HUSBANDS’ AND WIVES" KNOWLEDGE ABOUT HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION AS RELATED TO INFORMATION SOURCES AND SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS Thesis for II“; Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Brenda Rasch Long I977" *— ---:Mr [‘1 my 1 L [B R 1' Q .' 'x. N’Iichigan State University ABSTRACT HUSBANDS' AND NIVES' KNOWLEDGE ABOUT HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION AS RELATED TO INFORMATION SOURCES AND SOCIOECDNOMIC FACTORS By Brenda Rasch Long The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of information sources on energy-related issues with the present energy knowledge of husbands and wives. In addition, it attempted to iden- tify socioeconomic subgroups in the population which varied as to their amount of energy awareness and in their use of sources of energy infbrmation. The socioeconomic variables used were educa- tional attainment, family income, age, place of residence, and occupational status. A Survey data collected during May-June l976 in a multi-stage probability sample of the Lansing Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area were used. The larger study was entitled "Functioning of the Family Ecosystem in a World of Changing Energy Availability," funded by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. It contained a sample of 264 families, including 237 husbands and 262 wives. Data on knowledge and information sources regarding energy concerns were obtained using self-administered questionnaires. Demographic data were obtained through personal interviews. Brenda Rasch Long The hypothesis and research questions were analyzed using nonparametric tests of association: Kendall (tau) Rank-Order Corre- lation Coefficient and Chi-square. Results indicated that husbands and wives with higher educa- tional attainment, family incomes, and occupational status reported reading more books and magazines to gain information on energy- related issues. As the occupational status increased, so did reader- ship of newspapers, books and magazines. Respondents with lower family incomes and less education reported paying more attention to energy messages from commercials, television specials, and utility companies. Husbands' sources of information to the knowledge items were nonpersonal (news broadcasts, newspapers, books or magazine articles, television specials, utility companies and schools or colleges). Wives' associations included these nonpersonal sources and inter- personal sources: their husband, friends or relatives, and people at work. Wives reported receiving information on some concepts from their husbands but husbands did not report receiving conceptual knowl- edge about energy from their wives. Both correct and incorrect information was associated with some sources: commercials, news- papers, television specials, and news broadcasts. No clusters of knowledge items were found. The hypothesis predicted a positive association between knowledge about energy and educational attainment. It was not sup- ported by a majority of the ten energy concepts. Brenda Rasch Long No consistent patterns were found in three-way tests of association between knowledge and information source while control- ling for a socioeconomic variable. Several specific relationships were found which have implications for future research and educa- tional programs. Pr0posals for hypotheses for future testing, revision of the questionnaire items measuring sources of useful energy information, and needs for content and audience analysis regarding energy messages were presented. A crucial need exists to raise the knowledge level of fam-- ilies on energy-related concepts. Educators can assist families to understand the imbalance between energy demands and resource supplies. They can also counsel families through necessary lifestyle adjust- ments while enhancing the quality of life. HUSBANDS' AND NIVES' KNOWLEDGE ABOUT HOUSEHOLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION AS RELATED TO INFORMATION SOURCES AND SOCIOECDNOMIC FACTORS By Brenda Rasch Long A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Family Ecology 1977 ACKNOWLEDMENTS Special thanks and appreciation must be given to the following pe0ple who helped with the completion of this research experience in many ways. Dr. Peter Gladhart, as my thesis director and major advisor, for his methodological, statistical, and theoretical advice; his high standards and critical comments; and his patience, numerous hours, and guidance throughout my undergraduate and master's program. Dr. Bonnie Morrison and Dr. Anne Field, members of my gradu- ate committee, for their encouragement, helpful suggestions, and guidance during my master's program. Dr. Linda Nelson, head of the Department of Family Ecology, for her interest, suggestions, and professional insights throughout my master's program, and also for financial support through graduate assistantships. Other faculty members and graduate students of the inter- disciplinary research team and Department of Family Ecology, for their emotional support and encouragement. My parents, Mr. and Mrs. Leo Rasch, and the rest of my family, for their continuing support throughout my years of educational pursuits. A personal thank you to my husband, Nathan, in gratitude for his encouragement, assistance, and understanding during my entire master's program. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l Need for Educational Programs 2 Variation in Receivers of Messages . 5 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . 6 Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Operational Definitions . 7 Assumptions 8 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 10 Sources of Energy Information . . . . . . . l0 Most Important Sources . . . . . . . . . ll Most Trustworthy Sources . . . . . . . . l2 Content of Messages Sent . . . . . 14 Impact on Receiver of Mixed Messages . . . . l6 Sources of Related Information . . . . . . . l7 Knowledge of Energy Infbrmation . . l9 Contextual Variables Related to Knowledge of Energy Issues and Conservation Practices . . 22 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 The Sampled Community . . . . . . . . . . 26 Sample Design and Selection . . . . . . . . 26 Description of the Sample . . . . . . . . . 28 Socioeconomic Characteristics . . . . . . . 30 Description of Variables . . . . . . . . . 32 Independent Variable . . . . . . . . . . 32 Dependent Variable . . 32 Contextual Variables--0perational Definitions . 35 Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Statistical Methods . . . . . . . . . . 36 iii Chapter IV. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Description of Information Sources . Association with Use of Sources . Relationship of Knowledge Items . Association Between Knowledge and Sources Knowledge and Source Correlations fOr Husbands and Wives . . Testing of the Hypothesis . . Association Between Knowledge, Sources and Con- textual Variables . . . . Summary of Findings V. CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS . Conclusions Other Conclusions . . Association with Use of Sources Husband and Wife Agreement. Comment on Methodology Limitations Implications . . Implications for Future Research. ' Implications for Educational Research APPENDIX A. EXAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE FORMS FOR INFORMATION SOURCES AND ENERGY KNOWLEDGE VARIABLES. . B. SUPPLEMENTARY FINDINGS LIST OF REFERENCES iv 90 94 105 Table CDNO‘IU'I-fiOON ID. II. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Family Type of Respondents Family Income . Sex of Adult Respondents Ages of Husbands and Wives Educational Attainment of Husbands and Wives Occupational Status Scores of Husbands and Ranking of Knowledge Items Wives Percent of Male and Female Respondents Reporting Where They Receive Useful Information about Energy Issues, May, 1976 Percentage of Husband and Wife Respondents "A Great Deal" of Information from Various Educational Attainment, May, l976 Percentage of Husband and Wife Respondents "A Great Deal" of Information from Various by Family Income, May, l976 Percentage of Husband and Wife Respondents "A Great Deal" of Information from Various Age, May, 1976 Percentage of Husband and Wife Respondents "A Great Deal" of Information from Various by Occupational Status, May, l976 Percentage of Husband and Wife Respondents "A Great Deal" of Information from Various by Place of Residence, May, l976 Reporting Sources by Reporting Sources Reporting Sources by Reporting Sources Reporting Sources Ranking of Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficients for Husbands' Responses to Knowledge Items, May, I976 . Page 28 29 29 30 31 31 34 4D 42 43 44 45 46 50 Table Page 14. Ranking of Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coeffi- cients for Husbands' Responses to Knowledge Items, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 15. Ranking of Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coeffi- cients for Wives' Responses to Knowledge Items, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 16. Ranking of Positive and Negative Kendall Rank-Order Coefficients fer Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy Information by Husbands' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 17. Ranking of Positive and Negative Kendall Rank-Order Coefficients for Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy Information by Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . 56 18. Chi-Square and Gamma for Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy Information by Husbands' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 19. Chi-Square and Gamma for Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy InfOrmation by Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6O 20. Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficients for Each Knowledge Item Between Husbands' and Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 21. Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficients fer Each Source of Energy Information Between Husbands' and Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . 63 22. Percentage of Husband and Wife Respondents Correctly Answering Ten Knowledge Items by Educational Attain- ment, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 23. Chi-Square, Gamma, and Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient for Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy Infbrmation Controlling for Selected Characteristics by Husbands' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . 68 24. Chi-Square, Gamma, and Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient fer Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy Information Controlling for Selected Characteristics by Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . . . . . 69 vi Table 8-1. 3-3. 3-5 Kendall Rank- Order Correlation Coefficients of Ten Knowledge Items to Each Other by Husbands' Responses, May, 1976 . . . Kendall Rank- Order Correlation Coefficients of Ten Knowledge Items to Each Other by Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficients for Knowl— edge Items and Sources of Energy Information for Husbands' Responses, May, 1976 . Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficients for Knowledge Items and Sources of Energy Information for Wives' Responses, May, 1976 . . . . Kendall Rank- Order Correlation Coefficient Between Husbands' and Wives' Responses by Ten Knowledge Items, May, 1976.. . . . . . Kendall Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient Between Husbands' and Wives' Responses by Eleven Sources of Infbrmation, May, 1976 . . . . . vii Page 95 96 97 99 101 103 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION We are living in a time which has placed unprecedented demands on the world's limited fossil fuel resources, particularly natural gas and petroleum (Hubbert, 1971). These demands come from several sources: a growing population, technologies which are energy rather than labor intensive, shortages and unequal distribution of fossil fuels, and a worldwide revolution in expectations. With only 6 percent of the world's population, the United States consumes 30 percent of the world's annual energy budget (Freeman, et al., l974:5). Unless United States citizens understand and fully realize the nature and extent of the energy problem and its implications for individuals and society as a whole, we are as a nation going to be ina position of precipitating a social catastrophe. We are beginning to question the capacity of the natural environment to provide the fossil fuels we depend on in our present socioeconomic system and accompanying lifestyles, and also to absorb wastes (Cottrell, 1955; Freeman, et al., 1974; Morrison, 1974; Paolucci and Hogan, 1973; Odum, 1971; Scientific American, 1971). The "energy crises" during the winters of 1973-74 and 1977 radi- cally decreased available supplies of certain fossil fuels. The energy shortages and increased prices caused some changes in both energy con- sumption and life styles, with increased awareness of the imbalance 1 2 between people and resources. However, there have been only minor reductions in individual and aggregate energy consumption. With ade- quate energy supplies, the general public is still not convinced it must personally make major changes in its fessil fuel consumption. Present consumption patterns in the household sector of the economy use directly two-thirds of all U. S. energy consumed (Hannon, 1975). Most families directly consume energy for a central heating system, water heater, range, refrigerator, washing machine, lighting, and automobile. Indirect energy is required for the manufacturing and distribution processes of household goods and services. The combined direct and indirect consumption data reveal that the major portion of energy is ultimately consumed by the family unit. Thus, any significant shift toward decreased energy supplies nationally will necessitate shifts in family consumption patterns. Need for Educational Programs Present consumption patterns indicate the need for U. S. fami- lies to strike a new balance between their demand and the supply of limited energy resources. An ecologically sound perspective, this shift can allow Americans to adjust their life styles while maintaining both a quality of life and the quality of the surrounding environment. The change suggested here necessitates a transition to ecologically based values, beliefs, attitudes, and consequent behaviors. In the past, United States economic institutions and general societal values have centered around the belief in a limitless supply of natural resources and the expectation of an ever expanding economic universe. Now there is a need to work toward the emergence of new values-~inter- dependence, social concern, tolerance of complexity, conservation of scarce resources and a sense of living in harmony with nature. A reorientation of values and priorities away from the level of use of material goods will be necessary if the United States is to find a better balance between its energy needs and the energy resources of the environment. The development and implementation of such conver- sion is the task of educational programs. Morrison, Keith, and Zuiches concluded that the overall level of awareness could be raised on energy-related topics. On ten questions designed to measure a variety of energy dimensions, the mean score was 4.7 out of ten with less than one out of five answering seven or more questions accurately. No question was answered correctly by more than 72 percent of the total sample (B. Morrison, et al., l976:6). This finding suggests the crucial need for educational pro- grams. The function of such programs would be to inform and persuade U. S. Families about the energy problem and to suggest alternatives by which they can reduce their energy consumption. The foundation for educational programs can be widely divergent depending on the particu- lar needs of identified target audiences, i.e., some programs may be targeted by sex, age, educational level, income, occupation, place of residence and prior knowledge. Educational programs utilize communication. The reference mechanism employed in this study was that messages are sent through channels from source to receiver. Each component of the communication process--source, message, channel, and receiver--is