assessment Visit #1
General Introductions
Age 1 Month
As soon as you arrive at the infant's home introduce yourself
in the following manner to the infant's parents:
"I am (Assessor #1), and I am (Assessor #2)."

-Assessor #1:

 

"We are from the Parent-Infant Project and we are here to observe
.you and your child ___ (Baby's name), as well as to do a few
other things. First of all we would like to see how ____(baby's
name) plays with certain toys which we have brought (the Bayley).
We would then like each of you to fill out some questionnaires.
After that (Assessor #2's name) and myself will observe
you and your infant's behavior for about 3 hours. Do you have
any questions?" After their response, and answering any
questions say: "I am now going to present (baby's name)
with some toys. In order to do this _______(baby's name) must
be lying on his or her back, preferably in a crib or on a
mattress, and he or she must be awake, and not eating, or drink-
ing from a bottle. As soon as _____(baby's name) is ready I
will begin." Procede to administer the Bayley Scales using
the Manual provided by Bayley. .
This assessment is to be carried out at the infant's home, at

a prearranged time in which the following conditions were agreed upon:
1. Both the infant's mother and father are home.

2. The infant is awake.

128

At: this visit, five different assessment procedures are to be carried
(hit by two assessors. These procedures are listed below in the order
iri which they are to be implemented:
1) Bayley Scales of Infant Development
2) Neonatal Perception Inventory
3) Observation of Caregiver-Infant interaction using
Yarrow's Scale
sirnultaneously 4) Observation of Caregiver-Infant feeding practices
5) Observation of Caregiver-Infant behavior using
Ainsworth's four scales.
Assessor #1 is to administer all measures except the Yarrow Scale,

which is to be administered by Assessor #2.

Administration Procedures :(see General Introductions)
The first procedure to be carried out at this visit is the following:

1. Bayley Scales (Mental and Motor): In order to administer

 

the Bayley at this age, the infant must be placed on his or her back
iii a crib. Follow Bayley's Manual for administration instructions.
The infant must also be awake (i.e., eyes open) and not eating, or
dr“inking from a bottle. If the infant is asleep or feeding do not
begin the Bayley, but wait until the infant has woken up and/or his 0
her bottle has been removed. Do not have the baby woken up, but
wait. For those items of the Bayley which require the infant to be
held by a caregiver, have infant's mother do the holding whenever
Possible, i.e., if mother agrees and is not unable to because of her
iIwolvement in something she's unwilling to stop, e.g., housework,
Etcu, otherwise have the infant's father hold the infant.
2. Neonatal Perception Inventory: As soon as the Bayley is

Completed tell the infant's mother and father that you would now like

them to fill out a questionnaire, first the father, then the mother.

129

First have the infant's father go into the kitchen (if kitchen table
is available, use any table surface, e.g., coffee table, or else any
writing surface), and ask him to sit down. Sit across the table from
him and begin to introduce the Neonatal Perception Inventory (see
Manual for administration instructions). The above instructions
are given to each of the infant's parents reciting the following:
"Now that I have completed giving your child the Bayley
Scales, I would like each of you (the infant's mother and
'father) to fill out a questionnaire. First, I'd like you,
Mr._____to fill out the questionnaire, while Mrs. _____
entertains ____ (baby's name). After you've completed the
questionnaire, I'd like you, Mrs. ____ to also fill out a
questionnaire, while Mr. ____ watches ____ (baby's name).
If you don't mind, why don't we (directed to father) go
into the kichen where you can be seated while you fill out the
questionnaire. As soon as we are done, I'll have
Mr. ____come and get you, Mrs. _____, to fill out your
questionnaire."
After both parents have completed the N P I, begin a three hour
observation period in which Assessor #1 is to observe caregiver-
infant behavior, using Ainsworth's Feeding Scales as well as Ainsworth's
four scales for rating caregiver behavior, while Assessor #2
administers Yarrow's Scale (see Appendix, Ainsworth's Feeding and
Caregiver Scale Manual for administration instructions, as well as
Yarrow's Manual), saying the following:
"We are now going to observe your baby for three hours. Please

go about your normal activities."

130

As soon as the Ainsworth and Yarrow Scales have been completed, i.e.,

the observation period is completed and scales scored, thank the

infant's parents for their cooperation, and inform them of the

next assessment date, in the following manner: (Assessor #1 talking)
"We are now through with our observations for today. Thank you
for allowing us to observe you and your child, and thank you
for your cooperation. We will be back to observe again on ___
if that is convenient for you (if the date offered is not

‘acceptable to the parents, try and arrange another time

within the same week as the suggested date, and if that whole
week is unacceptable, offer an appointment in the week prior

to, or just after). Thank-you again, good-bye!"

Assessment Visit #2

 

Age: 3 Months

Go to the infant's home at the prearranged time decided upon (assess-
ment visit #1). Reintroduce yourselves (as raters or assessors #1 & 2)
and explain to the infant's parents the procedures you are going to
carry out at this visit in the following manner:

"Hellor, Mrs. and Mrs. ______, IHn_______(assessor #1) and

this is _____ (assessor #2). We met last visit and we're here

again from the Parent Infant Project and we're here to

observe you and your child today for approximately three hours.

Do you have any questions before we begin our observations?

(Answer all questions, then say) We are going to stay near your

infant for the entire visit. Please go about your normal

activities."

131

The following scales are then to be rated at this visit:
Administrator
Assessor #2 l) Yarrow's Scale of Caregiver-Infant Interaction
Assessor #1 2) Parent-Feeding Behavior Scales ala' Ainsworth
3) Ainsworth's four Scales or Caregiver-Infant
Behavior
~The Yarrow Scale is administered during the entire observation period,
whereas the Ainsworth scales are completed directly after the observa-
tion period is over. See individual scales for specific instructions.
See Assessment Visit #1 for departure instructions, including

scheduling next appointment.

Assessment Visit #3

 

Age: 6 Months

Go to the infant's home at the prearranged time, and introduce your-

selves (see Assessment #2). Then, describe to the infant's parents

what you are going to do today in the following words:

Assessor #1: "Today we are going to do three things, have your in-
fant play with some toys (Rubenstein's Bell-Pairs Test), have
each of you fill out a questionnaire (you did before) (Neonatal
Perception Inventory) and observe you and your baby in your
normal interactions or routines. Any questions? (Answer all
questions) (Then say) Let's begin with the first task where
we're going to have _____(baby's name) play with some toys."

See instructions for administering the Rubenstein-Bell-Pairs Test.

Administer it, then when done say:

"Now I would like you both to fill out the questionnaire."

132

Follow the instructions for the Neonatal Perception Inventory, then
when the NPI is completed say:
"We are now going to observe you and your baby for the next
three hours. Please go about your normal activities."
Begin the observation period which involves the following two scales:

Administrator

 

Assessor #2 l) Yarrow Scales
Assessor #1 2) Ainsworth's four Scales
At the end of the observation period schedule the next appointment

(see Assessment #1 for instructions).

Assessment Visit #4
Age: 9 Months
Go to the infant's home at the prearranged time and introduce your-

) selves (ala' Assessment Visit #2). Then, say to the infant's parents:

Assessor #1: "Today we are going to do the three hour observation
again. We'd like you to go about your normal activities.
Any Questions? (Answer all questions). Now we'll begin."

The raters are then to observe the infant and parents completing the

following instruments:

Administrator

 

Assessor #2 l) Yarrow Scales
Assessor #l 2) Ainsworth's four Scales

See each scale for specific instructions.

End visit with scheduling (see Assessment Visit #1 for details). The
only addition to the scheduling is that at 12 months of age, the

infant is assessed two times within the same week, i.e., one assessment

133

in the home (Assessment Visit #5) and one assessment at the Psychol-
ogical Clinic at Michigan State University (Visit #6). Give the

parents a map of MSU at this visit and give driving instructions.

Assessment Visit #5
Age: 12 Months
This assessment visit is similar to Visit #1, except the feeding
(scales are not given. Therefore, the following tests are to be
administered at this visit following the procedures outlined in
Visit #1:
l) Bayley Scales
2) Neonatal Perception Inventory
3) Yarrow Scales
4) Ainsworth's four Scales
The only difference in the procedures of this assessment is that the
Bayley is to be administered with the infant seated in the mother's or

father's lap at a table, where the items will be presented.

Assessment Visit #6

 

Age: 18 Months

This visit duplicates the procedures outlined in Assessment Visit #1,
except the Bayley and the feeding scales are not given. Therefore, the
following tests are to be administered at this visit:

1) Neonatal Perception Inventory

2) Yarrow Scales

3) Ainsworth's four Scales
Also, remind the parents that the next assessment visit is to be the

last one.

134

Assessment Visit #7

 

Age: 24 Months

This assessment visit is identical to Assessment Visit #5, therefore
follow the same procedures. The following tests are to be administered
at this visit:

1) Bayley Scales

2) Neonatal Perception Inventory

3) Yarrow Scales

‘4) Ainsworth's four Scales
Also, thank the families for their cooperation and remind them that
the assessment visits are over, but that they will be visited by the

project director to give them feedback on their infant's development.

135

INSTRUCTIONS FOR EACH ASSESSMENT INSTRUMENT
Paternal and Maternal Feeding Behavior
This rating refers to the caregiver's (C), i.e., the infant's or baby's
mother or father, style of pattern of behavior which comprises the man-
ner in which the baby (8) is fed according to four major components of
feeding behavior outlined or listed below.
1) Synchronization of C's interventions with B's rhythms.
2) Determination of amount of food ingested and end of feeding.
3) C's handling of 8's preferences for kind of food.
4) C's synchronization of rate of feeding to B's pace.
In order to carry out this rating, which is done in the infant's home,
the observer or rater must carry out the following instructions:
1) Bring several score sheets (10 or more) to the infant's home.
2) Introduce yourself to the infants parents (see general
instructions for Assessment #1)
3) In order to remain as unobtrusive as possible while coding,
the rater is to sit or stand quietly near the baby;
does not move quickly when he or she changes position or
location; does not speak to, smile at or otherwise interact
with the infant; and, to the extent that is possible
(without offending the infant's parents), does not interact
with the infant's caregivers (e.g., mother and father) or
anyone else present in the home during the observation
period.

4) Follow the instructions on the score sheet presented below.

136

Score Sheet for Feeding Ratinge

I. General Instructions:

A.

Each of the four items presented below refers to a

separate aspect of feeding behavior, and is followed by a

9 point scale representing the actual quality or appropriate-
ness of the caregiver's behavior.

Only 5 points of each scale actually represent different
ratings or kinds or types of feeding behavior, i.e., the

odd numbers of the scale (1, 3, 5, 7, 9,), whereas the

even numbers of the scale represent the inbetween points

sywhere a clear discrimination between two consecutive odd

numbers, or major definitions of feeding behavior is too
difficult to make. See definitions of each point in
manual attached to Score Sheet.

After having observed an infant feeding episode, fill out
the following score sheet immediately after the feeding

is terminated. Whereas a feeding begins when the first

swallow of milk (by route of a bottle) or solid food is

taken by the infant, a feeding is terminated when the last
portion of milk or food is consumed. I
Rate as many feedings that take place, rating each

feeding separately, on a separate score sheet.

Circle the number or scale point which best represents

caregiver feeding behavior for each item.

137

Score Sheet

 

Rater: Subject's name (infant):

 

 

Family's name Date:

 

Who fed infant (mother or father):

 

C Caregiver or Caretaker

B Infant or Baby

Item #1: Synchronization of C's Interventions with B's Rhythms

 

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Very ' Arbitrary Some Ad- Flexible Excellent
Arbitrary Timing justment Timing Adap-
Timing to 8'5 tation of
Timing Timing

Item #2: Determination of Amount of Food and End of Feeding:

 

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Very Arbitrary C Terminates Flexible Excellent
Arbitrary Termina- Feeding but Termi- Adaptation
Termi- tion Believes that nation in Regard
nation 8 Does to Amount
of Food

Item #3: C's Handling of 8's Preferences for Kind of Food:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Great Disregard Some Con- Considera- Excellent
Disregard of 8's Pre- sideration tion for Adaptation
of B's Pre- ferences for B's B's Pre-
ferences Prefer- ferences

ences

Item #4: C's Synchronization of Rate of Feeding to 8'5 Pace:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C interferes C tends C alternates C is C is
unduly with to deter- Between sensitive very well
B's pacing mine the Determining to 8'5 adapted
pacing Pacing and Pacing to B's
Letting 8 Pace

Determine it

138

AINSWORTH & BELL'S (1969) FEEDING MANUAL

MB-1 FEEDING: SYNCHRONIZATION OF CAREGIVER'S INTERVENTIONS WITH
BABY'S RHYTHMS

It is assumed that the neonate has an activity cycle in which
periods of activity and waking are fairly well coincident with hunger,
and periods of inactivity and sleep follow--either because hunger has
been satiated or because the baby's activity and crying have exhausted
him or simply because of a biological closk which determines the basic
cycle of the rhythms themselves. Needless to say, periods of crying
tend to coincide with periods of activity, waking and hunger. Inter-
-ventions of the adult may occur at any point in the activity cycle.

It is our hypothesis that the optimal timing of the mother's
feeding intervention is when the baby is awake, active and hungry, but
before he has reached a peak of hunger and crying. Under these
circumstances the baby might be expected to feed well since he is
hungry enough to be interested and yet not so hungry and upset that
it is difficult to calm him down enough to feed. A baby fed with
synchronization of interventions to his rhythms might be expected to
learn a number of important things: (a) to stabilize his rhythms so
that he becomes hungry at regular intervals; (b) to anticipate that
slight hunger would be followed by gratification; (c) to be less dis-
tressed by slight hunger, to learn the beginnings of frustration tol-
erance, and to cry less massively; (d) to expect that what he does
(i.e., the signals he gives of hunger) has some consequence and thus
that he has some control over what happens to him; and consequently
(e) to give more clear-cut signals of his state, which in turn
makes it easier for his mother to synchronize her interventions to his
state.

Interventions of the adult may be quite arbitrary, however, and
out of synchrony with the baby's rhythms. Sometimes the intervention
may come at the optimum time, but sometimes it may be long delayed,
after the baby has reached a peak of hunger and crying and is so upset
as to be difficult to feed. And sometimes the intervention may come
too early while the baby is sleepy and inactive or so late that he has
again fallen asleep; in either case he tends to be unresponsive and
might have his natural rhythms disorganized rather than stabilized,
for if he has not fed well it might well be expected that he would
become awake, hungry and active more quickly than if he had been fed
at a time when he was more receptive and could ingest a normal amount.
One might further expect that a baby fed arbitrarily would be slower
to learn frustration tolerance and to modulate massive neonatal
crying, that his signals would continue to be primitive and difficult
to interpret, and that he would not come to feel that he had any
control over what happened to him.

139

Mothers who depart from optimal timing are not so likely to
be completely arbitrary in their interventions as they are to delay.
Let us first consider delays so long that the baby is fed only after
he has been crying for some time, and may be presumed to have reached
a desperate pitch of hunger. Such babies are difficult to feed be-
cause they are too upset and hungry to feed well at first, and they
tend to become upset all over again at each slight interruption.

One might expect a baby so treated to come to feel that he had some
influence over what happened to him, but that he could exert his in-
fluence only through screaming or other very intense demands, and
that slight hunger would be a cue not for gratification but for
seomthing much more painful before gratification might ensue.

Short delays are undoubtedly another matter. A mother may
interpose some slight delay between a baby's first signals of hunger
and the feeding-~either to ensure that he is properly hungry and hence
that he will feed well, or to nudge him towards regularization of
rhythms, i.e., towards a schedule. These slight delays seem to con-
stitute no departure from optimal timing.

Mention has been made of the baby's hunger signals. These
usually include mouth movements, rooting, general restlessness,
and eventually fussing and/or crying. The signals are, however,
somewhat idiosyncratic. Some babies announce hunger very promptly
by crying; others become increasingly restless and increase sucking
and rooting responses before they begin to cry. Still others such
and root so much when they are not hungry at all that this behavior
cannot be taken as a dependable signal of hunger. Because of this,
and because crying may obviously occur as an expression of states
other than hunger, hunger signals are to some extent ambiguous, and
an accurate interpretation of signals requires experience with a
particular baby, perception of an undistorted nature, and consideration
of the context in which the signals occur.

Whether to wake a baby to feed him is an issue for some mothers,
and, even more than delaying feedings, they consider this to be the
issue which differentiates demand from scheduled feeding. It appears
to us, however, that waking a baby to feed him may not be an arbitrary
intervention and that it, like slight delay, may help to stabilize the
baby's rhythms. Some babies seem to oversleep--whether because their
threshold of arousal is constitutionally high, because they nap in
unusually quiet and unstimulating surroundings, or because they have
been overfed--and of these the latter is perhaps the most important,
for it seems that the baby's hunger cycle is much affected by the
amount he is fed. Babies who oversleep are typically eager to be fed
when they are awakened. If this is the case, or if the mother wakes
the baby tactfully and then waits until he seems ready before feeding
him, it does not seem a gross departure from optimal timing to wake a
baby to feed him.

Some babies have rhythms which are more clear-cut in the begin-
ning than others. A middle or low rating on this scale might reflect
a difficult baby rather than a rigid or insensitive mother; this

140

might be expected to be the case only at the beginning, however, for
a sensitive and flexible mother may help enormously to stabilize

the rhythms of even a baby who is initially difficult. On the other
hand a rating of 9 might not be achieved, even by a very sensitive
mother, until the end of the first quarter-year, since it reflects
mutual adaptation.

Two further questions remain. First, how much weight is an
observer to give to what the mother says she does if this is at
variance with what she was observed to do? If the mother is judged
to be an otherwise accurate and credible informant, and implies some-
what more flexibility than she seemed to have when observed, the rating
'should reflect this somewhat greater flexibility--for sometimes mothers
time their feeding interventions to suit the observer, for example,
holding a hungry baby off until the observer arrives so that he can
witness the feeding. On the whole, however, greatest credence should
be given to what is actually observed, for there can be a gross dis-
crepancy between the practices ~a mother professes to follow and what
she actually does.

