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GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION AND
LEGAL CONTROLS IN

MICHIGAN

BY

MORRIS DEUTSCH

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College of Agriculture
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Resource Development

1960

C. R. Humphrys, Associa Professor

ABSTRACT

The great importance of the fresh ground-water resources of
Michigan is evident because of widespread use of the water for many
purposes, and because 90 percent of the rural and about 70 percent of the
total population of the State exclusive of the Detroit metropolitan area
is supplied from underground sources. The serious water-supply and public-
health problems that have been caused by some of the various instances of
ground-water contamination in the State illustrate the necessity of pro-
tecting and conserving this vital resource.

Man-made and natural contaminants, including many types of
chemical and organic matter, have entered many of the numerous aquifers
of the State. Aquifers have been contaminated by waste-laden liquids
percolating from the surface or from the zone of aeration, and by direct
injection to the aquifer itself. Industrial and domestic wastes, septic
tanks, leaking sewers, flood waters or other poor quality surface waters,.
mine waters, solids stored or spread at the surface, and even airborne
wastes all have been sources of ground-water contamination in Michigan.
In addition, naturally-occurring saline waters have been induced into
other aquifers by overpumping or unrestricted flow from artesian wells,
and possibly by dewatering Operations and surface-stream channel
deepening. Vertical migration of saline waters through open holes from
formations underlying various important aquifers also has spoiled some

of the fresh ground waters in the State.‘ Despite the contamination that

has occurred in the State, however, the total amount of ground-water

supplies which have been spoiled account for a small percentage of the
total resource and is not as widespread as the impairment in quality from
their original state to which many of our surface streams have been sub-
Jected following settlement of Michigan by the white man.

Overall legal authority to control most types of ground-water
contamination in the State has been assigned to the Water Resources
Commission by the Legislature, although various divisions of the Depart-
ment of Conservation and the Health Department also exercise important
water-pollution control functions. The Michigan Supreme Court, in an
important case upholding the power of the Water Resources Commission to
control pollution of ground water, in effect has introduced the doctrine
of reasonable use into the law of the State. Excluding controls adminis-
tered by the Department of Conservation on various activities of the oil
and gas industry, however, legal controls have not been used to abate
intrusion of natural saline waters into fresh-water aquifers in response

to pumping and other man-made changes in the hydrologic regimen.

GROUND4HATER CONTAMINATION AND
LEGAL CONTROLS IN

MICHIGAN

By

MORRIS DEUTSCH

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of.Agriculture
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Resource Development
1960

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sincere thanks are due Mr. Norman F.'aillings, Chief, and
other personnel of the Hydrology Section,,Michigan water Resources
Commission, and to Mr. Theodore L. VanderVelde, Chief of the Water Supply
Section, Michigan Department of Health, who made available pertinent data
contained in the files of their respective organizations. Mr. John G.
Rulison and personnel of the water Resources Section of the Michigan
Geological Survey provided the author with valuable information concerning
geologic aspects of cases of aquifer contamination. Mr. Arthur E.
Slaughter, also of the Michigan Geological Survey, provided further
pertinent data on contamination cases in the Northern Peninsula. .Mr.
Edward.Ms Burt of Williams and WOrks, Consulting Engineers, Grand.Rapids,
contributed interesting information in addition to technical assistance
concerning instances of ground-water contamination in the Grand Rapids
area.

Appreciation is expressed also to personnel of the U. 8.
Geological Survey who greatly aided the author as follows in preparation
of this thesis: Messrs. Kenneth E. Vanlier and Paul R. Giroux provided
technical assistance during preparation of various illustrations and
portions of the manuscript. Mr. John G. Ferris permitted use of pertinent
unpublished file data and illustrative matter prepared by him. Mr.
Charles J. Doonan drafted various of the illustrations presented herein

from pencilled sketches. Miss Janet K. Olmstead typed the manuscript.

The author is grateful also to Dr. Clifford R. Humphrys of
the Department of Resource Development, who encouraged undertaking of
the study and who offered many helpful suggestions and criticisms.

Lastly, deep appreciation is expressed to Dr. A. N. Sayre,
former chief of the Ground Water Branch, U. S. Geological Survey, who
approved a grant of federal funds for the study culminating in the
present thesis. A limited amount of federal funds are used for the
purpose of supporting research projects of direct interest to the
government which can also serve as graduate school theses. This grant
enabled the author to make the present study in conjunction with his
full-time duties as District Geologist, Ground water Branch, U. S.
Geological Survey, Lansing, Michigan.

Manuscript copies of this thesis have been released to the
open file for public inspection by authority of the Director, U. S.

Geological Survey.

CONTENTS
Page

IntrOductionoooosoooeoooooooaoo000000000000... ooooooooooooo ooooooooooooo l
PTGVIOUS investigationsoooooo00000000....000.000...o0.00000000000000 h

Summary of ground-water occurrence in Michigan.......................... 8

Ground-water contamination in Michigan.................................. 20

Contaminants introduced from the surface...................... ...... 2h
Injection into wells 0 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O I I O O O O 0 O O O O C O 0 O O O O O O O ....... 21+ /
Sanitary waste 8 at Elkton I O O O O O O O 0 O O O O 0 O ..... O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O 26 .—

Fuel oil at Holt............................................ 27~
Well reconditioning at Mt. Morris........................... 27
Air-conditioning return or recharge wells................... 29
Dug wells................................................... 32
Contaminated surface waters................................. 52*.
Ponded storm water at Bad.Axe........................... 35
Flood water at Saugatuck................ ...... .......... 5h
Backflooding at Minden City..... ....... ................. 5%
Drain wells............................................. 55
Dry wells, ponds, pits or underground storage................... 37.!
PhenOIBa00000000000so...00000000000000.0000...0.00.00.00.00. 59
Creosotes at Reed City.................................. #0
Charcoal wastes at Mancelona............................ hl
Refinery wastes at Alma......................... ..... ... Ml
Picric acid at Lansing................... ...... ......... #2
Electroplating wastes. ...................................... A5
Chrome-plating wastes at Douglas........................ Ah
Chrome- plating wastes at Bronson........................ h5
Chromates at Tecumseh................................... 51
Gasoline at East Saugatuck........... ....... ................ 51'“
011- field brines in Isabella County......................... 52
Septic tanks.................................................... 551
Free circulation in carbonate rocks in the Manistique-

Gulliver area... ........ .. ....... ....... ........... . ...... 58
Hepatitis epidemic at Posen................................. 59w-
Septic tank discharge to a thin aquifer in Wayne County..... 6l'

Contaminants percolating or leached from the land surface....... 65 I
Pickle brines at Edmore..................................... 65
Milk wastes at Trenary... .................................. 65-W'
Raw liquid fertilizer near Holland.......................... 66‘

Land- surface dumpingoaoooasoaoooaaccess... ssssss 00.00.00.000 67;*
Salt used for snow removal... ..... .......................... 68
Manistee County..... ..... . ..... .. ......... .............. 68

Kent countyOOOOOOOOOOOOO000...... 0000000000000000 0...... 69
Chromium compounds contained in land fill at Grandville..... 70
Percolation of leached nitrates into shallow aquifers....... 70

Page
Ground-water contamination in Michigan - Continued

Leaking sewers or pipelines ...... . .............................. 72
Sanitary sewer at Lansing industrial plant.................. 72-“
Leaking municipal sewers at Sturgis..... .......... .......... 75

Pipeline sealant at Ionia................................... 75
Induced infiltration or leakage of contaminated surface waters.. 7%
Discharged softening-plant effluent in Paris Township....... 76
Discharged mine water at Ironwood........................... 76
Sewage-contaminated creek at Norway......................... 77
Bacterial contamination in collector system at Grand Haven.. 78
Stagnant floodwaters at Benton Harbor....................... 79
Airborne wastes, insecticides, and herbicides.............. ..... 80
Electroplating wastes in Wyoming Township ................... 8O
Insecticides and herbicides........... ..... ........ ........ . 81
Contaminants induced from natural sources........................... 85
Vertical leakage through open holes ....... ...................... 85
Brines from oil wells and test holes at Lowell.............. 88
Saline waters in the Saginaw lowlands....................... 89-
Saline water in the Grand Rapids area... ......... ..... ..... . 92
High-chloride water at Lansing.............................. 95
High-chloride waters at Grand Ledge and Eaton Rapids........ 95—
Overpumping..................................................... 95
Intrusion of high-chloride waters........................... 96..
Royal Oak area.......................................... 96
Flint area........................... ....... ............ 98
Intrusion of high-sulfate waters............................ 99“
Pontiac................................................. 99
Holland....................... .......... . ..... ..........1oo
Manistique ........ ......................................lOO
Dewatering operations...........................................lOl
Sulfide water at Flat Rock..................................105
Channel deepening or dredging ....... ...................... ...... 105

Legal safeguards against ground-water contamination in Michigan ....... ..108
Actions of the Michigan Supreme Court.............. ........ .........lO9
Act creating the Water Resources Commission... ......... .............llO
Conservation laws........ ........ ..............a....................112

Act 190 of the Public Acts of 1889..............................112
Act 107 of the Public Acts of 1905.... ....... ...................115
Act 526 of the Public Acts of 1937 .......... ....................115
Act 61 of the Public Acts of 1959 ..... ..........................115
Public health laws....... ........... ................................115
The drain code of 1956..........................................ll6
Waterworks and sewerage system law..............................ll6
Regulatory powers of the State Health Commissioner..............ll7
Federal laws............... .......... ... ........ . ..... ..............118

Summary and conc1us10nsoOOOO‘OOOOOOOOOOQOOOOOOO00.0.0.0... ...... .... ..... 121.

REferenCGS Citedooooooooooosooo eeeeeeeeeee sees-00000.000000000000000.000125

ILLUSTRATIONS AND TABLES

Figure Page
1. Section showing hydrogeologic conditions for water-table and

arteSian aqUiferS......... oooooooooooooooo .......OO0.0.... ..... 1]-

2. Interformational leakage reversed by pumping...... ....... ........ l2

5. Diagram showing several types of rock interstices and the
' relation of rock texture to porosity..... ..... ........... ..... . In

A. Geologic map of the bedrock systems of Michigan.................. 17

5. Diagrammatic section showing water-table and artesian aquifers
as mrt Of the hydrOlOgi-c cycleOOOOO000.00.000.00...0.0.0.0.... 2]-

6. Generalized distribution of actual or suspected cases of ground-
water contamination in Michigan described in this report....... 25

7. Diagrams showing Spread of contaminants injected through wells
into isotropic water-table and artesian aquifers......... ..... . 25

8. Oil: I've hit 011:0...000000....0....0...........OOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 28

9. Schematic diagram showing movement of contaminants through a
well to a nearby pumping well ...... ................... ....... .. 5O

10. Schematic diagram showing discharge of surface water through
a drain well to an underlying aquifer.......................... 56

ll. Schematic diagram showing percolation of contaminants through
the zone of aeration and in an isotropic aquifer............... 58

12. Diagrams showing lines of flow from recharge mound on sloping
water table-00.00.00... ..... 0....OO...0......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 5O

15. Diagram showing movement of contaminants from surface source
through secondary Openings in limestone or dolomite............ 56

1h. Diagrams showing movement of contaminants to aquifers from the

surfaceoggaogo......oo....0.................................... 6“"

l5. Generalized diagram showing how water can be induced to flow
from a surface source of contaminated water to a well.......... 75

16. Generalized diagrams showing interformational leakage by
vertical movement of water through open holes .............. .... 85

Figure Page

17. Hypothetical section across the Southern Peninsula of Michigan
showing fresh- and saline-water interface relationships
assuming a single homogeneous aquifer and uniform recharge...... 86

18. Map of southeastern Michigan showing areas of heavily mineralized
Shallow water................OOOO........................0...... 87

19. Generalized diagram showing how a fresh-water well may be con-
taminated by highly mineralized water from underlying rocks..... 97

20. Diagram showing migration of saline water caused by dewatering
in a fresh-water aquifer overlying a saline-water aquifer....... 102

21. Schematic diagram showing migration of saline water caused by
lowering of water levels in an effluent stream and streamside
aquifer overlying a shallow hydraulically connected saline-
water aquifer...... ..... .......... ........... ............ ....... lO6

 

Table
1. Estimated withdrawal of water in Michigan, l955................... 2

2. Generalized columnar section of the major geologic units of
MiChiganOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOQO ..... OO...0.0000000000000000... 15

INTRODUCTION

The ever-increasing use of water for all purposes in Michigan
has caused considerable attention to be focused on methods of protecting
and conserving the water resources of the State as the use of water by
man generally tends not only to reduce the supply, but frequently results
in deterioration of quality.

It is readily apparent that, while the State's water resources
must in the future be protected from undue deterioration in quality by
chemical, biological, or even physical agents including heat and various
types of suspended matter, such has not been the case in the past. The use
of streams in Michigan for disposal of sanitary and industrial wastes,
especially in the southern half of the Southern Peninsula, has placed
many communities and other water users in the ironic position of having
available adequate quantities of surface water, but of a quality unfit
for most uses. The public health and economic welfare of Michigan, how-
ever, depend upon the use of streams as mediums for diaposal of sewage
effluent, and their use for this purpose cannot be totally eliminated.

Where supplies of surface water of suitable quality cannot be
obtained, water users generally rely on ground-water sources for supply,
or, at great cost, have constructed or are planning pipelines to the
Great Lakes to obtain water. Some of this water has already "flowed by
their front doors." Ground water is in widespread use in.Michigan, how-
ever, not only to replace unsuitable surface sources, but because of the

several basic inherent advantages of a ground-water supply. The

- 1 -

advantages have been expressed succinctly by the World Health Organization
(1957) which reported "It has been found that ground water is of excellent
bacterial quality over large areas, and this is one of the reasons why it
is so widely used for public water-supply purposes. Other reasons are

its clarity, palatability, its freedom from organic matter, its relatively
constant temperature, and its reliability summer and winter alike."

In Michigan, ground water can be obtained over most of the State
by wells drilled into one or more of the numerous aquifers in the State.
Hence, most rural and suburban homes, and many industries, municipalities,
and irrigators obtain water supplies from wells drilled within their
respective property boundaries. MacKichan (1957) estimated that ground-
water sources supply about 22 percent of the total amount of water used
for public supply in the State, demonstrating the importance of the
resource. Table 1 shows that, although less than 10 percent of the total
amount of water used in the State for all purposes was ground water, about
90 percent of the rural supplies were derived from ground-water sources.
From figures published by the Michigan Department of Health (l9hh), it

Table 1. Estimated withdrawal of water in Michigan, 1955, in million
gallons per day. (after MacKichan, 1957)

 

 

 

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H ...-a H w H In H :3 H L:

H p. a +1 (H p. :1 a! H a) 0)

*° 9‘ s t "a: 9‘2 *8 £3 :3 :3

lg m tn #1 mam‘H E's 3 :3

Ground Water 180 75 5,3 3,515 l/ 573 -

Surface Water 6I+o 8 1m 5,700 6,391 -
TOTAL 820 81 l$8.3 6,015 6,96h 60,000

1/ Includes 25 mgd saline water

was estimated that 26 percent of the water used for public supply in the
State was from ground-water sources, tending to confirm MacKichan's
~ estimates.' Excluding the population supplied with surface water by the
city of Detroit, however, it was estimated that 70 percent of the
remainder of the population relied on ground-water sources for supply.

The above estimates clearly demonstrate the great importance of
the ground-water resources of the State, and make it apparent that our
ground-water aquifers must be safeguarded from contamination that would
render some of the resource unusable. Studies of the ground-water resources
of various parts of the State by the Federal and State Geological Surveys,
and investigations made by, or reports submitted to, the State Department
of Health and the water Resources Commission have revealed, however, that
numerous instances of contamination of the ground-water aquifers in the
State have occurred.

The necessity of conserving the ground-water resources of the
State by protecting them from unnecessary contamination is stated rather
directly in the general provisions of the "Model water Use Act" prepared
by the University of Michigan Law School, (Legislative Research Center,
1958). This model act was prepared because of the widespread need of
various states for guidance in preparing legislation designed "to protect,
conserve, fairly allocate for use, and where necessary, reserve water
resources in the interest of the health and welfare of the people." Part
' VI of the Model Act provides that "Any pollution of the water resources....

is subject to management, control, and regulation....under provisions of

this Act. The Act would grant an appropriate agency of a state rather

general but broad powers to curb, abate, or prohibit new pollution of the
water resources of the state.

The purpose of this paper is: 1. To review the various ways in
which the quality of water in aquifers in this State has been impaired.

2. To cite briefly many of the case histories of ground-water contamina-
tion and to point out practices which may result in contamination. 3. To
examine hydraulic principles involved in the migration of contaminants to
fresh ground-water reservoirs. (The figures used herein that show migration
of contaminants through aquifers all are schematic and illustrate principles
and are not based on actual field data.) h. To review Michigan Supreme
Court decisions and Legislative acts pertinent to the subject of ground-
water contamination so as to determine the extent of legal safeguards

which may be utilized to prevent further contamination of the aquifers of
the State.

While numerous instances of contamination of ground-water resources
in Michigan have occurred, it is probable that the total amount of contamina-
tion is not unusual for a highly populated industrial state. It is believed
that discussion of the many instances cited herein may increase awareness
of the hazards to grOund-water supplies involved in various practices
and thus indirectly lead to the curtailment of ground-water contamination

in the future.

Previous Investigations

 

Problems concerning the contamination of ground-water supplies

throughout Michigan have been studied by'a number of State, Federal, and

local governmental units although no single tabulation of all known cases
or types of contamination in the State has as yet been prepared. Most
cases of contamination of public water supplies, however, have been
investigated by the Michigan Department of Health, and personnel of that
organization have described many of the cases presented herein in various

issues of the Department's informal publication, the Michigan water Works

 

News. Since 19h9 the Michigan Water Resources Commission has been active
in controlling contamination of the surface and ground waters of the State.

An informal report, the Quarterly Bulletin, issued by the staff of the

 

Commission, has also been used extensively as a source for material con-
tained in this report.

A significant advance in the understanding of principles involved
in groundawater contamination was made by Fiedler (1936) who described,
in general, geologic and hydrologic controls governing the migration of
contaminants to various types of aquifers. Faust (1957) described.methods
of safeguarding various types of wells from contamination by properly
locating, constructing, and equipping wells of each type. Ferris (1951)
described the roles that aquifers might play as waste-disposal reservoirs
and he outlined the basic hydrologic problems which are essentially the
same as those involved in aquifer contamination cases.

Adams (19th) made a plea for the abatement of water pollution
in Michigan and cited hazards, annoyances, damages, and economic losses
caused by polluting the water resources of the State.

