weeswm: A DESCRWON o; as INFORMANBN ' ‘

MM, STRUCYURES, ANDAUDfiENCES ' .

Thesis for the Degree of M. A.
MICBEGAN STATE UNWERSITY
‘ KAREN ROSE LAYTON
’ 1973

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ABSTRACT

YUGOSLAVIA, A DESCRIPTION OF ITS INFORMATION MEDIA,
STRUCTURE, AND AUDIENCES

BY

Karen Rose Layton

This paper is a personal account of experiences
which enables me to grasp the meaning of such political
concepts as "self—management," "socialism in theory and
practice,” "Marxism," "Nationalism," "self censorship."

My three month trip to Yugoslavia during the summer of 1973,
was an attempt to gather enough research material regarding
the function and role of the information media in order to
write a comprehensive description based on those facts.

I feel that it is important to explain in the outset the
initial methodology and psychology used by the researcher

in order to develop an understanding of the kind of material
used for this project.

I was specifically interested in arranging meetings
with television directors, research departments, sociologi-
cal institutes, newspaper correspondents, both American
and Yugoslavian, editors, and the news departments of both
radio and television. I also interviewed a number of
television viewers to analyze their response to programming.

After arriving in Belgrade, the capital, I first
got in touch with the American Embassy who then referred me

immediately to the Federal Information Secretariat. It

Karen Rose Layton

was through this staff that I got my first contact with a
newspaper editor. From there, interviews followed a
chain-reaction as each person suggested new peOple to meet,
even going so far as to arrange the appointments for me.

I was essentially looking for the answers to several
basic questions. One, is the information media, including
television, radio, and the press, controlled directly or
indirectly by a political party? Second, what is the growth
rate and deve10pment pattern of television? How is it
structured and what kinds of programs are produced? Finally,
which direction is the media leaning; towards greater
political coverage including current national events, and
news stories, or is it avoiding controversial issues and
emphasizing more entertainment, cultural and educational
programs? What prompted these questions was a series of
recent national events, the most important being Tito's
letter to the peoples of Yugoslavia in September of 1972.

With this emphasis in mind, I became interested in
covering three republics out of the six that comprise the
total territory of Yugoslavia: Serbia, Croatia, and
Slovenia. The capital cities in each respectively were
Belgrade, Zagreb, and Ljubljana. The most concentrated
information came from the capital of the country, Belgrade,
where the political editor of gin, Sergije Lukaé1 spent
many hours orienting me towards the Community Party philo-
sophy in relation to the media. I soon discovered on my

part that any hint of party control or censorship was

Karen Rose Layton

immediately shunned and attributed to the "naivity of
American education." The favorite tactic used by someone
in a political or vulnerable position was to place the
interviewer into a defensive approach which often resulted
in the topic being changed, or the acceptance of half
answered questions. Realizing this in the beginning helped
me later on in making no allusions or pre-suppositions
during an interview but rather to react to each comment
specifically and above all to listen more than speak. I
soon recognized a characteristic in these people, and it
was reflected in their approach to the media; that is,

the desire to be verbal whenever possible. Television in
particular remains a spontaneous oral medium in the sense
that when people are given a chance to speak out, they do
so without scripts or notes. Writers by and large are poor
in quality, correspondence or answers to letters between
institutions and the public are practically non-existent.
They take pride in their ability to verbalize any opinion
at any time, but when it comes time to write down the
specifics of proposals, or outlines of regulations, they
fall short of primary school ability. Even they admit
this deficiency. Redundancy, ideological concepts loosely
defined, and unnecessarily long sentences make up their
writing style; a bore to read and confusing to understand.
After wading through translations and countless pages of
repetition I found that the best way to understand their

politics, the past and present history and, most important,

Karen Rose Layton

the significance of the media, was to listen and watch,
and let the written data only support rather than dictate
my conclusion.

In order to understand the direction of the media
one must at least have a basic background on certain
ideologies that in fact dictate the whole political, econo-
mic, and social life within Yugoslavia. I am referring
to the concept of self-management, a system that is unique
to the Western world and only half—attempted in the East.
It includes the theory of Marxism, an idea that rejects
Stalinist practices and provides firm ground for the growth
of socialism. We must also take a serious look at the
original press laws and put them into context that places
them in a paradox, or in other words, in a position which
presents some inconsistencies with today's laws. Journal-
ists are somewhat confused by the new line in relation to
the old, and yet their loyalty to the government creates a
dilemma that few are happy with. Based upon press releases
concerning the League of Communists' firm suggestions upon
the solid direction and approach of the media, I want to
include controversies that clearly point out the complicated
Party line as recently advocated by Tito. It is by looking
at this data that conclusions describing the current posi-

‘tion of the media can be attempted and a prediction of the

future can be made.

 

lSergije Lukaé, political editor of NIN, daily
newspaper, Belgrade.

Accepted by the faculty of the Department of
Television and Radio, College of Communication Arts,
Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the Master of Arts degree.

 

Director of Thesis

YUGOSLAVIA: A DESCRIPTION OF ITS INFORMATION MEDIA,
STRUCTURES, AND AUDIENCES

BY

Karen Rose Layton

A THESIS

Submitted to

Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Radio and Television

1973

To my supportive William
who gave me the boost to
complete this project;

and to Dragana and Boban

who made Yugoslavia my home.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my grateful appreciation to
Dean Clarence Minkel for helping to finance this project,
thereby creating the Opportunity to travel to Yugoslavia

and gather the necessary information.

iii

TABLE OF

Chapter

CONTENTS

I. POLITICAL AND PRESS PUILOSOPUIES . . .

II. PRESS LAWS

III. DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION

IV. STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN OF

TELEVISION CENTERS

V. SURVEY OF THE STAFF OF BROADCASTING

INSTITUTIONS . . .

VI. PROJECTIONS AND TIMETABLES OF TELEVISION

PROGRAMMING . . .

Television Belgrade

Television Zagreb

Television Ljubljana

Television Skopje

Television Titograd

Television Under Construction

Television Novi Sad
Television Pristina

VII. CONTENT ANALYSIS OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS

Political Information Program

Culture, Science and Art Programs . .

Drama . . .

Programs for Children and Youth . . .

Films . . .
Education
Commercials .

VIII. PUBLIC AND PROFESSIONAL OPINION TOWARDS

PROGRAM CONTENT

FOOTNOTES . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . .

iv

Page

13

27

42

47

54

61
62
65
68
70
71
71
72

74

93
96
97
98
99
101
103

105
118

123

5/-

Table

2(a).

2(b).

2(c).

2(d).

LIST OF TABLES

Breakdown of Registered Television Sets . .

Survey of the Staff of Main Broadcasting
Institutions by Vocation (As of December 31,
1970) o o e o o e o o o o o o o o o o e e 0

Survey of the Staff of Main Broadcasting
Institutions by Vocation (As of December 31,
1971) e o o o o o o o o o o o e o e e e o 0

Survey of the Staff of Broadcasting
Institutions by Professional Qualification
(As of December 31, 1970) . . . . . . . . .

Survey of the Staff of Broadcasting
Institutions by Professional Qualification
(As of December 31, 1971) . . . . . . . . .
Programs from Abroad, 1971 . . . . . . . . .

Programming of Individual Yugoslav TV
Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page
36

48

49

51

52

85

99

LIST OF F IGURES

Figure Page

1. Operating Television Stations . . . . . . . 26

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CHAPTER I

POLITICAL AND PRESS PHILOSOPHIES

The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia is
above all a socialist self-managing and democratic community
of working people and citizens, equal peoples and nation-
alities and hence a socio—political community with the same
status and character as the smaller social communities of
which it is composed. The emphasis, not without reason, is
on all the three basic factors which are present in the
federation as a community: the working people or man
under conditions of associated labor and work with socially
owned means of production, the citizen in his interests and
activities outside associated labor, and, finally, the
peoples and nationalities. It should be noted that apart
from the Yugoslav peoples, which as national groups exist
and exercise their sovereign rights within the frameworks
of their republics, the Yugoslav community includes national
minorities (Albanians, Turks, Hungarians) which, as a rule,
have their separate national states outside Yugoslavia
(Kosovo and Vojvodina). These nationalities exercise their
rights as equal subjects together with the Yugoslav peOples.

Apart from this, the Socialist Federal Republic of

Yugoslavia is a federal state of freely united peoples and

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their socialist republics, including the provinces of
Vojvodina and Kosovo which are a part of the Socialist
Republic of Serbia. As such, it is based on the rule and
self-management of the working class and all working people.

The latest constitutional amendments provide for
the substantial restriction and more precise definition of
the present broad constitutional rights and duties of the
federation, which will be confined merely to matters which
are in the common interests of all the peoples and nation-
alities of Yugoslavia. These are (a) ensuring socialist
socio-economic relations; (b) ensuring the elementary
democratic freedoms and rights of the individual including
the social security of working people; (c) ensuring a
unitary market and coordinating economic and social develop-
ment; (d) establishing the sovereignty and equality of the
peoples' nationalities and their national freedoms; (e) safe-
guarding the country's defense and international position,
its relations with other states and international organiza-
tions and in connection with this, protecting the independence,
security and territorial integrity of the country.

The idea that the new state of Yugoslavia should be
organized as a federal community based on the full equality
of the nationalities living on its territory was first
formulated in the Constituent Act of 1943 and reaffirmed in
the Constitution of 1946. With a view to enabling each
PeOple to exercise its sovereign rights as completely as

Possible, yet making them responsible for the development

of the Yugoslav community as a whole based on the principles
of socialist self—management, the tendency has been to give
the republics the greatest possible autonomy, simultaneously
eliminating all redundant efforts on the part of the

federal government.1

In accordance with this need for reinforcing this
independence of the republics, the new constitutional
amendments laid down that the working people and nationali-
ties would exercise their sovereign rights within their
republics and provinces, in agreement with their constitu-
tional rights, and within the federation which defines the
constitutional interests of the country.

The republics are defined as states which, like the
federation, are based on the sovereignty of the
peoples, on the rule and self-management of the
working class, as socialist self-managing democratic
communities of working people, citizens and equal
peoples and nationalities.

The rights and duties of the republics are expressed
through the economic policies based upon concern for the
economic development of the republic; management of invest-
ment in the republic; concern for nation-wide civil
defense; development of the public health system, education,
science and culture, and social welfare; determination of
the structure of government in the republic; safeguarding
of the constitutional rules of law, and so on. But even
'with these functions entrusted to the federation and its

organs, the republics have certain rights and duties both

‘With respect to proposing and defining policies, acts and

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measures and with regard to their implementation.

The system of self—management, which provides the
governing structure for the republics, evolves around one
basic concept. The state loses its monopoly hold on
managing the results of labor and capital formation, on
regulating socialistic policy. The reason for this is to
minimize duplication between the state and federal government.
In other words, the League of Communists (hereafter referred
to as LCY), would not wish to grant equal authority to the
source of decision-making, with the state plus the federal
government.3

At the base of society, in the production relationship
itself, self-management links together two kinds of activity
that had previously been divorced from the workers: economic
production and policy—making. The socialization of policy-
making has also become one of the qualities which characterizes
direct socialist democracy. This trend is now in progress
and establishing itself on a growing scale in the resistance
of technocratic elitism, bureaucratic conservatism, monopoly-
minded interest groups of every possible kind and the
remnants of earlier class relationship.

The essence of democracy in Yugoslav self-management
with the working class and direct socialist democracy, means
commitment to furthering the interests of associated labor
by establishing a direct link between labor, the products
and surplus labor it creates, integrating it with socially-

owned resources, and through bringing about a merger

between self-management and political power. The pursuit
of these goals is designed to assure the working class a
dominant role in managing all the resources expanding pro-
duction and in deciding on the conditions of its deve10pment.
With the constitutional changes-—those adopted in 1971 and
those that are planned for adoption soon-~the realization of
such a position for associated labor in the system of pro-
duction is becoming a matter of practical application. It
is on these questions that battle is joined between the
forces of self-management on the one hand, and the forces of
technocratic monopoly, on thecrher.

Under conditions of socialist self-management, the
ideological political influence and the role of the LCY
is strengthened to the extent that the role of the working
class and working man increases in the system of expanding
production, in economic, political and social life. To put
it otherwise, the LCY has a decisive impact on social
movement to the extent that its ideas and policies, through
organized activity, prOpel and guide all the socialist
forces of society, becoming part of the convictions and
the everyday life of the working class and other working
people, and are thereby transformed into conscious action
for self-management and a material force.