Finally, one may ask what constitutes a feeding? When feedings

are spaced out every three hours or so, they may be demarcated clearly.
There are, however, some mothers who conduct feedings in installments--
and this practice makes it difficult to demarcate one feeding from
another. Some mothers who feed on a very flexible schedule use in-
stallment feedings; a feeding given in response to too slight a signal
may be discontinued and deferred briefly until the baby is really ready
to be fed, or a "snack" may be given to hold a baby off until the more
or less scheduled time of his main feeding. Other mothers who use
installment feedings are overfeeders; they feed the baby as much as he
will take, and then offer him more after some delay, and then perhaps
repeat the offerings again and again over an extended period of time.
Still other mothers discontinue feeding too soon, but renew the
feeding when the baby cries again, and thus feed in installments.
For the purpose of this scale, the timing of feeding refers to the
first feeding intervention, after a lapse of two or three hours or
more, and not to the soon- repeated renewals of feeding that may be
described as installment feeding.

1. Very arbitrary timing. M is very arbitrary in her feeding inter-
ventions so that they are very badly geared to 8'5 rhythms and
disregard his signals. The most conspicuous manifestation of
arbitrariness is very prolonged delay, during which M does not
respond to B's signals even when they become demanding cries.
But even more fundamental than long delay is an essential arbi-
trariness--an erratic and irregular timing which makes it very
difficult for B to adjust his rhythms and/or expectations. Some
mothers are arbitrary because they must be in control of B and
refuse to adjust to his timing even though his signals may be
perceived. Others are arbitrary because they do not allow them-
selves to perceive B's signals or to perceive them correctly.‘

141

3. Arbitrary timing. M's interventions are somewhat more appropriate

5.

 

bfit there is still considerable arbitrariness. Mothers rated thus
are not so much erratic, however, as delaying. There are various
patterns which may be given this rating. One pattern is a striving
towards a schedule with too widely spaced feedings-~which sometimes
results in a delay so long that B exhausts himself and falls asleep
before being fed, and has to be awakened. Some mothers who delay
in this way are well aware of B's signals of hunger but choose to
ignore them. Other mothers respond to 8'5 crying with repeated
interventions, but either fail to perceive the crying as a hunger
signal or determine not to respond appropriately until the pre-
determined time for feeding finally arrives. Another pattern which
seems to deserve this rating may be described as “pseudo-demand"--
without such a long initial delay in the timing of feedings, but
with premature terminations which leave B so unsatisfied that he
soon demands again. In either case B is gratified only by a very
active and vociferous demand, whether the demand is a prolonged

and continuous response to a long delay, or a briefer response to

a briefer delay but with intermittent and persistent demands to
ensure that the feeding persists long enough for gratification.

Some adjustment to 8'5 timing. M's interventions have some
flexibility and some relationship to 8'5 rhythms, signals, and
demands, but they are still not well adjusted to them--and are
sometimes sufficiently out-of-phase to interfere with the sta-
bilization of rhythms. Some mothers should be rated thus because
they are pushing a schedule UIIhard, and, although they do not
delay as long or intervene as imperceptively as mothers given lower
ratings, they still do not advance the time of feeding flexibly
enough. Others attempt to feed 8 when he signals hunger, but
whether because they are unprepared for his demand, or interrupted,
or too compulsive to interrupt themselves, there is still a delay
before feeding--although not as long as in the case of those with
lower ratings. Here also belong mothers who, having upset B's
natural rhythms by deliberately overfeeding him (in the hope that
he will sleep long and thus make no demands), do not seem to be
able to establish any cycle of interventions which seems mutually
satisfying in regard to timing.

. Flexible timing, M feeds 8 with enough flexibility that the ex-

ternal observer would find it difficult to judge whether she
feeds by schedule or on demand. Nevertheless M is not guided
entirely by B's signals. Sometimes she judges it in time to

feed him when he has given no hunger cues, or perhaps she wakes
him to feed him. Or sometimes she may delay feeding until after
B has become obviously hungry, crying and upset. But, if she
delays, it is not for long, and she tries not to let 8 get into

a state of high tension. If she wakes him, she does not actually
begin the feeding until he is obviously ready--or else she dis-
continues the feeding and comes back to it a little later. Al-
though she may be trying to regularize B's rhythms, she gives high
priority to gratifying him.

142

9. Excellent adaptation of timing. M and B are mutually adapted
in regard to feeding. B knows what it is to be hungry and to
anticipate feedings, but he is not permitted to build up to a
state of distressing tension.' He is not fed before he is ready
and eager, but when he reaches that state there is minimal delay.
This adaptation may be the outcome either of thoroughgoing, con-
sistent demand feeding, or sensitive and flexible schedule feeding--
but it tends to be achieved only after a period of mutual adaptation.

MB-2 FEEDING: DETERMINATION OF AMOUNT OF FOOD AND END OF FEEDING

Ideally, if the baby is fed when he is hungry but before he gets
too hungry and upset, and if he is allowed to feed at his own pace, he
can be relied upon to terminate his own feeding, signalling when he has
had enough, and still take the optimum amount of food. Some mothers,
both from a knowledge of the amount of food a baby of this age is
likely to need and to take and from attention to the baby's signals,
give the baby the right amount of food. The baby is gratified and does
not become hungry soon again, and yet at the same time he is not given
more than he needs or more than he can easily digest. Under such
circumstances it looks as though the baby terminates the feeding.
Either he is content when the food is gone, or his mother stops offer-
ing him more when he signals that he is finished.

How does the baby signal that he has had enough? He may drowse
off to sleep--but this is not a dependable signal, for often enough he
likes to drowse for a moment with the nipple in his mouth, only to
rouse and take more; so that mother has to wait to see whether the
drowsing is merely temporary or not. Or he may be more active in
indicating he is finished. He may fail to swallow milk or solid food,
and let it dribble out of his mouth. Or he may spit it out. Or he
may close his mouth tightly and refuse the nipple or spoon. Or he may
turn his head away. Any of these behaviors may indicate either
momentary refusal or a real effort to terminate feeding, and the
mother must become sensitive to the signals of this particular baby.

Some mothers press their babies to take more after they have
signalled termination of the feeding. This may be done through coax-
ing, stimulating the lips with nipple or spoon, in an attempt to
induce the baby to take more--and sometimes the mother may prolong
the feeding a long time, with persistent or intermittent coaxing. Or
the mother may resort to forcing the baby to take more. If the baby
falls asleep, the mother may inflect painful stimulation in order to
wake him up, and if the baby cries, she takes advantage of the open
mouth to insert the nipple or a spoonful of food. In the extreme it
may be difficult to distinguish between coaxing and forcing, for
coaxing may become noxious if it is persistent enough.

The apparent reasons for coaxing or forcing the baby to take
more than he spontaneously takes are several. Sometimes this goes

143

along with badly timed feedings; the baby having been awakened before
he is ready to feed is not hungry and stops before he has ingested
as much as he might reasonably be expected to want. Or he may have
had to wait so long for a feeding that he falls asleep and is not
really ready to feed despite his long wait. Other mothers coax or
force the baby to take more than the usual amount for a baby this
age, and, in effect, overfeed the baby. Overfeeding may come about
because of the mother's desire to gratify the baby fully, or because
she is anxious about her own capacity to nurture him. Or it may be
undertaken deliberately in the hope that the baby, stuffed to full
capacity, will sleep soundly and long and be little trouble.

Other mothers follow a reverse pattern, discontinuing the feed-
ing too soon and before the baby has had enough. Such mothers tend to
be impatient, and terminate feeding at the first sign that the baby is
slackening his pace of intake, or if the baby pauses to look around,
or to interact socially, or merely to hold the nipple in his mouth.
Some babies, having had to wait too long for a feeding, are over-
hungry and fussy; the mother may misinterpret the restless fussiness
as refusal. If the feeding is too brief, the baby is likely to cry
soon again, demanding more food. Even though this subsequent demand
is met, this pattern of feeding tends to be chaotic and the baby find
it difficult to regularize his rhythms. In either case the baby tends
to be underfed.

1. Very arbitrary termination. It is M who determines the termination
of the feeding and she does so in almost total disregard of B's
signals, and thus in disregard of any attempt to gratify B optimally.
Some mothers so rated force 8 to feed after he has signalled term-
ination, and may induce pain and thus crying as part of the forcing
operation. Others, although they do not actually force-feed, may
carry coaxing to the point of noxious stimulation. Still others
terminate the feeding much too quickly, either because of im-
patience or because of distractions, and the baby gets far too
little food in the feeding.

3. Arbitrary termination. It is still M who determines the end of
the feeding, and thTs is still with a relative lack of regard
for B's gratification, even though M may be somewhat more con-
siderate of 8's signals than mothers with lower ratings. M may
deliberately overfeed B, for the express purpose of getting
him to sleep a long time and be no trouble. But, at this rating-
level, it is a matter of coaxing rather than forcing, and nearly
always coaxing stops short of noxious stimulation. If M terminates
the feeding too soon, so that B is still hungry and soon again
demands food, M is at least willing to give him more soon again.

5. M terminates feeding, but believes that B does. Mothers given
this rating attempt to gratify B, and underfeed or overfeed him
through misunderstanding of his needs. Some mothers overfeed
because they misinterpret B's signals, believing he is signalling
for more when he roots, mouths or is merely active. Others have an
inflated notion of B's needs, prepare too much for him, and then

144

return to the feeding at the slightest indication that B might

be ready to take more. Other mothers underfeed, not because they
are impatient or distracted or unwilling to prolong the

feeding, but because they miscalculate the amount of food 8

needs at this age, and prepare too little for him.

7. Flexible termination. M is flexible in terminating the feeding
when 8 indicates he has had enough, but continues it until he so
signals. She may coax him a little, offering more two or three
times before she is convinced he is finished, and sometimes he
may be thus induced to take too much. She may sometimes stop
too soon, misreading his signals. But, on the whole, it is B who
determines the amount he will take and when he will end the feeding.

9. Excellent mutual adaptation in regard to amount of food. M is
flexible and perceptive in meeting 8' s nutritTve needs, grati-
fying him without giving him too much. She knows approximately
the right amount to offer him, and at the same time knows that
he may want more at some feedings than at others. If he signals
termination, she will wait a little to see if he wants more in
a moment, but she neither coaxes him nor terminates abruptly.

At another feeding, if he seems to want more than the usual amount,
she is flexible in providing it. She is flexible also in "tiding
him over" between feedings, and even givihg him a "snack“ to
comfort him if this seems indicated, but she certainly does not
confuse hunger signals with other signals, and does not substi-
tute food for interaction.

MB-3 FEEDING: THE CAREGIVER'S HANDLING OF THE BABY'S PREFERENCES
FOR KIND OF FOOD

This scale is not pertinent until so-called solid foods have
begun-—usually commercial baby foods--cereals, and vegetables or fruit
purees. The mother has the task of introducing solid foods in
a way acceptable to the baby, and some mothers, with or without the
encouragement of their pediatricians, begin the task very early.

Most babies, at least at first, prefer the breast (or bottle)
to solid foods, and, even after solids have been well started pre-
ferences may be manifested. Fruit is usually preferred to cereal, and
cereal to vegetables. Familiar foods are usually preferred to new
foods. One kind of fruit may be accepted readily, but another
rejected.

This scale emphasizes the sensitivity of the mother to the
baby's preferences, and her skill in presenting these foods in such
a way that the baby accepts them with a minimum of disturbance to
the gratification of feeding.

145

There are several schools of thought about the introduction of
solids to the very young baby. Some mothers believe that the solids
should be given first, while he is at his hungriest, or else he
will not eat them. Some believe that they should be given later in
the feeding, after the baby has had the first keen edge of his appetite
satisfied by what he likes the best, namely, bottle (or breast).
Others practice interspersing sucking and spoonfeeding. Even the
practice of interspersing has variations. Some give a period of
sucking, then a period of spoonfeeding, and then a final period of
sucking. Others give a spoonful or two, and then if the baby seems
about to cry, the nipple is quickly popped into his mouth for a
moment, and then some more spoonfeeding is tried. Still others are
-intermediate between these two extremes.

Furthermore, mothers differ in the value they attach to solid
foods in the first few months. Some believe that milk is most impor-
tant, and are content to spoonfeed solids in small amounts and gradual-
ly, more to get the baby accustomed to them than anything else. Such
mothers tend not to be insistent if the baby rejects a food. Others
attach most importance to the solid foods, wishing to have them the
mainstay of the diet as soon as possible--either because they are
eager to get him onto three feedings a day as soon as possible, or
because they wish to fill him so full that he will sleep long and
soundly and be little trouble. These attitudes obviously play a
part in the way solids are presented.

The following ratings are based on the assumption that a good
feeding is a happy feeding, that it is more important to gratify
the baby than to get a variety of foods into him, but that the diet
can gradually be varied and extended without unpleasantness if the
mother is tactful about it. Our observations strongly suggest that
most babies are best able to accept new foods when these are presented
after a period of breast or bottle feeding. If the solids are
presented first, the baby is likely to cry and to refuse them, and
this seems especially likely if he is very hungry, perhaps because
he has been ”staved off" in an attempt to delay the beginning of
feeding. '

If the baby refuses a particular food, the mother has several
alternatives open to her. She may give him something he likes better,
and then try the new or disliked food again later. Or she may
intersperse foods or modes of feeding. Or she may mix foods, so that
a new or disliked food is disguised my mixture with a liked food. Or
she may force the feeding, either by forcing the mouth open or
by making the baby cry or by taking advantage of his crying to spoon
food into the open, crying mouth.

146

1. Great disregard of 8's preferences. M is determined to get 8 to
ingest the foods she chooses for him, regardless of his prefer-
ences. She forces solids on him, even though he may protest
vigorously, closing his mouth, averting his head, or spitting
the food out. She forces his mouth open, or takes advantage of
his crying, and shovels the food in so that B has no alternative
between swallowing and choking. She may even induce crying so
that she can get his mouth open.

3. Disregard of B's preferences. M tends to feed first new foods
or disliked foods, despite knowing that 8 much prefers the bottle
(or breast). She is arbitrary about giving him what she (and/or
the pediatrician) have determined he should have, without taking
his preferences into account. She tends to shovel the food into
him despite his protests, but she does not fOrce him if he really
refuses. If he protests, she may discontinue the feeding alto-
gether, without turning to food he will accept, and leaving him
still hungry.

5. Some consideration for B's preferences. M makes some effort
to be tactful in presenting new or non-preferred foods--either by
disguising them in a mixture or by interspersing them with
preferred foods. But in one way or another she tends to impose
her own ideas on him--even though she does not force feeding as
do mothers with lower ratings.

7. Consideration for B's preferences. M respects B's preferences to
a large extent. If he clearly prefers bottle (or breast) to
solids, she gives him what he most wants first. She may then
try the less preferred foods, but she does this tactfully, and
does not persist long if he still tends to reject them. (If B
accepts all foods, seeming to have no preferences his mother would
be given this rating, even though she may feed solids first,
and shows no special evidence of tact.)

9. Excellent adaptation. M is very tactful in presenting new or
disliked foods to B, and ready to assume that he can be nourished
adequately even though he eats relatively little of a food she is
trying to get him to accept. This policy results in B accepting
at least small quantities of everything he is offered, and in the
end 8 gets what he needs, and enjoys what he gets.

MB-4 FEEDING: CAREGIVER'S SYNCHRONIZATION OF RATE OF FEEDING
TO BABY'S PACE

Although this variable interacts to some extent with the other
three feeding variables, it has its own unique features, and these
are considered babe very important. Perhaps the most important aspect
of pacing is the extent to which the mother respects the baby's own
autonomy and, to the extent that he is able, encourages him to take
some initiative in the ingestion of food. Feeding is something that

147

the mother does with the baby and not to the baby. The extent to
which the baby can determine the pacing differs from the sucking part
of the feeding (whether bottle or breast feeding) and the spoonfeeding
part.

Let us first consider bottle or breast feeding. The baby has
innate patterns of behavior which determine his rate of ingestion.
He may suck strongly or weakly, quickly or lazily. He may suck for
a while without pause, then "stall" with the nipple in his mouth and
not suck at all for a while, only to resume sucking later. He may
cling to the nipple when his mother tries to remove it, or
he may eject it firmly when he wants no more of it, or he can just let
ego the suction and release it gently. As long as his mode of intake
is by sucking, his mother can do little to make him feed, and to force
him is likely to arouse resistance. There are, however, ways in which
the mother can interfere. She may, whether unwittingly or with intent,
provide him with a nipple which delivers milk to his mouth faster
than he can swallow it. Although he may learn to cope with a fast
nipple, he is likely at first to choke and struggle. Another way
in which the mother can try to speed up the baby's pace in sucking is
to jiggle the nipple in his mouth whenever he slackens, or to try to
remove it.

Most babies, after the first fine rapture of sucking, tend to
pause and even drowse. They hold the nipple in the mouth, either
quietly or mouthing it gently without sucking. But then, after the
pause, they resume sucking, although perhaps less strongly than
before. Some mothers recognize this pattern and are tolerant of
the drowsing or "playing around," but others are impatient and feel
that if the baby is not sucking strongly, he is no longer hungry and
terminate the feeding, or, at least, jiggle the nipple to get the baby
active again.

If the baby is sucking well, the mother may nevertheless inter-
fere by interrupting the feeding. "Burpings" are a good excuse for
interruption. Whereas some mothers manage to time the "burpings" to
signals that the baby gives indicating that he is willing to pause,
others "burp" the baby arbitrarily, interrupting him in the full ‘
spate of sucking. Even though "burpings" are well timed, they may
constitute a disruption of the baby's pacing if they are too long.
Some mothers interrupt even more arbitrarily, presumably because of
their own need to remain in complete control of the situation; at
arbitrary intervals they withdraw the nipple from the baby's mouth,
only to reinsert it in a moment or perhaps to tease him by putting it
to his lips but not letting him have it.

When it comes to spoon feeding of solids the baby has even less
control over the pacing of the feeding than when he is sucking. After
he has become accustomed to spoon feeding he can indicate that he is
ready for more by opening his mouth, or by sucking and rooting be-
havior. And he can indicate that he is not ready by closing his mouth
or by averting his head. Or, if the food is nevertheless given to him,

148

he can reject it by letting it dribble out or by tonguing it out, or
even by spitting up. But, on the whole, the pacing is under his mother's
control. ~

If the baby is extremely hungry at the beginning of a feeding

and is spoon fed first, he may fuss unless the spoonfuls come at a
very fast rate. Even later in the feeding, he may fuss if there is
too much delay between spoonfuls, as there sometimes is if the mother
is distracted by some other demand on her attention. A well-timed
feeding of solids is, however, marked by fine mutual adaptation. It
seems as though the spoonful of food is ready when the baby's mouth
opens as a signal that he is ready for it.