Problems caused.by ground-water pollution were summarized by

Billings (1950) who cited the need for detailed geologic, hydrologic,

and hydraulic data to analyze individual problems. He noted also that legal
restrictions included in the State's oil and gas laws safeguard not only
the public at large, but also the oil and gas industry, thus demonstrating
the advantages of pure water to all interests in the State.

A very informative pamphlet covering various aspects of ground-
water pollution was prepared for general public use by Slaughter and
Campbell (1952). The pamphlet contains a number of cartoons depicting
problems of ground-water contamination, one of which is reproduced herein.

Parker (1955) in a paper included in 22325 (a symposium published
by the U. S. Department of.Agriculture as the 1955 Yearbook 2£.Agriculture)
discussed the encroachment of saline waters into fresh-water aquifers of
Michigan. The yearbook contained several other papers of general interest
to those concerned.with the protection of water resources: Schwab (1955,
p. 636-6h3) wrote on the problems of pollution of water in our growing
nation. Fuhrman (1955, p. 6hh—6h9) discussed treatment of waste waters
for cities and industries. Garver (1955a, p. 655-663) wrote on ways by
which rural water supplies may be contaminated and of protective measures
which may be taken, and also (1955b, p. 663-665) on methods of safe
disposal of sanitary wastes for rural homes.

Results of detailed quantitative work concerning the pollution
of ground waters have been published by the California water Pollution
Control Board (1953, l95ha, b). These reports are of added value to
researchers in the field of water pollution as they contain very com-

prehensive bibliographies.

The American water WOrks Association (1957) is also concerned
with various phases of underground waste disposal and control and organized
a task group to study the problems involved and to report on its findings.

This report contains no mention of the threat of contamination
of the State's ground-water resources by radioactive substances. .A
separate paper prepared by the author (Deutsch, 1956) discusses the effects
of dissemination of radioactive materials on water resources and lists
numerous pertinent references.

The Legislative Research Center of the University of’Michigan
Law School (Pierce, 1958) published contributions prepared for the Tenth
Annual Summer Institute of the Law School in the form of a symposium
entitled "Water Resources and the Law.” .An especially valuable contribu-
tion for those interested in the legal aspects concerning contamination of
water supplies is the paper entitled ”water Law in Michigan,” by'Lauer,
King, and Ziegler (1958). An equally important contribution was presented
by Piper and Thomas (1958) who describe the inappropriateness of common-
law in defining rights to water because of the complexities of the hydro-

logic cycle, or even of adapting statutory law to "the realities of applied

hydrology.”

SUMMARY OF GROUND-WATER OCCURRENCE IN MICHIGAN

Fresh ground water can be obtained throughout most of Michigan
by wells drilled into one or more of the numerous aquifers of the State.
An aquifer is a rock formation, part of a formation, or group of forma-
tions that yields water in usable quantities.‘ In some areas of the State
ground water is relatively difficult to obtain and aquifers yielding only
a few gallons per minute of water arecfi'considerable importance. In other
areas where aquifers may yield several hundred gallons per minute, formations
capable of yielding small amounts may be classed as non-productive.

The imaginary surface consisting of all points to which water
would rise in wells tapping an aquifer is called the piezometric surface.
On the basis of water occurrence, aquifers may be classified as water-
table or artesian. In a water-table aquifer, ground water is unconfined
and the water table may be considered the piezometric surface of that
aquifer. In an artesian aquifer, ground water is confined under pressure
between relatively impermeable strata termed aquicludes or confining~beds
(strata through which water does not readily move). Under natural con-
ditions, a well that is finished in an artesian aquifer and tightly cased
through the overlying confining bed will permit water to rise above the
bottom of that bed, and therefore, the piezometric surface is above the
top of the aquifer. An artesian aquifer is full of water at all times
even when some water is being removed from it. Eventually, however,
enough water may be pumped to draw the piezometric surface below the

bottom of the overlying aquiclude, thus locally creating water-table

- 8 -

conditions. In topographically low areas, the piezometric surface of an
artesian aquifer may be higher than the land surface. Wells tapping
artesian aquifers in such areas will flow at or above the land surface.

\ The initial source of nearly all the ground water of.Michigan
is precipitation, which averages about 50 inches annually. If all the
moisture that fell upon the State entered into uniformly distributed
permeable aquifers, a bountiful supply, more than enough to satisfy any
foreseeable needs, would be insured. However, much of this water does
not enter the groundpwater reservoirs, but is lost by evaporation, by
transpiration, and by direct runoff to the Great Lakes drainage system.

The amount of precipitation that enters the aquifers and
ultimately becomes available to wells depends upon the regional and local
geologic and hydrologic characteristics of the aquifer; climatic condi-
tions including the duration, intensity, and type of precipitation; the
density and types of vegetation; the topography; and the hydraulic
properties of the soils and subsurface units in the recharge area. The
quantity recharged may also be affected by agricultural conditions and
land-use practices.(\

The movement of ground water is somewhat similar to that of
surface streams in that the water moves by gravity from.areas of high
pressure head to areas of low pressure head. Movement of water through
the interstices between rock particles or along bedding planes, fractures
of various types, or solution openings below the surface involves a great
amount of friction and hence is much slower than flow of water upon the
surface. Rates of ground-water movement range widely from a few feet per

year to many feet per day.

Water may travel great distances underground from recharge areas
to areas downgradient where it may once more reach the surface and Join
the flow of streams, appear as a seep or spring, enter a lake, or escape
directly to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration. Where
undisturbed by man-made diversions, the piezometric surface of an aquifer
near the surface conforms generally to the configuration of the overlying
land surface. In the deeper artesian aquifers, however, the piezometric
surface may differ considerably from the overlying land surface, and locally
its gradient may be in a direction opposite to the slope of the land surface.
Where more than one aquifer underlies the same area, water will migrate or
leak from an aquifer of high head to the overlying or underlying one of
lower head. In this way, water commonly leaks slowly through the confining
beds of an artesian system. Many areas of Michigan are underlain by two or
more aquifers in which water levels differ considerably, and some natural
seepage or leakage occurs between them. Figure 1 illustrates principles
involved in natural inter-aquifer leakage. The water surface in well 1
coincides with the top of the zone of saturation and hence aquifer.A is
termed water table or non-artesian. Aquifers B and C and wells 2, 3, and
h are artesian. The lower artesian pressure in aquifer D indicates that
water may be moving into this formation from aquifers.A or C, either through
distant breaks in the aquicludes or by vertical seepage through the aquicludes
themselves. The direction of natural interfbrmational leakage may be
reversed by pumping which causes the water table or piezometric surface
in one aquifer to decline below the previously lower level of the piezometric
surface of a second aquifer as illustrated in figure 2. By the same token,
normal upward leakage from a lower aquifer may be reversed by pumping of the

lower aquifer.

- 10 -

:.-jaidsiv.=1u” :--2-

1. fl 'Aomrsn‘ s'_

.—
——
~

1", neutral. _c f '.

O ‘ . . C

 

HIPLANATIOH

a-a' is the water table in aquifer A and well 1 is a
water table well. b-b' is the piezometric surface in
aquifer B and well 2 is an artesian wall. c-c' is the
piezometric surface in.aquifer C and walls 5 and h are
artesian wells. Well 5 is in an area of artesian flow.
The arrows indicate the direction of cross-bed leakage.

Figure I. Section showing hydroqsoloqic conditions for water-toms
and artesian aquifers _(ofisr Farris and others,l954)

- 11 -

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Meinzer (1925) showed that the hydrologic properties (permeability
and porosity) of aquifers are determined basically by the character of the
interstices between grains, or open spaces within the rocks, that form the
aquifers (fig. 5). Interstices in rocks can be grouped into two main
classes--the original interstices, which were formed when the rocks came
into existence, and the secondary interstices (joints, fissures, solution
passages), which were developed later.

. In Michigan, water-bearing rock formations are commonly classified
into two broad categories; namely, bedrock and glacial drift aquifers. The
bedrock or consolidated rock aquifers include both the igneous, metamorphic,
and sedimentary rocks of Precambrian age which form the bedrock surface in
much of the western half of the Northern Peninsula and the sedimentary rocks
of Paleozoic age which overlie the Precambrian rocks elsewhere in the State
(fig. h). Over all but 2 or 5 percent of the area of Michigan the bedrock
is mantled by glacial drift deposited during the Pleistocene epoch or Ice
Age. Table 2 is a generalized columnar section listing the major rock
formations of Michigan, including those referred to herein.

The Precambrian rocks commonly are very dense, and hence of low
permeability. However, where the rock is fractured and connected with a
source of recharge, water may circulate through these secondary openings,
and be intercepted by wells drilled into such openings. Where mines
penetrate such permeable zones, dewatering operations may be necessary.

The Paleozoic rocks underlie all of the State except for the
parts of the western section of the Northern Peninsula where the Precambrian

rocks form the bedrock surface. The Paleozoic rocks are consolidated

- 15 -

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sediments consisting of strata of limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone,.
and breccia which are commonly interbedded.with layers of evaporites such
as rock salt or gypsum. These rocks were deposited in the shallow seas
which covered the Michigan basin during most of the Paleozoic era. They
were laid down in nearly horizontal layers, but gradual subsidence and
compaction of the beds, which was contemporaneous with deposition and
greatest in the center of the basin, produced a bowl-shaped structure
(fig. h). The youngest beds are exposed at the surface in the central
part of the structure and the formations crop out in roughly concentric
bands. The chief sedimentary rock aquifers are composed primarily of
sandstone, limestone, or dolomite. In a sandstone aquifer water moves
through interstices between individual sand grains and also along joints,
other fractures, and bedding planes. Movement of water in limestone and
dolomite aquifers is predominantly through permeable zones which were
developed by weathering and solution. Layers of shale are of low permea-
bility and yield little water to wells. They are significant in the
hydrologic system because they impede vertical movement of ground water,
and hence retard solution in underlying soluble rocks, and also act as
confining beds in artesian systems.

In general most of the fresh water in the sedimentary rock
aquifers is in the portions of the formation where they form the bedrock
surface or are close to the surface. Where the aquifers are buried at
depth beneath younger Paleozoic rock formations the water present is
generally saline. For example, the Marshall sandstone is the principal

source of fresh ground water at Battle Creek in Calhoun County where it

- 16 -

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Ordovician

 

 

 

Cambrian ._ i 1 . t , .
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Precambrian

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Schematic geologic cross-section “along line A-A'
(Vertical scale greatly exaggerated)

‘ earn 4 Geologic map of the bedrock systems at Michigan.

-17..

forms the bedrock surface, but in Ingham County, where it is overlain
by the Michigan formation and Saginaw sandstone, it yields saline water.
The Trenton and Black River limestones are an important source of fresh
water in Delta County in the Northern Peninsula, but in the Southern
Peninsula, these formations are at great depth, and in some areas they
produce gas, oil, and brine.

unconsolidated sediments slightly more than 1,000 feet in
maximum thickness were deposited on the Precambrian and Paleozoic bedrock
surface during the Pleistocene epoch following a long period of erosion
that occurred prior to the glacial age. During this erosional period
much consolidated rock was removed and some of the major physiographic
features of Michigan, including the major valleys which are now part of
the Great Lakes, were formed. The Pleistocene deposits, which consist
of a heterogeneous mixture of rock debris known collectively as glacial
drift, are the most important and accessible aquifers in many areas of
the State. The drift material was deposited primarily by ice, meltwater
streams, lakes, and wind action during the glacial epoch.

The water in these aquifers is contained in the voids between
rock particles. The permeability of the drift is determined by the size
of the individual grains, the degree of sorting, and the amount of com-
paction and cementation. The most permeable deposits, and hence those
which form the best aquifers are the stream-laid outwash deposits, which
are composed of the larger particles of rock debris and are relatively
well sorted. 0n the other hand, till deposits are of low permeability

and are not important as aquifers in most of the State except in the

- 18 -

Lake Superior area and in the northern part of the Southern Peninsula
where they are composed largely of sand. Till is generally unstratified
drift that was deposited directly by the ice, with water playing a minimum
part in the process of deposition. Also included within the glacial drift
mantle are large quantities of clay, silt, and fine sand deposited in the
waters of the numerous glacial lakes which existed during and after the
Pleistocene epoch. Most of these deposits comprise rather poor aquifers
in Michigan except locally where they are composed chiefly of fine sand
and will yield small amounts of water to wells. Extensive dunes composed
of well-sorted sand deposited by wind action during late- and post-glacial
times are present in several areas of the State, capecially along the Great
Lakes shorelines. Although permeable, they are not important as aquifers

as they generally lie above the regional water table.

- 19 -

GROUND-WATER CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN

Contaminants, both natural and man-made, which may ultimately
deteriorate the quality of water in any aquifer, may come in contact with
water at various points in the hydrologic cycle. Figure 5 (after Sayre,
1950) is a schematic section showing water-table and artesian aquifers as
part of the hydrologic cycle. In addition, modes of introduction of con-
taminants into aquifers are numerous, as is illustrated by the large variety
of instances of contamination in Michigan cited below.

Fresh water, as defined herein, is water containing less than
1,000 parts per million (ppm) of dissolved minerals. This concentration
represents the maximum that should be permitted in drinking water,
according to the U; 8. Public Health Service (l9h6) and the Michigan
Department of Health (19%). However, the dissolved-solids content of
water of good chemical quality should not exceed 500 ppm. Waters con-
taining more than 1,000 ppm of dissolved mineral matter but not necessarily
limited to sodium chloride, are referred to in this report as "saline"
or ”mineralized.? The primary source of the dissolved solids present
in some highly saline ground waters in the State is believed to be
connate water entrapped at the time of deposition of sediments in the
Michigan basin, and formations containing soluble minerals, which are
being dissolved and removed in solution by percolating ground.waters.
Variations in mineral content result from the mixing of saline and fresh
waters in various proportions, the solubility of mineral constituents in
various aquifers, and the quantity of fresh ground water moving through

the aquifer.

- 20 -

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-21-

For the purposes of this report, a fresh-water aquifer is
considered to be contaminated if it is subjected to encroachment of ‘
natural ground waters containing one or more minerals in concentrations
greater than permissible in drinking water as defined by the Public
Health Service. Introduction of chemicals or other substances to an
aquifer that may cause deleterious physiological effects or those which
impart objectionable taste, odor, chemical quality, or even temperature,
are also considered as instances of contamination. Bacterial contamination
cases discussed herein are those described as such by the Michigan
Department of Health.

The extent of contamination of the fresh ground waters which
has already occurred in Michigan has not been determined. Further, it
is most unlikely that it would be possible to make such a determination.
The distribution of instances of ground-water contamination in.Michigan
described herein are shown on figure 6. It is the author's opinion,
however, that only a relatively small percentage of the entire ground-
water resource of the State has been contaminated, although in some areas
especially in the Saginaw Lowlands, the Grand Rapids area, and other
places in southern Michigan, widespread contamination has seriously
impaired important aquifers. In other areas of the State, serious,
but much more localized contamination has occurred. The total extent
of ground-water contamination probably is not nearly comparable to
the widespread and serious contamination of surface water which took

place incidental to the growth of population and industry in Michigan.

- 22 -

 

 

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Flgure 6. Generalized distribution of actual or suspected cases of ground- water contamination in
Michigan described in this report

-25-

Contaminants Introduced from the Surface

A wide variety of deleterious substances have been introduced
in numerous ways from the surface to many of the aquifers of the State.
Objectionable substances which have contaminated ground waters in the
State include salt, hexavalent chromium, phenols, picric acid, gasoline,
fuel oil, brines, domestic and farm sanitary wastes, polluted surface
waters, nitrates, fertilizer, and a variety of other industrial, municipal,
and domestic wastes. Methods of entry of harmful substances to ground-
water supplies include direct injectiog,to various aquifers through a
number of types of wells; percolation from dry wells, pits, underground
storage tanks, and septic tanks; and from percolation of liquids spilled
at the surface, or leached from the surface by precipitation. Other
instances of contamination have occurred because of leaking or broken
sewers, or entrance of polluted surface waters into the ground. Even
airborne wastes are suspected to have contaminated ground—water supplies

in one locality.
Injection into Wells

ii; The most direct method by which aquifers in Michigan have become
contaminated has been by discharging wastes directly into wells tapping
freshewater aquifers. As long as a head of waste water in such a well-is
above water table or piezometric surface the waste water will flow into
an aquifer (fig. 7). The water which enters the well will flow radially

from the well into the aquifer. Ultimately, the direction of flow away

- 2h -

//- Liquid contaminants

 

 

 

 
 
   
 
 

’0' CC: ,3
oo'o
)fi'

:- Aquifer c ,1:

Original
gradient

   

 

 

_—Aquic|ude_ ___ ___ ___—___—

A. Water - toble case

Liquid contaminants

 

 

 

 

      
  
 

 

 

 

 

 

- .Aquiclude — — — — 7-:21‘3\— — - New piezometric surface- — — -
. — — — ___ — — _~‘ R- _ _ _ — _ —. _—
—— — — —- —— 7‘— —1_4...— A — — — — — — —- —
—_:=-_=_--f'."— _ — i. - — —- hw‘— —— — — — —
-,-— — _ — — — — —‘f — — — — 5“~— — _-
—— — — —-‘ — — —- — — — u.“
_ Origino|_ _ :_ _ -M— .— _ — ___ — _ .
- gra_dient— -— — — — — le pi_exorn_etri_c__ surf—ace — ——, —
.'—.———-5-—-T'—‘,—v—;-“'TF1'O “'1'
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:oosiaooo {c.13- 5‘ =.‘:.:'°"II_ 000.0
0.00 a o

 

{Atluifer -° 3? ,o <7 0° .9 "

  

 

 

 

 

-—A—quiclude-:———— — ————— — ————

B. Artesian case

Figure 7. Diagrams showing spread of contaminants injected through
' wells into isotropic water-table and artesian aquifers

-25-

from the well to a point of discharge is controlled by the natural
hydraulic gradient in the aquifer or by gradients created by nearby
pumping wells. For practical purposes, this means that almost all wells,
except those which are plugged or flowing artesian wells provide a possible
avenue of entry of liquid contaminants from the surface to an aquifer.

In some cases the injection of wastes has been resorted to

because of the ease and lack of expense involved. In other cases, the

injection was accidental or the results of the injection were unanticipated.

”0".-

Sanitary wastes at Elkton

 

At Elkton in Huron County during the summer of l9h5, it was dis-
covered that the municipal well which taps the sandstones and limestones
of the Marshall formation yielded water contaminated with sanitary and
domestic wastes. At the request of the Village Council the State Health
Department with the assistance of the Michigan Geological Survey made an
investigation which showed that a practice of using abandoned domestic
wells for draining basements, laundry and kitchen wastes, and septic tanks
was quite widespread in the area owing to poor surface draining conditions.
These wells also tapped the Marshall formation and hence the aquifer, which
was the village's main source of supply, was directly polluted. Plugging
of all of these so-called "leak wells” was proposed as a solution, but
this was found to be impractical. It was estimated that there were 50
to 75 "leak wells" in town, many of which could not be located. In order
to provide a safe ground-water supply, the village had no alternative but
to construct a new well outside of town and upgradient in relation to the

natural direction of flow of the ground water.