Organizations of the LCY do not take upon themselves
the affairs, rights and responsibilities that belong to the
working people, their organizations of associated labor,

and their self-management organizations. In the organizations

and forums of the League, the communists do not make the
kind of decisions and measures which self—managers are
authorized to make. The organizations and leadership of

the LCY do not impose their attitudes onothers.4 This

 

is a critical point especially with regard to the press.

For example, it was explained to me by Professor Srdjan
Sokolovic, a former journalist for Tanjug,5 that if a
department of editors decide upon a certain policy, it must
be agreed upon by at least three-quarters of the staff
involved at the administrative level. This does not mean
that if a journalist wanted to print a controversial edi-
torial he would have to call a meeting of the staff in

order to decide upon whether to print it. Only in major
policy formations is the practice of self-management used.
Now, the problem arises when one begins to study the
political status of the decision-makers. It is not a written
policy but rather an understood one that in order to rise to
a high level in a profession, especially if an individual's
career is influential, he must be a member of the Communist
Party. Therefore, one can usually assume that such a board
of editors is mostly comprised of Party members. This is
where the answer to the initial question begins, because

one would find it difficult to divorce a political opinion
from a personal one, at least in public, and this is where
one might recognize a controlling influence between the press
and the Party. Nevertheless, some political figures feel

that there is not enough adherence to this system,

 

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eSpecially in regard to the media. President Tito, in a
public address to the nation on September 29, 1972,6

blasted certain opportunists for "using" the Party for their
own personal gains. He further voiced dissatisfaction with
the media for its liberal practices.

At a broader consultation and at its meeting held
on June 26, this year, the Presidium of the LCY agreed
and decided on the political ideas and measures which
should be applied in the sphere of public information
media. Very little has been done so far to put those
conclusions and measures into effect. It therefore
emerges as an urgent task that meetings be held of
all communists in the press, radio and television and
of all responsible political and social bodies to
discuss and undertake energetic measures to put an
end to destructive writing, to remove from leading
positions all those who do not accept the political
course of the LCY, to make impossible writings which
are contrary to the policy of the LCY and factional
activity through the press.

All this will make it easier for communists and
other workers in the press, radio and television to
launch a resolute struggle in accordance with our
basic stands for the realization of our policy in
socio-political life.7

The purge began immediately and many of the top decision-
making positions were taken over by men of good political
standing, but who were at times without qualified backgrounds
in producing or writing. This brought about a "profes-
sionalism" dilemma with the quality of the media going down,
while Party obedience remained in better shape.

The ideology behind these movements remains quite

interesting. Three months after Tito's letter, in December,
the ICY’Presidium had a consultative meeting on ideological-

POlitical problems confronting the information media. Todo

Kurtovié, member of the Executive Bureau of the LCY Presidium,

said that the gathering had expressed united views and
aspirations for concrete action. Of particular importance
had been the discussion on how to continue building and
improving the links between society and the press. Parti-
cipants at the meeting also stressed the value of the work
of councils in newspaper publishing houses. This was called
a significant aid to society in resolving many of the
problems arising in the information field, particularly

with the entertainment press. In this connection, Kurtovié
emphasized that full participation of communists in the
public information media was necessary for resolving problems.
The heightened responsibility of communist journalists was
advocated.8

Experience tells us that we cannot ignore examples
which tell us that part of the press has become a
captive of dogmatic—technocratic groups and nationalist
and anarcho-liberalist monopolies . . . we have not
completely overcome either one or the other of these
phenomena. The way out is not in direct and everyday
involvement by the party leaderships. The way out is
found in the struggle for comprehensive solutions to
insure social influence and in the fuller activity by
communists as organized and conscious socialist forces
in each editorial office and in society as a whole.
This path is to be found . . . in the fuller activi-
zation of the organs of social self-management, of the
editorial offices, and of the other organized
institutions in this sphere. This is a way of guar-
anteeing that the journalist is able to work creatively
and independently, and genuinely to be a social worker
and, as such, to inform objectively and to comment in
an objective and involved manner.

It is normal for all communists in the leaderships
who are more closely linked with ideological-political
activity to be directly involved and actively partici-
pate in the work of the councils and other organs of
a similar kind which are formed, or which will be formed
in the sphere of information. This is an integral part

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of their function, responsibility, and work; and at
the same time it is the way to prevent the bureau-
cratiziation of the press.

This points out the dilemma of "professionalism." Kurtovic’
continues:

The words of working people have not had enough
space on the screen or over the radio. This can be
achieved only by a more complete democratization of
the press, and this means it must rely on the broadest
strate, and not merely on restrictive groups. At the
same time this is a way to increase circulation, and
to broaden the radio and television audiences . . . one
should take the full politicization of the programs
into account and struggle against all attempts at
de-ideologization.

All information media should give more information
about what is happening in Yugoslavia, proceeding from
the interests of the readers, viewers and listeners,
from the interests of the struggle for mutual acquain-
tance, and for the brotherhood of our peoples.

The councils should point out the tasks needed to
solve the problems in a given situation. In this
respect they should guide the activity of the editorial
offices, and say what should be criticized and what
should be gained by criticism.

We must also organize ourselves in such a way that
we prevent various monastically moralist and puritan
attitudes from stifling everything that represents
useful amusement. But clearly, on the other hand we
must stamp out all that is immoral, and which, under
the guise of amusement, attempts to infiltrate that
which is negative from our past. On this basis, and
in such conditions, the League of Communists will be
able to play its guiding role, not only as an external,
but also as an internal force in the press.

In the same meeting others concluded with similar suggestions.
Miroljub Lazarevié, director of Politika,ll believed that:

. . . the present activity of party organizations in

the information media should be adOpted as a permanent
practice in future work. That is, political-ideological
analyses of our newspapers within the publishing houses
as well as analyses of external factors should be made
not only when weaknesses in society have become clearly

10

manifest, but ideological clarification, explanations
and elimination of weaknesses should be a permanent
feature of work and based on experience.12

The final conclusion confirmed the direction the League
would like to see the press follow in the future.

The League of Communists must show constant concern
for the choice and moral and political qualities of
journalists, for their Marxist and professional education
and betterment, and for seeing who seeks the right to
speak through public media and in the name of what.

Whoever wishes to be a journalist must fight for
the principles of self-managing socialism, the interests
of the working class, and the implementation of the
LCY's views. Nobody has a right to tolerate the
undermining of independence, of the self—management
system, of the quality of nations and nationalities,
and of our country's nonaligned policies.

However, it has been noted that the old practice
has not yet been overcome in certain media. There
are still unprincipled compromises, wavering attempts
to remain "neutral," and instances of waiting "for the
storm to pass." The League of Communists cannot
tolerate this.

Of course from an objective point of View these
opinions are not surprising. The clearest way a government
is going to progress is by defining its goals encouraging
its constituency to follow the outlines of policy. This.
has been a major problem in the past decade with Tito's
socialism, that is, an indefinite set of terms, laws and
guidelines for decision—makers to follow, especially with
regard to the press. As a result, the key phrase which is
repeated over and over is, "It's not what you say that
matters, it's h9w_you say it." This is certainly a matter

Of interpretation and provides little assurance for the

Writer who is uncertain about the particular mood of his critics.

11

Let's look back fourteen years to when the essence
of Titoist press theory was summarized by Tito in an address
to the International Press Institute in Zurich in 1959.14

The press can do a lot of harm if journalists do

not write in conformity with the country's interests
and the interests of socialist construction . . .
During our country's revolutionary period of transition,
the press cannot be considered as an independent and
autonomous factor in society, since all the actions of
society as a whole must converge toward one aim: the
construction of Socialism.
This quotation displays the classic Leninist vision regarding
the social function of the press.
In the course of subsequent years, the Yugoslav Party
leader and Head of State again repeatedly attacked the
lack of socialist consciousness of many journalists
and authors, their "ideological errors," "insufficient
watchfulness" regarding penetrating decadent western
influences" etc. 5

According to these conceptions, the principal
function of the press was to serve as a tool for realizing
the agitation and propaganda aims of the Communist Party,
which considered it to be its duty to direct the process of
socialist transformation of the social structure. This same
theme dominates the speeches, meetings and amendments
throughout recent public addresses. One of the most
repeated concerns of government policy makers is the
influence of Western elitism as a system to follow or
emulate. As far back as 1959, Tito mentions "penetrating,
decadent, western influences." Raymond Anderson, writing

in the New York Times, in January, 1973, repeats the same

paranoia:

12

The Yugoslav press, long the most free, inquiring
and outspoken in any Communist country, is under fire
for having taken "the Western press as a model." The
country's universities, especially their departments
of philosophy, are under intense pressure to acknow-
ledge Communist party guidance and to rid themselves
of "anarcho-liberal" professors. In steady succession,
periodicals and books have been banned by court action
on vague charges that their contents "might provoke
alarm among citizens.

A harshness of language unheard for years has
emerged in speeches by officials who warn that "enemies
of self-management Socialism" are lurking on all sides.
The "enemies" constitute a seemingly incompatible horde
described as anarcho-liberals, pseudo-liberals,
technocratic managers, Stalinists, petit bourgeois
democrats, bureaucratic centralists, cominformists,
ethnic chauvinists in the various republics and emigre
intriguers abroad.

CHAPTER II

PRESS LAWS

Provisions within the Press Law clearly indicate
what guidelines the press should follow. These laws,
defined and created by the Yugoslav Journalist Association,
and verified by the League of Communists, guarantees freedom
of the press, that is, freedom of opinion.

In contrast to the opinions of American journalists
who claim that press freedom has become very limited,
several sections of the Press Law outline how this freedom
should be interpreted:

Article 40, Par. 1 and 2 of the 1963 Constitution:
Freeddm of the press and other media of information

. . . shall be guaranteed. The citizens shall have
the right to express and publish their opinion through
the media of information, to publish newspapers and
other publications and to disseminate information by
other media of information.17

Article 34, Par. 2 of the 1963 Constitution:

In order to achieve self-government, the citizen shall
have: . . . 5) the right to be informed about the work
of the representative bodies and their organs, the
organs of social self-government and organizations
carrying on affairs of public concern. . . 8

 

Article 87, Par. 1 of the 1963 Constitution:

The work of the state organs, organs of social self-
government and organizations carrying on affairs of
public concern shall be public and the public shall
be informed about their work.lé

In order to legally justify the Party's stance and

13

l4

attitude towards the future direction of the press, there
are certain 'safety clauses' which allow the Party a great
deal of flexibility in its interpretation.20 Article 40
of the 1963 Constitution, already quoted above, while
guaranteeing freedom of the press, of information and
opinion in its first and second paragraphs, states in the
third paragraph:

These freedoms and rights shall not be used by
anyone to overthrow the foundations of the socialist
democratic order determined by the Constitution, to
endanger the peace, international cooperation on terms
of equality, or the independence of the country, to
disseminate national, racial, or religious hatred or
intolerance, or to incite to crime, which in any manner
offends public decency. Article 52 of the 1960 Press
Law prohibits the distribution of printed matter
whereby: criminal offences are committed against
people, state, or armed forces of Yugoslavia; false,
distorted or alarming news or assertions are spread,
alarming the public or disturbing public order;
whereby information regarding the country's defence is
published which constitutes an official or economic
secret of special importance to the social community;
aggression or other acts opposed to the aims of the
United Nations are advocated; the maintenance and
developments of friendly relations between Yugoslavia
and other countries are directly disturbed; injury is
caused to the honour and reputation of the Yugoslav
peoples, their top representative organs and the
President of the Republic, or to foreign peOples, and
the chiefs and diplomatic representatives of foreign
states etc. These and similar provisions in the
Constitution and the press legislation are supplemented
by numerous other legal regulations such as Articles
118, 175 and 292a of the Criminal Code, according to
which it is a criminal offence, to make propaganda
against the governmental and social order.

The government has its reasons for reinforcing
stricter guidelines upon the press, yet the press often
feels itself to be the victim of circumstance rather than

an institution openly defying the political law. In

 

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~ild

15

self-defense, the most outspoken Belgrade daily newspaper,

Vecernje novosti, stressed that the role of the press was

"21

 

to build "a free, socialist, self—managing society.
Mirko Stamenkovié, editor—in-chief of the paper, said that
the press had been:22
. . . battered by many waves, the most aggressive of
which were conservative, neocentralist, and even neo-
Stalinist . . . Some believed that the time is ripe to
enslave the press for their own political purposes.
Others believed that the best solution would be to
make the press completely neutral and politically
disengaged.
Stamenkovié's feelings were in reaction to a bill that had
been proposed a few months earlier by the federal government.
The new draft law was intended to replace the press law
which expired on December 31, 1971. In essence, the draft
would broaden the right of public prosecutors to interfere
with the media. Under the expired press law, the first
c0py of every printed publication had to be sent to the
Office of the Public Prosecutor, who could, a_posteriori,
prohibit its distribution, and even ban a paper pending
final decision by the court in the area in which the
offending text in question was distributed. If adopted,
this new legislation would have strengthened the control
over the press and information media, although it would not
have introduced the pre-censorship practiced in other
communist countries. Other than Stamenkovié's reaction,
feelings on the part of Yugoslav press and radio commentators

was unexpectedly sharp. The first to react was Radio

Belgrade, which warned deputies of the National

16

Assembly* against premature action and expressed the hope

that they would be able "to separate that which is politically
necessary from any type of administrative manipulation."23
Fortunately, the Assembly listened and rejected the
proposal.