Forced feeding of solids, as described in both MB-2 and MB-3,
is, of course, an infringement of the baby's autonomy in pacing. Some
mothers are so controlling that they insist on setting the pace,
and if the baby rebels and refuses they force him to take food,
either by squeezing his cheeks so that he must open his mouth or by
making him cry or taking advantage of crying to spoon food into the
open, crying mouth. In either case, the mother puts the food in his
mouth at her own pace and he is forced to accept it or choke.

At the well adapted extreme, the mother not only allows the
baby to pace himself, but she also manages spoon feeding so that the
baby can display active initiative in ingesting the food. Rather than
merely depositing the food in his mouth she presents it in such a
way that he must take some initiative in getting it. Some mothers
present the spoonful in such a way that in order to get the food the
baby must suck or "gum" it from the spoon. Techniques vary, but they
have in common the outcome that the baby is active in receiving his
solids.

1. M interferes unduly with B's‘pecing. This occurs in both bottle
(or breast) feeding and in the feeding of solid foods. M has no
adequate appreciation of 8's natural rate of feeding. When 8
sucks, M either cannot tolerate him drowsing with the nipple in
his mouth and forcibly removes it, or she provides him with so
fast a nipple that he frequently chokes. When feeding solids M
may force feed, opening B's mouth by force, or causing him pain
till he cries and the food may be put into his mouth. Or M may
feed B so slowly or with so many interruptions that he becomes very
frustrated and upset of so distracted that he loses interest in
the situation.

3. M tends to determine the pacing. In bottle or breast feeding
M tends to let 8 pace himself, except that she may be impatient
if he loafs on the job or she may provide him with such a fast
nipple that he occasionally chokes. When feeding solids, however,
M tends consistently to interfere with B's rate. She may do this
by forcing him to take solids when he does not wish them, or
faster than he wishes to go--although not to the extent of forcing
used by mothers with a lower rating. Or she may avoid overt

149

protest by popping the nipple in 8's mouth between spoonfuls.
Or she may feed slowly and insensitively, perhaps with inter-
ruptions to attend to other things, so that the pleasure goes
out of the feeding, even though it is not so disorganized as

feedings given a lower rating.

. M alternates between determining pacing and letting B determine it.
M lets 8 determine his own rate fairly well in bottle (or'breastTT
feeding neither withholding the nipple when B wants it nor trying
to speed him up. But the feeding of solids, although not exactly
forced, is not sensitively attuned to 8'5 rate of ingestion.

. M is sensitive to 8'5 pacing. In bottle or breast feeding, M

lets B drowse and loaf, if”he is so inclined, and she neither coaxes
him to begin sucking again until he is ready, nor does she cut him
short if he is just pausing. Similarly in regard to the feeding

of solid foods, she gears herself pretty sensitively to B's rate

of ingestion, although the harmony of the interaction is not as
impressive as it is with mothers with a higher rating.

. M is very well adapted to 8'5 pace. M's sensitivity to 8'5 pacing
is impressive, both in bottle (or breast) feeding and in spoon
feeding. M and 8 work in harmony. In spoon feeding, the spoon is
ready just at the time that 8 opens his mouth for it. More impor-
tant, the way M presents the food on the spoon requires initiative
from B to get it--sucking or "gumming" it off rather than having the
spoonful deposited in his mouth. If B can get the contents of

the spoonful at his own rate, this reduces to a minimum the amount
he must let overflow and which must subsequently be scraped into

his mouth by his mother.

150

NEONATAL PERCEPTION INVENTORY (NPI)

The NPI is a measure of a parent's perception of the average baby
and his or her own baby. The NPI is administered in the following
manner:

Begin the NPI by telling each parent the following:

"We are interested in learning more about the experiences of
parents and their babies. To do this I would like you to fill
out the questionnaire which I'm now going to give you (hand
questionnaire NPI to parent) the form. Please open the ques-
tionnaire to the first page with the title, "Average Baby" (check
to see if the parent has turned to the correct page). Although
this is your first baby, you probably have some ideas of what
-most babies are like. Please check the blank for each of the

six items on the average baby form which you think best

describes what most babies are like."

As soon as the parent completes the Average Baby Form, the rater is
to say the following: ‘

"Now that you have completed the Average Baby form, I would
like you to turn the page to the form entitled, 'Your Baby'
(make sure the correct form is turned to). You have had a
chance to live with your own baby for a period of time.

Please check the blank for each of the six items on the 'Your
Baby' form which you think best describes what your own baby is
like." '

As soon as the parent completes the 'Your Baby' form, collect the
entire questionnaire. Look through the questionnaire briefly to see
if any items have been missed or not filled out. If you find an
unscored item hand the form back to the parent showing them the item
they missed and say:

"You have skipped this item. Please fill it out now."

Collect the questionnaire.

151

QUESTIONNAIRE FORMS
Neonatal Perception Inventory
I. Average Baby .
Although this is your first baby, you probably have some ideas
of what most babies are like. Please check the blank you think best

describes the Average Baby.

1. How much crying do you think the average baby does?

 

 

 

 

 

A Great A Good Moderate Very None
Deal Bit Amount Little

2. How much trouble do you think the average baby has in feeding?

 

 

 

 

 

A Great A Good Moderate Very None
Deal Bit Amount Little

3. How much Spitting up or vomiting do you think the average baby does?

 

 

 

 

 

A Great A Good Moderate Very None
Deal Bit Amount Little

4. How much difficulty do you think the average baby has in sleeping?

 

 

 

 

 

A Great A Good Moderate Very None
Deal Bit Amount Little

5. How much difficulty does the average baby have with bowel movements?

 

 

 

 

 

A Great A Good Moderate Very None
Deal Bit Amount Little

6. How much trouble do you think the average baby has in settling
down to a predictable pattern of eating and Sleeping?

 

 

 

 

 

A Great A Good Moderate Very None
Deal Bit Amount Little

152

Neonatal Perception Inventory

II. Your Baby

You have had a chance to live with your baby for awhile now.

Please check

1.

How much

 

A Great
Deal

How much

 

A Great
Deal

How much

 

A Great
Deal

How much

 

A Great
Deal

How much

 

A Great
Deal

How much
dictable

 

A Great
Deal

the blank you think best describes your baby.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

crying has your baby done?
A Good Moderate Very
Bit Amount Little
trouble has your baby had feeding?
A Good Moderate Very
Bit Amount Little
spitting up or vomiting has your baby done?
A Good . Moderate Very
Bit Amount Little
difficulty has your baby had in sleeping?
A Good Moderate Very
Bit Amount Little
difficulty has your baby had with bowel movements?
A Good Moderate Very
Bit Amount Little

 

None

 

None

 

None

 

None

 

None

trouble has your baby had in settling down to a pre-

pattern of eating and sleeping?

 

 

A Good Moderate Very
Bit Amount Little

 

None

153

RUBENSTEIN'S BELL-PAIRS TEST (B-P-T)

This test is designed to measure an infant's exploratory behavior
and preference for novelty or new stimuli.

In order to administer the Bell-Pairs Test the following steps
must be carried out:

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

Seat infant on mother's lap at a table, preferably the
kitchen table. Sit directly across from the mother and
infant, on the opposite side of the table.

Explain the purpose of the B-P-T to the infant's mother by
saying the following:

"This is a task which will Show us how your baby plays with
different toys, and which toys he prefers. While I am
giving the toys to your infant, please try not to interact
or respond to your baby, such as by talking or by taking
the toy he or she might offer to you. I am now going to
begin the task."

Take out a bell, which had been in a bag in the rater's
possession. Ring the bell and then place it on the

table within reach of the baby for 10 minutes. If the
infant knocks the bell off of the table or out of reach,
retrieve the bell and place it once again within the-
infant's reach (as often as necessary during the 10 minutes).

Remember to note the time the bell was presented and
when the 10 minutes have elapsed.

In order to determine the infant's exploratory behavior,

two specific behaviors are to be measured, and no others,

i.e., the following:

a) Looking at the bell without touching or making any
physical contact with it.

b) Actively manipulating or touching the bell.

Each of these two behaviors, i.e., looking and touching are
to be recorded by pressing two pushbuttons, one for
measuring lookin , the other touching, which activate
electric clocks Especifically the Rustrak Model 9L,

four channel event recorder). Holding the button down

will activate the clock, i.e., making it run, while re-
leasing or taking one's finger off of the button will

stop the particular clock. Sample panel of the recorder
looks like this: .

 

look touch not used
r—L—i

o o 00

 

 

 

6)

7)

154

At the end of the 10 minute Bell presentation give the
infant a "buffer" toy and remove the bell, letting the
infant play with the buffer toy, in this case a rubber doll,
for 5 minutes.

On a score Sheet (see below) record the time spent looking
at the bell, and the time touching or manipulating it,

while the infant plays with the buffer toy, i.e., the rubber
doll. Reset the two clocks used to zero.

Pairs Test

 

8)

After 5 minutes of play with the buffer toy, take it

from the infant and begin the test of preference for novel
stimuli, which is comprised of presenting the now familiar
bell with each of 10 novel objects listed below:

1) necklace of blue and pink beads

2) long narrow red balloon, deflated

3) whistle

4) yellow comb

5) fat, round, blue balloon, deflated

6) shiny metal bracelet '

7) red plastic ring

8) square 2"x2" piece of multicolored plastic cloth
9) a curve, orange balloon, deflated
10) gold change purse.

9) Present each pair, i.e., the bell and the novel toy for
With each pair, alternate the position of the

60 seconds.
bell and novel toy.

Remove both the bell and the novel toy
before presenting the bell and another novel toy.

Follow

the schedule listed below for the presentation and
positioning of each pair:

Infant's: Right Left
Presentation: #1: Bell necklace
#2: red balloon Bell
#3: Bell whistle
#4: comb Bell ,
#5: Bell blue balloon
#6: bracelet Bell
#7: Bell red ring
#8: multicolored cloth Bell
#9: Bell orange balloon
#10: purse Bell

10)

11)

12)

13)

155

During the Pair's Test, four behaviors are to be measured
as listed below:

a) looking at the bell, but not touching it.

b) touching or physically contacting the bell.

c) looking at the novel object, not touching it.

d) touching the novel Object.

In order to record the total time the infant Spent looking
at or touching the bell and the novel objects during the

10 presentations, a four channel even recorder or electric
clock is to be used, which requires the rater to depress

the buttons corresponding to the four behaviors listed
above. Below is a sample panel of such a recorder:

 

lookingl' touching/ looking touching
bell bell novel novel

0 O O Q

If the infant looks at both object, the novel and the bell,
or touches both objects at exactly the same time, do not
record any response. However as soon as one object is
released or not looked at, but the infant still looks

at or is touching the other, begin to record.

 

 

 

E.g., the infant picks up the bell and the whistle
at the same time. Do not press the buttons for
"touch bell and touch novel." The infant drops
the bell but continues to hold the whistle.
Press the "touch novel" button the moment the
bell is released.

Record the total amount of time during the 10 presentations
Spent in touching and looking at the bell and the novel
objects in seconds on the score sheet presented below:

156

BELL-PAIRS TEST SCORE SHEET

I. Bells Test

Total number of seconds: (1) Looking at bell: (e.g. 160')

 

(2) Touching bell: _(e.gg_300')

II. Pairs Test

 

Total number of seconds: (1) Looking at bell: (e.g. 50')

(2) Touching bell: (e.g. 20')

 

(3) Look at all 10
novel objects: (e.g. 200')

 

(4) Touching all 10
novel objects: (e.g. 300[)_

 

157

YARROW ET AL. (1975)
MANUAL FOR OBSERVATION
OF THE HOME ENVIRONMENT
AND MOTHER AND FATHER-INFANT
INTERACTION

The coding system presented in this manual was designed to describe
selected experiences of 5-month old infants observed in the course

of a day in their homes. This time-sampling procedure provides scores
for a variety of aspects of the infant's environment and some aspects
of infant behavior, as well as for selected sequences of events, e.g.,
infant cries. . . mother offers toys.

The categories in this manual are listed in the order in which they
appear on the time-sampling form (see Table D, Yarrow's Sample Recording
Sheet). To look up the definition of a code, one Should refer to its
column number on the time-sampling form, and look for the corresponding
column number in the manual.

General Instructions for Observers

l. The time-sampling cycle is 90 seconds in length and consists of a
30-Second observation period and a 60-second recording period. A
home observation consists of 120 units (3 hours) each day.

2. Coding is discontinued when the baby falls asleep. The observer
should stop coding after scoring three consecutive time-sampling units
during which the following criteria are met:

a. Infant's eyes are closed.
b. Breathing pattern is regular.
c. The infant is not eating or drinking.

3. In order to remain as unobtrusive as possible while coding, the
observer Sits or stands quietly near the baby, does not move quickly
when she changes position or location; does not speak to, smile at or
otherwise interact with the infant; and, to the extent that it is pos-
sible, does not interact with the caregivers. Behavior directed to
the observer by either the caregivers or the infant is not scored.

4. The following general rules apply when coding a time-sampling unit:

a. Certain columns are coded in every time-sampling unit:
1) Context (column 1)
2) Proximity of mother & father (column 2)

b. Certain columns are coded only in time-sampling units
in which relevant behaviors occur, and these columns are
scored independently of all other columns:
1) Infant behaviors (columns 3-13)
2) Background vocalization (column 48)

 

 

 

 

 

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160

3) Change of container or room (columns 49-51)
4) Aspects of the inanimate environment (columns 52-55)

c. The remaining columns are scored only when some person is
attentive, She is scored in columns 16-18, Sources of Attentive-
ness, and her visual focus is scored in column 14. If the
father and any other person other than the mother and father
is also attentive, that person is also scored in columns 16-18.
The behavior of one of the people scored in 16-18 is coded in
detail in columns 19-47. Preemption rules for making
this choice are listed in Sources of Attentiveness.

DEFINITIONS OF CATEGORIES
COLUMN 1: CONTEXT

This column describes the setting in which the infant is being observed.
Only one context category is coded in each time-sampling unit. If any
person is attentive to the baby in the unit, noncaretaking, caretaking
or mixed is scored. If both caretaking and noncaretaking behavior are
directed toward the baby in the same unit, caretaking should be scored.
If no person is attentive during the unit, no attentiveness is scored.

1. NONCARETAKING (NON C). Attentiveness occurring in any context
other than one in which the baby's physical needs are being met.
This category also includes preparations for caretaking events,
and transitions between caretaking events.

2. CARETAKING (CA). Attentiveness to the infant directed toward
meeting his physical needs. Includes activities such as feeding,
burping, diapering, bathing, dressing, wiping his face. Also
includes attentiveness to the infant is units during which the
primary caregiver is not directly responsive to the physical
needs of the infant, but the meeting of these need is the
primary concern, e.g., when the infant is eating a meal, falling
asleep, or waking up.

3. MIXED. A brief caretaking act interjected into an essentially
noncaretaking context, e.g., wiping the baby's nose while play-
ing with him or checking briefly to see if his diaper is wet.

4. NO ATTENTIVENESS (NO SCORED ATT). No person is attentive to
the baby.

RULES

1. ONSET OF CARETAKING. Coding of caretaking does not begin until
the baby has been involved in a caretaking procedure, e.g., the
diaper is being remOved, the first spoonful of food has
reached his mouth. If the baby is simply placed on the changing
table or seated in a high chair, caretaking is not scored.

2. INTERRUPTIONS OF CARETAKING PROCEDURES. If a caretaking pro-
cedure such as a meal or bath has begun and is interrupted for
further preparations, score caretaking throughout the interrup-
tion. If a social interlude occurs with a caretaking context,

161

i.e., the caretaking is discontinued briefly and purely social
interaction occurs, score three time-sampling units of caretaking
and then change to noncaretaking for the duration of the inter-
lude.

3. TRANSITION BETWEEN CARETAKING PROCEDURES. If one caretaking
procedure ends, score noncaretaking until the baby's body is
positioned and actually involved in the next caretaking procedure
regardless of the length of time elapsing before the onset of
the second procedure.

4. SELF-FEEDING. If attentiveness is scored in a time-sampling
unit in which the baby feeds himself any foods except a bottle,
score caretaking at mealtime and score mixed at all other
times. If attentiveness is scored in a time-sampling unit in
which the baby is feeding himself a bottle, score caretaking.

COLUMN 2: PROXIMITY OF THE MOTHER AND FATHER

This column describes the physical and visual accessibility of mother
and father to the infant. One code, for each parent describing the
closest proximity during the observation unit, is scored, preceded by an
M for mother's proximity, and an F for father's proximity.

l. WITHIN REACH (HR). The primacy caregiver is able to reach the
baby by stretching her arm forward, backward or to the Side, by
bending over or by stooping down.

2. INTERMEDIATE (Int). The primary caregiver cannot reach the
infant but is less than 10 feet from him.

3. REMOTE-WITHIN VIEW (R-WR). The primary caregiver is 10 feet or
more from the baby and can see him or could if she turned in his
direction.

4. REMOTE-OUT OF VIEW (R-OV). The primary caregiver is 10 feet or
more from the baby and cannot see him even when facing in
his direction.

Example of coding: Ml, F2. Remember to code both mother and father.

COLUMN 3: EATS

The baby is ingesting fluids from the bottle or breast or is eating
solid foods. Sucking on a bottle without ingesting fluid is not

scored as eating. Ingesting medicine is not scored unless the medicine
iS mixed into a full bowl of food or a full bottle of liquid.

COLUMNS 4-9: FOCUSED EXPLORATION (FOC EXPL)

Focused exploration is the simultaneous visual and haptic exploration
of an object or person by the infant. Haptic exploration is holding

or manipulating the object. Focused expoloration is scored only when
the baby's hand is involved in manipulation, although other parts of his
body may also be involved. Merely resting the hand on or against the
object is not sufficient. Persistent reaching for an object beyond
reach is not scored unless the infant succeeds in touching the object
at least once.

162

The categories below define the types of objects with which focused
exploration may occur. These categories are not mutually exclusive.
Score all objects which are explored.

l. TOY. An object made for children to play with. Detailed
definition in columns 52-55.

2. HOUSEHOLD OBJECT/CARETAKING OBJECT (HO/CO). Objects in the
environment which may serve as toys although they are primarily
for adult or caretaking purposes. Detailed definition in
columns 52-55.

3. PERSON. Simultaneous looking at and manipulating the same part
of the body of a person. Manipulating one body part while
looking at another is not scored. Simultaneous visual and
haptic exploration of clothing or jewelry being worn by a person
is scored.

4. -SELF. Simultaneously looking at and manipulating the same
part of the infant's own body or clothing. Hand regard, the
infant moving his hand while looking at it, is scored.