- 26 -

Fuel oil at Holt

 

An occurrence of fresh-water contamination at Holt in Ingham
County illustrates how an accident can ruin a potable ground-water supply.
In 1955, a home owner ordered a supply of fuel oil from a local distributor.
The delivery man, who had not previously serviced the house, found an "intake
pipe" and proceeded to pump the ordered quantity of fuel oil. When an
automatic shut-off device failed to operate after the fuel tank should have
been filled, and the pumping continued, the delivery man investigated. To
the consternation of all concerned, it was found that the oil was pumped
into a well equipped with the same diameter and type of easing as the fuel
oil intake pipe on the other side of the house! Needless to say, it became
necessary for the home owner to obtain his water supply from other sourCes,
as the aquifer in the immediate vicinity was grossly contaminated with-

fuel oil (fig. 8).

Well reconditioning at Mt. Morris

 

The city of Mt. Morris in Genesee County has 2 wells located.with-
in )5 feet of each other. It became necessary to recondition the west well
and this was done by pulling the screen and installing-a new gravel pack.
During the reconditioning operations bacterial contamination of water
pumped from the east well was noted. It was apparent that bacterial
contaminants entered the west well while it was being repaired. Inasmuch
as the west well was not being pumped and the nearby east well was, a cone
of depression was formed around the east well. water, moving radially
toward the pumping well, carried with it the contaminants injected into

the west well (fig. 9). The possibility of this and similar types of

- 27 -

 

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-28-

accidents was pointed out by Carver (1955a, p. 656) who recommended that
newly-developed water-supply systems and those repaired or extended be
disinfected by chlorination in accordance with recommendations which may

routinely be made by an appropriate health officer.

 

Air-conditioning return or recharge wells
‘12:} The widespread use of ground water for air-conditioning purposes

presents a potential hazard to the ground-water resources of the State
inasmuch as it is common practice to return the water to the ground after
it has circulated through the system. The water generally is returned
to the ground either to avoid the necessity of discharging the water to
public sewers which commonly are financed by use taxes, or as a conserva-
tion practice to replenish ground-water supplies or to maintain water levels
or artesian pressures as high as possible. The potential hazards to the
aquifer lie in the fact that waste waters other than the spent air-
conditioning water may be recharged to the aquifer through such wells
either accidentally or in an attempt to reduce input into sewage systems.

The return of warmed, waste air-conditioning water to an aquifer
will result in a rise in temperature of the water in the aquifer to which
it is returned. Such rises in ground-water temperature may.be undesirable
for a number of reasons:

I. The warmed ground water is of less value for reuse in air-
conditioning systems and for use in some industrial processes.

2. The palatability of the ground water is impaired.

3. warmed water generally has increased capacity to dissolve

and carry in solution soluble rock or other mineral matter.

- 29 -

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h. Discharge of warm ground water may cause undesirable rises

in temperature of surface streams.

Recharging of aquifers through wells with fresh water other than
that used in air-conditioning systems has been considered for some areas of
the State although at the date of the present paper no such project is
known to have been started. Such artificial recharge might be advantageous
for several purposes;

1. Underground storage of spring runoff.

2. Displacement of saline waters.

3. Recovery of water levels in aquifers which have been subjected

to significant declines of head because of pumping.

It is apparent that unless only water of good quality is injected
into a fresh-water aquifer for any purpose, impairment of the aquifer could
readily occur.

Billings (1955), in discussing artificial ground-water recharge,
wrote as follows:

"Where heavy pumping depletes local supplies great possibilities
fbr their artificial replenishment lie in the copious, ice—cold winter
flow of streams. With filtering and chlorination, such water can be very
acceptable for introduction into the ground through recharge wells. Then
how about underground return of spent air conditioning waters? To the
writer's notion, this is a very questionable practice--a stop-gap, half
measure that can do more harm than good. Where recharge is needed, why

not use pure cold water instead of doubtful cast-off stuff?"

- 51 -

Dug wells

A dug well, which in effect is an excavation extending a relatively
shallow depth into the aquifer presents a special contamination hazard to
groundewater supplies. The principles by which contaminated water from a
dug well may enter an aquifer are no different from any other type well,
except for the fact that a dug well is especially susceptible to contamina-
tion because of its large diameter and attendant difficulties in properly
sealing it from surface contaminants such as polluted water, sewage, small
animals and insects, decaying vegetation, and rubbish. Most of the dug
wells in Michigan, of which there are many still in use, range in diameter
from 3 to 50 feet. The Michigan Department of Health (Faust, 1957, p. 13)
discourages the use of dug wells, primarily because of the contamination
threat. However, the Department acknowledges that properly constructed dug
wells are justifiable if fresh ground water in an area is available only
in aquifers of relatively low permeability through which water moves very
slowly. Dug wells may yield adequate supplies from such aquifers because

of their relatively large entrance areas and storage capacities.

Contaminated surface waters

 

A number of aquifers in various areas of the State have been
contaminated because improper construction of wells permitted surface
waters of objectionable quality to recharge through the well. Flood
waters of objectionable chemical or bacteriological qualities are
especially hazardous in this respect, as they may rise to levels greater

than the tops of well casings in low areas and enter the aquifer.

- 32 -

Ponded storm water at Bad.Axe.--In the Spring of 1921, several
serious outbreaks of intestinal influenza at Bad.Axe in Huron County'were
reported to the State Health Department. The resulting investigation
showed that the outbreaks coincided rather closely with rains that flooded
an area around the city's pumping station. Although one of the production
wells was submerged during the flooding (Hirn, 1923) it was difficult to
explain the source of contamination as the city wells flowed when they were
not pumped and the well which produced the contaminated.water was adequately
sealed against contamination. The production well, however, was only R50
feet from an open abandoned well which was submerged and it appeared most
probable that pumping of the production well had lowered the head in the
abandoned well below the level of ponded water. Thus, the contaminated
ponded water flowed into the abandoned well and through the aquifer to the
production well in a manner similar to the Mt. Morris case cited above.

It had been thought that the fine dense nature of the Marshall
sandstone would preclude the possibility of contamination from a distance
of #50 feet. However, Hirn reported that the production wells had recently
been developed by detonating a heavy charge of dynamite in each well, and
he surmised that the sandstone had been fissured to a considerable extent,
opening a very permeable hydraulic connection between the production well
and the abandoned well. Studies of sandstone aquifers made elsewhere in
the State by the author have shown that in fine dense sandstones such as
the Marshall formation in Huron County water moves through secondary
Openings similar to those shown in figure 5F. .Although dynamiting may

have increased the secondary permeability somewhat, it is possible that

- 35 -

contamination of the production well would have occurred regardless, as
long as contaminated surface water was permitted to enter the aquifer

through an unused well.

Flood water at Saugatuck.--In 1951 at Saugatuck, in Allegan County,
analyses showed that water from two of the three municipal wells contained
bacterial pollutants. The wells were of the gravel-pack type about 50 or
60 feet deep and drew water from sands extending to that depth from the
surface. Investigation by the Michigan Department of Health indicated that
water from the flooded Kalamazoo River was the source of contamination, and
that the water entered the well through the gravel envelOpe around the well
casing. (See fig. lhB.) It is apparent from this case that to effectively
seal a well from surface waters of objectionable quality, any gravel packs
used in construction of the well should not extend to the surface, or even

to the very top of an aquifer which is subject to contamination.

Backflooding at Minden City.--The need for preventing flood
waters or backflow from a distribution system from entering a well and
contaminating an aquifer is illustrated by an event at Minden City in
Sanilac County. In December 1956 the pump on the city's only well failed
when the pit in which the pump was located became flooded, allowing
surface water to flow into the well. In addition, water backflowed into
the well from the water mains. Water backflooding into a well because
of the absence of pressure on a system is subject to contamination through
such defective or unprotected plumbing fixtures as may exist. In this

instance the supply was not seriously affected by the contaminated backflow

- 3h -

and surface water as the State Health Department operated an emergency
chlorinator on the system until all of the contaminated water was flushed
from the aquifer by the pump. Emergency chlorination was discontinued
after three days. Decontamination was indicated by the absence of sanitary
wastes as determined by bacteriological analysis. Failure to take prompt
and effective corrective measures, as was done in this case by the State

Health Department, could have resulted in serious after-effects.

Drain wells.-qAnother activity which might result in an aquifer
becoming contaminated is the use of wells for drainage purposes. Horton
(1905) described a subsurface drainage operation in Parma Township, Jackson
County. The owner of a surface pond wished to drain it, but surface drainage
was not feasible, presumably because of topographic or economic considerations.
A well was drilled intothe aquifer from the bottom of the pond, and the well
casing allowed to project into the pond in a manner similar to that shown in
figure 10. Although the water level in the pond was visibly lowered,
complete drainage was not accomplished. The well was deepened into a more
permeable zone and the pond was then rapidly and completely drained.

Although this operation did not result in contamination of the
aquifer-~at least none was reported--an easy avenue of access for con-
taminants into the aquifer was provided. Surface waters are readily sus-
ceptible to bacterial contamination, and when they are injected into an
aquifer, may contaminate the ground water in the vicinity of the injection
well. Where drain wells are used, they should not recharge aquifers which
are current or potential sources of potable water supply unless the recharge

water is first chlorinated and filtered.

- 35 -

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Dry Hells, Pends, Pits, or Underground Storage

A well that is open in permeable materials and finished in the
unsaturated zone, or zone of aeration, above the water table (a so-called
”dry well”) provides another possible entryway for wastes to enter an
aquifer. Almost all of the suspended solid material will be filtered out
within a few inches from the dry well, but the liquids containing dissolved
solids will percolate vertically through the permeable materials above the
aquifer, except as dispersed laterally by capillarity or deflected by
materials of low permeability, and will enter the upper portion of the
underlying aquifer (fig. 11). The liquid waste will tend to form a mound
on the water surface and move radially from the mound. The distance,
direction, and velocity of underflow of the waste will be affected by the
gradient and velocity of ground water in the aquifer.

waste water discharged into a surface pond, pit, or settling
basin also may ultimately enter a fresh-water aquifer. Percolation of
the waste to the aquifer is in the same manner as from a dry well, except
that because the water in the pond is eXposed to the atmosphere over a
relatively large surface, it is also subject to evaporation. The pond
or settling basin, however, ordinarily will permit more water to enter
an aquifer than a dry well because of its much larger infiltration area.

Similarly, where various liquid chemicals or chemical wastes
are stored underground, they also present a potential hazard to ground-

water supplies. Another dangerous practice is to store wastes in a

covered but unlined earthen pit which behaves like a surface pond so

-57..

   
  
 
    

 

 

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Figure II. Schematic diagram showing percolation of contaminants through the zone of

' tropic aquifer

in "an ISO

aeration and

far as infiltration is concerned. Storage of noxious materials even in
steel or concrete tanks presents a potential hazard as corrosion of the
metal or cracking of the concrete may ultimately permit seepage of con-
taminants into an aquifer. Contamination resulting from such instances

has occurred on several occasions in Michigan.

Phenols

Among the most noxious substances which have contaminated
aquifers in various areas of the State are phenols. Phenol (carbolic
acid) is a hydrocarbon contained in some industrial wastes. Noecker,
Greenman, and Beamer (195M, p. h6) reported that studies made by the
Pennsylvania State Board of Health indicate that when the concentration
of phenols in the Ohio River exceed 0.02 ppm, ground-water supplies
recharged by infiltration are contaminated. They report that one or
two days after the phenols appear in the river water, the water from
wells nearby has the characteristic phenolic medicinal taste and odor.
According to Elder, Scott, and Kanda (19h8, p. 285) if water containing
phenol is chlorinated the resulting chlorophenolic substance is detectable
‘to the taste in concentrations of 0.001 ppm or 1 part per billion of
water.

The U. 8. Public Health Service (19%, p. 383) states that
phenols in excess of 1 part per billion should preferably not occur in
natural or treated waters. There is some disagreement, however, as to
what the maximum permissible concentration of phenols in drinking water
should be, although it is apparent a concentration sufficient to impart

a detectable taste would be very small. Once it has entered an aquifer,

_ 59 -

the disagreeable taste and odor it imparts may persist indefinitely, even

if attempt were made to artificially flush or dewater the aquifer.

Creosotes at Reed City.--A case of contamination of an aquifer
at Reed City in Osceola County was discovered by a rather ironic set of
circumstances. In 1950 the water Resources Commission issued an Order of
Determination stipulating "that the city of Reed City be directed...(in
accordance with Common Council commitment favoring the construction of
adequate sewage disposal facilities)...to complete its adequate sewage
disposal facilities..." The order arose because of the high content of
bacteriological wastes in the Hersey River caused by discharging of sanitary
wastes without adequate treatment.

The site inadvertently selected for the sewage treatment plant
was above a pit formerly used by an industrial firm for disposal of creosote,
tars, oil, and other hydrocarbons. Dewatering operations necessary for
construction at the site required continual pumping of ground water from
the excavation into the Hersey River. Heavy fish mortality 1% miles below
Reed City and distress of minnows and trout farther downstream was noted.
It was found that the ground water pumped from the excavation contained
quantities of phenols above the toxic limit for various species of fish.
Phenol content was determined to be 36 ppm. To prevent further contamina-
tion of the Hersey River, it was necessary to locate the sewage treatment
plant at a new site. The field inspector of the water Resources Commission
observed that "no worse spot could have been selected than the original

excavation."

Charcoal wastes at Mancelona.--Another case of aquifer contamina-
tion from a pit occurred at Mancelona in Antrim County; A study in the
area by the Water Resources Commission revealed the presence of chemical
contaminants in the ground waters due to the disposal of phenol-bearing
wastes from the charcoal iron industry some years earlier. The distance
through an aquifer that waste liquids may migrate is indicated by the fact
that a schoolhouse well about 5 miles west of a disposal pit near Mancelona,
showed traces of phenol. The water Resources Commission estimated that the
glacial drift aquifer was contaminated over an area 5 miles long and-§ mile

wide, and to a depth of 200 feet.

Refinery wastes at Alma.--At Alma in Gratiot County, during the
latter part of 19h5, the city began to receive complaints from consumers
about the foul taste of the water supplies from the city's no. 5 well.

A preliminary investigation showed the presence of gasoline in the ground
beneath the basement of a lodge. It was reported that the gasoline
originated from a storage tank that supplied fuel for lighting purposes
prior to the availability of electric power. Connection between this
point of contamination and the city's well, however, was never proved.

In l9h9 water from the city's no. u well developed a similar taste, and
this well temporarily was removed from service because of consumer
complaints.

Further investigation of the area revealed a concentration of

phenols in the vicinity of a waste-detention pit at a local refinery.

At Alma, municipal wells derive water from deposits of buried outwash.

- h1 -

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The waste pit, however, discharged liquids to a surficial aquifer con-
sisting of about 30 feet of sand and gravel. The two aquifers are
separated.by an aquiclude composed of materialranging from clay to a
fine clayey sand. .An aquifer test conducted in the area by the Michigan
Geological Survey showed hydraulic connection between the two aquifers
in the vicinity of the contaminated area.

It was determined that both the surficial sand aquifer and the
buried outwash aquifers were contaminated for a distance of about 3,000
feet from the point of seepage. It became necessary to abandon well
no. 5. This created an extremely serious Situation at Alma inasmuch as
the city for many years had experienced considerable difficulty in
obtaining a supply of ground water adequate for its requirements.

This case is especially significant from a hydraulic standpoint
because it points out the possibility of contaminating an artesian aquifer
through a so-called confining bed (aquiclude). In many artesian systems
in Michigan, and especially in the glacial drift deposits,--the aquicludes
permit considerable leakage in either vertical direction (fig. 1). ‘Hence,
a clay or silt layer does not necessarily form a watertight protective

layer.

Picric acid at Lansing.--In Lansing in Ingham County during
World War II, picric acid (trinitrophenol) that was discharged into a
pit at a chemical plant infiltrated to the Saginaw sandstone, the chief
aquifer in the area. It was determined that the contamination extended

laterally about the length of a city block, and had infiltrated through

about 70 feet of glacial drift before entering the Saginaw sandstone.

- ha -

The quality of waters from two municipal wells was impaired by the acid

to such an extent that one well was removed from service for a year.
Following discovery of the contamination the well was pumped to waste
intermittently for about a year before the concentration was reduced
sufficiently to permit return to service. However, as late as 1959, a

city official reported that when municipal wells in the area are shut off
and water levels rise into the contaminated zone, water subsequently pumped
still contain traces of picric acid and must be pumped to waste until the

levels decline below the contaminated zone.

Electroplating wastes

 

Electroplating, and especially chrome plating, is a relatively
minor but important industry in Michigan. The electroplating process for
chrome, however, results in a problem of diaposing of the plating wastes,
which include hexavalent chromium, cyanide, caustic soda, and rinse waters.
Disposal of electroplating wastes to surface streams in the past has created
serious hazards to the public health. The U. S. Public Health Service
(19k6) states "hexavalent chromium in excess of 0.05 ppm (1 part in 20
million) shall constitute grounds for rejection of the (public water)
supply." The chromate imparts a yellow tinge to the water in which it
is dissolved. The presence of cyanide in any amount whatsoever will render
a water supply unfit for human consumption.

As an alternative to disposal of electroplating wastes in surface
streams, some concerns have attempted to dispose of these wastes to infil-
tration pits. This practice has some merit in that the hazard from cyanide

will largely be eliminated. The Water Resources Commission observed that

- h} -

while they "have encountered a number of ground-water pollution problems
involving electroplating waters, no instance has occurred...where cyanide
could be traced in wells any distance from the point of disposal. This
is accounted for by the various reactions to which cyanide is subjected
by subsurface formations."

Disposal of the waste to the ground, however, has aggravated
rather than helped the chromium contamination problem, as chromium is not
completely removed from the water by the materials comprising the aquifer.
Once the chromium is introduced, the aquifer is rendered unfit as a
potable water source for a prolonged, but unknown period of time. It
is not known whether natural flushing action or dewatering by pumping

can effectively remove the chromium already in the aquifer.

Chrome-plating wastes at Douglas.--In 19h? the State Department
of Health was notified that water from the west wells tapping the glacial
drift at the village of Douglas in Allegan County had turned yellow and
a sample was furnished for chemical analysis. The wells were removed from
service pending the laboratory report. Analysis revealed a chromate content
of 10.8 ppm or more than 200 times the concentration for hexavalent chromium
which the U. 3. Public Health Service (l9h6) recommends as the maximum safe
limit in public-supply systems (0.05 ppm).