complicated by a number of variables (Berlo, 1960:72). Achieving effective communication results depend on understanding the interaction of these components. Long (1977) illustrates this communication problem regarding the energy situation. She found that even though respondents perceived receiving "a great deal" of useful information about energy from mass media sources, the amount of knowledge exhibited by these respondents was low. Neither the mass media nor interpersonal sources of communica- tion yielded a significant association with knowledge about energy. This suggests a breakdown between the messages conveyed by the sources and the decoded messages as interpreted by the receiver. Another potential problem in the communication of energy infor- mation is that of misinformation. The messages sent by a source may contain subjective information. After hearing or reading the message, the receiver may make false conclusions regarding the "facts" of the situation. This discussion suggests there is room for improvement in the whole communication process of energy infbrmation: the sources sending the messages and their relative credibility,the content of the messages, and the communication channels transmitting the messages, all of which effect how the receiver responds to the messages. The development and implementation of educational programs must cope with the complexities of the communication process. Variation in Receivers of Messages Different persons may accept messages in diversified ways, depending on their information level, attitudes, communication skills, and the cultural context. For example, some may know more or less about effective energy conservation practices; or variation may occur in feel- ings as to who is to blame for the energy crisis. It is important to know if these characteristics of the receivers of communication are distinguishable, since this would make a difference in how messages are directed to particular audiences. If subgroups in the population can be identified that have (1) different levels of knowledge about energy and (2) utilize different kinds of information sources to learn about energy, it would be possible to develop targeted educational programs and efficiently deliver them through the appropriate communication channels. If subgroups cannot be identified, then messages can be developed for the public at large. Professionals working to educate and change family energy con- sumption patterns need more information on which to base their programs. The outcome of this study will help answer the fbllowing questions: What energy-related concepts do the public know or not know? Are there areas of misinfbrmation? What sources supply energy information most accurately? Are there subgroups in the population which know more or less than others? Are there subgroups which receive infbrmation from certain sources? How effective have past education programs been, or is a new approach needed? The results should also indicate some clues for structuring targeted educational messages and strategies for energy consumption. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this research was to examine the sources of infbrmation and levels of knowledge regarding household consumption of fossil fuel energy. It attempted to discover the information sources on energy-related issues and the present knowledge level within a sample of households. The intent was to supply a research base for structuring educational programs on the reduction of fossil fuel use in the household. Further, this study attempted to ascertain whether or not there were distinguishable subgroups in the p0pulation which varied in the amount of energy awareness or in their sources of energy information. Attention was also paid to the problem of misinfbrmation as well as types of information indicating energy knowledge. The responses of husbands and wives were examined separately according to income, educa- tion, age, place of residence and occupational status. The general objective was to determine the strength of the rela- tionship between husbands' and wives' knowledge and sources of infbrma- tion while controlling for critical contextual variables: income, educa- tion, age, place of residence and occupational status. Specific objectives were as fOllows: Objective 1: To determine if there is any relationship between knowledge and sources of energy information. O_bjective 2: To determine if there is any relationship among knowledge, sources of energy information,and family income levels. Objective 3: To determine if there is any relationship among knowledge, sources of energy information,and age. Objective 4: To determine if there is any relationship among knowledge, sources of energy information,and rural or urban residence. Objective 5: To determine if there is any relationship among knowledge, sources of energy information, and occupational status. Hypothesis The review of literature, contained in Chapter 11, produced only one testable hypothesis. It was: Hypothesis: Knowledge about energy-related concepts will be positively associated with educational attainment. Further hypotheses are anticipated upon the completion of this study. Suggested hypotheses for future testing are presented in Chapter V. Operational Definitions Knowledge about Energy; Awareness of correct response to ques- tions covering energy-related concepts on a variety of dimensions. Infbrmation Source: An individual or an institution that origi- nates a message (Rogers, 1971). The source can be interpersonal, one of the mass media, or institutional. The source selects and transmits the message(s). Household Energy Consumption: Mechanical energy that is used directly in the operation of the household. This type of energy is derived from a fossil fuel source. It does not include human or solar energy. Socioeconomic Factors: Defined as educational attainment, family income, age, place of residence, and occupational status. Specifically, these variables were: a. Educational Attainment: Total number of years of formal education, including vocational and technical school. b. Family Income: Total gross income of all family members in 1975. c. 59g; Total number of years since birth. d. Place of Residence: Location of household in either urban or rural portion of the.tr:i‘-county area. Urban households lived within census tract areas. Rural households were drawn from townships containing no incorporated city or village. e. Occupational Status: Occupations were classified accord- ing to three digit U. 5. Census occupational classifica- tions and each was recoded into prestige scores. The research methodology for the prestige scores was developed by Duncan and Reiss and implemented and reported by Siegel (1975). It is a measure of the social status associated with occupations. The "Description of Variables" in Chapter III contains further discussion of the variables and the categories used in the analysis. Assumptions 1. The survey research design, using a combination of the interview schedule and self—administered questionnaire, was an appro- priate method for collection infonmation on sources of information and knowledge about energy and socioeconomic background variables. 2. Respondents were able to accurately record sources of infor- mation and knowledge about energy. 3. Respondents were able to accurately answer questions about socioeconomic and demographic characteristics. 4. The ten knowledge questions adequately measured levels of awareness on energy-related topics. 5. The sources of information studied included the communica— tion channels used by respondents to receive messages about energy. 6. The husband's and wife's answer to the knowledge and infor- mation source questions were valid and sufficiently representative to reflect a "good" approximation of the household's response. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The published research literature on information sources and knowledge about energy is limited, as evidenced by the small number of studies in these areas (D. Morrison, et al., 1976; Frankena, et al., 1976). Warren (1974) did the most comprehensive study to date on this topic when he studied responses to the winter of 1973-74 energy crisis. Most studies were done around the time or immediately following the 1973-74 energy crisis events. Since then, attitudinal polls have been conducted periodically, but few on-going, in-depth studies have been done on awareness levels and resulting behavioral adjustments. Research and related literature will be reviewed in four major sections--sources of energy information, sources of related information, knowledge of energy information, and socioeconomic or contextual vari- ables related to knowledge of energy issues and conservation practices. Sources of Energy Information Many sources of information about energy concerns are available to the public. People may receive information from mass media, i.e., newspapers, television, radio, books, and magazines; through personal contact with family, friends, acquaintances, relatives, neighbors, 10 11 people at work, and/or members of the same organization or club; from activist organizations, consumer groups, corporations and government agencies interested in the topic of energy. This discussion will focus on the following points: 1. Most Important Sources Most Trustworthy Sources Content of Messages Sent boom Impact on Receiver of Mixed Messages Most Important Sources There are seemingly two approaches to studying information sources. One way is to ask where respondents gain most of their infor- mation. The other approach is to elicit the most trusted or believable sources. There is a distinction. It is possible that the sources sending the majority of useful messages may not be the most trusted or believable sources in the eyes of the respondents. Several studies have found mass media (television, radio, news- papers, books, and magazines) to be important sources. Warren (1974) found various forms of mass media were major sources of information about what is really behind the energy situation. Television ranked first (83 percent) and newspapers second (79 percent) according to where respondents said they received information on the energy situation. Magazine articles and radio also ranked high. Less than half mentioned interpersonal sources, such as friends, relatives, co-workers, a union, or people in an organization to which they belonged (Warren, 1974:14). In conclusion, he said mass media appear to be substantially more 12 significant sources of infbrmation and conservation ideas than formal and informal communication networks at work, in organizations, and in the neighborhood. Milstein also found television (42 percent) and newspapers (45 percent) were sources where consumers get most of their information about the energy problem (Milstein, 1976z8). B. Morrison, et al., reported news broadcasts, newspapers, television specials, com- mercials, books, and magazines were the most important sources for their respondents; one variation was that the well educated reported books and magazines ranked higher in importancethan that for the gen- eral sample. They also found information from personal sources ranked lowest (B. Morrison, et al., l976:7). Michigan State University students also reported mass media as their chief source. A study of 1200 students conducted by Bugge and Rye in May, 1974, showed newspapers, books, magazines, television, and radio were their primary sources of infbrmation concerning the energy crisis (Bugge and Rye, 1974). Most Trustworthy Sources Another approach to finding out sources of energy information is to elicit responses regarding the most believable or trustworthy sources on this issue. Gottlieb and Matre (1975) found forms of mass media were seen as infbrmation sources regarding the energy situation which were accu- rate and honest most of the time. Most people trusted television (58 percent). Local newspapers, radio, news magazines, and national newspapers were considered less accurate and honest by respondents 13 (one-quarter to one-third). They feund only about one in ten persons considered government or energy company (oil, natural gas, and electric) sources accurate and honest most of the time. Somewhat in contrast, a Northern Illinois Gas Company study (1976) found mass media were not the most important source. This study measured the believability of several sources of information. Results showed activist organizations lead with 62 percent, followed by mass media (51 percent), gas and electric companies (46 percent),and oil companies lowest at 17 percent (Northern Illinois Gas Company, 1976:12). Milstein (1976) and Rappeport and Labaw (l974a) showed similar find- ings; in each of their studies, consumer groups were seen as the more trustworthy sources of information than business or government. By October, 1974, Rappaport and Labaw (l974b) noticed a small decline in the degree of trust in the federal government as a source on energy- related information. Thompson and Mactavish found the family was a trustworthy source for general information for 13 percent of the respondents, but only 3 percent trusted the family fer information on energy problems (Thomp- son and Mactavish, 1976:70-71). Responsibility for the 1973-74 energy crisis could be a factor related to the perception of sources seen as credible in the eyes of the public. Studies have found the oil companies or the federal govern- ment or both were most frequently blamed for the oil crisis. Rela- tively few respondents believed the public or individual consumers were responsible (Murray, et al., 1974; Bartell, 1974; Talarzyk, 1975; 14 Bultena, l976; Doering, 1974; Muchinsky, 1976; Gottlieb and Matre, l976; Rappeport and Labaw, l974a). It is logical to conclude that if respondents blame oil companies and/or the federal government for the energy crisis, they are not likely to believe conservation messages from these sources. B. Morrison, et al., (1976) found conflicting results; i.e., respondents believed individual consumers could change and perform more energy conserving practices. Content of Messages Sent It is not enough to look at possible sources; attention must also be paid to the amount and types of energy information transmitted by various sources. Barnaby and Reizenstein (1975) found that the energy conscious consumer has exposure to mass media. The use of content analysis provides a methodology for ideniT} tifying and assessing the infbrmation being conveyed for the follow-} ing studies discussed. Dangerfield, McCartney, and Starches did a I content analysis of oil company materials, Congressional records, and news magazines to look at the kinds of energy information and when they are included. The researchers concluded that news magazines collectively "performed more like a thermometer than a barometer regarding the energy crisis" (Dangerfield, et al., 1975:320). The amount of coverage fluctuates with crisis events, but the long-term need to conserve fossil fuel energy does not change. Rubin and Sachs agreed that the media have a responsibility for communication informa- tion, not merely to react to events when they occur. Further, they said the media should act as a watchdog for the public regarding 15 environmental practices being considered by government or business before they are adopted, and also as an "early warning system" of environmental hazards before they reach such an advanced state that repair is impractical (Rubin and Sachs, 1973:250). Mazur and Leahy (1976) also concluded that the mass media played a crucial role in the rise and fall of controversy in three movements against technological innovations. They found media coverage rises and falls with the activity of leaders. Shriner did a content analysis from January to December, 1976, in three newspapers available to Lansing, Michigan, area residents: The Lansipg State Journal, Detroit Free Press, and the Sunday edition of the New York Times. He found the following: (1) oil and nuclear energy received the most coverage and were at top-of-mind awareness levels; (2) the awareness of likely natural gas shortages more than other fuels; (3) the desirability and technological feasibility of solar energy; (4) cost is an important factor in electricity; and (5) the belief that science and technology will solve America's energy problems in the near future (Shriner, 1977:13-14). Shriner