5. OTHER. Simultaneously looking at and manipulating an inanimate
object that is not a toy, HO/CO, or something worn by a person.
Play with water is an example.

COLUMNS 10-11: INFANT VOCALIZATION (VOC)

All sounds, positive, neutral, and negative, by the infant exce t vege-
tative (burps, choking) or respiratory (coughs, heavy breathing) sounds
are scored. If there is doubt about whether a vocalization is positive
or negative, nondistress Should be coded. A Single fragile peep is

not scored.

1. NONDISTRESS VOCALIZATION (NON D). Coos, gurgles, and grunts.
Vocalizations other than whimpers, fusses or cries which are not
accompanied by an unhappy facial expression.

2. DISTRESS VOCALIZATION (DIS). Whimpers, fusses, and cries, and
vocalizations that are accompanied by an unhappy facial
expression.

COLUMNS 12-13: LOOKS AT PERSON (LOOKS AT)

The infant looks directly at a person's face at any other part of a
person's body, or at the clothing or jewelry worn by a person. Fleeting
glances are not scored. There must be a pause during which the baby's
eyes fix on a person.

1. MOTHER. The infant looks at the mother.

2. FATHER. The infant looks at the father.

3. PERSON OTHER THAN MOTHER OR FATHER (PER O). The infant
looks at a person other than the primary caregiver, or the
infant looks at himself in a mirror.

163

RULE

If the infant looks at a group of people, but it is not clear who the
infant is looking at, no person is scored.

COLUMN 14: VISUAL FOCUS 0F MOTHER AND FATHER.

The length of time that the mother and/or father looks at the baby's
face or at any part of his body is scored in this column.

1. MOTHER MAJOR FOCUS ON BABY (MFB). The primary caregiver looks
at the baby for half of the time-sampling unit or longer
(15-30 seconds).

2. MOTHER FOCUS ELSEWHERE (FE). The primary caregiver looks at
the baby for less than half of the time-sampling unit (0-14
seconds).

3. FATHER MAJOR FOCUS ON BABY (MFB).

4. FATHER FOCUS ELSEWHERE (FE).

COLUMNS l6-18: SOURCES OF ATTENTIVENESS (SOURCES All)
Any person who is attentive to the infant beyond merely looking is

recorded in columns 16-18. Three sources of attentiveness are
distinguished.

1. MOTHER
2. FATHER
3. CHILD. Any person 16 years of age or younger, other than the
primary care iver.
4. OTHER ADULT IDA). A person 17 years of age or older, other than
the primary caregiver.
RULES

1. MULTIPLE SOURCES OF ATTENTIVENESS. Each category of persons atten-
tive to the infant is scored only once during a time-sampling unit,
regardless of how many individuals actually stimulated the infant.
For example, if the primary caregiver, two adults and four children
are all attentive to the baby in one time-sampling unit, columns 16-
18 are scored with a l, a Single 2, and a Single 3.

2. CHOICE OF THE PERSON WHO BEHAVIOR IS CODED IN COLUMNS 19-47.
When there are multiple sources of attentiveness scored in
columns l6-18, the behavior of only one person is scored in columns
19-47. The code.number for that person is entered in column 16.
Criteria for selecting the primary source of stimulation are:

a. the person who most actively stimulated the baby, as defined
by the following rating scale, is scored. If several people
are stimulating the baby at an equally high level, the person
who is holding the baby is chosen. If more than one person
holds the baby, the person holding him the longest is scored.

164

If two or more people hold him equal lengths of time, the last
person to hold him is scored. The rating scale for determining
level of stimulation follows:

1) MINIMAL: PASSIVE CONTACT. Passive contact between person
and infant, without trying to direct the infant's attention
and activities, e.g., looking at baby without mutual regard;
passive holding or touching.

2) VERY LOW: PASSIVE PHYSICAL CONTACT WITH BRIEF, PERFUNCTORY
STIMULATION. Sustained passive physical contact between
person and infant with a brief and perfunctory active
stimulus, e.g., a pat or two, shifting the baby's position,
saying a few words.

3) LOW: BRIEF ACTIVE STIMULATION WITHOUT SUSTAINED PHYSICAL
CONTACT. The attentive person actively stimulates the

. baby briefly without mutual visual regard.

4) INTERMEDIATE: ACTIVE STIMULATION WITHOUT ATTEMPTED
ELICITATION. The stimulation involves a substantial degree
of stimulus change (active touching, talking to, moving
the baby). but there is no obvious attempt to elicit a
response from the baby.

5) HIGH: ACTIVE ELICITATION. The attentive person actively
attempts to elicit a response from the infant in any of
the following ways:

a) Engaging the baby's visual attention socially or with a toy.

b) Active encouragement of motor skills.

c) Responding to the infant's vocalization; any response to
distress except check/acknowledge, columns 34-40.

d) Active encouragement of social responsivenss, i.e., broad
smiling and play.

COLUMNS 19-23: ATTENTIVENESS I (ATT I)

Two classes of attentiveness are distinguished: passive and active.
Passive attentiveness describes situations in which there is no rapid
onset-offset or stimulus change. The passive attentiveness codes are
looking, holding, touching passively and touching passively with an
object. Active attentiveness involves stimulus change. The active
attentiveness codes are mutual regard and all of the codes in columns
24-31.

I. LOOK. The person looks at the infant's face or at any part of
the infant's body for any period of time, regardless of whether
or not the infant looks back.

2. MUTUAL REGARD (MR). The person and the infant have direct eye-
to-eye contact.

3. HOLDS. The person wholly or partially supports the infant's
weight or maintains the infant's balance. Do not score if the
baby is held just long enough to move him from one place to
another. ‘

4. TOUCH PASSIVELY (T-PASS). Some part of a person's body is
resting, at that person's initiative, against the baby without
moving. This person is not supporting the baby's weight

165

or balancing him. Do not score a touch initiated by the baby.

5. TOUCH PASSIVELY WITH AN OBJECT (T-PASS/OJB). A person is
resting some object on or against the baby's body or in his
mouth for at least five consecutive seconds, without moving it,
e.g., holding a bottle quietly in the baby's mouth.

RULE

Holds preemptS touch passively if they occur simultaneously. However,
if they occur at different times in the same time-sampling unit, score
both.

COLUMNS 24-31: ATTENTIVENESS II (ATT-II)

Active attentiveness is stimulation in which stimulus change or movement
is a principal feature. Active attentiveness codes are mutual regard in
columns 19-23 and all codes in columns 24-31.

1. VOCALIZATION TO THE BABY (VOC TO B). The person Speaks or
sings to the baby or directs a nonspeech sound (whistling,
laughing, other sounds such as "ouch" related to interaction
with the baby) to him. All contingent and imitative vocaliza-
tions directed to the baby (defined below) are also scored
vocalization to the baby (code 1).

2. VOCALIZATION TO THE BABY CONTINGENT UPON THE BABY'S NONDISTRESS
VOCALIZATION (VOC C ND). The person vocalizes to the baby
following a nondistress vocalization by the baby in the same
time-sampling unit. Both infant and adult vocalization must
occur in the same observation unit. The contingent vocaliza-
tion need not be logically related or apparently in response to
the infant's vocalization; it need only follow the baby's
vocalization in time.

3. VOCALIZATION TO THE BABY CONTINGENT UPON THE BABY'S DISTRESS
VOCALIZATION (VOC C DIS). The person vocalizes to the baby
following or during a distress vocalization by the baby in the
same time-sampling unit. Both infant and adult vocalization
must occur in the same observation unit. The contingent
vocalization need not be logically related or apparently
in response to the infant's vocalization; it need only follow
the baby's vocalization in time. p

4. IMITATIVE VOCALIZATION (VOC-IMIT). The person imitate the sounds
made by the infant. Spontaneous baby talk, such as "goo-goo",
is not scored. '

5. TOUCH ACTIVELY (T-ACT). The person touches the infant actively,
with movement, but without moving the infant's whole body and
without an inanimate object, e.g., pats, rubs, tickles, kisses.
The touching may occur through clothing such as rubbing the
baby's back when he has a shirt on.

6. TOUCH ACTIVELY WITH AN OBJECT (T-ACT/OBJ). The person touches
the infant actively, with movement, with an inanimate object.
Examples include giving the baby an object or taking an object
from the baby; dressing, diapering, moving a bottle or Spoon in

RULE

166

and out of the baby's mouth; jiggling the nipple of the bottle
when it is already in the baby's mouth.

MOVES BABY (NOV 8). The person moves the baby's whole body

or at least half of it. Examples include picking the baby up,
raising the baby's lower trunk for diapering, changing the baby's
position, righting the baby when he falls over from a sitting
position, rockin, bouncing, jiggling.

If touch actively and touch actively with an Object occur simultaneously,
score only touch actively with an object. If they occur at different
times in the same time-sampling unit, score both.

COLUMNS 32-33: ANIMATION (ANI).

The face of the person attentive to the baby is lively and spirited.
There may be high activity of other parts of the person's body as well.

1.

RULES

BROAD SMILE WITHIN REACH (BR SM). A person who is within reach
of the baby smiles broadly while looking at the baby, in
response to something the baby has done, or as a result of
interaction with the baby. The smile must be clear and full.
Half smiles, little smiles and ambiguous smiles are not scored.
PERSONAL-SOCIAL PLAY (PL). The person engages in animated play
that has a "fun" quality, where the apparent object is to
amuse the baby, to play a game with recognizable rules or to
act out a fantasy situation. To score the code, one of the
following criteria must be met:
a. Facial-vocal play
1) Smiling or laughing in one of the following contexts:
the person is trying to amuse each other in a reciprocal
play situation; there is a game acted out; or there is
a fantasy situation acted out.
2) Making fun-like sounds, e.g., boo, tsk-tsk-tsk; sing-song
sounds accompanying a game.
3) Making faces in a playful context.
b. Find body play. Limb movement, as in patticake when the
hands are patted together; tickling.
c. Gross body play. The infant's whole body is moved in
play, e.g., jiggling, bouncing on the knee, throwing
the baby in the air, holding the baby overhead, rolling
him on the bed.

1. SMILING DURING PLAY. If the person smiles broadly in the context of
personal-social play, only personal-social play is scored.

2. INANIMATE OBJECTS INVOLVED IN PLAY. Personal-social play should
be distinguished from encouragement of attentiveness to inaminate
stimuli, columns 41-45, which describes how inanimate objects are
presented to the baby. The major element of personal-social play

167

is the personal aspect of it. The person playing with the baby is
not primarily presenting a toy, but is presenting herself or part
of herself in a playful fashion. Although an inanimate object may
be involved in personal-social play, it is not a criterion for
scoring the interaction as playful. If an object is presented
during the course of play, both personal-social play and the
relevant codes in columns 41-45 should be scored.

COLUMNS 34-40: RESPONSE TO DISTRESS (R TO DIS)

Response to distress is scored if a person attempts to soothe the

baby following a distress vocalization by the infant in the same time-
sampling unit. Score only those adult responses which are clearly
elicited by infant's fussing and crying.

I.

0501

RULE

-SOCIAL SOOTHING ALONG (S 500 AL). An individual tries to

soothe the infant by social stimulation. One of the following

criteria must be met:

a. Vocalizing to the baby (more than minimal acknowledgement
of distress).

b. Holding the baby (exclude transitional holding or carrying
to a new position).

c. Rocking or jiggling the baby.

d. Encouraging the baby to look at mother or Sibling, or
otherwise trying to focus the baby's attention on a person.

e. Encouraging the baby to sit up or crawl as a means of
diverting his attention from his discomfort.

If any of the categories listed below (2 to 6) occur Simulta-

. neously with social soothing, they are scored rather than social

soothing.

PLAY OBJECT (PL OBJ). The person attempt to divert the infant
by giving him an object to play with or by highlighting an
object to catch his attention.

FEEDS. The person feeds the baby in order to soothe him.

OTHER CARETAKING RESPONSE (OTH CA). The person changes the
baby's diaper or engages in some caretaking activity other than
feeding.

PACIFIER (PACIF). The person gives the baby a pacifier.

CHECKS AND/OR ACKNOWLEDGES THE BABY'S DISTRESS MINIMALLY (CH/A).
The person checks with a brief glance to see why the infant is
crying or acknowledges verbally and briefly the fact that the
infant is crying, e.g., "Oh, you're hungry," or "Wait a

minute, I'm coming."

OTHER. The person responds with any clear response other than
those listed above, e.g., changes the baby's location or
position.

MULTIPLE RESPONSES. All discrete responses occurring in the time-
sampling unit are scored, with the following exception. When social
soothing accompanies a change of position or location, social soothing

168

is scored instead of other is the social components are the principal
means by which the person is trying to soothe the baby. Other is
scored, however, if the change in position or location is the primary
means of effecting the soothing and the accompanying social soothing
is incidental.

COLUMNS)41-45: ENCOURAGEMENT OF ATTENTIVENESS TO STIMULI (ENC ATT
STIMULI

These columns describe behavior in which the primary intent of the
attentive person is to encourage or discourage the infant's visual and
tactile exploration of objects.

0. SEPARATING INFANT FROM OBJECT (SEP). The person either pur-
posefully or accidentally separates the infant from an
.inanimate object, part of another person's body, or part of
the infant's own body. The infant must be actively reaching
for or exploring the object when the separation takes place.
Separation is not scored if the infant is only mouthing the
object. '

l. POSITIONING AN OBJECT WITHIN VIEW (POS W VIEW). The person
purposefully positions the infant or an object so that the
object is within view but not within reach of the body.

2. POSITIONING AN OBJECT WITHIN REACH (POS F REACH). The person
purposefully positions the infant Or an object so that the
object comes within the baby's reach.

3. POSITIONING AN OBJECT IN THE BABY'S HAND (POS I HAND). The
person purposefully puts an object directly into the baby's
hand.

4. ENTICING, HIGHLIGHTING (ENT-HI).

a. ENTICING. The person purposefully directs the infant's
attention to an object to which he is not attending by
making the properties of the object salient to him, e.g.,
banging a rattle on a surface.

b. HIGHLIGHTING. When the infant is attending to an object,
the person manipulates the object in such a way as to
bring Specific properties of the object (visual, tactile,
auditory) to the infant's attention, e.g., rattling a
rattle, winding up a music box, Showing the clapper of a
bell.

RULES

1. POSITIONING

a. The positioning codes are scored more than once if the behavior
continues into succeeding time units.

b. Positioning includes: placing the baby so that he can see
himself in a mirror (because positioning of the mirror, an
inanimate object, is involved); moving parts of the baby's
own body to bring his attention to them, e.g., wiggling the
baby's toes; placing a pacifier within view, within reach, or
into his hand.

169

c. Do not score any positioning where the primary intent is other
than to encourage attentiveness to the object. Examples:
positioning of caretaking objects in use, such as spoon of food,
bottle of milk; placing a pacifier directly in the baby's mouth;
moving the baby or another person so that the person is within
the baby's view, his reach or in his hand.

2. ENTICING, HIGHLIGHTING

a. Highlighting includes moving parts of a person's body other
than the face, if the purpose is clearly to bring the baby's
attention to them.

b. Do not score highlighting parts of the person's face, such as
wrinkling the nose, covering the face during peek-a-boo, or
highlighting parts of the infant's body, e.g., clapping his
hands together.

COLUMNS 46-47: ENCOURAGEMENT OF EMERGENT GROSS MOTOR RESPONSES
(ENC EM GROSS MOTOR RESP)

The person directly encourages the baby to engage in behaviors involving
control of posture and locomotion. Simply verbalizing to encourage
postural or locomotor responses, if unaccompanied by a gesture or

other nonverbal communication, is not scored. Hovering in the vicinity
of the baby merely to prevent him from falling is not scored.

1. POSTURE (POST). The person actively encourages the baby to
develop postural control, e.g., sitting, standing. Placing
the baby in a sitting position is scored when there is
active encouragement of his continuing to maintain that position
partially by himself and when the focus is primarily on his
motor performance. Holding the baby in a standing position is
scored when there is some weight supported by his legs and
feet, although focus on the infant's performance in supporting
his weight is not required.

2. LOCOMOTION (LOC). The person encourages the baby to develop
independent locomotion by helping him to walk, coaxing him to
move in his walker by himself, pushing him in his walker,
encouraging him to crawl.

COLUMN 49: SALIENT VERBALIZATIONS NOT DIRECTED TO THE BABY (SAL VOC B)

This column describes verbalizations directed to someone other than
the baby when either the speaker or the person spoken to is within 10
feet of the baby. Human voices emanating from a television or radio
are not scored.

COLUMNS 49-51: CHANGE IN CONTAINER OR ROOM (CHANGE C/R)

Change is scored when the infant is in a new container or room, one

he was not in during the previous time-sampling unit, or if he is in two
containers or rooms in the same time-sampling unit. Containers include
an infant seat, a crib, a playpen, a person's lap, etc.

170

RULE

TRANSITIONS. Transition points are not scored, such as a room passed
through on the way to another room. Arms or lap are not scored if the
infant is picked up and held just long enough to be carried to another
container.

COLUMNS 52-55: NUMBER OF OBJECTS WITHIN REACH (NUMBER WR)

An object is within reach if the infant can touch it with his hand

by moving his arm forward, up or to the side. The number of objects
within reach of the infant iS counted and recorded for each time-sampling
unit. Each object within reach is counted separately, whether or not

it resembles or is a duplicate of another object within reach.

1. .TOY (COLUMNS 52-53). A toy is an object made for children of
any age to play with, including teething rings, but excluding
pacifiers and toy-like parts of infant furniture. Broken-off
pieces of toys are scored as separate toys, e.g., a detached
wing of a bird is scored as a separate toy. A toy with a string
attached, when both toy and string are within reach or when
only the toy is within reach, is scored as one toy. A toy with
the string attached, when only the string is within reach, is
scored "string" (see HO/CO, below).

2. HOUSEHOLD OBJECT/CARETAKING OBJECT (HO/CO) (COLUMNS 54-55).
Household objects are objects in the environment which may serve
as toys although they are primarily for adult use. Caretaking
objects are objects made or bought to meet the physical needs of
the baby. Examples of objects included in the category, HO/CO,
are newspapers, ashtrays, cigarette cartons, wallets, telephones,
telephone wire, pets, string, jewelry, pots and other utensils
used to prepare and store food. Excluded from the HO/CO count
are objects which are so common in our culture that infants are
likely to habituate to them.