The source of contamination was quickly located. .About 5 years
before the contamination appeared, a metal plating concern in town began
discharging chrome-plating wastes into an infiltration pit and surrounding

overflow area located about 1,000 feet south of the west wells and 2,500

- hh -

feet southwest of the east well at Douglas. Discharge of the plating wastes
had resulted in contamination of the glacial drift aquifer for at least
1,000 feet in one direction from the pit, and to a depth of at least 57
feet. It had taken about 5 years for the waste to migrate 1,000 feet, or
about 1 ft. per day, through the aquifer along the gradient created by
pumping of the west wells. Health Department personnel estimated at the
time that if disposal to the pit were abated immediately, it would take 6
years or longer for the aquifer in the vicinity of the west wells to be free
of chromates.

In addition to the contamination of the west wells, the supply
from the east well was endangered although the 19%? analyses of water from
.that well showed no chromate content. As a safeguard periodic repeat chromate
analyses of water from the east well were made for an indefinite period. The
wells of a local dairy were contaminated, and at the request of the Health
Department, the Village Council was asked to condemn all private wells in
the village since there was no practical way of observing water quality from

each.

Chrome-plating wastes at Bronson.--Since 1959 difficulties had
been encountered in disposing of electroplating wastes originating at the
electrOplating industries at Bronson, in Branch County. Fish and cattle
on Branch County Drain No. 50 and Big Swan Creek below Bronson had been
killed. It was found from examination of internal organs of the dead cows
that the cause of death was ingestion of cyanide. The city subsequently
issued an ordinance to prohibit discharge of toxic wastes to the city's

sewer systems. All of the plating wastes of the principal company involved

- us -

subsequently were separated and discharged to 2 ponds. In 19h2 it was
found that the dikes around the ponds were in an unsafe condition and
inspection of the storm system flow discharging into the creek revealed
a faint yellow color characteristic of chromium wastes due probably to
leakage of water from the ponds, ground water under the ponds, or use of
the storm system for waste disposal. Subsequent cases of surface-water
contamination were reported.

In l9h9, the presence of ground-water contamination was indicated
when the owner of a domestic well located 75 ft. from the sewer carrying
plating wastes to the disposal ponds observed a fgreenish tinge” in his
well water. The water Resources Commission studied the local situation,
and on December 6, l9h9 collected samples of water from one of the ponds,
the domestic well, and a nearby well at the Branch County Highway Garage
located between the pond and the domestic well. The domestic well was 15
ft. 6 in. deep, and the water level in this well was 8 ft. 6 in. below
land surface. The well at the highway garage was 55 ft. deep and the water
level was 8 ft. 2 in. below land surface. Both wells tapped the same
shallow glacial drift aquifer.

Results of the analyses made by the Michigan Department of

Health, in parts per million, were as follows:

Pond Highway Domestic

Garage well
Cyanide 15.6 0 Trace
Chromium 6.0 O 2.0
Nickel h9.o 0 Trace
Copper 12.0 0 0
PH 5.55 7-5 7.5-

- h6 -

It was evident that the part of the aquifer tapped by the
domestic well was contaminated at the time, but not the deeper portion
which was tapped by the Highway Garage well.

A check on the sewer lines revealed that they were in good
condition and not contributing contamination to the aquifer. Evidently,
the plating wastes were moving directly from the diaposal ponds. By
December 29, l9h9 the chromium content in the domestic well had risen to
5.5 ppm. The toxicology laboratory of the Michigan Department of Health
has found that chromium in the amount of 1 ppm may have a detrimental
effect on the human nervous system and kidney tissues and that chronic
illnesses may result. The U. S. Public Health Service (19h6, p. 582)
however, sets the safe maximum limit of hexavalent chromium in drinking
water as .05 ppm (1 part in 20 million).

On January 2h, 1950, the water Resources Commission issued an
Order of Determination charging failure to control pollution of the
underground waters in the vicinity of secs. 1 and 2, T. 7 8., R. 8 W.,
(Bronson Twp.) "due to the disposal of electroplating process waters to
a system of sewers and storage ponds...operated jointly with the city
of Bronson and other electroplating industries within the city, which
act permits seepage and percolation of toxic substances into the under-
ground waters..." Failure to abate the alleged contamination resulted
in legal action, which in 1955 reached the MichiganSupreme Court
(L. A. Darling Co. v. Water Resources Commission, 286 Mich. 520), after

trial by the Branch County Circuit Court.

- h7 -

A number of interesting hydrologic observations can be made using
the instance of chromium contamination at Bronson as an example.

1. The chemical analyses show that the well at the County Garage
was not contaminated at the time the sample was collected although the well
is located between the contaminated domestic well and the disposal pond.
This indicates that ground water does not necessarily flow in a straight
line, because of the heterogeneous nature of the materials comprising the
aquifer and pumping of nearby wells may also influence the direction of
movement of the water in the aquifer. In addition, the water Resources
Commission sounded both wells and found that the County Garage well was 55
ft. deep and the domestic well 15 ft. 2 in. deep. There is no reason to
expect that a contaminant introduced at a source of limited area should be
uniformly distributed within a given period of time, if ever, throughout
the thickness of an aquifer or several aquifers which are hydraulically
connected. Further, water injected at a point or limited area source might
be dispersed only slightly in traveling through the aquifer especially if
the specific gravity does not significantly differ from that of the ground
water.

2., The natural gradient of the water table in the shallow drift
aquifer was reported to be in a northwesterly direction, but the contaminated
domestic well is southwest of the disposal pond. This illustrates that
ground water (and liquid wastes) may move in a different direction from the
natural gradient. If the surface of a recharge pond is above the normal
water level in the aquifer, a mound of water may be built up in the aquifer

and the direction of flow of the mound of water would tend to be radial from

the point of injection (fig. 12), subject, of course, to the water-level
gradient in the aquifer and to the velocity of the natural ground water,
and the physical characteristics of the aquifer.

5. Almost a decade after the court action, the State Health
Department became concerned about the possibility that new wells proposed
to be drilled to a deeper aquifer by the city would also be subject to
contamination. Despite the reported separation of the upper and lower
aquifers by an aquiclude consisting of a "thick impervious clay stratum,”
the concern of the Department may be well founded. .Although impermeable
clays are known to exist, confining layers in artesian glacial drift aquifer
systems in Michigan commonly have some degree of permeability, as aquifer ‘
tests conducted in numerous areas of the State by the Federal and State
Geological Surveys rarely reveal perfect artesian conditions. Ferris
(l9h9, p. 222) noted that the permeability of a sample of clayey silt
(a common aquiclude material) containing about 50 percent clay and #5
percent silt was determined to be 0.2 gpd/sq. ft. as determined in the
Hydrologic Laboratory of the U. S. Geological Survey. He calculated that
if the head in the water table aquifer were 50 feet greater than the
piezometric surface in the lower aquifer (as might be expected if the
lower aquifer were heavily pumped) 5.6 million gallons per day per square
mile would leak through the clayey silt aquiclude into the deep aquifer.
This would supply each of 56,000 people with 100 gallons of water per day.

Study of the well logs or even visual inspection of a clay
layer is inadequate to determine the permeability of clayey materials.

Laboratory analysis of permeability or extensive aquifer testing would

.19.

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Figure l2. Diagrams showing lines of flow from recharge mound an sloping
water table

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be necessary to determine the hydraulic characteristics of the so-called
"impervious clay stratum.” Further it-would have to be determined whether
any rusted or broken well casings which would permit leakage and which‘
penetrate the confining layer exist in the area. (See fig. 16.) Finally,
the direction of flow in an undetermined area in the lower aquifer would
be toward the municipal wells, as a lowering of water level or artesian
pressure at the site of the well is necessary if the well is to be pumped.
The above statements, of course, are not to be construed as predictions of
ultimate contamination of the lower aquifer but merely to point out basic

hydraulic principles in a two-aquifer system.

Chromates at Tecumseh.--Although the adverse effects of disposal
of chrome~bearing wastes to the ground have been well recognized in this
State since at least the late 19h0's, the hazard has not been entirely
eliminated. This is illustrated by an instance of contamination by
hexavalent chromium of water from 2 private wells in Tecumseh, Lenawee
County, in July, 1959.

The source of the chromium was traced to a small machine shop
which occasionally used a chromium compound for cleaning purposes. The
material is presently being discharged into the city sewers, but previously
a disposal pond was used on the ground surface. It is believed the chromium

leaked from the pond into the aquifer tapped by the private wells.

Gasoline at East Saugatuck

 

The owner of a roadside grocery store near East Saugatuck in
Allegan County complained about a gas or oil taste and odor in water taken

from his domestic well drilled to a depth of 25 feet in the glacial drift.

- 51 -

An investigation by the Michigan Geological Survey revealed that the
grocer had formerly operated a gasoline service station in conjunction
with his grocery store. It was apparent that gasoline from the abandoned
underground storage tank had seeped into the aquifer5thus contaminating
the well. The State Geological Survey recommended drilling of a deeper
well tapping the aquifer below the contaminated zone, as the most
economically feasible method of obtaining a potable water supply free of
gasoline contamination.

This instance of ground-water contamination at East Saugatuck
is not unique in Michigan as a similar problem has plagued the city of
Grand Marais in.Alger County. The possibility of leakage from an abandoned
fuel tank at Alma has been referred to on page #1. Because gasoline and
other petroleum products are offensive in water supplies even in minute
amounts, and are almost impossible to remove completely from an aquifer,
extreme caution must be taken to prevent leakage of such materials into
the ground. It would seem advisable to remove underground storage tanks
when no longer needed, as the tanks, most of which probably contain small

residues of gasoline, may eventually corrode.

011 field brines in Isabella County

 

Daoust (1953) reported that the first serious brine disposal
problem.in.flichigan occurred following discovery in 1950 of oil in the
Dundee formation in Isabella County. Pumping of crude oil from the field
also yielded large volumes of brine waters, which are highly concentrated
solutions of salts and other minerals. At the time of the discovery

satisfactory methods of brine disposal in Michigan were not in use.

- 52 -

Ponds that were constructed to hold brine were filled and the brine escaped
over the taps. Larger ponds were built but the number of failures increased.
Even lakes were used for storage of the brine, but all techniques of surface
storage or discharge proved unsatisfactory. Gross contamination of ground-
water supplies in the area resulted from disposal of the brines.

Daoust described the various damages which occurred and concluded
that the only practical and satisfactory method of disposal was to return the
brine to some underground formation. He reported that the oil operators with
the assistance of the Department of Conservation solved the problems of brine
recharge to deep formations and since the early l9h0's ground-water contamina-

tion by oil-field brines in Michigan has been virtually eliminated.

Septic Tanks

Septic tanks, which are in widespread use in.Michigan, constitute
a considerable hazard to the ground-water resources as they are sources of
large quantities of potential bacterial and chemical contaminants. If they
are to operate efficiently, septic tanks must be installed in unconsolidated
materials of at least moderate permeability; Areas underlain by such
materials are favorable for groundawater recharge and septic-tank effluent
is therefore a source of recharge. In some areas of the State, especially
in the southeastern part, shallow deposits of sand and gravel in which septic
tanks are installed are the chief sources of ground water, thus creating a
conflict in use to which the aquifer is put. As septic tank effluent is by
no means pure (Kepler and others, 1955) part of the aquifer to which it

percolates may become contaminated.

- 55 -

The Michigan Department of Health (1956, p. 9-10) reported on a
survey made by that organization from 1925 to 1952 to study the effect of
well depth on the bacterial quality of water affected by discharge from
septic tanks. The study clearly showed a direct relation between the depth
of a well tapping the glacial drift and its ability to produce water free
of bacterial contamination. Many wells less than 20 feet deep show evidence
of dangerous contamination. The report states ”Bacterial contamination on
reaching the water table travels horizontally in a thin film in the direction
of ground-water flow. Placing the screen below the ground-water level at
a depth equivalent to at least Lu or 5 times the drawdown of the water in the
well during pumping permits the pollution to pass by above the actual source
of supply."

Hazards of bacteriological pollution from septic tanks are
especially great in areas where permeable limestone formations are at or
near the surface. In contrast to glacial drift deposits where the septic
tank effluent moves through the interstices between the rock particles,
the water in limestones, dolomites, and other dense rocks moves largely
through secondary Openings along bedding planes, fractures, or solution
cavities (fig. 15). Little or no filtering action occurs and hence the
bacterial pollutants along with deleterious chemicals from the septic tank
may travel large distances underground laterally or vertically.

Included among the various chemicals which may enter an aquifer
from a septic tank are synthetic detergents, commonly known as syndets.
0f the 5 types Of synthetic detergents in use--anionic, cationic, and
non-ionic, the most widely used are the anionic types (Sawyer and Rykman,

1957) which may impair the ultimate use of ground waters that they enter.

-5li-

The anionic synthetic detergents all contain an organic, surface-active
agent which has the important qualities of wetting, dispersing, and
emulsifying soil, the most sidely used of which is alkyl benzene sulfonate'
or ABS. The syndets are virtually unaffected by hardness-forming con-
stituents in the water, which is the basic reason for their wide popularity
(American water warks Association, 1958). The American Water Works
Association (1959) reported that synthetic detergent use was estimated

to be 20 pounds per person during 1959, and by 1960, the average annual

use is expected to be about 25 pounds per person.

The extent to which the ground waters of Michigan have been
contaminated by synthetic detergents has not been determined. The results
of a study made by Flynn, Andreoli, and Guerrera (1958) in Suffolk County,
N. Y., where ground water is derived from shallow glacial drift deposits,
however, indicate that contamination of similar aquifers in.Michigan is
to be expected. The study revealed that syndets have appeared in wells as
deep as 95 feet and as much as 500 feet from theirsource. One of the
significant findings of the report is the fact that detergents known to
have been discharged several years before the study did not deteriorate
or stabilize to less objectionable compounds. The conclusions contained in
the report and.which probably would be valid also in.Michigan are as follows:

1. When individual wells and sewage disposal systems are placed
on relatively small plots it may be anticipated with some certainty that
syndets will appear in the wells.

2. Increased depths of wells and distances from cesspools may
delay, but it is certain will not prevent, the appearance of syndets in

well water.

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5. The presence of syndets in water causes unpleasant taste and
frothing. Most persons detect the taste when the syndet concentration is
1.5 ppm or higher. Frothing appears at about 1.0 ppm.

h. The average homeowner may add 100 pounds of syndets to the
ground water each year. These syndets do not appear to deteriorate and
the wastes tend to remain concentrated with little dilution. With continued
addition of syndets year after year, the amount will build up and the problem
will become more acute each year.

5. Syndets originate only in sewage discharges and their presence
in well water definitely establishes contamination by the homeowner's own
sewage or his neighbors'.

6. The significance of syndets as a vehicle to transport bacteria,
viruses, or other pollutants greater distances than they might normally
travel is unknown.

7. The phosphates present in most detergents may increase the
number and survival time of bacteria in ground water, as some bacteria can
use phosphates as a food.

8. There appears to be little information available relative to
the toxicity of syndets.

Butler, Orlob, and.McGauhey (195h) studied.movement of both
bacterial and chemical pollutants and made a number of conclusions important
in evaluating the potential hazard of aquifer contamination from septic tank
operations:

1. The movement of percolating water containing chemical and

bacterial pollutants is vertical until the water table is reached.

-57..

2. Bacteria will travel only about 5 feet through fine moist or
dry soils, but longer travel probably would take place in coarse materials.

5. Where the water table is near the effluent source, "it must
be presumed that coliform bacteria will enter the ground water through such
means of access as porous soil, root channels, or rodent holes."

h. Chemical pollutants travel farther and faster than bacterial
pollutants in ground water, although instances of travel of coliform
organisms with ground water through distances of 10-252 feet have been
reported.

Their report also points out several serious gaps in our know-
ledge concerning potential contamination.

1. The movement of pollutants through the soil above the water
_ table has been studied more extensively than movement with ground.water,
although much remains to be investigated in both fields.

2. The ability of a polluted soil to contaminate a rising ground-
water table later is not known. (By the same taken, its ability to con-

taminate water recharging from precipitation is not known.)

Free circulation in carbonate rocks in the Manistique-Gulliver area

 

In the Manistique-Gulliver area of Schoolcraft County the glacial-
drift mantle is thin and discontinuous, and the Manistique and Burnt Bluff
formations of Middle Silurian age crap out at or near the surface over a
large area. Contamination by liquid wastes is a constant hazard, owing
to free circulation of water through solution openings and fractures at
the surface of the formation (Sinclair, 1959). Residents in the area rely

on septic tanks for the disposal of domestic sanitary wastes, but because

- 58 -

of the absence of an adequate soil or sediment layer to serve as a filtering
medium at many sites, essentially raw sewage spills directly into the water
contained in the Burnt Bluff and Manistique formations which are the most

important aquifers in the area. Many cases of poor bacteriological quality

have been reported, although the water is of generally good chemical quality.

Hepatitis epidemic at Posen

 

During the summer of 1959 a severe epidemic of hepatitis affecting
several hundred persons at Posen in Presque Isle County was investigated by
personnel of the State Department of Health and State Geological Survey.
Preliminary findings left little doubt that the hepatitis (a severe liver
ailment) was caused by ingestion of polluted ground water. The source of
the polluted water was the Traverse limestone of Devonian age, which is quite
permeable due to the presence of fractures and solution cavities. _The inves-
tigation showed also that numerous septic tanks were located less than 50
feet from domestic wells in the area, and in one case only 8 feet from a
well. In addition kitchen sinks, sump holes, and ditches drained directly
into the formation.

According to the Michigan Geological Survey hydrogeologist who
investigated this case, "One thing was very apparent from inspection of
well installations. This was the almost total disregard for established
principles of good sanitary engineering. Inadequate isolation of wells from
sources of pollution and poor well construction practices were commonplace,
and a properly constructed and iSOlated well was the exception rather than

the rule. The consequences of this disregard for sanitary engineering

- 59 -

principles was dramatically illustrated after the results of water analysis
were known. Out of 72 water samples tested, ho percent were bacteriologically
unsafe. Of these 72 samples, 20 were selected for chemical analysis and

65 percent of the 20 samples selected showed the presence of nitrates,
nitrites and/or detergents.

"Poor well construction practices are not unique to the Posen
area, but are found in many other areas in Michigan and the nation as well.
The problem is accentuated in the Posen area, however, because the limestone
bedrock, from which water supplies are obtained, is found at or near the
ground surface. In many cases, it was necessary to make a hole in the
limestone to set the septic tanks below grade. Many of the wells were
not cased deep enough to seal off the contaminated zone in the upper
saturated portion of the limestone and some wells had no casing at all.
Most of the wells had no seal on the top of the casing, and the casings
were terminated below grade in many instances.