concluded that the press may be partially responsible for maintaining or strength- ening existing attitudes regarding energy and that the results empha- size the lack of general understanding of energy problem causes and effects. While content analyses are useful tools for measuring content, they cover very partial information during one time period on a few sources of information. Neither of the two studies mentioned included 16 non-print media, which have also been influential sources of information on energy, according to the studies reviewed above. Impact on Receiver of Mixed Messages There is also the problem of mixed messages. The information presented by one source may contradict that from another source. Beane and Ross provided an explanation for why the public is not aware of energy facts. In their study of nuclear power issues, they found the majority of citizens were not well informed. Further, they did not appear receptive to new information which was dissonant, regardless of its source or direction. Citizens appeared to selectively read information which reinforced current beliefs (Beane and Ross, 1974:58). Selective exposure and retention have been identified by psychological and communication researchers as part of the way humans choose to per- ceive the real world. Thompson and Mactavish (1976) concluded their study with a statement about how the public accepts mixed messages: The majority of the public includes a broad range of cynics. They are saphisticated in their ability to assess the messages they receive and react to inconsistencies and double messages, of which there have been many, by refusing to believe what they are told. . . . They do believe in coming price increases, having already experienced them, and when presented with a clear- cut action they can take to protect themselves, will act accordingly. The "dial-down" message, for example, was accepted by a large majority. Simple, consistent, straight- forward messages presented simultaneously by a broad range of information sources and media are apt to be most effective (1976, p. 49). 17 This statement points out the need to evaluate the messages carrying energy-related information for their content, complexity, and consis- tency with other messages sent from other sources. Sources of Related Information Given the narrowness of energy-related research, it seems advisable to examine the literature on related issues to see if use- ful parallels to the energy question can be developed. Two questions will be addressed: Are different sources used for various kinds of information? Do people rely on one source or several sources? Rubin and Sachs indicate the public has essentially fOur sources from which to receive information on environmental deteriora- tion (which includes the energy problem): (1) scientific and academic communities which provide a data base for decisions made by government and industry; this work is unintelligible to the public and is avail- albe through professional journals; (2) citizens' groups which are becoming more important but do not produce "official" looking work, so news media are wary of printing it; (3) government which is supposed to freely supply infbrmation by law but does not always comply; and (4) the private business community, whose plans and decisions are usually unknown to the public, yet companies have enormous resources under their control (Rubin and Sachs, 1973:248-249). Wade and Schramm found different sources were used for dif- ferent kinds of information. In the case of a political campaign, television was more likely to be the major source of public affairs information for those withlittle education, females, nonwhites, and farm 18 and blue collar workers. Persons for which print media were more likely to be used to gain information on public affairs were highly educated, males, whites, professional, managerial and white collar workers, and high income groups. ‘Television is the chief source for the majority on public affairs (Wade and Schramm, 1969:201). This same pattern does not hold for seeking information about science, according to Wade and Schramm. Newspapers are dominant. This finding was based on a 1957 Pre-Sputnik survey in which newspapers ranked higher than magazines, radio, and television for every subgroup: sex, age, education, and income (Wade and Schramm, 1969:201). However, this study was based on twenty-year-old data. In 1957 the saturation levels of television ownership were 78.5 percent (Television Digest, 1957:25). In 1976 99 percent or nearly all households owned at least one television (Lyons and Tyll, 1976:52). Wade and Schramm also reported persons who correctly answered four science questions identified newspapers or magazines, rather than radio or television, as their principal sources. This finding was the case at each educational level and for males as well as females. Thev greater the education, the greater likelihood of using print as the major source of news and information (Wade and Schramm, 1969:204). Rogers, in his book Communication of Innovations: A Cross- Cultural Approach, made several generalizations based on a number of research studies conducted on different innovations. Two which are pertinent to the topic of sources of energy information are: 19 Earlier knowers of an innovation have greater exposure to mass media channels of communication than later knowers. Earlier knowers of an innovation have greater exposure to inter- personal channels of communication than later knowers (Rogers, 1971, p. 108). In conclusion, it appears different sources are used for differ- ent kinds of information. Further, different sources are used by sub- groupings, i.e., sex, race, income, education, occupation, age, and relative knowledge of an innovation. Knowledge of Energy Information What does the general public know, or just as importantly, what do they not know, about energy matters? The information they could be expected to know may be available from a variety of sources, but it is not necessarily perceived and learned by individuals. Several studies have found the general public not very knowl- edgeable about energy-related topics. Using an energy knowledge scale, Gottlieb and Matre (1976) found the majority of respondents were not knowledgeable about energy, a finding which had not changed since 1974. Milstein (l976:6) suggested that people are not saving energy because they lack the knowledge; they did not know energy consumption concepts in lighting, water heating, automobiles, and insulation. Chandler used "The National Environment Test" which was conducted in 1970 for a CBS news special. It contained 27 questions about various aspects of air, water, and land pollution. He found 18 percent which he considered "high scorers," and over half of the respondents answered over half of the questions incorrectly (Chandler, 1972:186). 20 The lack of knowledge about energy concerns is apparent in find- ings about the public's beliefs and attitudes regarding energy supply and demand. Doering, et a1. (1974) and Morrison and Gladhart (1976), in Indiana and Lansing, Michigan, respectively, found that roughly half of the respondents believed in an energy crisis and the rest did not believe energy was a problem. Doner (1975) also found half of his respondents perceived there was an energy cirsis; this was up 9 percent from 1974. Doner attributed the major reason for the increase to media attention to this issue. Perlman and Warren (1975) said 62 percent of their respondents were non-believers in the energy shortage. Warren (1974) found 52 percent said the energy crisis was not real, and these respondents were cynical and skeptical of the information they had received. Other studies have found a higher belief in the energy problem. After a nationwide telephone survey, Rappeport and Labaw said, "The public has come to believe that energy shortages are both a serious and a long-term problem" (Rappeport and Labaw, l974b:2). This belief increased with those more educated. Bartell (1974) found 20 percent felt the energy shortage was severe, 48 percent thought it was mild.and 26 percent did not think there was a shortage. Similarily, Gottlieb and Matre (1975) found 28 percent