The historical catalyst for this gradual redefining
of the preSS happened during 1971 when Croatia began to print
"nationalistic" slogans and articles encouraging the
separation from the rest of the republics, to become an
autonomous nation of its own. Naturally this created
waves throughout the country and as Tito stepped in to
suppress the movement, a complete analysis began to take
place with regard to future policies which would better
insure the total unity of Yugoslavia. Recognizing what an
influential force the media would have during any future
uprisings, a re-evaluation of the privileges of the press
seemed only natural. Following Tito's letter, a specific
account for some of the failures of the media were spelled
out in a session of the main committee of the Union of
Journalists of Serbia.24

Inadequate social influence upon the press-~Program

of action of Serbian journalists will be worked out in
conformity with the letter and other political docu-

ments. Criticisms concerning the Belgrade press because
of the approach to socio-political and other events

 

*The National Assembly includes The Republican Con-
ference of the Socialist Alliance of Serbia, Ideological
Commission of the Serbian Party CC and the Serbian Journalists'

Union.

17

outside Serbia are based upon definite articles and
reports which should not have been published in our
information media. This practice existed in certain
information media which, according to their circula-
tion, are the most influential and this resulted in
biased and inaccurate information while creating the
impression of a heterogeneous development of our
society along the principal lines.

This was stated, among other things, in the report submitted

by the President, Jovanka Brkic. During the discussion of

the report it was also said that:25

. . . the most serious shortcomings . . . of the
political information press, radio and television in
spite of principled commitments, is the inadequate
orientation towards the self—management base of

society with greater inclination towards the activity
of forums and state administration. Recent discussions
in numerous editorial boards, especially in Belgrade,
have proved that journalists are willing to bear part
of the responsibility, to admit their mistakes without
hiding behind mistakes of individual forums. A certain
number of journalists, linked with republican or
Belgrade forums, relayed in their papers or in broad-
casts the stands of individual personalities or forums
without an adequate critical attitude or normal engage-
ment of journalists. Thus recurred the previous mistake
of manipulation, or rather of the "coalescing" of
information media with individual personalities or
forums, a thing that the organization of journalists
had already seriously denounced.

Failures can be emphasized and over—emphasized but
solid and constructive directions must be taken eventually.
The press took the first step to define their direction
and in January of 1973 the first meeting of the active
communist journalists was held, attended by Mitja Ribicic,

a member of the Presidency of the Socialist Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia. The most prevalent feeling that came out
was the opinion that "self-criticism was the best method

for greater political activity by journalists and thus of

18

course, for improved work."26 The Slovene Journalists
Association has almost 600 professional journalist members,
among whom half are communists. This proportion may
perhaps be surprising for somebody outside the ranks of
journalists, but it is not for journalists themselves.
According to the majority opinion, no matter what the party
affiliation, the "journalist in a self—managing society is
not a mere reporter of various views but a socio-political
worker who actively participates in building socialist and
humane relations in our self-managing society."27
Reporters can take on an optimistic outlook upon
their role after party leaders in their meetings nod their
heads and claim that "we are onto a fresh start." Perhaps
the feeling is genuine. However after reading what is
called a "specific" approach, one remains as confused as
ever regarding the real direction now as opposed to 1971.
For example, in a Tanjug report a specific request had been
printed as a guideline. "The suppressing of the spreading
of the mass circulation entertainment publications of a
'petit bourgeois' nature is necessary . . . as well as the
expansion of information on the everyday activity of direct

"28 It was also requested that newsmen

producers.
abide more consistently by the code of professional
ethics, but at the same time, that they be professionally
protected. . . . With this are some changes in the code
of professional ethics, which would require a more
resolute engagement on Marxist and professional training
of journalists, as well as the creating of more favorable
conditions for their work in editorial boards.29

As stated in the beginning, when it comes to writing, there

19

comes a definite need to define terminology, to let the
people know exactly where one stands. The Yugoslav press
appears to have gone from the more traditional role of
"educating" the public to "politicizing" it.

The public information media are an extremely
important factor of modern life and communications
between peOple, a factor for formulating a general
spiritual, cultural and political conscience. Within
our socialist self-managing democracy these media
should be an instrument of the working people for
their mutual acquaintanceship will all aspects of
our life and for their direct influence on the forma-
tion of this life. Therefore, there should be no
room in these media for either bureaucratic-statist
and technocratic manipulating of the people or for a
policy proceeding from ideological and class positions
that are alien to self-managing socialism, from
various kinds of monOpolies, private interests and
so on.30

This again is a logical direction for the government to
take if it wants to reach its socialistic aims, but it must
lay the specific groundwork to get there. In am attempt

to outline their direction, the League of Pressmen stated
the reforms that needed to take place.

The direct development of our self-managing
socialistic society imposes need that the commenced
reform of journalism be continued. With strengthening
of social influence with essentially more independence
and responsibility through means of public information,
will remove the tendencies of monopoly . . . in the
area of editorial boards.

The journalists have to inform the public about
everything that is happening in society, everything
that has the social-political meaning, to secure the
exact, complete true objective and information in time.

The duties of editorial staffs: the program should
consist of the measures for real bettering of the
conditions of work and life of journalists in organizing
more efficient health insurance, in introducing different
increases of the additional Option insurance, with

20

regulation of status of journalists with many years

of service, with consistent putting into force five

day working week, and deve10pment of funds gf solid-
arity attached by journalist organizations.

Yet along with reform, there are always new codes
for those who do not follow or misinterpret the orders.
Ianovember of 1972 the members of the federal government
discussed a new law that was passed regarding the policies
of the publication of all newspapers in Yugoslavia. In
effect the law states that in all cases where the author of
an article offends the people of Yugoslavia or the State
or the Armed Forces, he will be punished. At the same time
if Army secrets are discovered and printed, or if there is
a patronization to foreign states by a reporter he will be
held punishable. This law would also be applied if in the
case of an article published in the State of Yugoslavia, it
offends diplomatic representatives in foreign countries.

The Attorney General and the Court will decide if the writer
of the articles is guilty and whether the article should be
banned. Later on the Court will try the persons who committed
the offense. According to this new law, all different kinds
of periodicals, bulletins, books, catalogues, leaflets,
photographs, maps, poems, with text or without it, short
films, television broadcasts, long films, records and slides
should be included. If any of these publications were to

be banned, this sentence is valid for the whole territory of

Yugoslavia. The punishment would be as follows: the writer

could be sentenced to one year of imprisonment and/or

21

payment of a fine of 2,000 dinars; the publisher could also
be ordered by the Attorney General to pay up to 5,000
dinars, the chief or manager of the publishing company would
be fined up to 500 dinars, and the whole enterprise res-
ponsible for the publishing would be fined up to 5,000
dinars.32

These penalties by no means compare to the penalties
that a reporter might face in Russia. As a matter of fact,
the fine is not even considered steep, 5,000 dinars is
approximately $330. What is not mentioned is a "black list"
that puts one in the lime—light for party members to watch.
Promotions or favors later on could be placed in jeopardy.
One of the worst sentences would be to be expelled from the
Party, meaning a permanent exile from all political life
as well as loss of a job.

Of course, many times the reasons for one's guilt
are often as nebulous as the laws themselves. Several
examples prove my point.

Belgrade, Feb. 2, 1973 Reuter

Yugoslav film director, Dusan Makaveyev, inter—
nationally known for *: the mysteries of
organism, today became the newest apparent target of
a campaign to tighten ideological discipline in the
arts. The Belgrade prosecutor announced that a legal
complaint had been brought asking that Mr. Makaveyev
had insulted a war veterans' organization; it gave no

other details. At the same time, the film company
which produced , following a meeting of all

 

 

*Absence of title of film was required by law not
to be printed.

22

employees, disavowed the film as ideologically harmful
and unacceptable for public showing. It said it sup-
ported a court ban on the film and did not want at

any cost to be identified with it. Mr. Makaveyev's
film, a free-wheeling political satire, has been

shown in Britain and other countries but never seen

in Yugoslavia.

Belgrade, July 25, 1972, Reuter

I' The latest issue of the Zagreb philOSOphical maga-
zine "Praxis" has been banned by the Croatian public
prosecutor's office for containing false and alarming
assertions, the Yugoslav news agency Tanjug reported
tonight. The prosecutor's office claimed the magazine
falsely represented social relations toward Marxism,
with the aim of presenting to the Yugoslav and foreign
public that there was no Marxist approach in solving
social relations in Yugoslavia and that every progres-
sive ideology based on Marxism was being stifled.

 

An article in "Praxis" said the recent trial in
Belgrade of university professor Mihailo Djurié was
evidence of such relations. Professor Djurié’was
accused of having publicly made pro-Serbian national-
istic remarks and a week ago was jailed for two years
on charges of having been responsible for hostile
propaganda.

Mr. Josip Vrhovec, Secretary of the Croatian Party
Executive Committee, attacked the magazine as containing
harmful texts.34

Belgrade, October 6, 1972, Reuter

The Belgrade district court has again upheld a ban
on an issue of a Serbian philOSOphical journal alleged
to have contained articles which might cause public
anxiety. The journal, "Felosofija 2," was first banned
nearly a month ago, but the Serbian supreme court
ordered another hearing on the matter because the first
ruling by the Belgrade district court failed to give
the titles of the articles in the document. All the
c0pies of the expelled paper had been sold before the
ban was imposed.35

 

Yet it seems that no matter how frequent the arrest
or how serious the fine, Yugoslav reporters generally agree
that they are still enjoying what they call freedom of the
press. No editor or council will veto an editorial before

it is published. Aside from grammar or sentence structure,

23

the main context of an opinion will not be altered before
printing. No film will be banned before it is publicly
seen. Writers and reporters take comfort with this system,
a system advocates "self—censorship" as Opposed to the
complete suppression of an article by a censor. It is the
responsibility of the author to decide how his piece may
be interpreted or misinterpreted and he can either accept
or reject the guidance of his colleagues. .Very often a
comparison is made with the hard core line of press rules
in Russia; and this helps paint a clear picture of the
flexibility within the Yugoslav system. The comparison is
a valid one and after interviewing the former Washington

Post correspondent to Moscow,36

it appeared that indeed
there was a difference. Robert Kaiser, correspondent for

the International Herald Tribune, spells out the vivid

 

contrast in an article sent from Moscow in July of 1973.

' This dispatch could not be printed in a Soviet
newspaper because the official censor forbids publica-
tion of "information about the organs of Soviet cen-
sorship which discloses the character, organization
and method of their work." The censor forbids reports
on prison, on low morale in the army, on the activity
of the secret police, on the amount of crime in Soviet
society, on accusations made by foreign states or
statesmen against the Soviet Union.

It is against the rules to report on "the number
of fires and their victims," or "the number of illit-
erate people," or "the correlation between the cost
price of services for foreign tourists in thetlS.S.R.
and the selling price for tourist trips to the U.S.S.R.
The list goes from issues of state--no reporting is
allowed on the movements or stopovers of members of
the ruling Politburo—-to issues of entertainment and
Sport. For instance there can be no stories about the
rates of pay for sportsmen, about the money prizes for
sportsmen for good results in sport.

24

Soviet journalists accept censorship of this kind
without evident discomfort. They regard themselves as
prOpagandists--a word that has no negative connotation
in modern Russia--whose job is to support and sometimes
to improve, the status quo. Bad news makes bad propa-
ganda, so it seldom appears in the papers here. Air-
plane crashes aren't reported, unless foreigners are
among the victims. Floods, earthquakes and other
natural disasters also pass unnoted in the media here.
Stories on "the number of drug addicts" in cities or
regions, or in the country are forbidden. So are
reports on "illness in the population from cholera
and plaque."