Objects excluded are:

a. Food and bottles.

b. Table utensiles (silverware, cups, plates, baby food
jars .

c. Othericaretaking objects when they are in use, e.g.,
a powder can from which powder is being shaken, a
comb being used to comb the infant's hair, a tissue
used as a bib. When not in use, these items are scored.

d. Linen (bedclothes, tablecloths, facecloths, towels, etc)
and all Similar fabric items.

e. Clothing.

f. Structural features of the room, e.g., windows, sills,
f oor.

g. All adult and infant furniture, including toy-like
parts of the furniture.

171

VARIETY OF OBJECTS WITHIN REACH (OBJECTS WR)

In the blanks on the right of the observation Sheet, the observer

records each toy or HO/CO by name. Each object is listed only once, re-
gardless of the number of time-sampling units in which it is within

reach of the baby. The measure, variety, refers to the number of differ-
ent objects within reach of the baby during the home observation.

RULES

1.
2.

IDENTICAL OBJECTS. Items identical in appearance are listed only
once, e.g., two yellow kleenexes are listed only once.

PARTS OF OBJECTS. If a part of an object is not the same as the
whole in appearance, texture, or functional possibilities, e.g.,
wing of bird and bird, score two different objects. If part and
whole are essentially the same except for size, score one object.
ESSENTIALLY IDENTICAL OBJECTS EXCEPT FOR MINOR VARIATION. If two or
more objects are alike except for minor variations, score one object,
e.g., playing cards; pastel pink tissue and white tissue. If, how-
ever, there is a major color difference, score two different objects.
DIFFERENCES IN CONFIGURATION. An object seen under different con-
ditions, e.g., a hard cover book open and closed, is considered as
one object.

A single giant plastic bead is scored separately from a strand of
two or more beads.

172

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
INANIMATE ENVIRONMENT

After the home visit, return directly to the office and score each
play object or toy listed on the event sampling code sheets for respon-
siveness and complexity as defined below.

I.

RESPONSIVENESS OF OBJECTS WITHIN REACH. This is a rating of changes
in stimulation that can be produced by the average infant inter-
acting with the object. The essential element of "responsiveness"
is the object's capacity to respond contingently to the infant's
manipulation, so that the infant receives feedback in the form of
changes in visual, auditory or tactile stimulation. Thus, the
structure of the object, as well as its size, are considered in
relation to the average infant's motor skills as these limit his
ability to manipulate, retrieve, and control the object.

Four dimensions of responsiveness have been distinguished: moving
parts, reflected image, change in shape and contour, and noise produc-
tion. Each Should be rated independently of the other.

A. MOVING PARTS. The extent to which the object consists of
distinct parts which can be moved (independently of each other)
by the infant.

Three major classes of moving parts are distinguished:

1. Exterior parts which can be manipulated independently of
each other by the infant; the parts in motion can be both
seen and touched by the infant, e.g., cradle gym.

2. Interior parts which move when the infant manipulates the
object; the distinct parts in motion can be seen but not
touched by the infant, e.g., a ring filled with particles
floating in fluid.

3. Objects which are weighted, suspended or affixed by suction
so that they return to the infant after he moves them, e.g.,
a "battable" roly-poly clown.

(Objects which may or may not be affixed by suction are
rated in the state in which they are observed; ratings for
objects which are affixed by suction part of the time and
free part of the time are averaged.)

Moving parts whiCh can be both touched and seen by the
infant (class 1) are rated higher on responsiveness than
are parts in motion which can be seen only (class 2). Class
3 objects are given a rating of 3 for the characteristic
of "battableness;" any additional moving parts on the object
may serve to raise the overall rating for the object. The
moving parts must be visible to be scored at all. Whether
or not the moving parts produce noise is not relevant for
this rating; this property is rated separately under noise
production.

173

MOVING PARTS (RATINGS):

l. VERY LOW RESPONSIVENESS
no moving parts, e.g., cup, block, string, paper, ashtray.
a part capable of minimal movement, with little likelihood
of the infant's discovering this movement, e.g., trigger
of pistol.

2. LOW RESPONSIVENESS

Class 1

a. one minor part that moves freely, e.g., clapper of bell.

b. several minor parts that move slightly, e.g., ears
and tail of stuffed animal.

Class 2

c. internal parts that are not salient when in motion,
e.g., small plastic duck with beads, saltshaker with salt.

3. MODERATE RESPONSIVENESS

Class 1

a. one major part that moves freely, e.g., bluehead rattle
with ruffled collar, red ring with string.

b. several parts, some major, that move moderately,
e.g., beads on stroller, pages of magazine.

Class 2

c. internal parts that are very salient while in motion,
e. g. , hourglass.

Class 3

d. a "battable" object, e.g., roly-poly clown, object
suspended in a transparent ball.

4. HIGH RESPONSIVENESS
several parts that move freely, e.g., 4-duck ferris wheel
with visible marbles, 3 plastic balls on chain, and large
fabric clown.

4. VERY HIGH RESPONSIVENESS
many major parts that move very freely, e.g., mobile, cradle
gym, plastic keys or disks on a chain.

REFLECTED IMAGE. The extent to which the object reflects an
clearly visible to the infant and contingent upon his action.

1. LOW RESPONSIVENESS-reflects no image, or hardly any, e.g.,
plastic rattle.

2. MODERATE RESPONSIVENESS-reflects hazy or distorted image,
e.g., window glass, metal pencil sharpener, aluminum foil.

3. HIGH RESPONSIVENESS-reflects clear, sharp undistorted image,
e.g., mirror.

174

CHANGE IN SHAPE AND CONTOUR. The extent to which changes in the
configuration of the contour or geometric shape or boundary of
the object are responsive to the infant's manipulation. These
changes in contour, shape and boundary exclude those due to
"Moving Parts." They are produced primarily by bending,
crumpling, squashing, crumbling.

l. VERY LOW RESPONSIVENESS
no change e.g., ceramic mug, beads on a stroller, hourglass.
minimal change: either the object as a whole is quite, but
not completely, resistant, or only a relatively minor part
is responsive, e.g., white plastic imitation coke bottle,
suction cup on free suction toy, small ears of a large
stuffed animal.

.2. LOW RESPONSIVENESS-limited change
a. the object as a whole is Subject to limited change,
e.g., rubber teether, clothespin, squeaker toy, empty
Marlboro flip-top box.
b. parts of the object are subject to some change, e.g.,
long String on taut cradle gym.

3. MODERATE RESPONSIVENESS

a. object as a whole is moderately responsive, e.g., long
strand of giant plastic beads (5-11 beads).

b. one major part is responsive, e.g., string attached to
non-responsive object (red ring with string); keys on
6 inch chain.

c. several secondary parts are very responsive, e.g.,

- strings of umbrella mobile.

4. HIGH RESPONSIVENESS
a. object as a whole is highly responsive, e.g., very long
strand of giant plastic beads (12 beads or more).
b. a major proportion is very responsive, e.g., large fabric
clown, 3 plastic balls on 12-inch chain.

5. VERY HIGH RESPONSIVENESS-very highly responsive, e.g., news-
paper, magazine, string, ribbons, tissue, empty Tarryton
pack, soft cookie.

NOISE PRODUCTION. The extent to which the object has intrinsic
or structural noise-making potential which can be activated by
the infant's manipulation. The potential for noise must be
inherent in the construction of the object, and not the result
of banging the object against another object.

1. LOW RESPONSIVENESS-producesTuinoise in response to the in-
fant's manipulation, e.g., pacifier, telephone wire, teaspoon.

175

MODERATE RESPONSIVENESS-may produce noise on occasion, but
not consistently, because the required manipulation is
difficult for a typical 5-month-old, e.g., most squeaker
toys, telephone with dial.

HIGH RESPONSIVENESS-easily produces Significant distinct
sounds, e.g., rattle, cradle gym, giant beads, disks on
chain, newspapers, beads on stroller.

II. COMPLEXITY OF OBJECTS WITHIN REACH. The extent to which the object
provides "information" to the infant via his various modalities.

A. There are five components in this rating:

1.

NUMBER OF COLORS- the extent to which the object is multi-
colored.

AMOUNT OF PATTERN

a. Visual Pattern-amount of pattern printed on the surface
of the object, e.g., pictures, lettering.

b. Tactile Pattern-small scale variation in the contour,
usually decorative in purpose, e.g., closely spaced
ridges, ruffles, etc.; or variation in texture, e.g.,
plastic with areas of fur.

NUMBER OF DIFFERENT SHAPES-number of different geometric
shapes comprising the object; also large-scale variation

in contour, usually defining the object, e.g., small Sphere
(head) plus large sphere (torso) plus narrow cylinders
(limbs) comprise stringdoll.

SIZE-amount of area to be looked at or touched before the
infant can identify or recognize the object.

EXTENT OF RESPONSIVENESS-extent to which feedback in the form
of changes in stimulation can be produced by a 5-month

infant interacting with the object (see "Responsiveness

of Objects Within Reach" for details); responsiveness
comprises the number of dimensions (of the 4 rated) on

which it is responsive on each dimension.

B. SCORING CRITERIA:

1.

VERY LOW

All the following apply:

a. Monochromatic.

b. No visual or tactile pattern.

c. One or two different Shapes, or one or two “turns" in
the contour defining the object.

d. Small.

e. Lowest scores on all responsiveness dimensions or
quite responsive on only one dimension.

176

Examples: One smooth giant bead, a plastic doughnut, yellow
block, pink plastic cup, telephone cord, ribbon,
Kleenex.

2. LOW
Class a:
1. Small.
2. Basically monochromatic.
3. May or may not have minor color or tactile accents.

Must have at least one, may have as many as two of the following:

4. Fairly responsive but on one dimension only.

5 Has a good deal of repetitive TACTILE, but not VISUAL
pattern.

6. Several different shapes, or some large Scale variation
in contour.

Examples: Fork, hammer, telephone & Barbell rattles, pacifier,
pretzel teether, pink key teether, textured fruit with
ridges, blue rubber keyhole teether.

Class b: All the following apply:

Medium to large.

Basically monochromatic.

Small amount of visual or tactile pattern.
Minimally responsive on all dimensions.

Very few different shapes; very little large scale
variation in contour.

U'I-pCAJN—I'

Examples: White imitation coke bottle, brown glass ashtray,
Johnson's Baby Powder, aluminum ashtray.

3. MODERATE- Only oge__of the following applies:

a. Multicolored- at least two major colors with strong
color accents, or three or more major colors. .

b. Highly patterned-much visual and/or tactile pattern;
(must have some of both visual and tactile pattern;
must have high degree of at least one of them).

c. Many different geometric shapes and/or much large scale
variation in contour.

d. Moderate to high responsiveness*

Examples: Doll with diaper, ceramic mug, small plastic duck.

*Responsiveness Should not be the major criterion for moderate complexity.
If the object is utterly "simple" except for its responsiveness (i.e., if
it is very low on the other 3 criteria, e.g., plain sheet of paper), its
complexity rating is 2 rather than 3. Only if the object just misses
meeting the other 3 criteria is "moderate to high responsiveness"
sufficient to score 3 on complexity.

a.

b.

C.

d.

177

HIGH- Any tgg_of the following apply:

Multicolored-at least two major colors with strong
color accents, or 3 or more major colors.

Highly patterned-much visual and/or tactile pattern;
(must have some of both visual and tactile pattern;
must have high degree of at least one of them).

Many different geometric Shapes and/or much large
scale variation in contour.

Moderate to high responsiveness.

(The components not meeting the above listed criteria are
present to a lesser degree or not at all.)

Examples: Disks on a chain, keys on a chain, blue face rattle on

a collar, lamb squeaker, tiger squeaker, Bozo, face
rattle on clear handle, balls and rings on suction
stick, telephone with coiled wire, colorful magazine.

5. VERY HIGH-All the following apply:

a.

b.

O.

Multicolored-at least two major colors with strong
color accents, or three or more major colors.

Highly patterned-much visual and/or tactile pattern
(must have some of both visual and tactile pattern;
must have high degree of at least one of them).

Many different geometric shapes and/or much large scale
variation in contour.

Medium to large in Size.

Moderate to high responsiveness.

Examples: Umbrella mobile, doll with patterned dress, cradle

gyms ducks on wheel, large red clown.

178

AINSWORTH ET AL.

FOUR SCALES FOR RATING CAREGIVER BEHAVIOR

57(Amended Form)

Dwafour scales are designed to measure the quality or appropriateness
of caregiver behavior on the following general qualities:

1.

#0)“)

Sensitivity versus insensitivity to the baby's communications.
Acceptance versus rejection.
Cooperation versus interference

Accessibility versus Ignoring and Neglecting.

In order to be able to fill out or complete these scales, the rater
must carry out the following steps:

1.

I. General

A.

Bring 2 sets of each scale, one for the infant's father, one
for the mother, to the infant's home.

Introduce yourself to the infant's parents and then observe
the baby's mother and father's interactions with the baby
from the moment you position yourself near the baby (see
feeding instructions step #3) until 3 hours of observation
time has elapsed.

Complete the 4 rating scales for each parent as soon aS the
observation time, i.e., 3 hours are up, while still in the
home.

SCORE SHEET FOR CAREGIVER QUALITY SCALES
Instructions:

Each of the four scales presented below refers to a separate
area or category of caregiver behavior towards an infant.

Each scale contains 9 points which range from 1, the least
appropriate, to 9, the most appropriate. Only the odd-
numbered points, i.e., l, 3, 5, 7, 9 are defined, whereas
the even-numbered points are provided in case the rater is
unable to make a clear discrimination between the defined
points. In other words, if a caregiver's behavior repre-
sented points 1 and 3, then the rater should score that be-
havior as 2. See attached manual for scale definitions.

Fill out all four scales for each parent, i.e., one for the
infant's mother, and one for the infant's father, by circling
the number or scale point which best represents or describes
the caregivers behavior.

179

SCORE SHEET

 

 

 

 

Rater: Subject's name (infant):
Family's name Parent observed: (mother or father)
Time rating began: Time rating ended:

 

 

Scale #1: SensitivitijS Insensitivity of the Baby's Communications:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Highly . Insensitive Inconsistently Sensitive Highly
Insensitive Sensitive Sensitive

Scale #2: Acceptance VS Rejection:

 

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Highly Substantially Ambivalent Accepting Highly
Rejecting Rejecting Accepting

Scale #3: Cooperation VS Interference:

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Highly Interfering Mildly Cooperative Conspicuously
Interfering Interfering Cooperative

Scale #4: Accessibility VS Ignoring and Neglectipg:

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Highly Often In- Inconsistently Usually Highly
Inaccessi- accessible, Accessible Accessible Accessible
ble, Ignor- Ignoring,
ing, or or Neglecting

Neglecting

180

SENSITIVITY VERSUS INSENSITIVITY TO THE BABY'S COMMUNICATIONS

This variable deals with the mother's ability to perceive and to
interpret accurately the signals and communications implicit in her
infant's behavior, and given this understanding, to respond to them
appropriately and promptly. Thus the mother's sensitivity has four
essential components: (a) awareness of the signals; (b) an accurate
interpretation of them; (c) an appropriate response to them; and (d)

a prompt response to them. Let us consider each of these in turn.

The mother's awareness of her baby's signals and communications
has two aspects. The first is the same as the issue covered in the
scale "accessibility versus ignoring and neglecting." In other words,
the mother must be reasonably accessible to the baby's communications
before She can be sensitive to them. Accessibility is a necessary
condition for sensitive awareness. It is not a sufficient condition,
however, for a mother can maintain the "baby" in her field of aware-
ness without fulfilling the other condition for sensitive awareness.
The second aspect of awareness may be described in terms of "thresholds."
The most sensitive mother--the one with the lowest threshold--is alert to
the baby's most subtle, minimal, understated cues. Mothers with higher
thresholds seem to perceive only the most blatant and obvious communica-
tions. Mothers with the highest thresholds seem often oblivious, and
are, in effect, highly inaccessible. This second aspect is very closely
related to the question of interpretation of the baby's signals, for
usually the mother who is alert to minimal cues also interprets them
correctly. This is not invariably the case, however. For example, some
mothers are alert to the slightest mouth movements, and sometimes in-
correctly interpret them as hunger--or they notice minimal tensions or
restlessness and incorrectly interpret them as fatigue.

The mother's ability to interpret accurately her baby's communi-
cations haS three main components: (aliher awareness, as previously dis-
cussed; (b) freedom from distortion, and (c) empathy. An inattentive,
"ignoring" mother is, of course, often unable to interpret correctly the
baby's signals when they break through her obliviousness, for she has
been unaware of the prodromal Signs and of the temporal context of
the behavior. But even a mother who is highly aware and accessible may
misinterpret Signals because her perception is distorted by projection,
denial, or other marked defensive operations. Mothers who have dis-
torted perceptions tend to bias their "reading" of their babies
according to their own wishes, moods, and fantasies. For example,

a mother not wishing to attend to her baby might interpret his fussy
bids for attention as fatigue and, therefore, put him to bed; she

being in a hurry, might perceive any Slowing down in the rate of
feeding as a Sign of satiation; or a mother who is somewhat rejecting

of her infant might perceive him as rejecting and aggressive towards
herself. Mothers who least distort their perceptions of their babies
have some insight as to their own wishes and moods, and thus can more
realistically judge the baby's behavior. Furthermore, they are usually
aware of how their own behavior and moods affect their infant's behavior.

 

181

The mother must be able to empathize with her baby's feelings
and wishes before She can respond with sensitivity. That is, a mother
might be quite aware of and understand accurately the baby's behavior
and the circumstances leading to her baby's distress or demands, but
because she is unable to empathize with him--unable to see things from
the baby's point of view--she may tease him back in good humor, mock him,
laugh at him, or just ignore him. The mother's egocentricity and lack
of empathy may also lead to detached, intellectual responses to the
baby rather than to warm, sensitive interactions with the baby.

A high threshold of awareness and inaccurate perceptions certainly
lead to insensitive reSponseS. Nevertheless, the mother may be highly
aware and accurate in her interpretation and still be insensitive.
Therefore, in the last analysis, the appropriateness and promptness of
the mother's response to communications are the hallmarks of sensitivity.

The quality of the mother's interaction with her infant is pro-
bably the most important index of her sensitivity. It is essential that
the mother's responses be apprOpriate to the situation and to the baby's
communications. Often enough, at least in the first year of life, the
sensitive mother gives the baby what his communications suggest he wants.
She responds socially to his attempts to initiate social interaction,
playfully to his attempts to initiate play. She picks him up when he
seems to wish it, and puts him down when he wants to explore. When he
is distressed, She knows what kind and degree of soothing he requires to
comfort him--and she knows that sometimes a few words or a distraction
will be all that is needed. When he is hungry she sees that he soon gets
something to eat, perhaps giving him a snack if she does not want to
give him his regular meal right away. On the other hand, the mother
who responds inappropriately tries to socialize with the baby when he is
hungry, play with him when he is tired, or feed him when he is trying
to initiate social interaction.