believing there was definitely an energy shortage and 39 percent thought there seems to be one, while only 9 percent said there definitely is not an energy shortage. An energy conservation ethic is beginning to emerge among some American households. Perlman and Warren (1975) found that people's 21 attitudes as to whether or not the shortage was real made little dif- ference in their conserving behavior. In Doner's study (1975), only half believed there was an energy crisis but three-fourths of the sample had reported changes in their behavior. Lasting efforts to con- serve appear to be quite limited and meager (Grier, 1976; Warren, 1974; Murray et al., 1974; Bultena, 1976). Yet many persons would feel hard- ships if they were forced to save even more energy (Curtin, 1975). One of the reasons energy conservation measures have been taken is because of the rapid increase in energy-related prices. Saving energy means saving money. In a time of inflation and cost-of-living increases without corresponding rises in income, the price of energy is a very important factor in conservation of resources. Grier discussed the attitudes of what respondents felt they and other Americans can do about energy: Few people like to believe that they are wasteful, or that they should or can pay higher prices, or that they should or can change to less convenient ways of doing things. Nevertheless, more than half of 1975 respondents said they definitely agreed that every family should be willing to voluntarily reduce its use of fuels to no more than the average amount needed by a family of the same size. And a sizeable proportion even believe that members of their own households could do more to save on use of energy (1976, pp. 18-19). Curtin discussed the relationship of income and conservation efforts. He said those respondents who felt their income was inadequate to provide their family with a comfortable standard of living reported significantly greater difficulty if they had to further conserve energy (Curtin, 1975:17). 22 Contextual Variables Related to Knowledge of Energy Issues and Conservation Practices It may be that the theory of a knowledge gap (Tichenor, et al., 1970) applies in the case of energy information. The hypothesis is that of the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the p0pu1ation with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than lower status segments so that the gap in knowledge between theSe segments tends to increase rather than decrease (Tichenor, et al., 1970:160). Is there a gap in knowledge between persons of divergent incomes, educational levels, ages, places of residence, occupations, or sex? Several studies have shown that as educational level increases, the amount of awareness about energy concerns increases (Kilkeary, 1975; Thompson and Mactivish, 1976; Long, 1977; B. Morrison, et al., 1976). Hornbeck (1974) and Chandler (1972) found greater interest in environmental concerns among people with more education. Rogers' work in the area of diffusion of innovations includes the generaliza- tion that earlier knowers of an innovation have more education than later knowers (Rogers, 1971:107). However, Beane and Ross found the opposite result, i.e., formal education was not highly associated with the knowledge level of respondents (Beane and Ross, 1974:106). Age is another variable which may divide pe0ple into distinguish- able subgroups regarding energy. Chandler (1972:187) found young people were more concerned about environmental hazards and pollution than older respondents. Thompson and Mactavish found differences between age groups. The younger the respondent, the more he believed 23 we have and will have energy problems. They believed in technological solutions to the energy problem and that there could be gasoline and natural gas shortages in the future. Respondents under 44 had bought and were planning to buy major household appliances, whereas older respondents had ceased to buy them (Thompson and Mactavish, 1976: 46-47). Morrison, Keith, and Zuiches found 88 percent of respondents under 40 and 91 percent of respondents 40 or over agreed that the natural environment should be preserved even if they had to change their way of living (Morrison, Keith, and Zuiches, 1975:23). Thompson and Mactavish also found differences between males and females. Both sexes were approximately equal in their recognition of present and future problems and on the expectations of future short- ages. However, men looked to technological solutions and believed in the possibility of exhausting oil and natural gas supplies more than women. Men supported government emphasis on technological development of alternative fuels; women did not know what the government should do. Men expected greater price increases in gasoline and utilities. On the other hand, women paid lower utility bills and owned fewer cars than men. When asked what they plan to do to conserve energy, men more frequently answered "drive less" and women said "use less elec- tricity“ (Thompson and Mactavish, 1976:47). Chandler (1972) and Long (1977) found males were more likely to get a higher proportion of correct answers on environmental or energy tests, respectively, than females. In summary, there have been findings of differences between males and females on attitudes toward solutions of the energy problem, expectations for future behavior changes, and levels of knowledge. 24 Several studies found more conservation behaviors by middle income groups. Grier (1976:16) found middle income persons were most likely to have reported making energy conserving improvements. Kil- keary (1975:18) found the strongest influence on knowledge and con- servation of energy was income, especially middle income. Murray, et al., (1974:262) found those reporting a reduction in daytime tempera- tures varied positively with income. As far as occupational groups, Thompson and Mactavish (1976) found the recognition of energy problems increased with occupational levels, as does the belief in the possibility of the exhaustion of oil and natural gas supplies and the belief in coming energy shortages. Summary In summary, the review of literature produced only one testable hypothesis. It predicts a positive relationship between educational level and knowledge about energy. The most conclusive studies found were done on this subject, including Rogers' diffusion theory. No study was fOund which looked at the relationship between both particular sources of information and knowledge levels; studies were found on one or the other of these topics. Other studies which included contextual variables were too inconclusive in their evidence to support a hypothesis which could make accurate predictions. Thus an exploratory study of sources of information, knowledge, or lack of knowledge about energy and contextual variables seemed appropriate. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This study focused on the examination of the relationship between knowledge about energy concepts, sources of energy—related infor- mation and socioeconomic contextual variables for husbands and wives. Data collected in the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Project 3152, "Functioning of a Family Ecosystem in a World of Changing Energy Availability," were used to answer research questions about the inter- relationships. These data were collected from families in the greater metropolitan area of Lansing, Michigan, during the months of May and June, 1976. Discussion in this chapter takes the following order: 1. The Sampled Community Sample Design and Selection Description of the Sample #00“) Description of Variables a. Independent Variable b. Dependent Variable c. Contextual Variables 5. Analysis of Data a. Statistical Analysis b. Computer Programs 25 26 The Sampled Community, The sample, selected from the larger interdisciplinary study, was from the greater metropolitan area of Lansing, Michigan. The Lansing Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (S.M.S.A.) is consid- ered to be a well-defined community, containing a unique diversity of functions. The area is the seat of the state government, and contains light and heavy industry, primarily related to the auto