The rules reflect official caution. They ban any
story about "new" methods and means for treating and
early diagnosing of malignant tumors in humans without
permission of the Ministry of Health. A Soviet jour-
nalist once told an American colleague that a story
about a possible new cancer cure in Pravda could cause
tumult in the pOpulace, because Soviet readers are not
used to the stream of Optimistic--if unfounded-~fore-
casts of Western doctors and scientists.37

Knowing these stiff requirements in Russia, one can appreciate
the fight for press freedom which continues today in Yugoslavia.
Ideologies may be somewhat confusing, emotional outbreaks from
Party leaders expressing disappointment with the quality of
the information media may frequent their meetings, but
the majority of Yugoslav Communists have indeed rejected,
as Serbian party leader Latinka Perovic recently stated,
the concept that the press is merely a "transmitter
of party policy." If this assessment proves to be true,
if the new press legislation respects and confirms the
freedom of the information media in Yugoslavia, benefit
will accrue to both individuals and society as a whole,
since no society, socialist or nonsocialist, can be
successfully established unless the possibility of free
exchange of ideas and opinions exists.38
A conclusion could be made with this optimistic note,
claiming that the current transition of the press is leading

towards a more stable and democratic form of information

distribution. But there are two points of View concerning

25

Yugoslavia's future motives. Attention must be given to
Raymond Anderson's discouraging analysis of the present path
that Tito has chosen.

After two decades in which liberal ideology had
held sway, the League of Communists is sternly reas-
serting authority over all aspects of the society and
demanding doctrinal conformity. Influences from the
West, including even television dramas like "Peyton
Place," are under a dark cloud. Scholars and Officials
suddenly find it a stigma to have studied in the United
States.

At the same time, Yugoslav relations with the Sov
Union are flourishing, more so than at any time since
the hostility of 1948 when Stalin ousted Yugoslavia
from the international Communist movement and subjected
the country to economic boycott, polemical abuse and
threats of invasion.

"Some people are saying that Yugoslavia is going
back under the wing of the Soviet Union, returning to
the Soviet camp," claimed Tito during a visit to
Slovenia Dec. 12. "Yugoslavia is not going anywhere.
Yugoslavia is staying where it is."

That seems to be the Yugoslav intention-—to stay
on a course toward Socialism under its own management
but directed by a strong and disciplined party. No
more flirting with liberalism.3

There are indications that Anderson may be correct,

that tightening up on the press is the first step in the
right direction. However, at the age of 81, Tito is faced
with the problem of succession, of preparing the country to
continue the course as originated and outlined by him.

The press reflects the sign of the times, times which are

full of anticipation for the long-range policies which will

determine the country's future role in Eastern Europe.

26

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CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION

While Tito has redefined and redirected the role
of the media as an informative vehicle to educate the
public, he has also encouraged the growth and development
of television centers throughout the country. As a matter
of fact the industry has grown so fast that lack of mone-
tary support is currently stifling the production of quality
programs. In order to trace the growth pattern, research
departments within the television stations were interviewed.
In each republic there was particular emphasis placed upon
the fact that television is still considered to be in an
infantile stage, in other words, time to experiment and
learn from experience has been limited to only seventeen
years. But staff members are proud of their brief tele-
vision history beginning in May, 1956.

As has been more or less the case in the rest of the
world, Yugoslav television grew up within the structure of
radio, which was the initiator, secured the first funds,
and provided the first staff. Television appeared in
Yugoslavia later than in the technically more advanced
European countries, the explanation is to be sought primarily

in the more limited capabilities of Yugoslav specialized

27

28

industry which would undertake the manufacture and marketing

of a large number of television sets at reasonable prices.

At the very outset, the question of building up a network

of TV stations necessarily was linked with the possibilities

of reception Of their programs. Since it was recognized

that television would have to undergo constant improvement

and perfection, it was decided to wait for the final solution

of all those numerous technical problems that accompanied

the introduction of television in the world. Finally, it

was decided to wait for domestic industry to be able to

mass-produce television sets, since any large importation

of sets from abroad delayed the availability of television

to large audiences. Only after the necessary preparations

had been made was the decision made to tackle an organized

introduction of television, so that the country would not

lag behind the rest of EurOpe. At this time it was asked

whether television would slow down or hinder the rapid growth

of radio, since radio had not only provided the first tech-

nical and program personnel for television, but had also

set aside considerable funds from its own budget. The

community showed great interest in bringing in television,

and gave encouragement and assistance both with finances

from republican funds and with finances from the federation.40
If television was introduced into wide practice in

Yugoslavia somewhat later, this does not mean that technical

and programming progress in the rest of the world was not

followed with great attention. Technical staff at schools

29

of higher education and at radio stations kept abreast of
the latest happenings and studied the problems themselves.
All of this paid off when television was finally introduced,
because Yugoslav technicians, with just a little help from
foreign engineers, themselves set up the transmitters and
supervised the televising Of the first programs.

The first practical demonstrations of television in
Yugoslavia before a rather wide circle of viewers were made
in the autumn of 1939.41 A group of experts from the Dutch
firm Philips appeared at fairs in Belgrade and Zagreb with
TV equipment. Well known Yugoslav artists took part and it
all added to an aura Of amazement as viewers watched modern
technology upstage the live entertainment.

In Ljubljana, a television workshop was founded

in 1949 as part of the Institute for Electronic Com—
munication. Six co-workers at the Institute, who had
taken on the study of television technology, used
several small rooms at the top of the city's sky-
scraper, where they set up apparatus which they had
made themselves: a camera with 625 lines, a syn-
chroniser, control for the synchroniser, etc. These
were the first post—war practical steps taken towards
the introduction of television in our country.42
The following years saw the construction of the first
Yugoslav television receiver, the quality of which was
improved upon every year at the Electronic Institute. In
February, 1955 a meeting was held by the Nikola Tesla
factory employees to discuss setting aside factory money
for the purpose of establishing a television center. It

was agreed upon and fifty million dinars were alloted for

the construction. On the strength of this decision a group

30

of engineers was formed which included representatives of
the Electrical Engineering Faculty, the Nikola Tesla
Institute, the Nikola Tesla Factory and the Association of
Radio Amateurs of Yugoslavia. Immediately after this, rep-
resentatives of Nikola Tesla visited Budapest and Vienna to
investigate the chances of carrying out their plan.

These initiatives evoked lively interest on the part
of the Yugoslav radio network, which organized several of
the first meetings. At one such meeting, held in Zagreb
in December, 1954 Mr. Vodan, an engineer from the Ljubljana
Institute, presented some estimates that he had prepared.
On September 13, 1955 at Radio Belgrade the technical depart-
ment formed a group of experts to prepare a proposal for
preliminary studies on introducing television in Belgrade,
and throughout the Republic of Serbia. In November of the
same year, a television camera was made in Radio Belgrade
and was demonstrated at an exhibition of the press and radio.
At the beginning of 1956 Radio Belgrade set up the Technical
Council for Television. The Educational Committee of the
Federal Executive Council formed the Commission for Matters
Concerning the Introduction of Television in Yugoslavia.
This Commission held many meetings, the most important of
which were held on March 16 and 17, 1956. Thus, governmental
bodies joined Radio Belgrade, Radio Zagreb, Radio Ljubljana,
the Yugoslav Radio Network, and the electronic industry in
taking action to bring television into the country, and in

this respect the year 1955/56 may be considered a turning

31

point. At this time 92 television stations were already
operating in 21 EurOpean countries, and 47 were under
construction.

When a number of experiments showed that in some
sections of the country, primarily those near the borders,
foreign programs (Italian and Austrian) could be received
without the intervention of the domestic transmitters, steps
were taken in the first months of 1956 to take advantage of
this in the initial phase of construction of the Yugoslav
television network. The initiative was taken by a group of
engineers at Radio Zagreb. The first, very modest trans-
mitter of 500 watts was set up on Mt. Sljeme, so that, when
all the necessary preparations had been completed, the
director of Radio Zagreb, Ivan Sibl, was able to announce
on the thirtieth anniversary of Radio Zagreb, May 15, 1956,
that starting with that evening viewers in Zagreb would be
able to watch TV programs from abroad. Television sets
situated in public places about the city gave viewers an
opportunity to watch excerpts from the Austrian TV program
first (Graz) and then the Italian program. At the same
time, work was speeded up on preparations of the Yugoslav
experimental program. In accordance with an agreement, in
mid-July 1956, a group of French experts from the firm
Thomson-Houston arrived in Zagreb with two Ortikon TV
cameras, telecine equipment, control receivers and other
necessary equipment, all of which Radio Zagreb leased for

one year. The technicians from France and from Zagreb set

32

everything up in a very short time. The first Yugoslav
telecast was made on August 3, 1956 from TRG Republike in
Zagreb, and a month later, on September 3, 1956 150 members
of the staff and a small number of invited guests witnessed
the first Yugoslav TV program broadcast from the studio of
Radio Zagreb. The program comprised the TV Journal, a
documentary film about the first TV broadcasts, and an
entertainment section. Zagreb television's next move was
to telecast a program at the Zagreb International Fairgrounds.
On November 7, the Opening of the Fair, at which the President
of the Republic, Josip Broz Tito took part, was televised.
Finally, on November 29, 1956, on Republic Day, Zagreb
television began regular broadcasts of its experimental
program.43

The efforts of Radio Zagreb, now Radio-Television
Zagreb, thus marked the end of the first, pioneering stage,
which was at the same time the most difficult one. These
preparations and beginning also meant the practical training
of the first staff, and the experience of the Zagreb group
was of great value in the organization of the first staffs
for the studios in Belgrade and Ljubljana, where preparations
were rapidly being finished for an experimental program after
less than two years. Although individual small groups from
all three of these centers toured foreign countries with
short stays in Italy, the USSR, Belgium, West Germany, the
Netherlands, the USA, etc., most of the training was done

within Yugoslavia. This was an important point that was

33

emphasized over and over again. Television staff members
attribute much of their original success to the foreign
advice which facilitated in accomplishing their goal.

In Belgrade a group of technical and programming
personnel was set apart from the regular radio staff and
it began preparations for the introduction of television in
1957. In the autumn of the same year the Nikola Tesla
radio industry gave several experimental broadcasts which
were seen at many public places in the city. The official
opening of the TV studio in Belgrade was on August 23, 1958,
when the independent telecasts of its experimental program
began. The third Yugoslav TV studio was opened less than
two months later, in Ljubljana on October 11, 1958. Careful
preparations and the experience gained within the country
and abroad had at last paid Off, although there were still
obstacles to be overcome in the further deve10pment of
Yugoslav television. On November 25, 1968, the first direct
telecast from outside Zagreb was successfully made of the
official Opening of the Zagreb-Ljubljana highway and the
festivities at Novo Mesto "marking the completion of the
youth brigades' work on building the Brotherhood and Unity
Highway."4

Newly built studios in Sarajevo and in Skopje have
also taken their place in the program Of the Yugoslav net-
work. Television Sarajevo took part in the joint program
on July 26, 1961 with an outstanding program on Kozara.

It began broadcasting its own programs in 1969. Television

34

Skopje appeared in the joint program for the first time on
May 13, 1961 and began to broadcast its own programs on
June 5, 1964. Finally, Television Titograd took part in
the joint program for the first time on November 20, 1965
and it began to broadcast its own program with the Daily
News on November 20, 1971. Within the last few years
individual studios started broadcasting their own programs,
but they also used programs from each other.

According to plan the present construction of tele-
vision network in Yugoslavia will be completed when the
capital towns of the autonomous regions of Vojvodina and
Kosovo have their own television studios. The natural
process of such development requires the setting up of
producing centers in other larger towns, also inside the
individual republics, which will serve as the basis for
realizing a richer and more diversified program thus
enabling the expression of the cultural and historical
tradition of the respective regions. The two television
studios mentioned, for which the required television means
have been provided or are being earmarked, are very near to
realization.

Novi Sad is one such region where plans are being
made. The first independent broadcasts are expected in 1974,
but the construction of television studios as well as the
purchase of the equipment required for independent work
should be completed by 1977. At first the program schedule

will amount of 8.5 hours or 510 minutes weekly, and will

35

be broadcast in five languages (Serbo-Croatian, Hungarian,
Romanian, Slovakian, and Ruthenian).

Pristina is another independent studio which is
expected to be working by 1973, for a duration of six hours
weekly. In this region, the number Of TV viewers is very
small, and therefore the future program will be of general
direction and its purpose, at first, will be to attract as
large a number of viewers as possible. The program will be
broadcast in Albanian, Serbo-Croatian and Turkish. The
construction of a new TV Center was started at the end of
1972.