In play and social interaction, the mother who responds appro-
priately to her child does not overstimulate him by interacting in too
intense, too vigorous, too prolonged, or too exciting a manner. She can
perceive and accurately interpret the Signs of over-excitement, undue
tension, or incipient distress and shifts the tempo or intensity before
things have gone too far. Similarly, she is unlikely to understimulate
the child, because She picks up and responds to the Signals he gives
when he is bored or when he wants more interaction that has heretofore
been forthcoming.

In the second year of life, and sometimes also toward the end
of the first year, it is maximally appropriate for the mother to respond
to the baby's signals not SO much in accordance with what he ostensibly
wants in terms of a compromise between this and what will make him feel
most secure, competent, comfortable, etc. in the long run. This
is a tricky judgment to make, for so much that is done "for the baby's
own good" is done both contrary to his wishes and according to the
mother's convenience, whim, or preconceived standards. Nevertheless,

182

there are situations in which limit-setting, even in the first year,
clears the air even though it is initially contrary to the baby's wishes.
Similarly there are situations in which the baby's signals might lead
the mother to increase the tempo of interaction to the point of dis-
comfort for him, and in which it is appropriate gradually to diminish
intensity. Furthermore, there is a fine poit of balance at which the
mother can begin to Show the baby that she is not an instrument of his
will, but a cooperative partner whose participation must be elicited
appropriately. In such instances the mother will slightly frustrate the
baby's imperious demands but warmly encourage (and reward) behaviors
which are inviting or requesting rather than demanding. Nevertheless

in such interactions the sensitive mother acknowledges the baby's

wishes even though she does not unconditionally accede to them. The
chief point is that a sensitive, appropriate response does not in-
variably imply complete compliance to the baby's wish--although very
frequently compliance may be the most appropriate response.

The final feature of apprOpriate interaction is that it is well-
resolved, or well-rounded and completed. For example, when the baby
seeks contact the sensitive mother holds him long enough to satisfy
him, so that when he is put down he does not immediately seek to be
picked up again. When he needs soothing, She soothes him thoroughly,
so he is quite recovered and cheerful. When he seeks social interaction
she enters into a more or less prolonged exchange with him, after which,
often enough, he is content to entertain himself. In contrast, some mo-
thers with low sensitivity seem to be fragmented and incomplete, these
mothers may try a series of interventions as though searching for the
best method or solution. Highly sensitive mothers have completed, easily
and well resolved interactions.

Finally, there is the issue of the promptness of the mother's
response to the baby's communication. A response, however appropriate,
which is so delayed that it cannot be perceived by the baby as con-
tingent upon his communication cannot be linked by him to his own
Signal. On the assumption that it is a good thing for a baby to gain
some feeling of efficacy--and eventually to feel cumulatively a "sense
of competence" in controlling his social environment--it seems a part
of sensitivity to acknowledge the baby's Signals in some effective way
and to indicate that one is at least preparing to accede to them. During
the first quarter of the first year, a mother's sensitivity is most
easily judged by her latency in response to the baby's distress signals
such as hunger. However, during the last quarter, the mother's prompt
response to the baby's social communication and signals is probably
a more critical measure. A mother is inevitably insensitive when she
fails to respond to the baby's outstretched arms, to his excited greet-
ing, or simply to his smile or gentle touch.

 

An issue which cuts across the various components of sensitivity
concerns the timing of routine activities and play. In general, arbi-
trary or very rigid timing of major interactions cannot but be in-
sensitive to the infant's signals, moods, and rhythms. The mother who

183

arranges and organizes day by day activities with her infant in order
to most convenience herself, or the mother who thinks by the clock, has
little or no consideration of the infant's tempo and current state.

In summary, highly sensitive mothers are usually accessible to
their infants and are aware of even their more subtle communications,
signals, wishes, and moods; in addition, these mothers accurately inter-
pret their perceptions and Show empathy with their infants. The sensi-
tive mother, armed with this understanding and empathy, can time her
interactions well and deal with her baby so that her interaction seem
appropriate--appropriate in kind as well as in quality--and prompt.

In contrast, mothers with low sensitivity are not aware of much of

their infant's behavior either because they ignore the baby or they fail
to perceive in his activity the more subtle and hard-to-detect communica-
tions. Furthermore, insensitive mothers often do not understand those
aspects of their infant's behavior of which they are aware or else they
distort it. A mother may have somewhat accurate perceptions of her
infant's activity and moods but may be unable to empathize with him.
Through either lack Of understanding or empathy, mothers with low sensi-
tivity often have inappropriate responses in kind as well as quantity,
i.e., interactions which are fragmented and poorly resolved.

9 Highly sensitive. This mother is exquisitly attuned to 8'5 signals,
and responds to them promptly and appropriately. She is able to
see things from B's point of view; her perceptions of his signals and
communications are not distorted by her own needs and defenses.
She "reads" B's signals and communication skillfully, and knows what
the meaning is of even his subtle, minimal, and understated cues.
She nearly always gives 8 what he indicates that he wants, although
perhaps not invariably so. When She feels that it is best not to
comply with his demandS--for example, when he is too excited, over-
imperious or wants something he should not have--she is tactful in
acknowledging his communication and in offering an acceptable
alternative. She has "well- rounded" interactions with B, so that
the transaction is smoothly completed and both she and B feel satis-
fied. Finally, she makes her responses temporally contingent upon
B's signals and communications.

 

7 Sensitive. This mother also interprets B's communications accurately,
and responds to them promptly and appropriately, but with less
sensitivity than mothers with higher ratings. She may be less
attuned to 8'5 more subtle behaviors than the highly sensitive
mother. Or, perhaps because She is less skillful in dividing her
attention between B and competing demands, she may sometimes "miss
her cues." B'S clear and definite signals are, however, neither
missed nor misinterpreted. This mother empathizes with B and sees
things from his point of view; her perceptions of his behavior are
not distorted. Perhaps because her perception is less sensitive
than that of mothers.with higher ratings, her responses are not as
consistently prompt or as finely appropriate--but although there
may be occasionally little "mismatches," M's interventions and
interactions are never seriously out of tune with B's tempo, state

and communications.

184

Inconsistently,sensitive. Although this mother can be quite sensitive
on occasion, there are some periods in which she is insensitive to
8'5 communications. M's inconsistent sensitivity may occur for any
one of several reasons, but the outcome is that She seems to have
lacunae in regard to her sensitive dealings with B--being sensitive,
at some times or in respect to some aspects of his experience, but
not in others. Her awareness of B may be intermittent--often

fairly keen, but sometimes impervious. Or her perception of 8's
behavior may be distorted in regard to one or two aspects although
it is accurate in other important aspects. She may be prompt and
apprOpriate in response to his communications at some times and in
most respects, but either inappropriate or slow at other times and
in other respects. On the whole, however, she is more frequently
sensitive than insensitive. What is Striking is that a mother who
can be as sensitive as she is on so many occasions can be so
insensitive on other occasions.

 

Insensitive. This mother frequently fails to respond to 8'5
communications appropriately and/or promptly, although she may on
some occasions Show capacity for sensitivity in her responses to

and interactions with 8. Her insensitivity seems linked to in-
ability to see things from B's point of view. She may be too
frequently preoccupied with other things and therefore inaccessible
to his signals and communications, or she may misperceive his signals
and interpret them inaccurately because of her own wishes or
defenses, or She may know well enough what 8 is communicating but

be disinclined to give him what he wantS--because it is inconvenient
or she is not in the mood for it, or because she is determined not

to "spoil" him. She may delay an otherwise appropriate response to
such an extent that it is no longer to his state, mood, or activity.
Or she may respond with seeming appropriateness to 8'5 communications
but break off the transactions before 8 is satisfied, so that their
interactions seem fragmented and incomplete or her responses per-
functory, half-hearted, or impatient. Despite such clear evidence

of insensitivity, however, this mother is not as consistently or
pervasively insensitive as mothers with even lower ratings. Therefore
when the baby's own wishes, moods, and activity are not too deviant
from the mother's wishes, moods, and household responsibilities

or when the baby is truly distressed or otherwise very forceful

and compelling in his communication, this mother can modify her

own behavior and goals and, at this time, can Show some sensitivity
in her handling of the child.

 

Highly insensitive. The extremely insensitive mother seems geared
almost exclusively to her own wishes, moods, and activity. That is,
M's interventions and initiations of interaction are prompted or
shaped largely by Signals within herself; if they mesh with B's sig-
nals, this is often no more than coincidence. This is not to say
that M never responds to 8'5 signals; for sometimes She does if

the signals are intense enough, prolonged enough or often enough
repeated. The delay in response is in itself insensitive. Further-
more, Since there is usually a disparity between M's own wishes and
activity and 8's signals, M who is geared largely to her own

 

185

Signals routinely ignores or distorts the meaning of B's behavior.
Thus, when M responds to 8'5 signals, her response is characteris-
tically inappropriate in kind or fragmented and incomplete.

ACCEPTANCE VS REJECTION

This scale deals with the balance between the mother's positive
and negative feelings about her baby--about having a baby and about this
particular one--and with the extent to which She has been able to
integrate these conflicting feelings or to resolve the conflict. At
the positive pole there is love and acceptance overriding frustrations,
irritations, and limitations--or perhaps more accurately, encompassing
and defusing the negative feelings. At the negative pole anger, resent-
ment, hurt, or irritation conflict conspicuously with and limit positive
feelings and result in more or less overt rejection of the baby. It is
assumed that the arrival of a baby poses a potentially ambivalent Situa-
tion--and that for all mothers there are positive and negative aspects.
Among the negative aspects is the fact that the new baby impinges on
and limits the mother's own autonomy and interferes with other activities
which are important to her in one way or another. Furthermore there
are inevitable irritations and frustrations in interacting with this
particular baby from day to day. Among the positive aspects is the
undeniable appeal a baby makes to his mother--evoking tenderness,
protectiveness, and other positive reactions.

It is assumed that there are positive and negative elements in
all mother-infant relationships. We are concerned with how the mother,
given her present life situation, has been able to balance them. It
is assumed that at the desirable, accepting, positive end of this con-
tinuum negative components are not so much absent as somehow subsumed
within the context of the positive relationship. It is also assumed
that at the undesirable, rejecting, "negative" end of this continuum
positive components are not so much lacking as they are not integrated
with the negative, rejecting components, so that there is an alterna-
tion between tenderness, nurturance, and delight on the one hand, and
anger, resentment, irritation, hurt, and rejection on the other, without
any adequate meshing of the two together. There is a good and lovable
baby and a bad and infuriating baby, but the real baby as he actually
exists is somehow lost between the two.

The assessment of the balance between positive and negative
is not easy. The social norm is that mothers love their babies and do
not reject them. The angry, rejecting, negative components of the
mother's relations with the baby tend, therefore, to be suppressed or
repressed. The positive components are, of course, more acceptable,
and the mother usually feels free to express positive feelings openly.
She may even feel impelled to put on a Show of affection in excess of
her real feelings. To complicate things further a baby has much appeal
even to an essentially rejecting mother, and she may be genuine in her

186

positive expressions while trying to hide (perhaps even from herself)
her negative feelings. Finally, it is acknowledged to be healthy for a
person-~even a mother--to give vent to angry feelings rather than
trying to submerge them with the consequence that they may Simmer for
long periods of time during which they color the tone of behavior and
interfere with positive feelings. Momentary outbursts of anger or
irritation must not be given undue weight if they are embedded in an
otherwise clearly positive, warm, loving relationship. On the other hand
the rater must be alert to Signs of submerged resentment in the case of
a woman who finds it very difficult to acknowledge anger, and must give
them due weight.

Some mothers clearly have positive feelings uppermost; they ex-
press them frequently and spontaneously and without any apparent striving
to play a loving role, to make a good impression, or even to be kind to
the baby. They acknowledge the baby's exploratory interest, and do not
feel hurt when these lead him away from her. They sense and respect the
baby's budding desire for autonomy and mastery and understand his anger
when he is frustrated; therefore they do not view early conflicts of
interests as struggles for power in which they must be aggressive or
else be overwhelmed. These are women whose love-hate impulses are well
enough integrated that they can feel almost wholly positive toward their
babies without danger of repressed hostility. Such a mother, perhaps
because she is able to empathize with the baby, does not interpret
instances of disruptive, annoying behavior as an indication of a poten-
tial character defect in the baby which must be "nipped in the bud."
Although sometimes the baby may seem clearly angry at her, she inter-
prets neither such episodes, nor episodes of more diffusely uncoopera-
tive or annoying behavior, as adequate reason for her to feel hurt or to
institute retaliative measures. She may feel a brief surge of annoyance,
but she does not consider the baby himself as a suitable target on
which to focus her anger. She may acknowledge his anger. She may openly
express her own exasperations. She may discourage the behavior in
question. She may deal with her own momentary irritability by some
means which gives her a chance to "cool off" before resuming her inter-
action with the baby. But She does not harbor resentment or hurt, and
because she does not "take it out" on the baby, he is unlikely to feel
rejected, especially if momentary irritation or behavior-directed
disapproval is embedded in general warm acceptance.

Some outwardly accepting mothers are more rejecting than those,
described above, who can give brief, healthy, situation-specific
vent to annoyance. These pseudo-accepting mothers comply with the baby's
demands, but in a way which is in itself inappropriate. They comply
masochistically, and in a pseudo-patient, long-suffering way, and usually
underneath this type of compliance lies much repressed aggression--which
is usually deep-seated and of long standing, and which has little to do
with the baby except as his behavior may serve to activate this repressed
aggression and threaten the defenses against it. Such a mother cannot
give healthy vent to anger occasioned by the baby's behavior. She
smothers it, and tries to be patient. Her very defenses against ex-
pressing her anger make it impossible for her to be truly responsive

187

to the baby, and hence he tends to find her compliance unsatisfying.
Both this and the often inappropriate ourbursts of irritation which
inevitably break through the defenses add up to rejection.

Clear-cut, overt rejection is unmistakable. Some highly reject-
ing mothers are quite open in their rejection. Such a mother may say
that she wishes that the child had never been born, or she may be less
open but nevertheless say what a nuisance he is and how he interferes
with her life. Or She may complain more specifically, pointing out the
baby's defects and shortcomings, and dwelling on her problems with him.
To be sure, to talk with the observer about concerns and problems does
not necessarily imply substantial rejection, but to emphasize these
constantly rather than the baby's good points and the pleasure he
yields suggests at least an undercurrent of rejection. (In fact, it
is well known that damaged or handicapped babies, who obviously present
more problems than "normal" babies do, tend to activate more rejection
in their mothers. Therefore, whether or not the “problem" has an ade-
quate realistic basis is irrelevant for our purposes.) Another way in
which a mother may voice rejecting attitudes, without actually saying
that She rejects the baby, is to say, often in a heavy-handed "joking"
manner, all sorts of uncomplimentary things to the baby while she is
interacting with him--"stinkpot," "fatso," "stupe," and the like--or to
comment to the observer, in an apparently "objective" way that this is
an ugly baby, uglier than its siblings, or that it has a flat head,
protruding teeth, or a nasty temper (just like his father's) and the
like. (Such uncomplimentary remarks should be distinguished--
although this is sometimes difficult--from "tough" comments made by
an essentially accepting mother to disguise from the world just how
crazy she is about this baby.)

Rejection is of course expressed in behavior as well as verbally.
When it is overt, it is unmistakable. The highly rejecting mother may
show her rejection by constantly opposing the baby's wishes, by a
generally pervasive atmosphere of irritation or scholding, by jerking him
about with ill-concealed anger, and by joining battle with him whenever
he seems to challenge her power. Less obviouS--and perhaps less highly
rejecting--is chronic impatience, or a punitive or retaliatory putting
of the baby away or deliberately ignoring his overtures as though the
mother were trying to say to the baby "you snubbed me, didn't do what
I wanted you to do, rejected my overtures, and now I will "Show" you!"
Teasing is sometimes a less obvious way of expressing negative feeling-
components. Even when the baby responds positively to teasing there
seems to be some negative, aggressive component in the teaser's
behavior--and in extremes teasing is obviously sadistic, even though
the sadism may be veiled by seeming warmth and good humor.

This scale is related to the first quarter Scale--Mother's
Acceptance of the Baby--which dealt with the mother's acceptance-rejec-
tion in terms of the degree to which the baby iS felt to interfere with
her own autonomy. This emphasis seemed appropriate during the first
three months when the chief issue of acceptance seemed to be one of the
mother's autonomy. In the latter part of the first year, however, the

188

baby has emerged as more of a person in the mother's eyes--a person who
can be sometimes entrancing or appealing and sometimes irritating and
even infuriating. The present scale, therefore focuses chiefly on the
balance between positive and negative feelings. Nevertheless the
previous issue of the mother's acceptance or resentment of the degree to
which the baby infringes on her own autonomy is still relevant and will
be taken into consideration.

The chief difficulty in rating is expected to occur in trying to
distinguish rejection as defined by this scale from ignoring and
neglecting, which is dealt with in another scale. The rater is referred
to the discussion of this point in the introduction to the other scale.
A rule of thumb was suggested. If the baby is in the same room with
his mother, and if it is clear that her ignoring of his signals is
deliberate, then the instance in question will be considered rejection--
especially if there is evidence that the mother is motivated by an
angry or "hurt" desire to punish or to retaliate. (Similarly, the
mother who aribtrarily puts the baby away--for a nap or gives him to
someone else--will be considered rejecting, especially if there is
evidence that She is irritated by his behavior or tired of him.) It is
assumed that somehow the baby can perceive rejection under these cir-
cumstances. If, however, the baby is in another room--as for example,
when he is crying when put down for a nap or waking from a nap--the
mother's failure to respond will be considered ignoring. .It is em-
phasized that this is only a rule of thumb. Ignoring in the sense of
being oblivious to the baby and failing to perceive his signals may
be a special case of rejection, and may have similar motivation, although
the implication is that the negative component is more completely re-
pressed than in rejection. Indeed some mothers may be both rejecting
and ignoring, alternating more or less overt rejection with the covert
rejection implicit in ignoring. It nevertheless seems worthwhile to
distinguish these two variables because it seems likely that babies
respond differentially to the two patterns of behavior, and that
certain patterns of infant behavior may be associated with relatively
overt rejection in which the angry component can be more clearly sensed
than to the covert rejection.