industry, and a major university (Michigan State University). It can be defined as a centrally located area of commercial enterprise and activity, sur- rounded by a productive diversified agricultural sector. The Lansing S.M.S.A. has a total population of 367,000 persons and 89,610 families (1970 Census). A multi-stage probability sample of urban, suburban, and rural families was drawn from the tri-county area of the S.M.S.A. Some portions of Clinton, Eaton, and Ingham counties fall within the S.M.S.A., which is considered to be a viable geographic area with a heterogeneous population. This type of sample offered the interdisciplinary research team the opportunity to study the impact of the "energy crisis" on a relatively contained geographical area with diversity in its socioeconomic characteristics. Sample Design and Selection The present study was drawn from the second wave of a longitudi- nal study. It was a multi-stage probability sample design of 264 house- holds surveyed in the spring of 1976. The surveyed unit was the "family,“ defined as two or more individuals living together, one of whom was 27 18 years of age or older." See Zuiches, et al., (1976) and B. Morrison, et al., (1976) for more details of the sampling procedure. For the urban portion of the sample, a random selection of ten census tracts was made with each tract having a probability proportion- ate to the number of households therein. It was determined that the selected tracts were a reasonable approximation of the urban area of the Lansing S.M.S.A. Households were randomly selected from addresses available in the 1973 Polk City Directory for Lansing and suburbs for the 34 blocks contained within the ten selected census tracts. Of the addresses, 20 percent were sampled. In choosing the rural portion of the sample, the rural character of the respondents was maximized at the expense of geographical com- pleteness of the sample coverage. Accordingly, two rural townships were drawn randomly from the 12 townships containing no incorporated city or village. The probabilities of selection were proportional to population size. The 36 sections in each township were used as the primary sampling frame with one section randomly chosen from each row of six. Every second residence was sampled. While the rural and urban portions do not constitute a complete self-weighting sample of the Lansing metropolitan area, the households did meet the criteria for independence. Self-administered questionnaires were delivered by an inter- viewer for energy-related questions to be completed by all respondents; upon returning to collect the questionnaire, questions concerning back- ground socioeconomic questions were administered. 28 Description of the Sample In the analysis that follows, all wives giving valid responses to the items under consideration constituted the "wife" sample, and similarity for the husbands. When correlations between husbands and wives are reported, these were for those couples where both husband and wife gave valid responses. Some basic demographic characteristics of the 264 sample famil— ies are presented in table format. The types of families included in the sample appear in Table 1. Table l.--Family Type of Respondents . Number of Number of Fam1ly Type Families Individuals Husband/wife respondents 235 470 Single parent family--male 2 2 Single parent family--fema1e 27 27 Total 264 499 Husband/wife respondents were the majority, but there were representa- tion from male and female single parent families. Of the sample, 35 percent were rural families and the balance urban families. The range of family incomes for the sample are shown in Table 2. Fourteen families refused to answer this question. The largest group of family income was $15,000 - $24,999, and the second largest was $10,000 - $14,999. This would indicate that 29 TABLE 2.--Family Income Income Number Thoggngggogging Less than $4,999 20 8.0 $ 5,000 - $ 9,999 40 16.0 $10,000 - $14,999 63 25.3 $15,000 - $24,999 90 36.0 $25,000 and up 37 14.7 Refused _14_ __:;:_ Total 250 100.0 61.3 percent of the sample have family incomes between $10,000 and $24,999. There are more families with incomes below $9,999 (24 percent) than there are families with incomes above $25,000 (14.7 percent). The median family income of the sample was $15,100 compared to approximately $16,600 for the t‘ri4county area (U. S. Bureau of Census, 1977). This census figure was adjusted from 1970 median family income data (U. S. Bureau of Census, 1972, P- 31) based on per capita income percentage changes since 1970. Responses for husbands and wives were coded separately. The sample includes slightly more wives than husbands, as is shown in Table 3. TABLE 3.--Sex of Adult Respondents, Sex Number Percentage Husbands 237 47.5 Wives egg, 52.5 Total 499 100.0 3O Socioeconomic Characteristics The largest number of husbands were in the age group 30 - 39 years, whereas the largest number of wives were in the 18 - 29 years age group, as shown in Table 4. About half of the husbands (47.4 per- cent) and wives (53.3 percent) were under 40 years old. TABLE 4.--Ages of Husbands and Wives Ase 29:32:29.3. P29122522: 18-29 years 18.8 28.4 30-39 years 28.6 24.9 40-49 years 19.3 16.3 50-59 years 14.9 16.0 60 years and over _1§;g_ _OELJL Total 100.0 100.0 Number 234 257 Educational attainments of husbands and wives are shown in Table 5. The largest group of both husbands and wives was those who had not had any further formal education beyond high school. One—fifth of the husbands (20.3 percent) and nearly one-fifth of the wives (18.3 percent) had not completed high school. Slightly over one-fifth of each had had some college education. More husbands had completed a bachelor's degree or had done post-graduate work (26.6 percent) than had wives (15.3 percent). Sample husbands and wives are compared to Lansing S.M.S.A. families in Table 5 (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 1972bz24-753). 31 TABLE 5.--Educational Attainment of Husbands and Wives. Years of . Percentage Percentage School La2:;?gi::SA of Husbands of Wives Completed in Sample in Sample 0-11 years, less than high school 36.1 20.3 - 18.3 12 years, high school completed 33.1 32.0 42.0 1-3 years, college or vocational school 13.5 21.1 24.4 4 or more years college, professional training 17.3 26.6 15.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Number 89.610 237 262 Occupational status scores tabulated by sex role are listed in Table 6. Duncan and Reiss developed occupational classifications based TABLE 6.--Occupational Status Scores of Husbands and Wives . . . Percentage Percentage Cla551f1cation of Husbands of Wives Less than 34, low 32.8 29.3 35-45, middle 31.0 29.9 46 and over, high 36.2 40.8 Total 100.0 100.0 Number 235 191 32 on census categories and gave them prestige scores ranging from zero to 100. The research methodology employed for the prestige scores was implemented and reported by Siegel (1975). The National Opinion Research Center and the University of Chicago sponsored the studies to measure the social status associated with occupations. Following Siegel's methodology, a prestige ranking was assigned to each reSpond- ent's current or most recent occupation. Persons not having a score were excluded. The occupational status data were treated as a con- tinuous variable for both husbands and wives and were recoded into approximately equal thirds. Data were missing for two husbands and 71 wives. Description of Variables Independent Variable Oburces of Energy-related Information.--Eleven items from the self-administered questionnaire were selected (see Appendix A). The "other" category of the questionnaire was not used because preliminary figures showed very few responses were given. The source categories utilized are not exclusive or exhaustive, but they do cover a broad range of sources of information about energy. Dependent Variable Knowledge about Energy.