It was pointed out by the chief editor of TV
Dubrovnik, Mr. Sundrica,45 that "independent stations" are
beginning to develop, that is, stations which would include
one hour of independent programs and then transmit out of
Zagreb. The basic themes would be the coverage of local
public affairs in news form, or emphasis on a cultural event
within the area. Specifically the areas currently being
considered are in the Dalmatian region, that being Split,
Rijeka, and Osijek. Construction has not yet begun but the
fact that such an expansion is being considered is signifi-
cant in tracing the growth of the industry.

In the course of the development Of the Yugoslav
television network 48 TV transmitters and 260 TV repeaters
have been constructed with a total power of 4,706 kilowats.
The total length of TV links which have been constructed

amounts to 12,759 kilometers. On January 1, 1973 there

36

were 2,359,357 TV receivers in Yugoslavia, i.e., one TV

set for every eight inhabitants, and 3,627,106 registered

radio sets.46

over the past four years.

Here is the breakdown Of registered TV's

 

 

 

Table l. Breakdown of Registered Television Sets.
Republic 1969 1970 1971 1972

Serbia 644,121 750,183 859,186 965,378
Croatia 412,745 483,975 554,349 626,726
Slovenia 200,618 228,719 255,082 288,059
Bosnia-

Hercegovina 154,564 180,431 215,711 275,850
Macedonia 108,326 125,373 136,820 160,250
Montenegro 22,288 29,781 36,090 43,094
Yugoslav

Total 1,298,479 1,798,462 2,057,238 2,359,357

 

 

 

\

In comparison with 1971, the largest increase (in
absolute figures) of TV sets occurred in the republics of
Bosnia-Hercegovina and Montenegro, with 28.3 per cent and
19.4 per cent respectively. In Yugoslavia as a whole the
increase of TV sets from 1971 to 1972 (14.6 per cent) was
the largest absolute increase (302,119 TV sets) since the
advent of television in 1956. According to official Yugoslav

figures there were in Yugoslavia in 1972 352,477 unregistered

TV sets, the so—called "black listeners," which raises the

37

total of TV sets to 1,787,133. The number of unregistered
TV sets is derived from deducting the number of registered
TV sets from the TV sets thus far produced in Yugoslavia or
imported from abroad.

According to the 1972 data, a record production of
TV sets was realized in Yugoslavia in 1969, with 333,579

sets being put on the market.48

In 1970 production amounted
to 320,471 sets, and in 1971, to 317,421 sets. This means
that in these three years domestic production gradually
declined. In the first three months of 1972, 180,909 TV
sets were produced in Yugoslavia. On the basis of an
international UNESCO survey published in 1971 in Paris the
average number of TV subscribers per 1,000 inhabitants in
1969 was: in Rumania 64; Yugoslavia 76; Bulgaria 98;
the Soviet Union 128; Italy 170; France 201; Czechoslovakia
208; East Germany 249; West Germany 260; Great Britain
284.49

In Yugoslavia only a part of the TV programming
produced is broadcast over the entire TV network, while the
rest is broadcast exclusively for the territory of a specific
republic. The TV studios that are associated with Yugoslav
Radio and Television reach an agreement on joint scheduling
so that programs from the other TV studios can be carried
more easily on a bilateral or multilateral basis. Along
with programs in Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian
languages, there are also programs in Hungarian and Albanian,

as well as in the languages of other national minority groups.

38

This clearly points out the complexity and diversity
of the whole Yugoslav television industry; to have a compo-
sition of foreign languages and cultures incorporated within
the media which conforms to the basic political philosophy
of one country, is unique. Contrary to the American, Spanish,
French or Russian systems where the majority of programs are
at least broadcast in a common language, Yugoslavia makes
a constant effort to cater to the cultural needs of all its
republics. This at times can be an expensive undertaking.
For example, along the northern Serbian border, programs are
intercepted by the Hungarian audiences. Naturally when a TV
subscriber pays a monthly tax he is going to demand a certain
portion of programming devoted to his own interests. On the
other hand, advertisers who pay a handsome fee to promote
their product, naturally want to submit their commercials
during a program which has the greatest number of viewers.

If the studios carry a high number of Hungarian programs

and if there is a low number of viewers, advertisers will

be reluctant to choose those times, and thereby limit their
commercials. The reason why this creates a problem is
because audience ratings do not necessarily dictate the
programming pattern. In other words, the research department
will tabulate the amount of Hungarian-speaking viewers who
own television sets. That number will determine the amount
of time which should be devoted to supporting Hungarian-
produced programs.

The changes in cultural habits present somewhat Of

39

a different problem on the Slovenian border. Because Austria
and Italy, two fairly prosperous countries, also receive
Yugoslavian programs, they feel it profitable to promote
their commodities in the form of advertising. The rate of
advertising costs is considerably lower in Yugoslavia as
compared to either Italy or Austria, therefore a high per-
centage of Slovenian programming is sponsored by the Italian-
Austrian market. Needless to say, the advertiser in
Yugoslavia resents this kind of competition from other
countries, but nevertheless fights to remain in business.
With more and more stations competing for a greater
number of viewers as well as commercial sponsors in a very
tight money market, one might conclude that the industry is
growing faster than it economically should. Staff members
are overworked and certainly underpaid; a minimum of equip-
ment does not enhance the quality of programs. The industry
supports itself by basically three sources of income: one,
from the initial tax on a TV set when purchased; two, from
a monthly subscription fee from the owner; and three, from
the advertiser. With perhaps one network, two independent
stations and possibl one regional station within one area,
the income from the subscribers is well spread out. While
television professionals are proud of the rapid growth of
the industry, they are involved in a perplexing question of
how to support new stations, how to establish priorities
in programming, and how to distribute the staff among the

networks and individual stations.

40

This leads to the question of why there is a
constant push to promote and create more stations. On the
surface it seems more beneficial to limit the numbers to
major networks, making these the medium for promoting the
national language, national politics and ideology, deve10p-
ing a more national patriotism rather than an independent,
republic one. In other words, by centralizing the media,
perhaps the government could better unify the country via
centralized themes. But this is not the objective of Tito,
the Communist Party, or programmers and journalists. Rather,
by creating pride first of all in one's own nationality,
can a citizen identify with any kind of a patriotic feeling
towards his country. If the leaders create a reason and
incentive to believe in the socialist goals, then the
people will respond to a federal cause. Television is
described as a medium through which peOple can relate to
people, rather than an industry relating to subjects.

so strongly felt that by creating more studios

Mr. Sundrica
emphasizing local public affairs, letting viewers identify
with their own problems first before national ones, then

one gets the cooperation of the masses, this in turn creates
the unity necessary for any government to carry on. Then,
of course, there is the constant effort to educate audiences
about the attributes of every culture which comprises
Yugoslavia. For example viewers in Belgrade can watch folk

dances in Slovenia, the Albanians can watch the Bosnian

Opera in Hercegovina, Croatia can learn about Montenegrin

41

culture. Through becoming familiar with and by appreciating
the make-up of a highly diverse country via a common medium,

an effective education and possibly unification of peoples

can be achieved.

CHAPTER IV

STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERN OF TELEVISION CENTERS

The basic organizational structure of television
stations varies from republic to republic depending upon
the individual needs of each center. But in comparison to
the internal structure of American broadcasting companies,
there is little difference. The following working units
constitute the basic composition of television Zagreb:51

I. Television Program
II. Television Production
III. Technical Service
IV. Joint Services
The Director of Television is responsible for program
policy, work organization and business conducted by the
television station. 4
I. The Television Program consists of the following
types:

A. Information, talks and current affairs

1. Daily programs
2. Editorial boards
a. Home policy

b. Economy

42

43

c. Foreign policy and international news
exchange
d. Culture
e. Sport
Documentary program includes documentaries,
supplements and reports.
Drama program consists of:
1. Plays

2. Light entertainment

3. Music
4. Children's program
5. Films

6. Drama group

School Television has two sections:

1. Editorial Board

2. Educational and Pedagogic Service

The Commercial Publicity Program includes all
commercials and advertisements.

The Program Exchange Service deals with the
sale and exchange of TV programs, procuring TV
programs, preparations for co-productions of
TV programs; it studies the production of TV
programs in the world, organizes festivals, as
well as TV programs' fairs, publishes catalogues
and similar advertising publications.

The Program Service includes:

1. Program coordination

44

2. Program presentation
3. Public information within programs
The TV program as a whole is run by the chief of the tele-
vision program. He is directly in charge of the heads of
units in which the television program is composed.
II. TV Production combines:
A. Direction
B. Organization
C. Planning
D. Recording and cutting
E. Scene services
The Television Production is run by the Assistant to the
Director of Television for Organization and Production.
III. Technical Service has the following organizational
patterns:
A. Studios and outside broadcasting units
B. TV power stations
C. Film and photo laboratories
D. Equipment maintenance and control
In running the technical service, the Director of Television
coordinates all projects with the assistant to the Director
of Television for Engineering.
IV. Joint
A. Finance Department
1. Economy and planning
2. Bookkeeping

3. Commercial affairs

45

The Director of Television relies upon the assistant to
the Director of Television for Finance to control all the
working units in this department.
B. General Services
1. Office administration
2. Recorded program library
3. Statistics
4. Documentation
In running the General Services and organizing the work in
this unit, the Director relies on the assistant to the
Director for General Services.
Television Belgrade, without going into detail,
consists of familiar departments:52
--Financial and Administrative Service
--General Maintenance Service
--Program Planning and Coordination
--Commercial Publicity Program
--Scene Servicing
--Outside Engineering
--Studio Engineering
--Engineering Maintenance
--Television and Film Lighting Service
--Film and Photography
--Information, Talks and Current Affairs
--Letters, Science and Arts
Television Ljubljana differs slightly, Operating its

technical services from its general.53

46

1) Television Program

Co
d.

e.

TV Program Coordination and General Affairs
Editorial Boards of Information, Talks, and
Current Affairs, Educational and Commercial
Publicity Programs

Letters, Science and Arts

Editorial Board for Foreign Language Services

TV Program Presentation

2) Engineering

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

f.

Planning, Control and Technical Documentation
Studio Engineering, Sound Broadcasting

Studio Engineering, Television

VHF, Radio and Television

Photo Film Service

Laboratory

3) Economic and Administrative Service

f.

Finance

Purchase and Sale

Staff Administration and Welfare
Supply Services

Construction Bureau

Cassettes Production

The balance of TV centers throughout the country remains

structurally the same.

CHAPTER V

SURVEY OF THE STAFF OF BROADCASTING INSTITUTIONS

The growth of the television profession may be
measured in terms of the number of staff members which
have increased considerably in the last two years. In
1970 there were 933 new workers employed in broadcasting
institutions, while in 1971 the number of permanent staff
increased by 1005. Though the increase in the number of
staff was growing in all eight main broadcasting institu-
tions, it was most striking in Radio-Television Belgrade
and Radio-Television Skopje. It should be pointed out that
the increase refers mainly to the staff having to do with
the production of programs and within this group the most
marked increase was recorded among journalists, engineering,
and other staff having to do with programs. This explains
also the increase of the Radio—Television Belgrade staff,
as the Second Television Program was introduced in this
period.

As for the local broadcasting institutions the total
number of permanent staff increased by 107 workers in 1970,
and the next year this figure was even higher amounting to
an increase of 147 workers which may be attributed to the

founding of new broadcasting stations throughout the country.

47

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50

Several observations and comparisons can be made
between Tables 2(a) and 2(b). In 1970 staff members within
the category of engineers in both radio and television
totaled 2,195. Following that was the number Of adminis—
trators employed at 1,994. Finally, the journalists
numbered third with 1,872. In 1971, engineers still ranked
on top but there was a significant increase among journal-
ists in relation to administators by a lead of 148 staff
members. This rise in the number of journalists should
prove that the trend points to expanding information and
news services. What confirms this trend is the indication
of a decrease among TV artists from 417 in 1970, down to
389 in 1971. Music professionals face the same decline
in both radio and television; from a total of 753 in 1970
to 707 in 1971. There is an effort to encourage more
writers, producers and engineers into the practical rather
than culturally talented professionals. Many viewers
regard Belgrade as a pace setter in television with creative
programming and quality productions, because it has the
greatest number of staff, facilities and access to political
events. If so, perhaps it is setting the pace for staff
professions; there was a significant decline in administra-
tive personnel, from 583 down to 475. Whether these people
have been shifted towards production or whether they have
been dropped from the staff remains uncertain. All other

stations have picked up administrative help.