"The geology in the Posen area is such that any contamination
on the ground surface could be readily flushed down to the ground water by
precipitation or snow melt. Contaminated surface runoff can readily
penetrate the limestone bedrock through crevices or fractures extending
to the ground surface or directly into poorly constructed wells.”

Almost half a century ago, Matson (1911) who was dealing with
a similar problem concerning underground streams flowing through openings
in limestone wrote as follows:

"The practice of putting rubbish, barnyard filth, etc., into

(limestone) sinks should be abandoned. Still more reprehensible is the

- 60 -

custom of running sewage into sinks, thus converting the underground
channels into natural sewers. This practice, which is by no means un-
common, is often defended by the assertion that the water in limestone
channels beneath a city is unfit for drinking even without the sewage.
The correctness of this assertion cannot be disputed, but there are
persons who are ignorant of the danger and who continue to use the
underground water. Moreover, those living at some distance from the
city may use water from the underground channel which receives the
sewage. For these reasons any city which pr0poses to convert an under-
ground watercourse into a sewer should be forced to trace the channel

to its destination so that others may be protected."

Septic tank discharge to a thin aquifer in Wayne County

 

According to data obtained by the Michigan Geological Survey
an hmportant question concerning ground-water supply arose following
construction of a large subdivision in Sumpter Township, Wayne County.
The water supply for each house is obtained by individual domestic
wells from a surficial sand layer about 18-20 feet thick, but in addition,
each house is equipped with a septic tank discharging effluent to the
top of the sand aquifer. This sand aquifer is the only source of fresh
ground water for the area as the underlying glacial drift is of very
low permeability and the water present in the bedrock formations is too
highly mineralized for domestic use. The water level in the sand aquifer

prior to any pumping in the subdivision was about 5 feet below land surface.

- 61 -

A test conducted on the aquifer indicated that a supply adequate
for all of the domestic wells could be obtained from this aquifer, although
a way of protecting the supply from contamination by septic tank effluent
had to be devised.

In an attempt to eliminate the health hazard which would result
from pumping of bacterial pollutants from the top of the aquifer, the
County Sanitarian required that each well be driven to the top of a clay
layer underlying the sand, and that a screen be installed in the basal
portion of the sand. Further, to prevent septic effluent from percolating
downward along the side of the well casing to the screen, each well was
constructed.with a h-inch outer casing to a depth of 10% feet.

Bacterial analyses which were made on water from a number of
wells which had been in use for 1 to 2 years showed the quality to be
satisfactory. Because of the fact that the water-yielding zone of the
aquifer is so close to the area of discharge of septic tank effluent,
however, the constant potential hazard makes it imperative that the
quality of water used in the subdivision be observed closely. water
levels in the aquifer should also be observed, as declining levels would
directly reduce the separation between the bacterial effluent and the
well screens. The effect of the septic effluents on the chemical quality
of the water must also be considered, as chemical pollutants are known to
travel faster and further and generally persist in a noxious state longer
than bacterial pollutants. In addition, consideration must be given to
the fact that the thickness of the effluent layer tends to increase with
time, and that recharge from precipitation is to the top of the aquifer,
and must percolate through a contaminated zone before reaching the various

well screens.

- 62 -

Contaminants Percolating or Leached from the Land Surface

Ground-water supplies in Michigan have been contaminated in a
variety of ways as a result of the presence of deleterious solid or liquid
matter at the land surface (fig. 1h). Liquid wastes disposed of, spilled,
or stored on the land surface will adversely affect the quality of ground
water by subsequent percolation to an aquifer. Any type of solid material
which contains soluble contaminants and through which water may percolate
to an underlying aquifer presents a potential hazard. Land fill, salts
stored or Spread for melting snow, dumps of various types, sanitary wastes,
fertilizer, and farm animal excrement all are potential sources of contamina-
tion.

The various instances of ground-water contamination resulting
directly from migration of harmful substances from the land surface
described below illustrate that special precautions to protect ground
waters, especially in shallow aquifers, must be taken because of the
fact that such hazards may not be anticipated or fully understood by the

public.

Pickle brines at Edmore

 

In l9h9, a municipal well tapping the glacial drift at Edmore
in Montcalm County began to produce water with a distinctly salty taste.
Laboratory analysis by the Michigan Department of Health showed that
the water contained 1,900 ppm of chloride compared to a chloride content
of 5h ppm as determined by a routine analysis of water from this well in

19h5. Investigation by the water Resources Commission revealed that brine

- 63 -

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A. Leaching of surface solids by recharge

Gravel pack
too close to

fRiver in flood surface

 

 

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B. Flaadwater entering well throughimproperly sealed gravel pack

Figure l4. Diagrams showing movement of contaminants to'aquifers from the surface

~6h-

spilled on the ground several hundred feet from this well by a nearby
pickle-brining plant was the obvious source of this contamination. The
practice of spilling brines on the ground.was halted by order of the

Michigan water Resources Commission.

Milk wastes at Trenary

 

According to a 1950 investigation of pollution of ground water
at Trenary in Alger County made by the Michigan Department of Health and
Michigan Geological Survey, whey and milk wastes from a local cheese
plant polluted at least 15 or more of the private wells in the vicinity
of the plant. The polluted wells, all of which tapped shallow fractured
and creviced limestones and dolomites of the Trenton and Black River
formations, ranged in depth from 55 to 75 feet. The mode of entry of the
milk wastes into the aquifer is not described but it appears that it was
either spilled on the ground or discharged to a clogged or defective
sewer fallowing a State Health Department order to cease discharging the
wastes to a nearby creek. The important consideration, however, is the
fact that the wastes moved readily through openings in the limestone and
dolomite aquifer and resulted in serious contamination.

The Michigan Department of Health noted also that many of the
wells were also contaminated by coliform organisms which usually originate
from sanitary wastes.

The contamination problem at Trenary illustrates the fact that
in certain shallow aquifers through which ground water may circulate freely,

and especially in very permeable limestones, it may be extremely difficult

or virtually impossible to dispose of sanitary or other wastes without

- 65 -

contaminating the ground water tapped by nearby wells (fig. 15). Towns
or cities located in areas supplied with ground water from such aquifers
may find it impossible to provide proper isolation distances of wells
from sources of contamination such as polluted surface waters, sewers,

cesspools, septic tanks, and noxious substances at the surface.

Raw liquid fertilizer near Holland

 

At a fertilizer plant near Holland, Ottawa County, raw material

- in liquid form used for the manufacture of fertilizer is transported by
railroad tank cars and stored in tanks mounted on platforms at the site.
The liquid in one tank was found to be unusable and was therefore spilled
on the ground by a plant employee who Opened a petcock at the bottom of

the tank. Water supply at the plant came from a well tapping 20 or 50

feet of glacial lake sand. The water in the well eventually developed a
brown color and a distinct ammonia odor as the spilled waste ultimately
migrated to the well. The problem.was compounded as the sand aquifer is
the only source of fresh ground water in the area as it overlies the
Goldwater shale of'Mississippian age which does not yield potable ground
water in the area. Further aggravating the situation was the fact that

it was not feasible to dewater the aquifer inasmuch as the nearest stream
which could be used for surface disposal was several miles distant. The
company requested advice of the Michigan Geological Survey concerning
methods of obtaining a new potable water supply or of removing the fertilizer
from the aquifer. Information as to how this problem was resolved, however,

is not available at the date of the present report.

- 66 -

Land-surface dumping

 

0f considerable hazard to water supplies in various areas of the
State is the practice of dumping garbage and noxious wastes in abandoned
sand or gravel pits or on land-surface dumps. According to the Michigan
water Resources Commission, ”waste oils, paints, paint thinners, chemicals,
and other odium" have been discarded in areas where such wastes have easy
access to aquifers.

Calvert (1952) described a case of serious contamination of
wells at Indianapolis, Ind., by garbage liquors from a disposal site 500
feet away. This case is significant inasmuch as the possibility of con-
tamination was studied prior to dumping of the garbage, but it was wrongly
predicted that the infiltration cf garbage liquors would be negligible.
The potential hazards of such practices were indicated by Lang (1955) who
reported that leachings from an old garbage dump reached wells l,h76 ft.
away, causing considerable increases in the hardness and the total solid
content of the water. Lang and Bruns (l9hl) noted a case where picric
acid waste traveled underground for three miles in h to 6 years. They
also cited an instance where garbage dumped in a sand pit continued to
pollute wells 2,000 feet away 15 years after dumping had ceased. The
latter case is especially significant in Michigan, as it is not an
uncommon practice for persons, especially riparians, to attempt to
reclaim low-lying swampy land by soliciting dumping until the land
surface is raised to the desired level, and then by covering the refuse

with soil and sand.

- 67 -

Salt used for snow removal

 

The practice of spreading salt in the form of sodium or calcium
chloride on roads to melt snow is quite widespread in the State. The
melted snow, of course, represents nothing more than contaminated recharge
water, and roadside wells in areas supplied by shallow aquifers receiving
such recharge are especially subject to chloride contamination.

Stockpiles of salt or sand treated with salt are stored at many
of the garages of County Road Commissions in the State. Most of these
stockpiles are in the open, and, of course, the soluble salts may be
readily leached by rainfall or melting snow. Shallow aquifers in the
vicinity, if they are recharged by precipitation, are hence susceptible
to chloride contamination. Although the practice of maintaining uncovered
stockpiles of salt and salt-treated sand is wideSpread, the extent of
resulting ground-water contamination in Michigan is not known. At the
time of the present report, the Delta County Road Commission is alleged
to have caused contamination of shallow portions of the Black River
limestone at Rock by this practice. Litigation in this matter is im-
pending. Storage of salt stockpiles in sheds, or perhaps even covering
of the stockpile with a tarpaulin or plastic film, may abate the nuisance
by preventing leaching of the salt by rain or melting snow and subsequent

migration to the water table.

Manistee County.--A number of instances of pollution of road-
side domestic wells were reported by the Manistee County Sanitarian. The
chloride contamination of shallow aquifers resulting from the spreading
of salt on the roads of Manistee County undoubtedly has occurred in many

other areas of the State where similar practices are followed.

A domestic well 50 feet deep and located about 500 feet from
a Highway Department salt pile was reported as producing salty water by
the owner. Analysis of the water revealed that it contained h,h00 ppm
of chloride. As the U. S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards
recommend that not over 250 ppm of chloride be present, this well was
abandoned and another well drilled to a greater depth to avoid the salt
contamination.

In another case salt appeared in drinking water along the
highway near Parkdale as a result of its use on the roads for snow
removal. Investigation revealed that here the dissolved salt flowed
into leaky and cracked storm sewers and thence into the aquifer used by

the wells located near the highway.

Kent County.--An ironic incident in Kent County indicates
that the practice of Spreading salt for snow removal might prove detri-
mental to ground-water supplies for reasons other than potential chloride
contamination. During the winter of 1955-56 the Wyoming Township Engineer
received a call from a local resident inquiring as to why some of the
snow along the roadsides in the area was yellow. Investigation by the
Township Engineer revealed that the Kent County Road Commission was
using calcium chloride to melt ice and snow on the county roads. The
salt, however, is reported to have been treated with a chromium base
rust inhibitor in order to allay previous complaints of county residents
concerning rapid corrosion of automobile bodies caused by application
of the salt. This happened to be the first application of the treated

salt to the roads in the county, but fortunately, the Township Engineer

- 69 -

recognized the potential hazard to the water supplies of the area and so
notified the County Road Commission, resulting in prompt discontinuance

in use of chromium-treated salt.

Chromium compounds contained in land fill at Grandville

 

A unique case of contamination of ground-water supplies by
chromium occurred in the city of Grandville west of Grand Rapids. In
this instance the city installed a public-supply well in the glacial
drift deposits along the Grand River. In order to overcome the possibility
of flooding of this well during periods of high water in the Grand River,
the casing was extended several feet into the air, and the land surface
was raised by filling the area with sand and gravel. In time the presence
of chromium was detected in the water by a firm of consulting engineers.
This resulted in considerable consternation on the part of responsible
officials as there was no apparent source of chromium contamination in
the vicinity. Investigation by the Grandville Superintendent of Water
revealed that the sand and gravel fill used to raise the land surface
at the site of the well was taken from a former dumping grounds for
electroplating wastes! Infiltration of rainwater and snowmelt to the.
aquifer through the fill had leached the chromium compounds contained

in the fill and carried it into the well.

Percolation of leached nitrates into shallow aquifers

 

In l9h5, the Michigan Department of Health received a number
of requests for nitrate determinations on well water samples submitted
by doctors who were trying to find the cause of cyanosis or methemo-

globinemia in infants. The disease, referred to commonly as "blue

- 7o -

babies" is apparently limited to children under six months of age and
occurs when nitrates in water are changed in the baby's intestinal tract
to nitrites which combine with the red blood cells to change the color
of the blood and reduce its ability to carry oxygen to the body tissues
(Comly, 19h5).

The laboratory reports on water samples from nine wells where
infants with cyanosis were involved showed nitrate contents of 2%} to
975 parts per million. An inSpection of these water sources proved them
all to be shallow dug wells with improper construction and several with
improper location. The nitrates in the water were leached from decaying
human and animal excreta. According to the Michigan Department of Health,
a public health sanitarian would have condemmed all of the wells by
inspection alone, without the neceSsity of taking samples for bacteriolog-
ical examination.

The nine source wells for the analyzed samples were located in
Saginaw, Bay, Gladwin, Wayne, Macomb, and Washtenaw Cos. in the southeastern
part of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan. In this area fresh ground-
water supplies commonly are obtainable only from shallow glacial drift
deposits. Wells tapping these aquifers are especially susceptible to
contamination from nitrates leached from sanitary wastes at the surface
or from other solid or liquid contaminants present over the area.

Comly recommends that water used for feeding of infants possess
a nitrate content no higher than 10, or, at the most, 20 ppm expressed in
terms of nitrogen, or ht to #8 ppm when concentrations are reported as NO}.
Hem (1959, p. 25h) states that different ways of reporting nitrate con-
centrations have led to considerable confusion among water users concerning

these limits.

- 71 -

Leaking Sewers or Pipelines

Leaking or broken sewers and pipelines may also result in
noxious liquids entering an aquifer, if the sewer is in or above the
saturated portion of a shallow aquifer. If the earth material in which
the sewer is laid is of very low permeability, the leaking fluid will
generally erode a path to the surface, but if the sewer is in permeable
sand and gravel outwash, for example, the fluid may contaminate a con-

siderable volume of material in the vicinity of the leak.

Sanitary sewer at Lansing industrial plant

 

Within a two-week-period in 1952, six employees of a small
industrial plant in the Lansing area became ill. They had complained
that the water from the semi-public water system serving the plant tasted
and smelled like sewage. Analysis of the water by the Ingham County
Sanitarian confirmed their suspicions. The water was grossly contaminated
with coliform bacteria. The Ingham County Health Department immediately
posted the supply as "unsafe for drinking," and began an investigation
to determine the source of contamination. The lavatory, toilet stool,
and water pump were all in the same room. Investigation showed that a
leaded Joint in the soil pipe sewer had parted--apparently from frost-
heaving, as the pipe was only 1 foot below land surface-~and also that
the pipe had a slight rise in grade toward the septic tank allowing the
sewage to leak into the ground. In addition, the seal between the well
cap and easing consisted only of common putty which permitted the sewage
to enter the well. The County Health Department reported that construc-
tion of the water system was in violation of State regulations and the

sewage system was constructed in violation of county regulations.

- 72 -

This contamination was abated by laying the sewer on a proper
grade and extending the well casing 1 foot above land surface and relo-

cating the pump.

Leaking municipal sewers at Sturgis

 

During World War II, the Michigan Department of Health recommended
that the city of Sturgis, in St. Joseph County, abandon its wells or install
a chlorination system because of the proximity of sewers to the wells.
Because of wartime conditions, however, the city was unable to make the
recommended changes. The apprehension of the Health Department proved to
be well founded, as in l9h5 a series of samples taken from the wells and
various points on the water-distribution system were analyzed and all found
to be bacteriologically unsafe. Attempts were made to clear up the con-
tamination by chlorinating the wells, but to no avail, indicating that
sewage effluent was being induced to flow from leaking sewers to the wells

in response to pumping.

_Pipeline sealant at Ionia

 

At Ionia, in Ionia County, part of the city's water formerly
was taken from a shallow infiltration system in the glacial drift, con-
sisting of dug wells used as collectors fed by a network of infiltration
tiles. In January 1955 water from this system developed a most objec-
tionable taste, although water from wells tapping the glacial drift at
depth had no such taste. Investigation by the Superintendent of Water
revealed that the taste originated in water from only one of the

collectors, which when valved off the system, abated the nuisance.

- 75 -

It was found upon further examination that a leak existed in a 2-inch

gas line only a few feet from the collector. The gas company had intro-
duced a viscous material to the pipeline to seal small leaks. The break
in the pipeline, however, was a major one and the pipeline sealer entered
the ground-water collector. Chlorination of the sealant produced an
extremely obnoxious taste. Because of its susceptibility to contamina-
tion, the shallow infiltration system was ultimately abandoned by the

city which subsequently constructed a deep-well pumping station.

Induced Infiltration or Leakage of
Contaminated Surface Waters

Surface waters from streams, lakes, swamps, or drains which
are poor in chemical or bacteriological quality are still another potential
source of contamination in areas where such waters may be recharged to
aquifers. In addition, flood waters or pools of stagnating water lying
on the surface after floods, storms, or spring thaws, some of which
might ultimately enter underlying aquifers, also are potential sources
of contamination. Recharge of such waters may occur naturally by per-
colation through permeable materials such as sand and gravel or by flow
through fractured and creviced limestone and dolomite. It is likely,
however, that the greatest hazards of aquifer contamination by objec—
tionable surface waters results from infiltration induced by nearby
pumping (fig. 15). The threat of aquifer contamination by surface
waters spilling or backflooding into wells has been described above

under the section entitled "Injection into Wells."

- 7h -

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-75..

Discharged softening-plant effluent in Paris Township

 

In Kent County, the Water Resources Commission investigated a
case of salt contamination of an aquifer tapped for water supply by
Wyoming Township. In this instance the report of the study showed that
neighboring Paris Township operated a zeolite softening plant for the
water-supply system. Spent brines from the system were discharged to a
creek which flows by Wyoming Township's 52nd Street well field. It was
found that pumping by Wyoming Township induced infiltration of the
softening plant effluent from the creek through the aquifer into the

public water-supply system.