Furthermore, the positive ends of the two scaleS--accessibility
and acceptance--may be distinguished. Some mothers are accessible
in the sense of being clearly aware of the baby and yet behave
in a rejecting way. Other mothers may be on balance positive in their
feelings, and hence fairly accepting, and yet may become involved in
other activities to the extent that their accessibility is fairly
frequently low.

9 Highly acceptipg, M is highly accepting of B and his behavior,
even Of behavior which other mothers find hurtful or irritating.
She values the fact that the baby has a will of his own, even when
it Opposes hers. She is pleased to observe his interest in other
people or in exploring the world, even though this may on occasion
lead him to ignore her overtures. She even finds his anger worthy
of respect. She can, on rare occasions, be irritated or frustrated

7

189

by B's behavior. but this tends to be brief--soon over and done with--
and it does not occur to her to feel that B himself is a worthy

target upon which to focus her anger. She not only loves B, but

she respects him as an individual. At the same time She accepts

the responsibility for caring for him, and does not chafe against

the bonds which tie her down temporarily and which restrict her from
activities in which She would otherwise enjoy participating.

Accepting. The balance of feeling is still clearly toward the
positive, accepting, loving side, and irritation and resentment

are infrequent in comparison. This mother does not show as much
respect for the baby as a separate, autonomous person as do mothers
with higher ratings, and she may not Show as much obvious acceptance
of the fact that he has a will of his own, that he is often inter-
ested in other people and things, and that he can get angry. She
is generally patient with B, and her patience seems a matter of
genuine acceptance of his demands and inefficiencies rather than
over-compliant, long-suffering, pseudo-patience. She seems to
suppress (or repress) relatively little of her feeling toward 8,
perhaps chiefly because there is relatively little undercurrent of
negative feeling, especially toward him. Moreover she generally
accepts the limitations to her own autonomy presented by B and her
care of him.

Ambivalent. M seems chiefly positive in her feeling toward 8, and
on occasion she obviously enjoys him; nevertheless resentment or
hurt may break through in inappropriate ways. The inapprOpriate-
ness is largely a matter of M taking some behavior of the baby's--
angry, frustrated behavior, or assertion of will, or momentary
preference for other people or things--as a deep-seated mother-
directed hostility, opposition or rejection, and this leads her to
retaliate with behavior that is essentially rejecting behavior. Dr,
M may be somewhat impatient and irritable with the baby at times,
rejecting him when he ceases to be compliant or endearing, and yet
there is enough positive interaction to preclude a lower rating. Dr
M may point out either frequently or inaccurately that B rejects her,
in that he seems to prefer someone else or will not come to her
readily; her dwelling upon behavior that She interprets as rejection
seems likely to imply an undercurrent of rejecting 8. Dr M may
tease B when he is upset, angry, or otherwise difficult--and the
teasing, of course, aggravates the difficulty. For a rating of "5"
the expressions of negative feeling must not be predominant over
positive, mutually enjoyable interaction, whatever the assessment

of underlying dynamics; if they are, the rating should be lower.

 

Substantially rejecting, M's negative responses, veiled or open,

are frequently enough to outweigh expressions of positive feelings
toward B--although she is neither as openly nor as strongly rejecting
as women with lower ratings. Ways in which her anger or resentment
toward 8 may be expressed are as follows: (a) by putting him away
from her when he does not do what she wants--or by deliberately
ignoring him as a retaliation--and this is not merely a matter of

190

insensitivity but a clear rejection of him; (b) by dwelling in con-
versation on B's bad points and the problems he occasions rather than
upon his good points, accomplishments, and the pleasure he yields;
(by saying critical, uncomplimentary, nasty things to and about 8

in his presence even though these are "joking" (Although it is
difficult, these should be distinguished from "tough" comments
designed to conceal strong positive feelings); (d) by a veiled
irritation with B which underlies a long-suffering, pseudo-patient
compliance to his demands (which are perfunctory compliances and
hence not satisfying) and which occasionally becomes overt in
impatient, rejecting behavior; (e) marked impatience; (f) a

sadistic undercurrent which is largely concealed but which comes out
in little ways. Also here one might classify the mother who shows
hurt, retaliatory behavior more frequently or more strongly than

the "5" or "4" mother.

1 Highly rejectigg, M is clearly rejecting of B and her positive
feelings toward him are frequently overwhelmed by her resentful,
angry, rejecting feelings. This may be manifest in any one or
a combination of different ways. She may openly voice an attitude
of rejection, saying that she is sorry that She ever had him. Or
She may somewhat less openly voice her rejection by implying that
he is a great nuisance, and that he interferes substantially in her
life and with what she would like to be able to do. Or She may
complain about 8 more specifically, pointing out his defects and
Shortcomings. Even though She may refrain from verbalizing her
rejection of 8, she may manifest it by a constant opposition to his
wishes, by a generally pervasive atmosphere of irritation and scold-
ing, by jerking him about with ill-concealed anger, and by joining
battle with him whenever he seems to challenge her power. There
may be positive aspects in her relationship with B which suggest
that she can enjoy 8, but these are rare and isolated in their
manifestations.

 

COOPERATION VS INTERFERENCE

The central issue of this scale is the extent to which the
mother's interventions and initiations of interaction break into,
interrupt or cut across the baby's ongoing activity rather than being
geared in both timing and quality to the baby's state, mood, and current
interests. The degree of interference may be assessed in accordance
with two considerations: (a) the extent of actual physical inter-
ference with the baby's activity, and (b) the sheer frequency of
interruptions.

Some mothers are highly interfering in an overwhelming physical
sense. Such a mother snatches the baby up, moves him about, confines
him, and, indeed, releases him with utter disregard for his activity-
in-progress. When she restricts and restrains his movements it tends
to be by direct physical intervention or force. She may also try to
use force in instances in which the baby's cooperation is required if

191

the intervention is to be effective--for example, in feeding, in play,
and (although this usually comes later) in toilet training. Other
mothers, whose interference does not so conspicuously emphasize physical
force, nevertheless must be considered highly interfering because they
are "at" the baby most of the time--instructing, training, eliciting,
directing, controlling.

In either case it is clear that the highly interfering mother
has no respect for her baby as a separate, active, and autonomous person,
whose wishes and activities have a validity of their own. The underlying
dynamics of such an attitude are various; some examples follow. An
obsessive-compulsive woman, for example, tends to require a tight control
over other people in order to control her own anxieties; such a mother
may become anxious and angry when the baby does not do exactly what she
wants him to do, when she wants him to do it, and in the way She wants
him to do it. Another kind of dynamic behind interference is Shown by
the woman whose baby continues to be a narcissistic extension of herself;
such a woman tends to treat him as her possession, her creature, hers.
When she is in a mood to play, she may find the baby charming, provided
that he cooperates and plays; when She tires of him She puts him aside;
in either case it does not seem to occur to her to attribute any
validity to how the baby feels. A third kind of dynamic behind inter-
ference is an emphasis on training. The mother feels that She can shape
the baby to fit her own concept of a good baby, whether through a
determined attempt to elicit behavior She considers desirable or by
punishing behavior that she considers undesirable. These three
examples do not exhaust the possibilities, but it is hoped that they
serve to illustrate the essentials of the underlying attitude--which
is that the interfering mother feels that the baby is hers and that She
has a perfect right to impose her will on him. She tends to treat him
almost as an inanimate possession that She can move about as she wishes--
or perhaps, as a more appropriate analogy. as a small child treats a pet
kitten, to be handled, petted, fed, teased, carried, and put aside with
complete lack of regard for the kitten's needs and wishes.

 

Mothers at the other end of this coninuum seem to guide rather
than to control the baby's activity. Such a mother integrates her
wishes, moods, and household responsibilities with the baby's wishes,
moods, and ongoing activity. Their interactions and shifts of
activity seem co-determined. Rather than interrupting an activity that
the baby has in progress, she delays her intervention until a natural
break in his activity occurs. Or through mediating activities, often
of a playful sort, she can gradually divert him from what he is doing
toward something she wants him to do. Such a mother uses mood-setting
techniques. At bed-time, for example, She gradually slows down the
pace and vigor of their interaction until he is relaxed and calm and
more ready for bed than he could have been at the peak of excited play.
She invites him to come and cooperate with what she has in mind rather
than imposing it on him.

A type of interference, less forceful than direct physical
intervention, may be seen in play and vocalization. An interfering

192

mother tends to play entirely or almost entirely by doing something

to the baby, or by getting him to do something She wishes. Such mothers
instruct the baby in tricks or stereotyped games, persisting even when
the baby is in an unresponsive mood. Once the baby has learned the
tricks or games to some degree, the mother subsequently plays by
attempting to elicit them. Or, as an alternative, she does something
playful to the baby, for example tickling him or whirling him about.
(These examples are not intended to imply that tickfing or whirling are
in themselves criteria of an interfering approach, but merely that they
can be modes of play which are not co-determined, and often enough,
together with "elicitin " or instructing, the only modes available to
the interfering mother.) Similarly, with vocalization. The interfering
mother persistently tries to elicit specific vocalizations (or gestures)
regardless of the baby's current interest in vocalizing or lack of it.

In contrast, a "co-determining" mother capitalizes on spontaneity.
She responds to the baby's vocalizations, and does a minimum of trying
to elicit specific sounds. She tends to pick up something the baby
does as the beginning of a play sequence, and responds to his initiations
of play. She may attempt to initiate play, but if the baby does not
respond, She either desists, or Shifts her approach. Most mothers
undertake some kind of instruction, and on one occasion or another
deliberately elicit something the baby has learned, so rating is a matter
of balance between eliciting and instructing on one hand and spontaneity
on the other--and also a matter of appropriateness of context and meshing
with the baby's mood.

The extremes of physical interference are to be seen most usually
in pick-up and put-down situations and when the baby is free on the
floor. The highly interfering mother is likely to keep pulling the baby
back from places She does not want him to go, perhaps interspersing
direct control with multiple commands, "no-no's," and perhaps slaps. Of
course, even a usually non-interfering mother will intervene abruptly
and forcibly if the baby's activity threatens physical harm to him, for
example, if he is headed toward unguarded stairs or if he is about to
swallow some small object. But it is characteristic of the non-
interfering mother to "baby-proof" the house and its contents so that
physical intervention is rarely necessary--by placing gates across the
stairways, by putting away objects which could harm the baby or which
she does not want him to have, and the like.

Restraint may sometimes be considered a form of interference,
but there is a distinction to be made between forcible physical restraint,
such as pinioning the baby's arms when there is a direct physical con-
frontation between mother and baby, and impersonal restraints such as
playpens and the straps of a highchair. Restraint which involves phy-
sical controntation will be considered interference. ‘Impersonal re-
straints will not be considered interfering, except insofar as the
manner and timing of imposing the restraint itself constitutes an
interference. Thus strapping the baby in a highcahir is not an inter-
ference, but if, when the baby has been refusing to Sit, the mother jerks
him down and straps him in, this would be considered an interference.

193

Similarly, placing the baby in the playpen would not be considered an
interference per se, but picking him up unceremoniously when he is in
the midst of active exploration and dumping him down in the playpen
would.

One difficulty with this rating scale is how to rate mothers who
have been highly interfering in the past and whose babies have become
passive as a result. Such babies may now not try to reach the bottle;
it is no longer necessary to pinion their arms. Such babies when
placed on the floor may not explore vigorously so it is not necessary
to interfere. Even in instances where it is known that present general-
ized or situation-specific passivity is correlated with past restraints
and interferences, the mother will be rated on the basis of positive
evidence of interference (or conversely cooperation) which she now shows.
(It is assumed that ratings of earlier periods, when undertaken, will
tell the story, if, indeed, the mother now gives little evidence of
interference.)

Routines--feeding, changing, bathing, and bed-time--may be the
occasion for interference, just as they ,may be the Situations in which
cooperation and co-determination is most clearly illustrated. The
general rule of thumb is that when interference is a matter of direct
physical control it will be considered interference, but when it is a
matter of tactful control or accepted impersonal restraint it will not
be so considered. In between the two extremes come the milder inter-
ferences of verbal commands and prohibitions. Thus, for example, the
mother who slaps or holds the baby's hands to prevent him from touching
food would be considered interfering; the mother who scolds and warns
without physical intervention would be considered interfering to a milder
degree. The mother who gives no finger foods would not be considered
interfering, unless She Slaps, holds, scolds, or verbally prohibits.

The mother who tussles or Slaps an active child while changing him would
be considered interfering. The mother who gives him something to mani-
pulate or who holds his attention by talking to him playfully and thus
does not need to interfere physically would be considered non-inter-
fering. The mother who interrupts an active or excited or unsleepy

baby and puts him to bed abruptly would be considered interfering. But
the mother who plays gentle games, or holds and rocks, and who generally
gets the baby into a nap-accepting mood will be considered cooperative.
The timing of routines per se will not, however, be taken into account
in rating this variable. (Timing will be reflected in the scale

dealigg yith the mother's sensitivity to the baby's communications and
Signa S.

This present scale, although not entirely orthogonal to scales
of ignoring the rejecting, is certainly not in one-to-one relationship
with them. Some interfering mothers alternate interfering transactions
with periods of ignoring the baby; others are clearly aware of the baby
at all times and are by no means inaccessible.

194

Conspicuously cooperative. This mother views her baby as a separate,
active, autonomous person, whose wishes and activities have a
validity of their own. Since She respects his autonomy, She avoids
situations in which She might have to impose her will on his, and
shows foresight in planning ahead--by arranging the physical environ-
ment of the house or by her timing her own household routines--in
such a way as to minimize the need for interference and for direct
control.

She avoids interrupting an activity the baby has in progress.

When it is desirable to intervene for a routine or to shift his
activity, she truly engages his cooperation, by mood-setting,

by inviting him, by diverting him, and by engaging him in recip-
rocal activity of some sort, often enough vocalization or play. In
activity-shifting and indeed also in play she capitalizes on
spontaneity, picking up cues from the baby to help her present
what she wants him to do as something that is also congenial to
him.

Even a conspicuously cooperative mother inevitably will instruct
her baby to some extent or attempt to elicit particular behaviors,
but these mildly controlling interactions both constitute a small
prOportion of their total interaction and are themselves appropri-
ate enough to the baby's mood and activity-in-progress to be con-
sidered co-determined.

Except in rare emergency situations this mother never interferes
with the baby abruptly and with physical force. Verbal commands
and prohibitions across a distance are in inevitable corollary of
giving the baby freedom to explore and to learn, but the "conspic-
uously cooperative" mother manages to structure the freedom-to-
explore Situation so that she needs to command but rarely. In
other words, to be co-determining does not imply either over-
permissiveness or a "laissez-faire" attitude.

Cooperative. This mother does not have as conspicuous a respect for
her baby's autonomy and ongoing activity as do mothers with higher
ratings but on the whole She is cooperative and non-interfering.

She Shows less foresight than mothers with higher ratings in arrang-
ing the physical environment and her own routine so aS to avoid the
need for interference. Consequently, there are more occasions in
which she feels it necessary to interrupt or to exert control.
Although she may give more verbal commands or prohibitions than
mothers with higher ratings, she tries to avoid undue frequency of
interference, and rarely, if ever, intervenes in direct, abrupt,
physical ways.

 

Nevertheless, she seeks the baby's cooperation in routihes and in
shifts of activity by mood-setting and other techniques mentioned
above. She may, however, be somewhat less skillful than mothers

with higher ratings in capitalizing on spontaneity and thus achieving
optimum cooperation. Although the balance is in favor of

195

spontaneity in play and in exchanges of vocalization, She may be
somewhat more frequently instructive or "eliciting" than mothers
with higher ratings.

Mildly interfering. This mother is not so much an interfering or
controlling person as she is inconsiderate of the baby's wishes and
activities. Consequently she interrupts and interferes more fre-
quently than do mothers with higher ratings. On the whole her
interference tends to be mild, however, rather than being direct,
abrupt, and physically forceful. She tends to issue more verbal
commands and prohibitions to control the baby across a distance than
do mothers with higher ratings. She tends to rely more on instruc-
tive and "eliciting" modes of play and interaction and is less
spontaneous than they are. Perhaps the most conspicuous differ-

ence from those with higher ratings, however, is in regard to
routine-interventions and shifts of activity. She pays much less
attention to mood-setting and to other techniques which aid smooth
transitions from one activity to another. She tends to be matter

of fact. When she judges that a changing, a nap, a feeding, or merely
a Shift of locus of activity is desirable She acts accordingly,
apparently disregarding the fact that her intervention may break into
the baby's activity-in-progress or the fact that the activity may

be alien to the baby's present mood.

 

Interferipg, In distinguishing the mother with a "3" rating from
one with an even lower rating a judgment about arbitrariness is
crucial. Like mothers with lower ratings these interfering mothers
display either direct, forceful, physical interference or frequent
milder interferences or both. But usually the "3" mother has some
kind of rationale for her actions which is perceivable to the ob-
server (even though it may seem far from desirable); the interfer-
ence is not obviously arbitrary. The mother may be focused on the
desirability of undertaking a specific routine at this time; or she
may be a "training" kind of mother who is determined to Shape the
baby to her way of doing things. There is, however, a reason for
most of her interruptions or interferences, whereas the "1"

mother is more frequently arbitrary, seeming to interfere for no
reason at all. (It is assumed that the totally arbitrary inter-
ferences are as incomprehensible to the baby as they are to the
observer, and that those that have some "reason" may have some
thread of consistency which makes them easier for the baby to adapt
to.

 

In distinguishing the "3" mother from those with higher ratings,

it is merely necessary to say that she is substantially more inter-
fering either in frequency or in quality or both. She more fre-
quently displays physical interference or restraint, or she much
more frequently interferes mildly--instructing, eliciting, pro-
hibiting, and commanding--or both. Perhaps even more important than
the absolute amount of interfering is the proportion of mother-
infant transactions which are interfering. The "3" mother is inter-
fering in a greater proportion of her transactions than the "5" or
"4" mother. '

196

1 Highly interfering. This mother has no respect for her baby as a
separate, active, and autonomous person, whose wishes and activi-
ties have a validity of their own. She seems to assume that the
baby is hers and that she has a perfect right to do with him what
She wishes, imposing her will on his, or shaping him to her stan-
dards, or merely following her own whims without regard for his
moods, wishes, or activities. There is an arbitrariness about the
interference that is striking. Much (although not all) of it is
"for no apparent reason." Some highly interfering mothers are
conspicuous for the direct, physical, forcefulness of their inter-
ruptions or restraints. Others are conspicuous for the extreme
frequency of interruption of the baby's activity-in-progress, so
that they seem "at" the baby most of the time--instructing,
training, eliciting, directing, controlling. But the "1" mother
tends to combine both types of interference, even though She
may emphasize one type more than the other. Regardless of the
balance between physical man-handling and milder interruptions,
these mothers have in common an extreme lack of respect for the
baby's autonomy and an obtuseness which permits them to break into
what the baby is doing without any need to explain to others or
even to justify to themselves the reason for the interruption.