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53

In Tables 2(c) and (d), the staff of the main
broadcasting institutions by professional qualification,
mark a steady tendency towards the increase in the number
of university trained personnel and highly skilled workers,
while the number of staff with insufficient qualifications
has comparatively diminished. However, the total number
of personnel has decreased from 1970 to 1971, except for
Belgrade. This is indicative of a tight economy, higher
selectivity, and the re-organization of staff departments,
resulting in vacant positions. While there is an increase
of highly qualified workers, there is also an increase of
non-qualified workers. It is possible that the latter
category is composed of interns and volunteers learning the
profession with little to no pay. Studios all over the
country are interested in including students and committees

in order to maximize the input of creative talents.

CHAPTER VI

PROJECTIONS AND TIMETABLES OF TELEVISION PROGRAMMING

In creating its own program, Yugoslav TV has passed
through several stages. The first of these began immediately
after the establishment of regular broadcasts at the end
of 1958 and lasted until 1961. During this period there were
few domestic programs and foreign programs made up the bulk
of broadcasts. This was the pioneering era of Yugoslav
television, when its young and still inexperienced staff
acquired the basic knowledge of working techniques in a
completely new field.

The second phase, from 1961 to the end of 1964, was
marked by the rapid deve10pment of purely Yugoslav programs.
Although still lacking complete technical facilities and
other means, TV stations in Yugoslavia considerably increased
the number of hours of their own broadcasts in this period,
thereby reducing programs from abroad to more normal pro-
portions. During this period the TV audience was still
limited, and it regarded TV as a fascinating novelty but
also as a medium which had a long way to go.

The year 1965 may be regarded as the beginning of
the third phase when TV had entered into cultural programming.

It succeeded in this, thanks to its various achievements,

54

55

especially its coverage of important social and political
events within the country. The demand for broadcasts

grew so much that the joint program became too limited to
include all the productions for individual television
stations. In this year for the first time the leading
stations began their own broadcasts intended for viewers

in the individual republics. This was also a year of great
changes in the country's economic, social and cultural life,
and the new principles of greater independence for economic
organizations likewise affected television's activities.

In accordance with these measures, television acquired the
right to fix its own subscription rates, but it also assumed
the responsibility of adapting itself to the new system of
economics which was in force for the entire country. All
the television stations had to carefully scrutinize their
finances and find ways of economizing their internal
reserves more rationally. They also took a number of other
measures necessitated by the new conditions of economic
independence, which meant the stations accepted full res-
ponsibility for financing their programs.

Development of television stations during the past
few years was marked by their stabilization within the
process of the economic and social reform. Today they do
business on a more normal and sounder basis than in the
past. As all income derived from TV subscriptions now

belongs to them, the TV stations are better equipped to

take care of their increased programming and other needs,

56

while at the same time they can set aside funds for extend-
ing the TV network, for building new studios and modern-
izing the existing facilities. The bilateral link between
Ljubljana, Zagreb and Belgrade established in 1968, together
with the existing tWo links, enabled a rapid and more
efficient exchange of programs between TV stations. Due,
however, to the further deve10pment of regional programs,
the steadily growing exchange of broadcasts and material
between the stations and particularly the increased number
of unilateral transmissions both for domestic needs and
requests of foreign TV organizations, the main line
capacities soon became inadequate for meeting ever-growing
demands in this field.

Meanwhile, the work on making the plan for the
construction of new TV links has been finished, both for
completion and modernization of the existing links for the
requirements of the first TV program and for the construc-
tion of the grid for the second program. Capacities of
new links are planned so that by 1976, each TV station will
be able to broadcast more transmissions in the time agreed
upon, including two programs from other stations as well as
local broadcasts of their own. In the further deve10pment
until 1985, it is foreseen that between each two studios,
three simultaneous television broadcasts will be possible
in both directions, not counting exchange of news, inter-
national and transit links. Another important step in

strengthening television has been made in the field of

57

construction and equipment of its studios. Television
Belgrade, which built a large new studio in the city center
several years ago, has the most up-to-date equipment, which
greatly facilitates the station's work. Television
I Sarajevo works in the adapted new studio which now broad-
casts its program directly, but it has also begun work on
the stage construction of its new broadcasting house on a
well-chosen site in the suburbs of Sarajevo. After certain
dilemmas about the construction of a broadcasting house,
TV Ljubljana has decided to construct, for its needs, a
television center similar to a studio in Zurich. During a
personal visit to the new center one of the research
analysts, Lado Pohar,55 indicated that the construction
process has been quite rapid; the problems arising are in
the provision of enough technical facilities to meet the
production demands. Television Zagreb has provided new
premises for its editorial boards and administration and
thus reduced to a certain extent the space problem. In
any case, the final solution will probably be the construc-
tion of a new broadcasting house, for which designs are
now being elaborated and the building site cleared. In
1969, however, a modernly equipped center for technical
coordination and distribution program was put into
Operation.

Television Skopje is going to solve the question of
its future regular TV center similar to TV Ljubljana's

procedure, based on a studio design also from Zurich.

58

Titograd on the other hand, has no prospects at the
present of obtaining better premises or constructing them,
and currently works in the cramped headquarters of their
radio house.

During the last few years, exchange of news through
TV links (JRT) was greatly improved. This inter-studio
exchange started officially on July 1, 1967, soon to become
a very important feature in cooperation between TV studios,
in which Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana, Skopje and Sarajevo
participate. This exchange has become, together with other
sources of information at home and abroad, the basis for
the introduction of individual TV news bulletins and other
information broadcasts in individual broadcasting institu-
tions. This news is provided every day between 4 p.m. and
4:30 p.m. and at 6:30 p.m. Another notable addition, which
came to the foreground in the last two years, was participa-
tion in the regular exchange of Eurovision News (EVN).
Although JRT had taken part in this exchange earlier, this
participation has become regular practice since September 1,
1967. Yugoslav Radio-Television participates in all aspects
of this exchange, and particularly in the first news edition
between 5:00 p.m. and 5:30 p.m. (EVN 1). This exchange
enables JRT to present film reports on the most important
events of the day, without a delay of one or two days as
was the earlier case, when stations had to depend on news
sent by air from the large world agencies. A similar

exchange with Intervision, another European exchange agency

59

which is not used too regularly, is taking place; thereby
making complete use of all available means of TV newscasts
for the whole pOpulation.

The producers of TV programs in Yugoslavia include
six broadcasting institutions in Belgrade, Zagreb, Ljubljana,
Skopje, Sarajevo, Titograd, and lately, television stations
under construction at Novi Sad and Pristina. For the most
part, the same program which was made available to all tele-
vision subscribers in the country, in which all television
stations participate, was the result of the c00peration
among all the centers which were able to transmit full time.
In the first years of its existence the specific length of
programs used to be determined by the amount of production of
individual television centers; whether or not they had a
volume big enough to provide a complete program for their
respective areas. During the past few years, Television
Skopje and then Television Sarajevo have passed through
their stage of expansion, quickly approaching the scope of
production of Zagreb, Belgrade and Ljubljana. This steadily
growing development of the programs of individual television
stations enabled each of them to become independent in
creating its program policy and brought new elements into
their inter—studio exchange of programs.

Today the volume of the production of all television
centers has surpassed the broadcasting capacities of the
existing network. That is why the introduction of a second

television network proved to be a feasible solution to the

60

problem. The c00peration of television centers in the
future, besides being necessary, will deve10p not through

a joint television program, but through a voluntary system,
exchanging available television programs within the country.
Although such methods will largely depend on the capacities
in the centers themselves, it is now certain that this is
the direction in which Yugoslav television will develop.
Already under the existing conditions there is a gradual
transition to the system of exchanging taped programs among
television centers which can broadcast them within the most
suitable times. The forms of cooperation between TV
stations gradually changed and adapted to new conditions.
In addition, efforts have been made to coproduce with shared
finances among the individual stations. It is becoming the
custom for famous authors, directors and other TV artists
from one studio to make guest appearances in another. All
important national holidays are celebrated with special
programs prepared by all television centers which sometimes
work together from the program's very conception to its
realization. The Television Festival at Bled in northern
Slovenia, is an expressive manifestation in which all
stations take part in the joint program, both organization-
ally and financially. Important political events are
covered by mutual technical assistance, whenever required.
There are other methods and plans for such cooperation, at
a domestic and international level, in which joint funds

would be used to give viewers varied and high-quality programs.

.5:
To

 

61

Television Belgrade

The basic program of TV Belgrade reflects the current
social movements of the day. The information program deals
specifically with daily events both locally and abroad.

This is due to the heavy use of correspondents' reports
together with special reports from outside the country,
being supplied by the domestic wire service Tanjug. Besides
the regular daily broadcasts, the political information
program concentrates on the most controversial or high-
lighted problems within the society. The goal of these
productions is to emphasize urgent problems of a certain
social moment, to initiate public discussion, to produce
confrontations of opinions and attitudes, and to give neces-
sary breadth to reactions to contemporary events. The
program for culture and entertainment includes performances
of classical or already affirmed works, performances by
talented young people, modern subjects and forms, a whole
spectrum of dramatic works ranging from tragedy to melo-
drama, original TV drama, transmission of theatrical per—
formances, etc. The selection of film programs are more
selectiVe and reflect tastes from larger audiences rather
than only a few individuals. These include serials, often
American, such as "Disneyland," "Gunsmoke," and "Star Trek."
The humorous program in the last year was opened to new
authors and performers who had the opportunity to meet and

face the extensive audiences, reacting to direct feedback

62

rather than television viewers. The musical program is
varied and successful, although many times it results in
using unknown pop singers or groups without a big name.
Programs for children are clearly committed to meet the
basic and current requirements of the viewers. In the cam-
paign against illiteracy this station proved to be highly
successful, in fact almost irreplaceable, and the public
has expressed itself highly on its program "TV Primer."
During the last year large amounts of time and
effort were poured into Program II, which is similar to
America's PBS or Public Broadcasting Station. About 50 per
cent of the program is planned to be in color out of which
25 per cent will belong to its own local production and
75 per cent to films already produced. The total duration
of the program will amount in the first stage to approxi-
mately 34,000 minutes per year or an average of 11 hours

per week.

Television Zagreb

 

TV Zagreb encompasses a wide variety of programs.
The information section includes a field of data on social,
political and cultural subjects in the socialist Republic~
of Croatia, and throughout the whole country. After taking
over the technical coordination of Eurovision news for
the requirements of all stations in the country (September 1,
1967), and after the introduction of its TV Journal

(October 1, 1968), this station also became an important

pi

63

part of more frequent unilateral transmissions of special
reports from abroad. During the past few years this
station greatly developed the network of its own corres-
pondents abroad (New York, Bonn, Rome, Prague, Moscow)

who regularly send reports on events from those regions.
These arrangements were successful, although made in a very
short time, and the news programs have become more inter-
esting and comprehensive than in previous years. Mrs. Neda
Ostoic’, 56 director of the department of research for TV
Zagreb, made it clear during an interview, that news and
information programs are aiming for diversity, especially
in local reports. Opinions from the public show that topics
dealing only on one subject, for example politics, lose
their interest quickly, leaving void subjects of equal
importance. The program has continued its activities in
other forms of TV journalism, among which a special place
is occupied by feature reporting and panel discussion on

a variety of tOpics pertaining to the country's social,
economic, cultural and sports life.

For many years now Television Zagreb has played a
leading role in drama programs. A number of new dramatic
works and adaptations have highlighted the reputation of
already well known television authors. More effort is going
into including the scripts of television playwrights. Some
people also consider that the time is now ripe for "author
television" in which the author and director would have a

bigger say in production. The fact remains that writers

5P
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In

64

of the older generation should be encouraged as well as
younger ones, so that the drama repertoire will be more
varied.

Popular music and review programs are also given
special consideration in selecting the cultural program
format. The well known series, "TV Magazine," has main-
tained its professional standard, without any significant
variation in quality, and its director, Anton Marti, con-
stantly keeps searching for new forms of television expres-
sion. Various other serial and individual broadcasts, as
well as transmissions of famous festivals of serious and
light music, especially in summer, add to the wide variety
of programs of this kind, some of which have become important
cultural events not only in Yugoslavia, but also abroad
(Dubrovnik Summer Festival, Melodies of the Adriatic, etc.).