Discharged mine water at Ironwood

 

Prior to World War II, the city of Ironwood in Gogebic County
obtained a very satisfactory supply of water from wells drilled into the
shallow gravel deposits along Siemen's Creek in 1921. The wells ranged
in depth from 55 to 69 feet. The flow of the creek was sustained pre-
dominantly by discharged iron mine waters. Because the gravel aquifer
was thin, the creek was dammed and a channel cut on the Opposite side of
the wells from the natural channel in order to allow maximum recharge of
creek water to the wells. In effect the wells were located on an island.

Analyses of the water made from these wells before World War II
by the Michigan Department of Health showed a range in total hardness of
120-162 ppm and a chloride content ranging from 15 to 58 ppm. During
the war, however, the mines were deepened considerably and the mine-
drainage water discharged to the creek increased in hardness and chloride

content. The increase in hardness and salinity of the creek water, which

_ 76 -

was being recharged by induced infiltration to the aquifer, resulted in
deterioration of the quality of Ironwood's ground-water supply. The

U. S. Public Health Service (l95h, p. 17) reported that a hardness of
about 900 ppm and chloride content of 1,100 ppm for the ground-water
supply resulted primarily from mine-dewatering operations. An earlier
analysis made in l9h8 by the Michigan Department of Health showed a
total hardness of 1,h75 ppm and a chloride content of 1,050 ppm.

The poor chemical quality of the water naturally resulted in
strong protests from consumers and the city relocated its well field.
The mine-waste pollution continued, however, threatening the new supply
and prompted the State Water Resources Commission to take action which

led to the diversion of the mine drainage to another watershed.

Sewage-contaminated creek at Norway

 

White Creek (locally known as Sewer Creek) near Norway in
Dickinson County had been grossly polluted with untreated sanitary
wastes. A farmer living near the mouth of the creek at its confluence
with the Menominee River reported that water in his well 100 feet from
the creek had become contaminated, indicating that the aquifer tapped
by his well was recharged at least in part by water from the creek.

An interesting sidelight to this case developed later when
the Michigan Water Resources Commission ordered the city of Norway to
build a sewage treatment plant because of the gross contamination of
White Creek. Because of the city's difficulties in financing such

facilities, the Commission granted temporary relief by agreeing to

allow the city to dilute the creek water with water from an abandoned

- 77 -

mine. Water had been pumped from the mine for many years in order to
keep ground-water levels below basements in low areas, and also to keep
the mine in good condition in the event mining operations were resumed.
Following introduction of the mine-drainage water into White Creek, an
unanticipated fish kill occurred. Subsequent investigation by the
Michigan Water Resources Commission demonstrated that the mine water
was almost devoid of dissolved oxygen, and concluded that this resulted
in the fish kill and "a temporary reduction in abundance of bottom
animals in Sewer Creek." The fish had literally drowned in the mine-

water diluted creek.

Bacterial contamination in collector system at Grand Haven

 

.The city of Grand Haven in Ottawa County is supplied by three
"collector" systems situated in Lake Michigan close to the shoreline..
The collector systems consist of vertical caissons sunk to about 50 feet
below the lake bottom from where a series of screened collector pipes
radiate horizontally into the sand and gravel aquifer beneath the lake.
Water enters these pipes and flows into the collectors, from where it
is pumped into the city's mains. Systems of this type are installed in
order to eliminate the filtration plant which is normally used when
surface waters are utilized for public supplies. Under normal operating
conditions, this natural filtration reduces the bacterial content of the
water delivered to the collector to satisfactory levels. However, in
September 1951, a leak in the system allowed raw lake water high in
bacterial content to enter the collector. Subsequent leaks, although

not of a serious nature, occurred.

- 78 -

The temporary bacterial contamination of part of Grand Haven's
water supply is not, of course, a case of aquifer contamination, but
illustrates the hazards involved by accidental mixing of raw surface
waters with water which has been naturally filtered and purified under-

ground.

Stagnant floodwaters at Benton Harbor

 

The following newspaper article concerning dangers to water supply
as the result of flooding was published in the Benton Harbor News-Palladium
on June 9, 1950: "Residents in the Marquette Woods area of Lincoln Township
(Berrien County) were warned today to boil all water used for drinking to
avoid possible contamination caused by stagnant water.

"Dr. C. E. Baggerly, health officer for Lincoln Township announced
that officials of the State Department of Health at Lansing surveyed the
area on Wednesday and issued the warning.

"The township health official stated that the condition probably
would last through the summer months.

"Low-lying areas in the Marquette Woods district have been under
water since the heavy floods earlier this spring. The condition was aggra—
vated last week when heavy rains fell throughout Berrien-County.

"The drainage system is reported broken down, allowing the water
to stand in vast pools throughout the area and polluting springs and wells."

The article, which is self-explanatory, points out the necessity
of maintaining proper drainage of an area, especially after a flood if ground-
water supplies are to be protected against entry of polluted flood waters
through unsealed wells, or by induced infiltration caused by pumping. This
is especially important as floodwaters almost always are grossly contaminated

and frequently carry disease-causing organisms.

- 79 _

Airborne Wastes, Insecticides, and Herbicides

Until recent years, scant attention had been given to the possibility
that airborne wastes, insecticides, or herbicides might adversely affect the
quality of ground water. Airborne wastes have been suSpected as the source
of ground-water contamination in only one known instance of ground-water
contamination in Michigan. °

However, in view of the increasing use of insecticide and herbicide

sprays in recent years, the possibility of ground- and surface-water contamina-

tion resulting from use of these pesticides should be studied.

Electroplating wastes in Wyoming Township

 

For a number of years Wyoming Township in Kent County had difficulty
in obtaining water free from chromium contamination in its 50th Street well
field. Two of the Wyoming Township wells are finished in sand and gravel
glacial drift deposits and two in the Marshall sandstone. Water from the
latter formation, however, is reported to be high in natural chloride content.
A metals factory situated on adjacent property which uses electroplating
machines was the apparent source of the chromium contamination. Accordingly,
'the metals firm retained a consulting engineering firm to study the problem
and report on the possibility of further contamination and of means of abate-
ment (Williams and Works, 1956).

The study concluded that the chrome was introduced to the aquifer
by one or more of the following routes:

1. A cyclone tank and fan on the chrome ventilation system per-

mitted drippage of water containing dissolved chromium compounds to the soil

- 80 _

below where it accumulated until rainfall washed it down to the water table.
A general relationship between precipitation from February through May
1956 and chromium contamination in the Township's well was shown.

2. A dry well at the site, into which water from the roof of the
plant drained was thought to be another source of intermittent contamination.
Chrome-laden dust was discharged through ventilators on the roof. Some of
the dust was thought to have been washed out of the air and onto the roof
by precipitation, flowed down rain Spouting into the dry well, from where
it infiltrated to the aquifer, and subsequently migrated to the well in re-
Sponse to pumping.

5. It was deemed possible also that flooded or leaking sewers
carrying chrome wastes may have contributed to ground-water contamination.
One sewer was found to have a small leak and on several occasions when the
sewage pumping station was out of service the sewers flooded, and minor
additions of chrome to the aquifer may have occurred.

In addition, the Michigan Geological Survey reported that empty
chromate containers had been left in the yard where rain water could rinse

the chrome powder residue onto the ground and into the aquifer.

Insecticides and herbicides

 

No instances of contamination of ground-water supplies by pesti-
cides have come to the attention of the author, but the possibility of con-
tamination due to widespread and growing use both of insecticide and herbi-
cide Sprays in the State should certainly merit consideration at least.

Nicholson (1959) weighed the question as to whether insecticides

damage water resources, and concluded that the answer has not yet been

- 81 -

resolved. He reported that surprisingly little is known about loss of the
vast amounts of stable chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides which has been
applied to the soils in some of the Southeastern States. He suSpects that
much of it is washed into the nearest watercourse from the soil surface and
states "Reason dictates that insecticides cannot be deposited on the uplands
year after year without eventually getting into lakes and rivers." He makes
no mention of the entrance of insecticides into ground-water reservoirs but
reports that the U. S. Public Health Service at Cincinnati is seeking to
determine the identity and concentration of insecticides present in surface
and ground waters.

An indication, however, that certain insect-killing sprays might
prove to be no problem insofar as ground-water contamination is concerned is
provided by Eno (1959) who noted that chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides
are absorbed and retained by the soil. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are the most
widely used of the various synthetic insecticides. They tend to accumulate,
however, because they are resistant to decay, and hence might have adverse
effects on the soils. Eno reports that for the most part, they are only
slightly soluble leading to the inference that they are not readily suscep-
tible to leaching by rainwater and subsequent recharge to underlying aquifers.

Herbicides, which have great potential value in various phases of
soil and water conservation, are also in wideSpread use, and the use of these
materials is rapidly growing. Unlike pesticides these materials do not tend
to accumulate to toxic amounts as repeated use is needed to control growth of
undesirable plants, indicating that they deteriorate or stabilize to non-toxic

compounds. At the time of the present report, however, information concerning

- 82 -

the effects or potential effects on man and other animals of applications
of a large variety of insect- and plant-killing sprays.or their decay prod-

ucts on the ground-water resources of the State is not available.

Contaminants Induced From Natural Sources

 

Fresh ground waters in Michigan have been contaminated not only
by the introduction of various deleterious substances from the surface but
also indirectly by encroachment of natural waters of objectionable quality
in reSponse to a variety of man's activities. Well drilling, pumping, de-
watering, and construction activities have resulted in local changes of the
ground-water regimen in ways which have caused migration of waters of infe-
rior chemical quality into various fresh-water aquifers. The contaminants
induced to flow into fresh ground-water sources include brines, and other
waters high in chlorides, sulfates, sulfides, or other naturally occurring
fluids including oil and gas. The source, chemistry, significance, and
range in concentrations of the various mineral constituents present in
natural waters are described in detail by Hem (1959). Hence, only brief

mention of these items is made herein.

Vertical Leakage Through Open Holes

Extensive contamination of fresh-water aquifers in Michigan has
been caused by vertical leakage of highly mineralized waters into fresh-
water aquifers through unplugged wells or test borings. Most of the test

holes were put down in exploration for coal, oil, gas, brine, salt, or

- 83 -

other economic mineral products. If the wells were not cased, as is common
when they are drilled through bedrock formations, water in any of the forma-
tions would flow up the well in response to the artesian pressure under which
it is confined. The well is an avenue of nearly infinite vertical permea-
bility through which the undesirable water may move. Protection from natural
upward migration of mineral waters as may be afforded by confining beds of
very low permeability, such as shale or unfractured beds of limestone, dolo-
mite, or siltstone, is hence lost. Pumping from fresh-water aquifers may lower
the piezometric surfaces in the higher formations to levels below the piezo-
metric surfaces of the various mineral-water-bearing formations. The saline
water may then leak into permeable zones in formations containing fresh water
under lower head or artesian pressures (fig. 16).

Saline waters commonly are encountered at relatively shallow depth
in lowlands along the lower reaches of major rivers and along the Great Lakes
and connecting waterways. The natural fresh-water head in some of these areas,
especially in the Saginaw and Lake Erie Lowlands, is not great enough to pre-
vent saline water from occupying shallow aquifers or discharging into surface
streams. The water table in the shallow fresh-water aquifers in these areas
is commonly below the piezometric surface of the deeper saline-water aquifers.
Thus, uncased test holes allow saline water to move upward and migrate into
the shallow fresh-water aquifers. A reduction in the head of fresh water
above the fresh- and saline-water interface as a result of overpumping also
causes the interface to move upward as is indicated in figure 17. A map
showing areas of heavily mineralized shallow waters in Southeastern Michigan

(fig. 18) was prepared by Lane (1899, pl. 1+).

- 8h _

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-87-

Brines from oil wells and test holes at Lowell

 

Chloride contamination of the fresh water supply at the village of
Lowell in Kent County is an example of one of the effects of vertical migra-
tion of brines flowing upward through wells and entering an overlying aquifer.
For many years Lowell has been supplied with water obtained from gravel depos-
its present along the Flat River approximately one-half mile north of the
village limits; first by a dug well 20 feet deep and 20 feet in diameter, and
then from a tubular well 2h inches in diameter and 72 feet deep.

In 1955, the Michigan Department of Health analyzed the chloride
content of a water sample from the latter well and recorded only a "trace" of
chloride. In the period 1955-57 a number of oil wells and test holes were
drilled about 1/2 mile upstream from the water-supply wells. In 1959, following
complaints about the taste of the water, the village had the chloride content
again analyzed. By that time the chloride content of water from the deep well
had increased to 775 ppm, which far exceeds the amount considered to be toler-
able (250 ppm). In 1915 the chloride content reached 925 ppm. In 1911 the
chloride content in the shallow dug well reached 225 ppm indicating that the
chloride concentration was greatest in the basal part of the aquifer and also
that the chloride contamination was spreading through the aquifer. As a
result the village was advised by a consulting engineering firm to develop
a new source of supply.

The high chloride water taken from the hitherto fresh-water aquifer
probably was derived from brines from the Traverse or the Detroit River for-
mation at great depth and from shallower sandstones of the Marshall formation
(table 2). Records of the oil wells and tests reveal that water was encoun-

tered in these formations, which is significant in that oil and gas drillers

- 88 _

commonly report water only when it is present in appreciable quantities or
causes difficulty in drilling.

The offending wells were plugged but the effectiveness of plugging
Operations is not known. If the plugging operations were fully effective
then the source of chlorides to the aquifers should have been shut off. If
so, natural recharge to the fresh water aquifers should ultimately flush out
the chlorides, and pumping should accelerate the natural flushing action.
Periodic sampling of water for chemical analysis from the contaminated wells

would determine trend in chloride content.

Saline waters in the Saginaw Lowlands

 

Widespread and very serious impairment of fresh-water aquifers in
Michigan resulting from leakage of natural contaminants is known to have
occurred in large areas of the Saginaw Lowland. Bowman (1906, p. 9h) attrib-
uted the deterioration in quality of water from the Saginaw sandstone at
Saginaw to infiltration of brine from abandoned salt wells. The city of
Saginaw was forced to plug an unSpecified number of these salt wells. In
1902, the city abandoned its wells tapping the sandstone aquifer in favor
of wells tapping glacial sands and gravels.

Smith (l9hh, p. 59) vividly described the deleterious effects on
overlying fresh-water aquifers of numerous wells and test holes drilled in-
to formations containing oil, gas, brine, coal, and other minerals:

"Man, not satisfied with his attack on our surface-water resources,
has attacked from below. He has drilled hundreds of thousands of wells for
water, coal, oil, gas, and other minerals. Many of these wells encountered

salt or mineral waters, or, as oil and gas wells, ultimately went to salt

- 89 -

water. Thousands of these wells were left unplugged or inefficiently plugged,
with the result that the salt or mineral waters migrated upward and into beds
containing fresh waters. This has been going on for more than a century, but
more especially during the period of most rapid development of the coal and
oil and gas industries. In many areas once fresh water-bearing beds have
been in part or wholly destroyed... The upward seepage of salty or mineralized
waters has so narrowed the zone of fresh waters of the soils and rocks, that
the available supply is already inadequate for metropolitan needs. These areas
are faced with the necessity of building great aqueducts to large sources of
supply many miles distant...."

A further study of the history of brine contamination in the Saginaw
Valley was made by Smith and Frye (l9h5, p. 8) who wrote in part as follows:

"In the 1860's drilling began in search of stronger brine-bearing
beds at greater depths. After discovering such brines many wells were drilled,
chiefly along the Saginaw River, to supply brine to the lumber mills and other
industrial plants for making salt.

"With the settlement of Saginaw and Bay Counties, many wells were
drilled for domestic water supplies. It was found that the fresh waters
were largely confined to the first 80 to 100 feet and below those depths
brackish or very salty water was found. In places the depth to salt water
was less than 50 feet, in others as much as 200 feet.

"With the passing of the lumber industry along the Saginaw River
some 280 salt wells gradually were abandoned. The State Salt Commissioners
plugged as many as could be found. Many, however, had been abandoned years

before saw mill operations ceased and even their locations were lost.

- 90 -

"Over the years the brine corroded and ate through many of the
casings allowing the salt water to rise into the fresh water beds and also
the fresh water to go down into the underlying salt water beds making the
brines much weaker. As a result valuable fresh waters were destroyed and
likewise strong brines were made so weak as to be useless for chemical
purposes.

"In the 1890's hundreds of test holes were put down in the Saginaw
Valley to locate mineable areas of coal. In the areas where the coal was of
mineable thickness the test holes were plugged but in areas where little or
no coal was found many of them were not plugged. These holes usually were
deep enough to penetrate the brackish and salt water beds. The unplugged
holes allowed the salty waters to rise and spread into the formations carrying
fresh water.

"Many wells for fresh water on farms penetrated brackish or salt
water beds. Those too salty for use were abandoned. Undoubtedly, over the
years, the casings were eaten through and the salty waters invaded some of
the fresh water beds above, which locally were too thin to furnish an adequate
supply but were channels through which salt water could migrate into the
thicker and more productive areas of fresh water. In numerous instances
wells yielding brackish but usable waters gradually became so salty they
were abandoned."

"Smith and Frye, however, did not attribute all the damage or
destruction of fresh waters to man-made operations, and state that natural

migration of brines to fresh-water beds also has occurred.

- 91 -

Saline water in the Grand Rapids area

 

In the Grand Rapids area, Kent County, sandstones of the Marshall
formation comprise the only bedrock aquifer that yields large quantities of
water. The water pumped by most wells tapping this aquifer may be classified
as saline inasmuch as the dissolved solid contents are generally well in ex-
cess of 1,000 ppm. Historical evidence (Winchell, 1861, p. 91) indicates that
the present mineral content of the water in the aquifer is far greater than it
had been in the past. Winchell stated that the water in the Napoleon (upper)
members of the Marshall formation was fresh although the term "fresh" is
merely relative and the mineral content of the water at the time of his study
is not known.

The increase in mineralization which is believed to have occurred
since the time of Winchell's study has been attributed to the fact that many
old brine wells were not properly sealed. Nellist (1906, p. 272) stated that
there were flowing wells in the area which penetrated to the Marshall sand-
stone and obtained water "sufficiently fresh to be suitable for drinking."

He reported that these wells penetrate the salt- and gypsum-bearing beds

of the lower Grand River Group, which had been previously explored for
brine. By the time of the 1906 study, however, most of those wells had been
abandoned and Nellist concluded that brine had flowed "from these old salt
wells down into the Marshall sandstone."

Stramel, Wisler, and Laird (l95h, p. 27) concurred with Nellist's
observation but reasoned that failure to plug the old salt holes was but
one cause of the increased mineralization of water in the Marshall formation.

They surmised that increased pumping in the area since the turn of the

- 92 -

century contributed to the increased mineral content of the water by causing
mineralized water present downdip in the formation to migrate to the area.
In addition, they stated that pumping probably increased the leakage from the

old wells.