 

ACCESSIBILITY VS IGNORING AND NEGLECTING

The central issue of this scale is the mother's accessibility
to the baby, with emphasis upon her responsiveness to him. Although
the essential component of psychological accessibility is that the
mother be aware of the baby, she is not truly accessible unless She
also actively acknowledges and responds to him.

A highly accessible mother has her baby in her field of per-
ceptual awareness at all times so that he is within reach, at least,
through distance receptors. She can divide her attention between the
baby and other persons, things, and activities without losing awareness
of the baby. She is never too preoccupied with her own thoughts and
feelings or with her other activities and interactions to have him in
the background of her awareness and to sense where he is and what he
is doing. When he is in another room She is quick to perceive any
sounds he may make, and She takes precautions not to have him so far
away or so closed off that she cannot hear a sound as loud as a cry.

The highly accessible mother not only is aware of her baby's
activity and signals, but she responds to him readily. She can
switch her attention to him easily if he needs her supervision or pro-
tection or if he approaches or tries to catch her attention. To be
accessible, the mother does not necessarily understand and sensitively
interpret the baby's behavior nor does she necessarily respond appro-
priately to the baby's signals--nevertheless, the accessible mother is
perceptually alert and responsive to her baby most of the time.

197

An inaccessible mother ignores her baby and in this sense
She neglects him. "Neglect" in this context does not necessarily
imply physical neglect. The neglect is psychological for the most
part--although mothers in inaccessible moods may sometimes show
surprising lapses in failing to protect the baby from danger. There
are two major types of women who can be described as inaccessible,
ignoring, and neglecting. First, there are mothers who are unaware
of much of the baby's behavior; they do not perceive his signals and
communications and therefore cannot respond to them. Second,,
there are mothers who perceive the baby's Signals well enough, but
do not acknowledge them or respond to them, and hence must be to the
baby just as inaccessible as if they had been unaware.

Let us first consider mothers who are frequently imperceptive
and unaware of their babies' signals. Two main types have been
observed. The dynamics of the first type seem the more pathological.
Such a mother seems to teeter on the brink of depression and/or
fragmentation and disintegration. She finds the demands implicit in
the baby's signals an intolerable threat to her precarious balance.

It is necessary, in order to hold herself together, to "tune out"

the baby's signals. The baby may simply be blotted out of

awareness for relatively long periods of time. If he cries She

does not hear him; if he greets her she does not see him. If the

baby's signals do break through his mother's defensive barrier, She
tends to fall back on a second line of defense, somehow removing from
the stimuli emanating from the baby their signal quality. The baby

is perceived as mkaing happy sounds rather than crying, or, if he is
perceived as crying, the mother cannot imagine what the cause might be
and, since She does not know what to do, she does nothing. Whatever

the mechanism, the baby's signal is so distorted in the process of
reception that it loses any power to impel his mother to respond. Such
a mother rarely attends to the baby as a consequence of his behavior,
however much the baby may clamor for attention--and often enough her
baby learns the futility of trying to break through such a barrier

and does not clamor. Such a mother tends to attend to her baby according
to her own programming, as though she reminded herself: "Now is the
time to attend to the baby." It seems that her caretaking is a response
to the thought of him--to the concept of baby--rather than to her per-
ception of him and his signals. When the baby is out of sight he tends
to be out of mind, except that the mother can talk about him, discussing
her plans for him, or her policies in managing him. She may give
information about him, but often enough this is meager because she has
not observed his behavior closely enough to give much detail. It is as
though her concept of the baby is more real than the baby as he

actually exists.

The second major type of mother who is frequently imperceptive
and unaware has dynamics that seem less pernicious than those of the
first, because the mother is not rendered quite as impervious to the
baby's signals and communications. This mother erects a barrier
against the baby's demands, but, Since she does not back this up by a
distortion of perception of his signals, he can, if he Signals intensely
enough or persistently enough, break through. These mothers tend to be

198

somewhat compulsive. They get preoccupied with their own activities,
whether work or conversations, or they ruminate, lost in their own
thoughts or worries. While they are preoccupied thus, the baby may go
unnoticed. Such women are one-track-minded, and find it difficult to
switch from one set of activities to another--from housekeeping

to mothering, for example. Sometimes they bolster up their need to be
uninterrupted by arranging the physical environment so that the baby
will not impinge upon them while they are engaged in something else--
work, napping, or adult sociability. They may put the baby away in
another room, preferably one far enough away or soundproofed so that
they will not be interrupted by him, or they may arrange to turn him
over to someone else--a housekeeper or perhaps another member of the
'family. They often seem as inaccessible as women who are more defensive-
ly unaware, but the critical difference is that, provided the baby is
within signal range, she is not completely impervious.

Let us now consider mothers who are inaccessible despite being
perfectly well aware of the baby's signals and interpreting them
correctly. Such a mother is merely unresponsive to the baby and
his signals. She ignores them deliberately—-whether through policy,
for discipline, or through pique. Sometimes it may seem incomprehen-
sible to the observer that the mother can note the baby's behavior,
that she can comment upon and correctly interpret the reason for his
fuss, and still continue to ignore him. These women do not have dis-
torted perception, but somehow they are not sufficiently able to see
things from the baby's point of view--or perhaps to feel things
from his point of view--to want to intervene. They are *too impersonal
and objective; in their failure to acknowledge the baby they must seem
as inaccessible to the baby as if they did not perceive him.

Throughout this discussion emphasis has been placed upon the
mother's failure to perceive and/or to be responsive to the baby's
signals. Inaccessibility is most obvious when the baby is, in
fact, signalling, and the mother does not respond. There are,
however, babies who make few demamds--perhaps because they have become
accustomed to being ignored. The relative lack of frequency,
intensity, or persistence of signalling behavior on the part of the baby
may make it all the easier for his mother to ignore him, but the
rater should not be misled into over-rating the mother's accessibility
on this account. If she can go for long periods without seeming to
notice the baby or to acknowledge him she is a candidate for a low
rating regardless of whether or not the baby is making obvious demands.

In summary, an accessible mother is aware of her baby and of his
behavior most of the time and usually acknowledges his presence, his
signals and his communications. A mother is judged to be inaccessible
if she frequently or perhaps for prolonged periods does not acknowledge
the baby or respond to him-~whether she is aware of his behavior or not.
and, indeed, whether she is in the same room or not.

199

This scale does ggt_take into account the quality of care that
the mother gives the baby or the quality of her interaction with him.
Some mothers are constantly aware of the baby and responsive to his
signals, and yet they respond inappropriately or even sadistically.
It is the bare fact of the mother' s acknowledgement of his real
presence that is important to this scale--not the quality of her
response to him.

Note: This variable is similar to one of the scales designed
for use in —the first quarter--mother' s availability to the baby. The
previous scale was, however, concerned with the issue of the limited
availability of the part-time mother. This present scale is con-
cerned only with the mother's accessibility when she is at home. The
working mother will, therefore, be rated only on the basis of her
behavior when she has returned home from her work.

9 Highly accessible. M arranges things so that she is accessible to
B and B to her. She keeps him close enough that she can be aware
of his states, signals, and activities. She is very alert to
his whereabouts and doings. Even when he is napping in his room
she has a selective filter tuned in to any sounds he might make.
She is capable of distributing her attention between B and other
people and things, and is rarely so preoccupied that she is unaware
of B and unresponsive to what he is doing. She rarely, if ever,
ignores any active approach or demand of B's, even though she may
not do what he seems to want her to do. She does not even pretend
to ignore him, but rather acknowledges his presence and his over-
tures or demands in some way. She rarely, if ever, enters a room
without giving B some acknowledgement that she is aware of him.

 

7 Usually accessible. M is usually accessible psychologically.
There may be brief periods during which other demands and other
activities prevent her from being aware of B and what he is doing,
but most usually her attention is "tuned in" to him. She is not
as smooth about dividing her attention between competing demands
as are women with higher ratings, but rather tends to alternate.
Nevertheless she can fairly easily switch her attention to B. She
may sometimes be preoccupied enough with her own activities--includ-
ing activities concerned with B's care--that she fails to acknowledge
B, perhaps going in an out of the room without seeming to see B's
interest in her presence. For the most part, however, she acknow-
ledges B when she enters a room, especially if they have been apart
for more than a few moments. (Mothers may be given this rating also
if they habitually and deliberately ignore B under one set of circum-
stances--for example, ignoring any crying B may do when he is put
down for a nap--and yet are highly accessible at most other times.)

 

5 Inconsistently accessible. M is inconsistent in her accessibility
to B. Fairly long periods of close attention and accessibility
alternate with periods of seeming obliviousness to B, during which
M is occupied with other things despite B's presence and perhaps
even despite his attempts to catch her attention. The

200

inaccessibility of some mothers may be quite unpredictable because
of a tendency to become easily preoccupied with their own activities
and thoughts; other mothers may regularly and routinely plan pro-
longed periods of unavailability such as during those hours when
they do their household chores. During these planned or unplanned
periods, M may ignore B when she enters a room, even after a
substantial absence, being concerned with other things. She may
become so caught up in conversation, activity, or though that she
seemingly forgets about B and ignores what he is doing--responding
neither to his attention-getting behavior, nor to dangerous or
"naughty" behavior which ordinarily would evoke an intervention.
Nevertheless, this mother is more often accessible than inacces-
sible, and during her periods of accessibility, she is highly
responsive to B.

Often inaccessible, ignoring, or neglecting. M occasionally seems
responsive to 8'5 behavior and to the signals implicit in it, but
she is more frequently inaccessible than accessible to him. She may
be too preoccupied with her own thoughts or activities to notice
him, or she may notice and correctly interpret his signals without
being moved to acknowledge them. She typically enters and leaves the
room without acknowledging B or his signals, whether these are
conspicuous, subtle, or muted. If B signals strongly enough or
persistently enough, M may respond to him--and in this she differs
from mothers with even lower ratings. 0n the other hand, if the
baby is an undemanding baby, and tends not to signal frequently or
strongly, the mother's accessibility must be judged in accordance
with the extent to which she does acknowledge him, whether he
demands it or not. The mother with this rating--and also and even
to a greater extent mothers with lower ratings--tends to give B
attention with her own programming rather than in accordance with
his, although she may give him intense attention in the occasions
when she decides to attend to him at all.

Highly inaccessible, ignoring or neglecting. M is also preoccupied
with her own thoughts and activities for most of the time that

she simply does not notice B. She enters the room without even
looking at him, let alone acknowledging him; his smiles are not
returned. When B is elsewhere she seems to forget his existence.
B's sounds do not seem to filter through to her. She may talk
about B, but it seems that the baby as conceptualized is more real
than the baby upstairs crying, or the baby across the room who may
be rocking, or playing or even actively demanding her attention.
This mother only responds to B when she deliberately turns her
attention to do something to or for B--making a project of it. In
fact, M rarely "responds" to B in the sense of giving care and
social attention contingent upon B's behavior. Rather, M is

often so completely unaware of B's signals that her interventions
are characteristically at her own whim and convenience.

APPENDIX D

ASSESSOR TRAINING MANUAL

Session l

l.
2.

Session 2

l.
2.

Session 3

l.
2.

Session 4

l.
2.

Session 5

l.
2.

Session 6

l.

2.’

Session 7

1.

Session 8

1.

Session 9

l.

201

Assessor Training Manual

 

Outline

Overview of project.

Introduction to Assessment Manual.

Discuss Assessment Manual.

Form Assessment Teams.

Demonstrate Bayley Items.

Give Assessors #l Bayley kits to practice with.

Give practice schedules for Bayley administration.

Demonstrate the Neonatal Perception Inventory.

Introduce Ainsworth Feeding Scales.

Set up Feeding Scale rating practice.

Introduce Ainsworth Four Scales.

Set up Four Scale practice.

Introduce Bell-Pairs Test and set up practice sessions.

Introduce Yarrow Scales and set up practice sessions.

Discuss rating problems and set up review sessions.

202

Session l

An overview of the project will be given to the assessors similar
to the one given to the tutors except for a general description of the
task of the assessor presented below.

In order to measure the effect of parent training on infant
development a number of different measures described in the manual I'm
now giving you, i.e., the Assessment Manual, will be administered to
each family in their own homes. I would like each of you to read the
Assessment Manual very carefully. As you will notice when you read the
manual, two different assessor roles are present, i.e., for assessor
#l and #2.‘ Next meeting I will divide you into assessors #l and #2
and place you in pairs of an assessor #l and #2. You will then be given
the chance to practice the measures you will be responsible for learn-
ing. You will also be divided into pairs of the same type of assessors
for reliability checks, i.e., to see if you are rating about the same

manner as everyone else.

Session 2

After dividing the assessors into Assessors #l and #2, review
the Assessment Manual. Then hold the following discussion of research
design and standard instruction:

One of the most important rules to follow of any assessment is
what is called standard instruction. This means that each of you must
administer a certain test in exactly the same way, i.e., by giving
the same instructions, using the same materials, and by doing the
same things. If this was not done, then the results one

assessor got could not be compared with another assessor's scores since

203

to alter the administration of the test in any way would alter the
meaning of the test. In order to make sure that you are rating the

same way as other assessors, you will be asked to rate the same subjects
in pairs and your scores will be compared with your partners to see if
you are measuring the same things, i.e., to see if your ratings are
reliable. Next session we'll go over the Bayley. All assessors are

to come to each practice session even if their tests are not the topic
of discussion to become familiar with the test their eventual partners

will be given.

Session 3
The following goals will be covered this session:
l. Demonstration of the Bayley Mental and Motor Scales.
2. Give out Bayley kits to Assessors #l to be practiced with

during the week.

Session 4

The following topics are to be discussed at this session:

l. Administration problems or questions assessors have concern-
ing the Bayley.

2. Divide assessors #l into pairs to practice giving the Bayley
to pilot infants in a day care setting. While one assessor gives the
Bayley and scores it, the partner will only score it. These roles will
then be switched. The assessor pairs are to practice the Bayley with
two infants from three age groups, i.e., infants of one, twelve, and

twenty-four months of age during the next two weeks.

204

3. After the practice sessions with the Bayley, reliability will
be established on five infants from each age group. These infants will
be solicited through newspaper ads and will be paid $5 for their partici-
pation. They will be tested in a laboratory setting where the project
director will observe the assessor's performance through a one-way
mirror. Only one assessor will administer the Bayley while the others
score it behind the one-way mirror. Assessor scores will then be
randomly paired for reliability testing. This will be done in one weeks
time. ‘

4. Demonstrate the Neonatal Perception Inventory (NPI). Have

assessors #l administer the NPI to assessors #2.

Session 5

Discuss the following topics at this session:

l. Introduce the Ainsworth Feeding Scales.

2. Set up rating practice at a local day care center where
assessors will be asked to carry out three hour observations per day
for five days. Assessors will be asked to rate all the feeding episodes
which occur for the target infant during the observation period.

3. The following week reliability tests will be conducted by
having the assessors rate in pairs the feeding behavior of parents and
ten one month old infants and ten three month old infants presented on

one videotape.

205

Session 6

The following topics will be discussed at this session:

l. Introduce the Ainsworth Four Scales.

2. Set up practice schedules for ratings using the Four
Scales. Rating practices will consist of having the assessors view
nine videotapes of parent-infant interaction in the home when the
infants are one, three, six, nine, twelve, fifteen, eighteen, twenty-one,
and twenty-four months of age. Each videotape will be one hour in
length.. TWo videotapes will be rated per day except for the fifth
day when only one videotape will be rated. Assessors will be instructed
to stop the videotapes at twenty minute intervals to compare their
ratings and ask the project director questions.

3. The following week a reliability test will be conducted by
having the assessors rate nine new videotapes of the same aged infants
as before in pairs. Their reliability will be computed in pairs across

all nine videotapes.

Session 7

Discuss the following tOpics at this session:

l. Introduce the Bell-Pairs Test.

2. Set up practice sessions at a local day care center where
each assessor will be required to administer the Bell-Pairs test to two
infants, over a two day period. Only six month old infants are to be
used as pilot subjects.

3. The following week reliability test will be conducted on
ten six month old infants solicited through a newspaper ad offering

their parents $5 for their participation. The infants will be given the

206

Bell-Pairs test by one assessor in a laboratory setting while the
other assessors score the infant's performance behind a one way mirror.
Reliability will be computed for each pair of assessors across all ten

infants.

ME;

Discuss the following topics at this session:

1. Introduce the Yarrow Scales.

2, Set up practice sessions for assessors #2 who will be
asked to rate nine videotapes of parent-infant interaction, identical
to those rated by assessors #l for practice with the Ainsworth Four
Scales. As with the Ainsworth Four Scale practice, the assessors will
rate two tapes per day for four days and one tape during the fifth
day, stopping the tapes every twenty minutes to compare their ratings
and to discuss discrepancies in scoring among themselves and with the
project director.

3. The following week reliability checks according to the same

procedure as with the Four Scales will be conducted (see Session 6).

Session 9

The following topics will be discussed at this session:

l. Review all measures, checking to see if the assessors have
any questions concerning administration (see attached table of training
schedule).

2. Set up review sessions to occur one week prior to each assess-
ment visit with the project subjects. The measures to be used at the

assessment visit about to occur will be reviewed and discussed at this

session.

207

3. Assign assessor pairs of assessors #l and #2. Inform assessors
that they will be contacted as to the names of the subjects they will

rate and as to when the assessment visits are to occur.

Table E. Assessor Training Schedule

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Week
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll
Sessioh Measure

3 Bayley P P R
4(P) NPI P
5 Feeding

Scales P R
6 Four

Scales P R
7 Bell-

Pairs P R

Test
8 Yarrow

Scales P R

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

V
II

Practice of measure administration

:0
II

Reliability checks

REFERENCES

REFERENCES

Ainsworth, M. The Development of Infant-Mother Attachment. In B.
Caldwell and H. Ricciuti (eds.), Review of Child Development
Research, Volume Three. Chicago: The UnTVersity of Chicago Press,
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