For some years now, Television Zagreb has been
successfully producing educational programs. They are
broadcasts on week-days from 9:35 a.m. to mid-day and are
intended for children under school age, school children and
some adults. This was done systematically in conformity
with school programs. Information on TV school lessons
were printed and sent to schools in advance. The Educational
Boards of the Socialist Republic of Croatia participate ten
per cent in the financing of these programs. Under present
conditions, with poor technical school equipment, television
is playing a role of growing importance in modernization

and this is highly appreciated in the schooling system.

in

EX

CC

65

There is hOpe that contributions from the communities will
increase in order to provide for better financial resources.
Television Zagreb does not intend to substantially
expand its programs in the near future. Instead it will
concentrate on improving the quality of existing programs.
Measures in this direction comprise above all structural
changes in the production and broadcasting of programs in
order to up-date working methods and techniques (more live
telecasts) and to introduce new forms of experimental ven-
tures by writers. Another topic under discussion is whether
to present an event, such as sports, in its entirety.
Edited portions may enhance the viewer's attention, mean-
while allowing more time to include other programs.
Foreign films, many times being cheaper than domestic pro-
ductions, have for.the most part remained unedited. The
criteria used in selecting foreign movies has been
unsystematic and without challenge. As a result, the quality
has been poor, leaving the audience without selection.
Program directors hope that a better approach other than a

monetary one can be implemented very shortly.
Television Ljubljana

The Slovenian Television program has recorded
numerous achievements and innovations which will certainly
serve as a sound basis for its further development. The
news broadcasts have been transmitted since April 15, 1968.

Considering the facilities of the Slovenian Television,

9
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of

EC:

rt

In

66

the beginning was hard because of the language requirements
of the Slovenian audience, and the vast needs of the socio-
political, cultural and national society. As social and
economic progress is made within the Republic, the develop-
ment is reflected in daily reports. A series of other
features include public and democratic discussions and
panels, incorporating views from producers, socio-political
workers, and phiIOSOphers. Educational broadcasts are
purely creative and original according to the individual
producer of each program. It was made clear by Lado Pohar57
that the function of self-management be made apparent through
these productions. As a result, educational programs have
served as a mouthpiece to institute political philos0phies
within the classroom.

Television Ljubljana does not intend to increase
substantially the scope of its program in the near future.
The basic task of the program policy will be to further
improve the quality of its broadcasts, and at the same time
better the working conditions of production from Sarajevo,
and the broadcasting of two programs; one created for the
region of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the other for the
rest of the country. A no less important event in the
development of this station was when it announced program
production in all the areas which comprised the rest of
Yugoslav television. In order to express more completely
the socio-political and cultural integrity of this Republic,

total production was doubled in 1971 in relation to 1969,

67

and has kept a similar status through 1973.

The increase of production first appeared in the
informative portion of the program schedule. During the
last year, the second information broadcast "Evening Screen"
(second issue) was introduced, as well as a series of
interesting documentary programs, in-depth reports, and a
series regarding contemporary cultural trends in the country
and abroad. The independent "TV Journal" (daily news),
was started at 8 p.m. The expansion was not limited only
to the informative program; others included: children and
youth broadcasts, children's quiz shows, "5 plus"; a humorous
serial, "Karadoz," TV dramas, and several notable series
from the field of education.

These goals were attained through concentrated
efforts to supply the necessary staff. Television Sarajevo
has employed a considerable number of young peOple, most of
them with university training, and they also grant scholar-
ships for studying at the Academies in Belgrade, Zagreb
and Ljubljana, thus training future directors, cameramen,
producers, etc., or offering facilities for post-graduate
students. In addition, a certain number of advisory boards
are set up, encouraging a considerable number of writers and
producers not permanently employed by the television com-
panies to take part. This allows the professional and
creative participation of society to develop television

programs.

In 1971, the purchase of technical equipment and

68

instruments of various types was continued in accordance
with the new and ambitious plans of the station. The first
priority however, is the construction of a new Radio-
Television station in which large studios must be built to

accommodate the new equipment.

Television SkOpje

 

During earlier years it was characteristic of
Television Skopje to tackle every kind of television program,
even those in which it had no experience. It was also
successful in speedily introducing the original Macedonian
language in the program, a need dictated by existing language
differences. And so Television Skopje continued developing
its program as an integral part of Macedonian social and
cultural life. The goals have shifted in the last couple
of years; instead of quantity they are aiming for quality
with a limited amount of productions.

The information program of Television Skopje has
covered all current social events both domestically and
internationally. In addition to the broadcasts in Macedonian,
an effort is being made to develop broadcasts in Albanian
and Turkish. Their first task, however, remains in pro-
ducing general information broadcasts "TV Vesnik," or TV
Herald at 8:00 p.m., which is now on the schedule every
week day. The other new program is "Macedonia Today,"

which is broadcast every day.

The recent sc0pe of the art and entertainment

69

program, distinguished itself by encompassing numerous
dimensions in its approach. Television dramas, children's
broadcasts, musical programs are translated into a variety
of languages and meanings. In the field of educational
programs, SkOpje has directed its endeavors toward those
problems which could be of interest to a broad range of
viewers. Although lacking any outside financial help, it
has started developing certain aspects thus trying to help
resolve the most urgent requirements of the Macedonian
people. A series of broadcasts have been compiled, extract-
ing unknown or misrepresented facts from the historical and
cultural past, while a certain number of other programs are
devoted to health education. A very notable series is
”Family in Macedonia," which from the sociological point of
View shows the transformation of the family from its
patriarchal form into a modern form. Another successful
series should also be noted: "Testimonies and Documents,"
dealing with various subjects and events from the Macedonian
national and cultural history. Although none of these programs
is intended for any special age group, there are broadcasts
which encompass the interests of the young generations such
as foreign language lessons (English and French). Well
known scientists, university professors, or contributors
from various institutes with whom Television Skopje had
contracts for definite terms, take part in compiling the

educational programs.

70

Television Titograd

 

In the past Television Titograd took part in programs
which filmed contributionsfrom the studios in Belgrade.
On October 27, 1971, this station organized, for the first
time, direct transmission from the stadium in Titograd,
the International Football match with Yugoslavia vs.
Luxemburg. Soon after, on November 20, 1971, it transmitted
the first information broadcast "News of the Day," and thus
a new stage in the history of this station began. The
program in 1971, amounted to 3,905 minutes, which is 50 per
cent more than in the previous year. The format emphasized
the areas of news and special reports from its own local
region. One of the most important broadcasts is a chronicle
"Through Montenegro," totaling events in the Republic's
socio-political life, economy, culture, education, tourism,
etc. The cultural review "Encounters," totaling 30 broad—
casts, was conceived as a representative broadcast dealing
with science, art and education. Various themes are con-
sidered, relating to Montenegro theater, literary meetings,
discussions with well known scientists, biologists, painters,
architects, musical pedagogists and other scientific and
public professionals. In the category of musical programs,
ambitions are very modest as there are no affirmed singers
in this Republic, who could compete with well known names
from other capitals, both in folk and serious music.

Because of these reasons, a special type of music is

CU

mi

I v—J

71

cultivated in this region, such as folk melodies and music
miniatures.

This station is only just beginning to develop.
However, its presence in administrative organs and in the
planning committees of the overall Yugoslav network is felt
and respected as that of an equal member of the JRT com-
munity. In its further development Television Titograd
will elaborate a program to supplement the production of
other television centers, giving special attention to the
specific needs of Montenegro, particularly in education and

culture.

Television Under Construction

 

According to plan, the recent construction of the
television network in Yugoslavia will be completed when the
capital towns of the autonomous regions of Vojvodina and
Kosovo have their own television studios. The natural
process of such development requires the setting up of
producing centers in larger towns, which will serve as the
basis for producing a richer and more diversified program;
thus enabling the expression of the cultural and historical
tradition of the respective regions. The two previously
mentioned studios of Novi Sad and Pristina are near

completion.

Television Novi Sad

 

The first independent broadcasts are expected in

72

1974, but the construction of television studios as well

as the complete purchase of the equipment required for
independent work should be completed by 1977. At first

the program sc0pe will amount to 8.5 hours or 510 minutes
weekly, and will be broadcast in five languages (Serbo-
Croatian, Hungarian, Romanian, Slovakian, and Ruthenian).

In the beginning, all programs will be broadcast through

the second channel of Television Belgrade. The program will
cover information, culture, art, education and commercials.
Unlike stations in other parts of the country, Novi Sad

will face keen competition, as most viewers in this region
will be able to watch four programs, from Yugoslavia and
neighboring countries. This will require constant upgrading
of productions in order to keep a high viewing percentage.
However, in planning future work there has been a cooperative
effort on the part of each region, because of the interest
in the development of Vojvodina television. This coopera-
tive spirit is consistent with all memberscf JRT; it is

the continuation of the policies within the socialist theory.

Television Pristina

 

The first independent broadcast of the television
studio in Pristina was this year 1973, for a duration of
six hours weekly. The program includes information broad-
casts 15.3 per cent of the time, various TV reviews at
31.9 per cent, education 30.7 per cent, and drama, music,

culture, arts and all other categories 22.1 per cent. Such

73

a program format is only temporary, and stems from the
special conditions and needs of this part of the pOpulation.
The number of TV viewers is very small, and therefore the
general direction is to attract as large an audience as
possible. The station broadcasts in Albanian, Serbo-
Croatian and Turkish. The construction of a new center
began at the end of 1972, with a goal of making its first

broadcast in 1974.

 

a]
It
ir

YE

tk
WE
ne

b1

CHAPTER VII

CONTENT ANALYSIS OF TELEVISION PROGRAMS

Programs are produced in three languages: Serbo-
Croat, Slovene and Macedonian. In 1968, Television Belgrade
began special broadcasts in Hungarian and Albanian for the
national minorities in its Republic. Television Skopje
also broadcasts its information programs in Albanian and
Turkish. The use of Serbo-Croat is no longer so predominant
in the joint Yugoslav program as it used to be in previous
years.

All foreign TV films are translated into the above
three languages, as well as drama and similar programs in
which the text is of primary importance. Commentaries on
nearly all sports events in the country and abroad are also
broadcast in all three languages, and similar measures are
planned if necessary when technical conditions allow. The
former impatience of viewers in the literary and cultural
circles who wanted the translation process to be expedited
has now subsided. The fact remains that television has
done more than any other institution to acquaint viewers
with all languages spoken in Yugoslavia.

The schedule does not essentially change in the

summer, but adapts to the summer activities of viewers.

74

ff

1.13

In

75

As a rule, there are no repeats during this season. More
entertainment programs are shown, as well as more films,
festivals, foreign shows, and summer events in general.

The regular schedule only dr0ps the educational programs,
some reports, discussion platforms, and programs for
children. Of the special programs broadcast over the summer
period the most pOpular are televised in KOper ("Yugoslavia
Sings and Dances"), in Ljubljana (Kmeéka ohcet), festivals
(Split 71, Omis 71, Skopje 71, Summer song, Slovenian

songs, Dubrovnik Summer Festival), etc.

General questions of programming cooperation among
stations are handled by the JRT Program Board for Television,
which comprises representatives of all television stations.
This board meets regularly eight or ten times a year or as
the need arises, and in its work follows procedures laid
down by the highest organ-~the Managing Board of the Yugoslav
Radiotelevision.

The Television Program Committee of JRT, which is
selected by the T.V. Board, considers the basic lines of
the programming policy as a whole, compiles the joint pro-
gram, approves joint projects and undertakings of all
stations and ensures their realization. They also provide
conditions of cooperation within the television program
with socio-political, cultural, sports and other organiza-
tions in the country, as well as with television organiza-
tions abroad. They decide on matters or principle

concerning the participation of television centers at

76

international TV festivals, determine draft schedules for
income and expenditures of the JRT Community in view of
the TV program, and they review all other questions of
importance for the development of the television program.

The role of this JRT organ has become even more
substantial than in previous years, especially on the socio-
political plan and in the further development of the pro-
gramming functions of the television centers. Consequently
all the programming and other activities that go beyond
the limits of regular cooperation, and particularly those
in which the name and funds of Yugoslav Radiotelevision are
involved, must be considered by the JRT Managing Board.58

In its activity, the Yugoslav TV Program Committee
largely relies on the editors-in-chief of the television
centers, who have to meet every month to settle current
problems of common interest, choose the programs for the
coming month, decide on the new programs which are trans-
ferred from center to center, work out the program format,
and attend to coordination and discipline of specific
productions.

In addition, there are also working groups of the
departments which meet periodically to study questions
which concern the work of various departments (political,
film, drama, children's, sports, educational, musical,
etc.). Finally, the TV program committee secretary is
available to the committee together with service for news

exchange by means of TV links, and a department for

77

supplying all types of foreign films to television centers.

The television centers have set up special services
for program exchanges with other countries. The scope of
their work should particularly include program exchanges
with foreign television organizations, co-production of
programs, appearances at international television festivals,
and general cooperation with foreign countries. Judging
by the place given to these services in the organizational
pattern of the television centers, it is clear that this
activity has lately been given priority and that in sub-
sequent years it will play a major role. Interstudio
coordination of the work of these services is carried out
through the Yugoslav Radiotelevision Secretariat in Belgrade.