High-chloride water at Lansing

 

In 1956 the Lansing Board of Water and Light drilled a well in the
central part of the city of Lansing for additional water supply. The well
tapped the Saginaw formation which is the source of the city's water supply.
When the well was first drilled the chloride content of its water was less
than 100 ppm. However, after the well was put into production the chloride
content of the water increased rapidly and after two months of pumping the
chloride content was in excess of 900 ppm. This concentration of chlorides
was very unusual for water from the Saginaw formation in the Lansing area.
The engineering staff of the Board of Water and Light immediately started
an investigation to determine the source of the chloride.

It was concluded that a probable source of the chlorides was
highly mineralized water flowing upward through a well tapping one or more
underlying saline-water aquifers. A study of U. S. Geological Survey
records revealed that in 1867 a well had been drilled nearby in search of
a supply of commercial salt brine. The well, which was drilled to a depth
of 1,h00 feet, yielded highly mineralized water and initially flowed 1,600
gallons per hour. The brine was not of a quality suitable for commercial
salt, but eventually the water was used for mineral baths, and a mineral
pool at a Spa and hotel which were built at the site. The hotel and Spa

were destroyed by fire in 1879 and were never rebuilt. A chemical analysis

- 93 -

of the water from the well was published in U. S. Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 51 (Lane, 1899, p. 58, no. 2A2) and revealed that the sodium
chloride content of the water was h.575 parts per thousand (h,575 ppm).
From the above data it became readily apparent that the source of the high
chloride water in the Saginaw formation was the "old mineral well."

The investigation then turned to the problem of locating the old
mineral well, which, fortunately, was found. It was buried beneath a garage
at the site of the destroyed hotel. In January 1957 the well was reopened
and sealed with cement grout from a depth of 557 feet to the surface.

The city supply well was then pumped for several months in 1957,
the water being discharged to the Grand River, and then was retired from
use until May 1958. It was used for public supply from May to October 1958.
When the well was first pumped in 1958 the chloride content was less than
100 ppm. The chloride content rose gradually to hhl ppm on October 1 when
the well was again retired from use until the summer of 1959. During the
1959 period of pumping the chloride content again increased, but at a slower
rate.

It appears from the chemical records that the efforts of the Board
of Water and Light to seal the mineral well and reclaim the aquifer at the
site of the municipal well will be successful. However, it is apparent that
a large part of the aquifer was contaminated and that it will take consider-
able time to restore the aquifer to its original condition.

This case also reveals one of the benefits of a program of basic-
data collection. Without these records the problem of identifying the source
of the chloride and the general location of the well would have been much

more difficult and perhaps impossible.

- 9h -

High-chloride waters at Grand Ledge and Eaton Rapids

 

Several years ago village officials at Grand Ledge in Eaton County
investigated the possibility of using saline water for belaying dust on un-
paved roads. The source of the water considered for this use was a flowing
salt-water well drilled for a health Spa in the latter part of the 19th
century. Further study, however, revealed that the chloride concentration
was much too small to accomplish this purpose; hence, the project was dropped.
0n the other hand, the chloride concentration of the water, which probably
is from the Michigan formation, is great enough to contaminate parts of the
overlying Saginaw formation into which it is believed to be leaking. The
village obtains its water supply from wells tapping the Saginaw formation.

In similar circumstances wells discharging salt water, also from the Michigan
formation, into overlying fresh-water aquifers at Eaton Rapids in Eaton

County, have created difficult problems of obtaining fresh-water supplies.

Overpumping

Overpumping also has adversely affected the quality of water from
several fresh-water aquifers of the State. There is, of course, no sharp
line of demarcation as to what rate of withdrawal constitutes overpumping,
although rates of pumping may be considered excessive if they result in a
continuing declining trend in water levels, seriously reduce the yields of
wells tapping the aquifer within its cone of drawdown, or adversely affect
the quality of the water. Adverse effects on quality are common in areas
where fresh-water aquifers are directly underlain by aquifers containing

saline water or where the fresh-water aquifer contains saline water downdip

- 95 _

or at depth. Pumping from fresh-water aquifers connected hydraulically to

the saline-water aquifer tends to cause migration of the saline water toward
the well. As the fresh-water head is reduced by pumping (water levels

lowered) saline waters will rise and migrate toward the pumping wells (fig. 19).
Permitting unrestricted or excessive flow from an artesian well results in
similar effects.

Numerous geochemical data show that overpumping has resulted in
deterioration in quality of water pumped from aquifers in various parts of
the State, and further, that pumping from the fresh-water aquifers which
have been penetrated by test holes tapping saline-water aquifers will
aggravate the conditions cited above. It is believed by the author that
contamination of portions of various important aquifers in Michigan by
vertically migrating saline waters induced by pumping seriously threatens

ground-water supplies in some of the important urban areas of the State.

Intrusion of high-chloride waters

 

Royal Oak area.--Ferris and others (195A, p. 156-7) studied the
effects of pumping on the sodium and chloride content of water from a
number of wells in southeastern Oakland County. They found that when the
drawdown of water level in the buried outwash aquifer tapped by the wells
is appreciable, the resultant gradient developed between the aquifer and
the underlying bedrock induced the upward migration of the water contained
in the bedrock, which in this area is charged with sodium chloride. They
provide data showing that the chloride content determined from a water
sample collected in 1926 from a well at Royal Oak was 565 ppm. In 1950,

when the City decreased pumping from this well and purchased additional

- 96 _

Pumping well

 

 

 

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and
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how a fresh-water well may be contaminated

mg
by highly mineralized water from underlying roc

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. General

l9

Figure

isler and oihers,l952)

ks (after W

-97-

supplies from Detroit, the chloride content fell to 1A0 ppm. By 1956,
however, as a result of increased draft from the aquifer, chloride content
had risen to 290 ppm.

A marked difference in effects on chloride content caused by pumping
of various wells in the vicinity was noted, and two possible explanations for
unusually high chloride concentrations were offered; 1. Induced migration
of mineralized water might be accentuated by leakage from wells drilled to
the salt-water formations. 2. Bedrock formations in areas where the chloride
content of the drift is high might be more permeable than others, thus pro-
viding better hydraulic connection between the fresh—water drift aquifer and
the saline-water bedrock aquifers.

The authors of the report noted also that in the Royal Oak area
chlorides are not the only potentially deleterious substances which might
migrate from bedrock formations into the glacial drift aquifers. They
reported that one well had been known to produce appreciable quantities of
gas, presumably from the Antrim shale, until the gas was accidentally ex-

ploded and wrecked the pumphouse enclosing the well.

Flint area.--Wiitala, Vanlier, and Krieger (1960) considered the
problems caused by overpumping in their evaluation of the water resources
available in the Flint area, which includes all of Genesee County. They
noted that overdrafts from the Saginaw sandstone are commonly indicated
by deterioration in the quality of the water caused by increasing chloride
content. They stated further that lowering of the piezometric surface and
resultant upward migration of saline water effectively limits the amount
of fresh water that can be withdrawn from the area. A 500—percent increase

in chloride content of the water in the Saginaw formation forced Burton

- 98 -

Township south of Flint to abandon the Saginaw formation as a source of
supply, except for emergency purposes. The township now uses the glacial-
drift aquifer overlying the Saginaw sandstone as its main source of water
supply.

The steady increase in chloride content of Burton Township well
No. 2 tapping water from the Saginaw formation is shown by the following

analyses of samples collected since 19h6;

 

 

Date collected Chloride (ppm)
November 5, l9h6 155
February 11, 1955 190
August 18, 1955 250
June 15, 1955 210
December 12, 1956 575

Intrusion of high-sulfate waters

 

Pontiac.--Ferris and others (195A, p. 112-llh) noted that the
sulfate content of ground water in an area of heavy pumping in the central
part of Pontiac was steadily increasing. Instances of contamination by
sulfate-bearing wastes from the land surface were not found. The source
of the ground-water supply is the glacial drift, which is generally not
high in sulfate content, but the drift is underlain by the Goldwater shale,
which is a known source of high-sulfate water. Hence, it became apparent
that induced migration of water from the Goldwater shale was the source of
the sulfate water from wells tapping the glacial drift. Further analysis
showed that the sulfate content of the water pumped from the glacial drift
at Pontiac was greatest in the area of concentrated pumping. Subsequent
changes in the pattern of pumping by the city of Pontiac have been effective
in reducing the amount of water migrating from the Goldwater shale, and the

sulfate content has decreased.

- 99 -

Holland.--The city of Holland also had experienced increasing sul-
fate concentrations in its water supply before the city abandoned its well
system in favor of a Lake Michigan water supply (Deutsch, Burt, and Vanlier,
1958). The city's chief source of ground-water supply since 1921 had been
its well station on Eighth Street. When pumping began at that station the
water was under sufficient artesian pressure to flow several feet above land
surface and the sulfate content of the water delivered by the station was
low, as shown by an analysis of 19 ppm made in 1922 by the Michigan Depart-
ment of Health. The sulfate content rose steadily as water levels declined,
and by l9h5 reached 156 ppm. By l9h5 water levels in the field were about
60 feet below land surface, and by 1957 water levels declined an additional
50 feet or more. Unfortunately, after l9h5 chemical analyses were not made
on samples from the well previously sampled. It was assumed that the increase
in sulfate is due to migration of water from the underlying Goldwater shale
and that the lowering of water levels after 19h5 probably resulted in con-
tinued increases in sulfate concentration, perhaps to amounts greater than

250 ppm, which would be considered objectionable.

Manistique.--Some of the residents of the city of Manistique in
Schoolcraft County obtain water supplies from artesian wells finished in
the Burnt Bluff formation. water from this formation generally is hard to
very hard, owing to the presence of calcium and magnesium ions leached
from limestone and dolomite strata. The water produced by some wells
tapping the Burnt Bluff at Manistique is high in sulfate content, which
is not characteristic of water from that formation. It is apparent from

the results of a study made by Sinclair (1959) that water yielded by these

- 100 -

wells is contaminated by upward leakage of calcium sulfate waters from the
Cataract formation, which underlies the Burnt Bluff. The Cataract forma-
tion also is composed predominantly of dolomite, but it contains numerous
layers of gypsum and gypsiferous shale. Gypsum, which is relatively
soluble, is a source of objectionable quantities of calcium and sulfate

in ground water with which it comes in contact. Migration of calcium
sulfate water from the Cataract formation apparently has been caused by
discharging of water by pumping or unrestricted flow from wells tapping

the basal part of the Burnt Bluff formation. Sinclair pointed out the

fact that wells tapping shallower permeable zones in the Burnt Bluff do

not yield water high in calcium sulfate, and suggests avoidance of drilling
into the Cataract formation in order to prevent contamination of the 1Burnt

Bluff formation.

Dewatering Operations

Pumping water from wells for water supply is not the only manner
for which the above principle of induced migration is applicable. Where
saline and fresh-water aquifers are connected hydraulically, dewatering
operations, such as for quarries, roads, or excavations also may tend to
cause vertical migration of the saline water (fig. 20). Excavation of a
hole in a confining layer may accelerate encroachment of saline waters
either by draining all or most of the fresh ground water in the area or
permitting lowering of the fresh-water head floating on the lower saline
water. The danger of contaminating fresh—water aquifers as a result of

dewatering Operations is eSpecially great in parts of the Saginaw Lowlands

- lOl -

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-102-

and southeastern Michigan where relatively shallow artesian aquifers commonly

contain saline water.

Sulfide water at Flat Rock

 

Owners of a number of domestic wells at homes adjacent to a lime-
stone quarry along the Huron River near Flat Rock in Wayne County complained
that water in their wells turned black and developed an obnoxious odor as a
result of blasting in the nearby quarry. Although there is little geologic
or hydrologic basis to support the contention that the actual blasting caused
deterioration in water quality, the Michigan Geological Survey was called
upon to make an investigation of the ground-water conditions in the area.

The geologic section in this area as revealed in the quarry con-
sists of; (1) the Sylvania sandstone, at the base of the quarry; (2) a
l5-foot section of the Amhurstburg formation, which is being quarried, and;
(5) about 50 feet of glacial drift. The wells in the area are completed
in the glacial drift or penetrate the dolomite and are completed in the
sandstone.

The State Geological Survey reported that the quarry was dewatered
by means of a sump at one end of the quarry and that dewatering operations
contributed to the lowering of water levels, at least in rock wells. They
also reported that "it appears that the lowering of water levels caused by
pumpage at the quarry has accelerated the normal encroachment of water with
a high degree of mineralization." Unfortunately, data are not available
concerning the actual elevation of the saline-fresh water interface, or its
rate of encroachment due to conditions of pumping in the area prior to the

dewatering operations at the quarry. Analysis by a commerciallaboratory

- 103 _

of a water sample collected from one well in the area prior to dewatering
operations at the quarry reportedly showed that the water was very hard
and high in sulfate content. This report indicated "that the encroachment
of highly mineralized water was already in progress, and had affected at
least some of the wells in the area prior to the opening of the quarry."

The obnoxious odor of the water at the time of the investigation
indicates that the wells were producing water containing hydrogen sulfide.
The black color revealed that other sulfides were present, including iron
sulfide which would result from chemical reaction of the hydrogen sulfide
and iron. The iron may have originated in the ground water or in the well
casing and other parts of the plumbing system or from a combination of both
sources. Historical data indicates that hydrogen sulfide in ground waters
is not uncommon along the lower reaches of the Huron River. Records of
"sulfur" water antedate the quarrying Operations. Fuller (1905, p. 17)
reported that several wells in this general area produced "sulfur water"
and that one well yielded "black sulfur water." He also concluded that
in this general area the "Monroe beds" (Amhurstburg) yielded "waters that
are hard but are not characterized by much sulfur" and that the Sylvania
formation yielded water of good quality. Data obtained since 1905 indicate
that the Sylvania now yields water containing excessive concentrations of
sulfate.

Neither the occurrence and chemistry of sulfates in the ground
water in the area, nor the relationship of the sulfates to the sulfides,
is completely known. Hem (1959, p. 22h) reported that sulfates could be

reduced by hydrogen released by decomposition of organic matter by anerobic

- 10h -

bacteria. As the ground waters in the area contain a considerable amount
of sulfate, and organic materials are present in the form of peat and muck,
as well as septic tank effluent and other sewage, it seems reasonable to
assume that the hydrogen sulfide in the well waters of the area may be in

part of local origin.

Channel Deepening or Dredging

If a river is dredged and deepened, or if a canal or drain is
constructed in a manner so that the water level is below the water level
in the aquifer which it drains, the water level in the aquifer will be
lowered in the vicinity of the drain. Resultant lowering of fresh-water
heads in aquifers connected hydraulically with underlying saline-water
aquifers may also tend to cause encroachment of saline waters (fig. 21)
in much the same manner as caused by overpumping or dewatering operations.
Each lowering of one foot of the fresh-water head may permit rises of
saline water of as much as several tens of feet in aquifers connected
hydraulically to the fresh-water aquifers.

In 195k the U. 3. Army Corps of Engineers planned flood control
projects in various areas in southeastern Michigan, including the Sanilac
Flats and Shiawassee Flats areas. In these areas, in large parts of which
heavily mineralized water is at shallow depth (fig. 18), it is believed
by the author that partial dewatering of streamside aquifers with attendant
lowering of the fresh water head might result in the encroachment of the
saline water into parts of the Marshall formation which are used as a source

of fresh-water supplies. It was agreed by all concerned with the proposed

- 105 -

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~106-

projects, however, that a great deal of study and observation would have
been required to ascertain the possibility of detrimental effect on ground-

water quality from the changes in hydrologic regimen contemplated.

- 107 -

LEGAL SAFEGUARDS AGAINST GROUNDAWATER
CONTAMINATION IN MICHIGAN

Olds (1952), who studied the legal aSpects of ground-water con-
tamination, found that not many courts in the United States have been called
upon to deal with the subject. He found that most of the few courts which
have ruled on such cases, however, favored a doctrine based on "correlative
rights" or reasonable use, so that if damages are caused the party reSpon-
sible for the damage may be held liable. The correlative rights doctrine
has been preferred by the courts over the English rule, which holds that a
property owner has absolute rights to the uses he makes of his property and
hence is not responsible for damages to his neighbor, or to the concept that
negligence causing contamination of underground water thus bringing financial
injury to a neighbor must be shown.

Lauer, King, and Ziegler (1958) after their study of the same
problems concluded that, although the position of the Michigan Supreme Court
had been uncertain in upholding the power of the Water Resources Commission
to control pollution of ground water, the court has in effect introduced the
doctrine of reasonable use into Michigan law.

Legislative authority which would be used to abate ground-water
pollution has been granted to various other agencies of the State as early
as 1889. On the basis Of currently existing legislation, the U. 5. Public
Health Service (195h, p. 22) reported that "The water pollution controlv
laws of (Michigan) are adequate to abate existing pollution and to prevent
or control new or increased sources of pollution. The water pollution
control agencies have been given sufficient legal authority to carry on
their programs and they have used this authority judiciously and

effectively in carrying out their work." The Michigan Water Resources

- 108 -

Commission has been assigned the general overall authority relating to the
control of pollution of any waters of the State. Various divisions of the
Department of Conservation and of the State Health Department also have

been delegated related water-pollution control functions.

Actions of the Michigan Supreme Court

 

Relatively few cases in the State dealing Specifically with con-
tamination or alleged contamination of ground-water supplies have appeared
before the Michigan Supreme Court (Olds, 1952). The earliest of these was

the case of Upjohn v. Richland Township (16 Mich. 512), decided in 1881. In

 

this case Upjohn sought to enjoin an addition to a nearby cemetery on the
basis that it would contaminate his well. The court held that the plaintiff
failed to sustain the burden of proof in saying as follows:

"The movements of sub-surface waters are commonly so obscure that
rights in or respecting them cannot well be preserved. They do not often
have a well-defined channel, and it is not easy in many cases to determine
in what direction their movements tend. If corrupted at one point the effect
may be confined within very narrow limits, while at another, though no surface
indications would lead one to expect it, the taint might follow the water for
miles."

In the 1891 case of Brady v. Detroit Steel and Spring Company

 

(102 Mich. 277) the court accepted the doctrine of correlative rights in
saying "It is well settled that the percolation of deleterious matter, from
the premises of the party who suffers it, through the soil, upon the lands

of the adjacent owner, to the injury of the latter, is an actionable nuisance.

- 109 -

In the 1958 case of Joldersma v. Muskegon Development CO. (286

 

Mich. 520) it was alleged that the complainant's underground water had been
contaminated by the defendant's act of allowing salt-water wastes from an
Oil well to seep into the soil on defendant's premises. However, again the
plaintiff failed to sustain the burden of proof.