--Ten multiple choice items from the self-administered questionnaire were used (see Appendix A). There is one answer which is most correct for each item. These questions were employed in the 1976 survey because it was felt that they measured a 33 variety of energy dimensions for which there was widespread agreement as to the correct response. In a previous study, Long (1977) perfbrmed a Pearson product- moment correlation test on the same ten knowledge items. She found no correspondence between any of the knowledge items when they were classi- fied as correct and incorrect answers. It seemed possible that a rank- ing of these knowledge items would produce different correlation results. If respondents answered one question correctly and were close on another item, those items might have a higher correlation when the possible reSponses were ranked. The responses to the ten knowledge items were recoded in two ways: (1) by correct and incorrect responses, and (2) ranked from the most correct to the least correct response. If there were little dif- ferences between the place any two of the items should be in the rank- ing, they were given the same rank. This was done on the assumption that reSpondents would not be able to distinguish slight differences in the correctness of any two items. The way the knowledge questions were recoded into ranks is shown in Table 7. A rank of "4" meant the most correct response; a rank of "1" was given to the least correct response. For the dichoto- mous variable of correct and incorrect responses, the most correct answer was coded as "l" and the other three responses were coded as "O". The references used to base the recoded statements for the ten knowledge questions were as follows: Items one and two, Stanford Research Institute (1972:33); Item 3, Hannon (1972:43); Item 4, 34 TABLE 7.--Ranking of Knowledge Items Item Concept Relative Correctness Ranking 1 Activity using automobile transportation 4 the most heating and cooling 3 household cooking 2 energy lighting 1 2 Equipment hot water heater 4 using most refrigeration 3 household lighting 2 energy color TV 1 3 Beverage throwaway aluminum cans 4 container throwaway glass bottles 3 wastes most throwaway plastic bottles 2 energy returnable bottles 1 4 Most heat ceiling 4 lost walls 3 through floors 2 all the same 1 5 Most energy beef 4 intensive chicken 3 protein soybeans 2 source all the same 1 6 Least cooking microwave oven 4 energy for low heat on stove burner 3 small meal bake in oven at 325° 2 all the same amount 1 7 Least energy bus 4 per person for train 3 cross-country automobile 2 transportation airplane l 8 Least energy apartment 4 to heat with single family house 3 same size and mobile home 3 insulation all the same 1 9 Amount of oil more than in '73-'74 4 U. S. imported same amount as in '73-‘74 3 1976 compared a little less than in '73-‘74 2 to oil embargo much less than in '73-‘74 l 10 Fuel now in natural gas 4 shortest petroleum 3 supply coal 2 none are in short supply 35 National Bureau of Standards and Executive Office of Consumer Affairs (1971); Item 5, Fritsch, et al., (1975:62-63); Item 6, Consumer Reports (1976:316); Item 7, Hirst (1973:27); and Item 10, Hubbert (1971:65). Item 8 was based on the concept that apartments have adjacent walls with other dwellings and therefore have less exposure, since the factors of size and insulation were constants (Real Estate Research Corporation, 1974:18). The ranking for Item 9 was based on newspaper reports at the time of the study (May 1976). Contextual Variables--Operationa1 Definitions The contextual variables included in the study were these socio- economic factors: educational attainment, occupational status, age, sex, family income, and urban-rural residency. For purposes of this study, it was necessary to reclassify the data from the original study. The original data were categorized in the following manner before per- f0rming the analysis: Educational Attainment of HusbandLWife: 1 0-11 years, less than high school graduation 2 12 years, high school graduation 3 13-15 years, some college or vocational school 4 16 or more years, college degree and professional training Family Income: 1 Less than $11,999, low 2 $12,000 - $17,999, middle 3 $18,000 and over, high Age of Husband/Wife: 1 Under 36 years 2 36-59 years 3 60 years and over 36 Occupational Status Scores of Husband/Wife: 1 Less-than 35, low 2 35-45, middle 3 46 and over, high Place of Residence: Urban--Family lives within a census tract of the Lansing metropolitan area. Rural--Fami1y livesitla rural township. Sex of Respondent: Male--Husband's response Female--Wife's response Analysis of Data Statistical Methods In order to determine if knowledge about energy, sources of information, and the contextual variables were related, several non- parametric statistical methods were selected: Kendall tau and Chi- square. Nonparametric statistics or distribution-free methods do not assume that the underlying distribution of the population approximates a normal curve (Averill, 1972:187). They depend on the use of the median rather than the mean (Bulmer, 1965:153). Kendall's (tau) Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient, symbolized as T, is a measurement of the agreement between ranked scores. The mutual association is expressed from a perfect positive association (+1) to a perfect negative correlation (-l). Tied ranks are taken into consideration. In general, the absolute value of tau tends to be smaller than that of Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficient (Nie, et al., 1975:289). This statistic was chosen over Spearman's 37 (rho) Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient because of the small number of rankings for each variable. Kendall tau's were computed among the set of knowledge items and the set of energy information items, and for each knowledge item by each source. This statistic was also used to test the correspondence between husbands' and wives' responses on each knowledge item and source. Chi-square (x2) tests the extent to which the distribution of data in a contingency table departs from what is expected on the assump- tion of independence for nominal level information (Weiss, 1968:256). This statistic was used to determine the discrepencies in knowledge and infbrmation source regarding energy while controlling for contextual variables: place of residence, educational attainment, family income, age, and occupational status. It was also employed to measure the association between knowledge and sources of energy information for husbands and wives. Gamma was obtained to tell the direction of the ordering in the contingency table; it does not take ties or table size into account, so it generally has higher numerical values than tau (Nie, et al., 1975: 228). 1 Because age, family income, educational attainment, and occu- pational status have ordinal intervals, Kendall rank-order correlation coefficients were obtained along with chi-square and gamma when appro- priate for these socioeconomic factors. There are two Kendall rank- order correlation measures--taub and tauc--vhich were applied. Tau‘b was utilized with square tables, i.e., when the number of rows equalled the 38 number of columns in the tabulation. When a rectangular table (one with an unequal number of rows and columns) was produced, tauc was obtained (Nie, 1975:228). Computer Programs Analysis was done by the Control Data Corporation 6500 model computer using the 6.5 version of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie, et al., 1975). All of the computations were implemented at the Michigan State University Computer Laboratory. CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This chapter contains the results of the analyses of the data. The results are presented under the following section headings: 1. 01-5005) 05 Description of Information Sources Association with Use of Sources Relationship of Knowledge Items Association between Knowledge and Sources Knowledge and Source Correlations for Husbands and Wives Testing of the Hypothesis Association between Knowledge, Sources, and Contextual Variables Summary of Findings Description_pf Information Sources The first topic of analysis was the sources of energy informa- tion utilized by respondents. The results indicate where reSpondents receive useful information about energy-related issues. The frequen- cies for each of the sources for husbands and wives are shown in Table 8. 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