In the 1955 case of L. A. Darling CO. v. Water Resources Commission

 

 

(511 Mich. 651), it was alleged that the defendant had contaminated several
private wells and threatened to pollute one of the public wells of the
municipality of Bronson. The judgment of a lower court in favor of the
commission's order to the defendant to abate contamination was reversed by
the Supreme Court, on appeal, but not on grounds denying violation of Act

117 of the P. A. of 1919. The court held that the commission had denied

the Darling Co. procedural due process by failure to conduct a formal hearing.
The court did, however, confirm the power of the Water Resources Commission
to control pollution of ground water, and, according to Lauer, King, Ziegler
(1958), thus established the act as a reasonable use standard in Michigan,
despite the fact that no Supreme Court cases resulted in an injunction against

ground-water contamination or in recovery of damages.

Act Creating the water Resources Commission

 

In 1929 the Michigan Legislature passed Act No. 215 creating the
Stream Control Commission, but this Commission was given authority only to
control pollution of surface waters, the Act being deficient in that it did
not include control of underground waters. This act was amended in 1919 by
Public Act 117 and the Commission's name was changed to Water Resources

Commission, its powers eXpanded, its procedures streamlined, and its

- 110 -

authority extended to the control of pollution of underground waters (Olds,
1952). The act delegates to the commission the responsibility "to protect
and conserve the water resources of the state and great lakes...." Broad
powers to attain these objectives are also conferred upon the commission
by this act, along with the duty "to enforce any and all laws relating to
the pollution of the waters of this state...."

Act 117 specifically states that "The Commission Shall protect
and conserve the water resources of the state and shall have control of the
pollution of surface or underground waters of the state...which are or may
be affected by waste diSposal...." and further that the Commission "shall
have the authority to make regulations and orders restricting the polluting
content of any waste material or polluting substances discharged or sought
to be discharged into any....waters of the state. It shall have the authority
to take all appropriate steps to prevent pollution which is deemed by the
Commission to be unreasonable and against public interest...." The disposal
of water or return of air-conditioning water into the ground through a
recharge or return well is also subject to regulation by the Water Resources
Commission, inasmuch as the act considers this a new use of the waters of
the State, and hence approval must be granted by the Commission before such
a well is constructed.

Since its creation by legislative enactment in 1919, the Water
Resources Commission, by use of its broad legal authority, has been very
effective in abating contamination of ground-water supplies in cases which
have been brought to its attention. In addition, the commission has denied
applications for new uses of the waters of the State when such use would
result in further and undesirable contamination of any ground- or surface-

water source.

- lll -

Conservation Laws

 

Throughout the years, the people of Michigan have been concerned
with conservation Of the waters of the State for various purposes. Accord-
ingly, a number of laws have been passed which directly or indirectly pro-
vides for the conservation of water by protecting them from contamination.
Since 1921, these laws and various amendments have been administered by the
Department of Conservation which was created in part "to provide for the

protection and conservation of the natural resources of the state...."

Act 190 of the Public Acts of 1889

Johnson (1905, p. 12) outlined the features of an early law
pertaining to underground waters passed in 1889 (but repealed in 1929)
which prohibited parties owning flowing artesian wells to allow the well
"to flow a larger stream than will flow thrOugh a pipe 1 inch in diameter,
to the detriment or injury of any other well or wells, without the consent
Of the owner of such well or wells so injured." Although this act probably
was designed to protect nearby flowing wells from undue loss in head which
might cause the flow to cease, the encroachment Of sulfate waters into
the Burnt Bluff formation at Manistique cited above, illustrated how
loss in head might also result in deterioration of chemical quality of
the water. NO case of application of this law to prevent contamination,

however, is known to the author.

- 112 —

Act 107 Of the Public Acts of 1905

Another conservation law dealing with ground water is Act 107 Of
the Public Acts of 1905, which is similar to the 1889 act. Act 107 provides
for the restriction of unreasonable waste flows from artesian or flowing
wells, which damage other wells supplied from the same head or reservoir.
According to Wisler, Stramel, and Laird (1952, p. 35) the law is unworkable
because of the "difficulty of defining what is reasonable in any case and
of proving that any particular waste flow is responsible for the damage...."
Their argument appears to have merit inasmuch as the law has never been
utilized. However, if sufficient engineering data were available to prove
conclusively that loss in head was directly attributable to increase in
mineral content of the water, as, for example, in the case of Manistique
cited above, and that damages had been done to neighboring wells, the law
probably could be invoked for abatement of pumping or unrestricted flow,

or at least for collection of damages.

Act 526 of the Public Acts Of 1957

The Department of Conservation is charged with important duties
in preventing contamination of ground-water supplies incidental to adminis-
tering Act 526 of the Public Acts of 1957, which regulates the production
and handling of natural dry gas in the State. The Act appoints the
Director of Conservation as Supervisor of Wells and requires specifically
that he protect the various natural resources of the State against con-
tamination resulting from natural gas production activities. Section 1

of the Act stated "It Shall be the duty of the supervisor Of wells.... to

- 113 -

inSpect the locating, drilling, casing, deepening, sealing, and Operating

of gas wells or test holes, so far as the same may endanger,....or do damage
to the gas, the fresh, brine, and mineral waters, and other mineral resources...."
A variety of duties to accomplish this purpose of the Act is spelled out in
detail. Section 8 requires "Every person who shall drill, sink, or cause to
be sunk, such a well or test hole penetrating bedrock shall case and seal

off each oil, gas, brine or water stratum or formation to effectually prevent
migration of gas or fluids to other strata, and such casing or sealing off
shall be effected and tested in such manner and by such methods and means as
may be prescribed or approved by the supervisor of wells or his authorized
representative." Section 10 requires that dry or abandoned wells "be plugged
in such a way as to confine the oil, gas, and water in the strata in which
they are found and to prevent them from escaping into other strata; or to the
surface." Section 11 provides that in the event such a well is not plugged
in 50 days the owner must give satisfactory proof that no damage is being
done to any water- or other mineral-bearing formation penetrated.

Section 25 of the same act exempts most holes drilled for explora-
tion or extraction of water and all other minerals from the general regula-
tions of the act, but does provide "That when any such well or hole pene-
trates salt or mineral water-bearing formations, the owner or operator shall
upon completion or abandonment plug such well or test holes in such manner
and by such means as the supervisor shall prescribe or approve that will
prevent migration of such brine or mineral water into the oil, gas and fresh
water-bearing formations or to the surface." It is not clear how this
section would apply in the case of a hole drilled through an oil- or gas-

bearing formation in quest of other mineral resources.

- 111 -

Act 61 of the Public Acts of 1959

This act, which is designed to prevent waste and to conserve
the oil and gas resources of the State, is similar to Act 526 in its
incidental powers to protect the fresh ground-water resources in areas
of oil test or well drilling. Section 6 of the act empowers the Super-
visor of Wells (the Director of Conservation) to require "plugging of
wells drilled for Oil and gas or for geologic information or as key wells
in secondary recovery projects,....in such a manner and by such means
so....as to prevent damage to or destruction of fresh water supplies."
Section 12 of the act contains a provision requiring each well to be
drilled in the center of any drilling unit or tract, with various excep-
tions, including instances where water or other natural resources are

threatened by drilling at that point.

Public Health Laws

 

The Michigan Department of Health, under its broad police
powers to protect the public health, is also actively engaged in pro-
tecting the fresh-water supplies of the State from pollution, as an
activity incidental to its duties to inSpect and approve public water
and sewerage systems, and in regulating the construction and operation

of drains.

- 115 -

Pb.

4..

v.

 

 

The Drain Code of 1956

Section 125 of Act 10 of the Public Acts of 1956 also is designed
to protect the waters of the State by providing that "It shall be unlawful...
to discharge or permit to be discharged into any county drain or inter-
county drain of the state any sewage or waste matter capable of producing
in said drain or drains detrimental deposits, objectionable Odor nuisance,
injury to drainage conduits or structures, or such pollution of the waters
of the state receiving the flow from said drains as to injure livestock,
destroy fish life, or be injurious to the public health." This act authorizes
the State Health Commissioner to cause such measures to be taken as he deems
necessary to abate the nuisance or menace to the public health. The act is
important in protecting the ground waters of the State from contamination,
inasmuch as a drain may be a source of recharge to an aquifer, as for example
in the case of the disposal of zeolite-softening-plant effluent in Paris

Township, Kent County cited previously.

Waterworks and Sewerage System Law

Act 215 creating the Michigan Water Resources Commission and Act
219 of the Public Acts of 1919 are the most important Michigan statutes pro-
tecting the ground waters of the State from pollution. Act 219 provides
for supervision and control by the State Health Commissioner over waterworks
systems--including wells-~and sewerage systems. Section 1 of the act re-
quires the commissioner to investigate waterworks systems and have bacter-
iological analyses made of water when there is reason to believe that any

public water supply is contaminated. Section 6 requires plans and specifi-

- 116 -

cations that "Show all the sources through or from which water is or may be
at any time pumped or otherwise permitted or caused to enter into such
system, and such drain, water course, river or lake into which sewage is
to be discharged." This in effect provides the State with valuable geologic
information, and indirectly with geochemical information inasmuch as water
samples from potential public-supply sources are chemically analyzed, as it
is also the duty of the commission to determine if any public water supply
is impure and a menace to the public health.

\.The sewage-diSposal information, of course, permits the commis-
sioner to evaluate potential hazards to ground- or surface-water supplies
and to stipulate changes which will cause reduction or removal of such hazards,

to render the sewage "not potentially prejudicial to the public health."

Regulatory Powers of the State Health Commissioner

By authority of Act 116 of the Public Acts of 1919 as amended, the
State Health Commissioner has also published a series of regulations estab-
lishing minimum standards for the location and construction of water supplies
(other than municipal) "serving schools, trailer coach parks, motels, resorts,
hospitals, convalescent homes, milk and food handling establishments, places
of assembly, and the like." The regulations (Michigan Department of Health,
1957) prohibit drilling of such wells within 75 feet from sources Of con-
tamination. Sewers or sumps may not be located less than 10 feet from such
wells, and if less than 75 feet, must be of watertight construction. Further,
these wells must not be in areas subject to flooding. The regulations also

stipulate certain well construction techniques to protect the public health.

-117-

Dug wells or wells less than 25 feet deep for public supply are no longer
permitted in the State without written approval of the State Health Commis-
sioner.

Regulations concerning water supplies for Grade A milk plants and
dairy farms, as required by Act 216 of the Public Acts of 1956, are similar

to those outlined for public water systems.

Federal Laws

 

The first comprehensive Federal legislation in the pollution control
field was the water Pollution Control Act of 1918 (P. L. 815). This law added
the principles of State-Federal cooperative program development and limited
Federal enforcement authority and financial aid. The growing concern of the
Federal Government in the national pollution problem resulted in the new
Federal Water Pollution control Act of 1956 (P. L. 660).

Because the Congress has stipulated that primary responsibility
in pollution control rests with the States, both laws declare the policy
of Congress "to recognize, preserve, and protect the primary responsibilities
and rights of the States in controlling water pollution." The 1956 law
includes boundary waters in this policy declaration.

The U. S. Public Health Service (1957) summarized the authoriza-
tions in the Federal Water Pollution Control Act as follows:

1. Authorizes continued Federal-State-interstate cooperation
in the preparation and development of comprehensive programs for controlling

water pollution.

- 118 -

2. Encourages COOperative activities by the States in
a. The prevention and control of interstate water pollution.
b. The enactment of improved laws to control pollution.
c. The establishment of interstate compacts.

5. Authorizes increased technical assistance to States, a broader
research program, the establishment of research fellowships, and the use of
contract research and research grants.

1. Authorizes the collection and dissemination of basic data on
water quality and other information relating to the prevention and control
of water pollution.

5. Authorizes appropriation of $5 million per year for 5 years for
grants to State and interstate agencies to assist in their pollution-control
activities.

6. Authorizes Federal grants of $50 million a year (with an
aggregate of $500 million) for the construction Of municipal sewage-treat-
ment works.

7. Authorizes the establishment of a Water Pollution Control
Advisory Board appointed by the President.

8. Modifies and simplifies procedures governing Federal abate-
ment action against interstate pollution.

9. Authorizes a cooperative program to control pollution from

Federal installations.

The Federal Government, however, has no part in the direct
enactment and enforcement of the water law of any State. Where inter-
state water sources and problems are involved, machinery is provided

for facilitating settlement of diSputes by negotiation and compact.

_ 119 -

McGuinness (1951, p. 2) summarized the policy of the 0.8. Geological
Survey insofar as water law is concerned as follows:

"It is the belief of the Geological Survey that the required
legal control can be achieved most effectively at the State level; further,
that the restrictions on water use should be the minimum consistent with
effective control, and that maximum reliance should be placed on voluntary
cooperation of water users based on adequate public information on the
hydrology of each area.

"The Geological Survey has no part in the enactment and enforcement
of water law. It acts as an impartial source of basic hydrologic data. How-
ever, it has an important advisory function, for it is in a position to comment
on the hydrologic feasibility of proposed water laws and thus to contribute

to their effectiveness."

- 120 -

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Numerous aquifers in Michigan have been contaminated to various
degrees by the introduction of a wide variety of substances, both natural
and manmade. In general, however, the destruction of the fresh ground-

. water resources of the State by contaminants introduced from the surface
has not been nearly as wideSpread or detrimental to the public as was
the pollution of the rivers and streams prior to enactment of abatement
legislation. Reduction of contamination of ground water due to intro-
duction of sanitary and industrial wastes may be expected to result from
the statutes enabling the Michigan Department of Health and the Water
Resources Commission to take effective control actions. Pollution inci-
dental to oil and gas production in the State has virtually been eliminated
since enactment of the laws directing the Department of Conservation to
supervise construction and operation of wells so as to protect the water
resources from hazards of contamination.

In areas where important sources of ground water have already
been contaminated, especially by such noxious chemicals as chromates and
phenols, many years may pass before the aquifers may again become usable.
Where aquifers have been contaminated, the waters should be sampled and
analyzed periodically to determine when the concentrations of contaminants
are reduced to tolerable levels. Economically feasible techniques of
speeding restoration of such aquifers to usable condition should be
developed where possible.

One especially great hazard to the ground-water resources of the
State lies in the pattern of development of ground-water supplies in the

rapidly growing suburban areas around most of the larger municipalities.

- 121 -

In many suburban develOpments, septic tanks are used to dispose of sewage,
even where individual domestic wells on the lot (some of which tap shallow
aquifers) are used for water supplies. The fact that synthetic detergents
are in widespread use makes it inevitable that many shallow aquifers which
are recharged by septic tank effluent will ultimately be contaminated also
by chemical wastes. Preservation of shallow aquifers as a source of potable
water in densely populated suburban areas will require construction of public
sewage systems and treatment plants and eventual abandonment of septic-tank
installations. Construction of public-supply wells beyond the area of con-
tamination, of course, in no way protects ground water from contamination,
but indeed tends to aggravate the situation.

Other remaining major hazards to the ground-water resources of the
State are, in the opinion of the author, overpumping and other changes in the
ground-water regimen which induce waters high in sulfate, chloride, or other
mineral constituents to flow into fresh-water aquifers. There are several
reasons for this Opinion. First, it is not clear how present Michigan laws
would deal with such cases. Act 107 of the Public Acts of 1905 presumably
could be applied to cases of overpumping--as for example, in the case of
Manistique cited above--but the law has never been used, and apparently in
most cases prescriptive rights would have long since been gained by the
present users. Secondly, a wealth of geochemical and hydrologic data is
needed even to recognize encroachment Of saline waters, and probably even
more data would be needed to offer conclusive legal proof of contamination
from natural sources. Subsurface encroachment of natural saline water has
been identified mainly in areas where the saline water occurs at shallow

depth. Figure 18, which shows such areas in southeastern Michigan, was

- 122 -

prepared in 1899 (Lane, 1899, p1. IV), and further work should be done not

only to cover the rest of the State but to bring Lane's map up to date, and
also to delineate the actual depths of saline-water occurrence. Such work

has been done only in a few areas of the State where detailed geologic and

hydrologic studies and interpretations have been made.

Requisites for protecting ground-water resources from further
impairment are as follows; A general awareness of various ways an aquifer
may become contaminated; a comprehensive set of statutory controls to cover
all probable modes of introduction of contaminants; adequately staffed
regulatory agencies to implement the control statutes; and a comprehensive
program for collection, compilation, and interpretation of bacteriological,
chemical, geological, hydrological, and hydraulic data.

The above requisites have been fulfilled in part in Michigan, but
several basic weaknesses in the control programs exist. A considerable
amount of public education will be required to promote understanding as
to how aquifers might be safeguarded. If needed, specific statutory
authority should be vested in an appropriate State agency to control
migration of natural saline waters into fresh-water aquifers induced by
pumping, dewatering, interformational leakage in wells, channel dredging,
and other activities of man. Act 117 may already be sufficiently broad
in scope to be invoked to legally control migration of saline waters by
the above causes, but it has not yet been applied in such cases. TO
increase the effectiveness of present and possible future control statutes
the programs of collection and interpretation of appropriate data must be
sufficiently comprehensive to be effectively utilized by the apprOpriate

regulatory agencies. The data collection and interpretation program

- 125 -

should be implemented, if possible, by basic research concerning methods of
controlling contamination of various types and of restoring to use aquifers
already contaminated.

As Billings (1950) succinctly and appropriately wrote, "The impor-
tance of water, especially ground water, is constantly growing. The public

cannot afford to despoil it."

- 121 -

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Adams, M. P., 1911, Water in its relation to pollution: Michigan Dept.
Conserv. Water Conserv. Conf. Proc., p. 69-80.

American Water Works Association, 1957, Task group report—-Underground
waste disposal and control: Am. Water Works Assoc. Jour., v. 19,
no. 10, p. 1551-1512.

1958, Task group report--Determination of synthetic detergent
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no. 10, p. 1515-1552.

 

1959, Task group report--Effects of synthetic detergents on
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1955, Michigan's restless hidden resource--groundwater:
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Butler, R. G., Orlob, G. T., and McGauhey, P. H., 1951, Underground move-
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California Water Pollution Control Board, 1955, Field investigation of
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California SWPCB Pub. 6.

1951a, Report on the investigation of leaching of a sanitary
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1951b, Report on the investigation Of travel of pollution:
California SWPCB Pub. 11.

 

Calvert, C. K., 1952, Contamination of ground water by impounded garbage
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Daoust, W. L., 1955, Salts of the earth: Michigan Conserv., v. 22, no. 1,
p0 25-2ho

- 125 -

Deutsch, Morris, 1956, Effects of dissemination Of radioactive materials
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1951, Ground-water aquifers as waste-disposal reservoirs--an
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Ferris, J. G., and others, 1951, Ground-water resources of southeastern
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- 126 -

Hem, J. D., 1959, Study and interpretation of the chemical characteristics
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- 127 -

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- 128 -

\

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