Introduction of the second program and the program
in color is being carried out, but all TV stations will not
start broadcasting these programs at the same time. After
a short experimental period Television Belgrade started
officially with its second television program partially in
color on December 31, 1971. In the spring of 1971 Televi-
sion Ljubljana started broadcasts in color, which simul-
taneously, by the construction of a new transmitter, has
enabled viewers to choose between the Slovene program and
the broadcasts from the Zagreb and Belgrade Television.

The main objective of the second program is similar
to the goals of our PBS, that is, a contrast to the commer-
cial network. More educational programs should dominate

the daytime hours, then entertainment and certain selected

at:
‘h

r .
“Us

78

productions from abroad (taped and filmed). It is agreed
that program II will require more cooperation between the
stations because of the natural tendency to duplicate
efforts and content. There are expectations that the
second program will resolve the problem of successful
broadcasts not being aired due to insufficient time and
space. So far, this alternative choice has proven to be
successful. Audiences are taking advantage of both UHF
and VHF channels, although the quality of productions on
the second program seems to be the focus of criticisms.
Producers are still considering the effort as experimental
so changes are constantly occurring.

The production of television films is underdeveloped.
Although the first series of domestic films have appeared
and have won popularity among the public, this kind of
feature is still lagging behind other forms of TV activity
and world TV organizations. This is one of the reasons
why a large number of these series are imported from
abroad. Because of their fixed duration, TV serials are
widely used, since they permit easier program scheduling
and planning. The establishment of a better technical base
for sound in the production of these films remains one of
the biggest tasks in the immediate future, but this is
dependent upon the stability of financial resources.
Attempts to arrange the production of such features with
Yugoslav film companies have not produced many worthwhile

results. Lately however, there has been a slight increase

79

in the number of locally produced films, possibly because
of the appearance of the second TV program.

Yugoslav television cooperates with a number of
foreign television organizations by exchanging their pro-
grams with foreign broadcasts. Yugoslav Radiotelevision
is a permanent member of the European Broadcasting Union
(EBU), and of Eurovision. In addition to this, Yugoslav
Radiotelevision participates as an observer in the work
of the Council of Intervision, the other European organiza-
tion that combines the television networks of the socialist
countries. COOperation with the members of Intervision has
been fruitful, and further growth depends primarily on the
establishment of good quality TV links with Hungary, and
parts of Czechoslovakia, which would permit direct relays
of programs.

The schedule of the Yugoslav joint television pro-
gram has not changed significantly within the last three
years. It has proved itself satisfactory and sufficiently
flexible to seasonal demands as well as to changes in the
character and duration of new programs; it has shown itself
capable of handling special events and broadcasts which
interrupted the regular program schedule. The following
logs give an example of the content of joint program
scheduling from year to year; this schedule was released

from the Yugoslav Radio and Television staff.59

80

 

Program Schedule ig_December 1971

Monday

04:45 p.m. Cultural Panorama in
Hungarian

05:00 p.m. Elementary Education

05:30 p.m. Announcement, TV News

05:40 p.m. Puppet Show

06:00 p.m. TV Kindergarten

06:15 p.m. Information Broadcast

06:30 p.m. Science

07:00 p.m. Commercials

07:05 p.m. Young People Performing
for the Young Ones

07:50 p.m. Commercials

08:00 p.m. TV Journal

08:25 p.m. Commercials

08:35 p.m. TV Drama

09:35 p.m. Commercials
Confidentially on Mondays
Objective 350
Film, Theater and ...

10:25 p.m. TV Journal II (daily news)

Tuesday

09:35 a.m. TV in School

10:45 a.m. Russian Language Lesson

11:00 a.m. Fundamentals of General
Education

02:45 p.m. TV in School (repeat)

03:50 p.m. Russian Language Lesson
(repeat)

04:10 p.m. English Language Lesson

04:45 p.m. TV Chronicle in
Hungarian

05:00 p.m. TV Review in Albanian

05:30 p.m. Announcement, TV News

05:40 p.m. Small World
Binocular

06:15 p.m. Information Broadcast

06:30 p.m. Cultural Inheritance

 

Contemporaries

Reportage

From Dawn to Dusk (broad-
cast for Yugoslav Army)

Cities and Number
of Broadcasts

 

Zg

B9

52 broadcasts
26

16’ Lj 13'

10, Sk 13

52

11, 29 15, B9 26

13, Zg 13, Lj 7,
l3, Sk 6

22, Zg 23
6, Tg 1

13

13
13

34
34

32

32

52
52

26
26

18, Tg 13

13

81

Cities and Number
of Broadcasts

 

 

07:00 p.m. Folk Music Sk 7, Zg 13, Bg 13
07:20 p.m. TV Mail Tg 13, Sr 6
07:50 p.m. Commercials Zg 26, B9 26
08:00 p.m. TV Journal
08:25 p.m. Commercials
08:35 p.m. Feature Film B9 26, Z9 26
10:05 p.m. Information Broadcast Bg 12
10:25 p.m. Portraits of Musicians
TV Etude Zg 13
Wednesday
04:50 p.m. Broadcast for Farmers in
Albanian Bg 52
05:05 p.m. TV Chronicle in
Hungarian Bg 52
05:20 p.m. Announcement, TV News
05:30 p.m. Cartoons Z9 26, Bg 26
05:45 p.m. Popular Science Films Bg 26, Zg 26
06:15 p.m. Information Broadcast
06:30 p.m. Popular Music Sk 13, Sr 13
Zg 13, Bg 13
07:00 p.m. Commercials
07:05 p.m. Culture Nowadays_ Bg 13
Science 1971 Bg l3
Mosaic Sr 13
Encounters Tg 13
07:50 p.m. Commercials
08:00 p.m. TV Journal
08:25 p.m. Commercials
08:35 p.m. Popular Drama Bg 21, Zg 23,
Sr 4, T9 4
03:35 p.m. Short Cartoons Bg 26
Serious Music Concerts Bg 9
TV Play Bg 4
Film Program Bg 13
10:05 p.m. TV Journal II
Zagreb
09:35 p.m. Feature Broadcast Zg 39
In the First Plan Zg 13
10:05 p.m. Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow Zg 52
10:25 p.m. Medallions (humorous
broadcast) Zg 13
10:25 p.m. End of Program

Thursday

05:00
05:30
05:40
06:15
06:30
07:00
07:20
07:50
08:00
08:25
08:35

07:00

07:50
08:00
08:25
08:35

09:45
10:35
10:55

p.m.

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

Saturday

09:35
05:20
05:30
06:00
06:15
06:50

a.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

82

Elementary Education (repeat)

Announcement, TV News
Broadcast for Children
Information Broadcast
Folk Music

TV Encyclopedia

Humorous Broadcast
Commercials

TV Journal

Commercials

Talks on Topical Matters
Vista

Outstanding Personalities--
Portraits

TV Film Serial

TV Journal II

TV Chronicle in Hungarian
TV Review in Albanian
Announcement, TV News
Children's TV Play
Information Broadcast
Coctail

Jazz

Variety

Music Journal

Documentary and Feature
Broadcast

Commercials

TV Journal

Commercials

Singers League Competition
Quiz Program

Adriatic Competitions

TV Film Serial
Information Broadcast
Open University

TV in School
Announcement, TV News
Folk Music
Information Broadcast
Children's TV Play
Elementary Education

Cities and Number

of Broadcasts

 

39
ZS

BS
ZS

Z9

ZS
Sr
Z9
BS

Zg

Bg

BS

26
26, Lj 26
26, Z9 13, Sr 13

52
52

33
11

11
52

52
52

26, Bg 26

13
13

13

52

17, Bg l7
4, Bg 4

9

52

32

34
52

2o, 29 17, Sr 15
26

07:15 p.m.
08:00 p.m.
08:25 p.m.
08:35 p.m.

09:35 p.m.
11:05 p.m.

Sunday
08:10 a.m.

08:25 a.m.
08:55 a.m.

09:25
09:30

10:00 a.m.
10:45
10:50

11:30
12:00
12:30
01:30
01:30
06:00
06:05
06:20 p
07:50 p
08:00 p
08:30 p
08:35 p.
09:20 p
09:35 p
10:05 p

P

10:50

Several conclusions can be made from such a

schedule.

83

Commercials

TV Journal
Commercials
Entertainment Music
cast

TV Transmission

Broad-

Feature Film
TV Journal

Broadcast for Children
in Albanian
Skendija--Broadcast for
Farmers in Albanian
Furrow--Broadcast for
Farmers in Hungarian
Announcement, TV News
Folk Music (repeat)

Broadcast for Farmers
Commercials

Broadcast for Children
(repeat)

Children Film Serial
Elementary Education
Illiteracy Lessons
Humorous Broadcast (repeat)
Professional Education
Commercials
Documentary Film
Feature Film
Commercials

TV Journal

Commercials

Humorous Broadcast
Videofon

Popular Music

Sports Review
Information Broadcast (from
other studios)

TV Journal II

Cities and Number
of Broadcasts

 

Zg 17, Bg 12, Sr 1
Zg 10, Lj 2,

Sr 3, Bg 5

Zg 26, Bg 26
Zg 26, B9 26

Bg 52
Bg 52
Bg 52
Bg 13,

Zg 13,
Bg 26,

Zg 26,
Zg 52
Bg 26

Bg 52
Bg 16

Zg 23,
Zg 23,

Zg 43

Lj9
YRT

Bg 26

LJ'
Sk
29

BS
Bg

13
13
26

23,
23,

Sr 6
Sr 6

There is a high priority placed on educational

84

programs which include formal institutional learning as
well as informal teaching. An acute emphasis is placed upon
languages which points out the diversity among the cul-
tures, and the effort being made to coordinate the various
educational needs of the viewing audience. It is also
clear from the number of broadcasts that Belgrade and
Zagreb have taken the most initiative in providing a major
access within the television medium to educating both
children and adults. There is a strong desire to increase
the number of the programs in the southern part of the
country; areas such as Kosovo, Montenegro and Macedonia
are extremely poor in educational facilities and would
benefit from such an effort.

There is also a strong emphasis on cultural enter-
tainment. Naturally, Yugoslavia is proud of its traditional
talents in music and dancing, and they have taken advantage
of television in transmitting a high degree of performing
arts. This is a significant point because this awareness
is consistent with the political themes which are in
documents, Speeches and amendments, that is, a constant
reminder of the past, their heritage, their independence,
their customs. These elements are factors which help con-
tribute to the unity of a highly diversified country.
Therefore the folk dances and music create a pride in the
historical values of each republic.

Another major focus is the information broadcasts,

which includes documentaries, TV Journals or daily news,

85

and special reports. Of course one of the most important
goals of Yugoslav Radiotelevision is to inform and educate
the masses. Rather than entertain and amuse its audiences,
as with American television, there is a critical need to
utilize every type of medium in upgrading the standard of
living and thinking, especially in the underdeveloped regions
of the country. There are daily broadcasts on current
events, political policies, government reports, industrial
problems, news and local affairs.

In 1971 JRT received from abroad 337 programs
lasting 23,482 minutes in all (391 hours and 22 minutes)

as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Programs from Abroad, 1971.

 

 

 

 

Programs Minutes
Eurovision
Sports 121 13,673
Light music and enter-
tainment 21 1,774
News 39 3,051
Unilateral programs from
specific countries 106 1,334
Total 287 19,832
Intervision
Sports 23 2,497
Light Music and enter-
tainment 6 683
News 3 232
Unilateral 18 238
Total 50 3,650

 

 

 

86

Major transmissions received from abroad were:
Apollo l4 (l3 transmissions), European Figure Skating Cham-
pionship, Zurich (5 transmissions), Pre-Olympic Games,
Saporo, Japan (4 transmissions), World Figure Skating Cham-
pionship, Lyon (5 transmissions), European and World Hockey
Championship, Bern and Geneva (16 transmissions), Visit
of Josip Broz Tito to Italy (11 tramsmissions), Apollo 15
(13 transmissions), European Athletics Championship,
Helsinki (6 transmissions), Children of the World, Cele-
bration of 2,500 - Anniversary of Iran, Teheran, (4 trans-
missions), Visit of President Tito to the USA and Canada
(10 transmissions), etc.

In the year 1972 there were several minor changes
made in the program schedule. Times for specific shows
varied each year, and a few additional productions replaced
older serials from 1971. The American Embassy gave the

following schedules outlined for 1972.60

Program Schedule Julyy22-28, 1972

 

Saturday
lst program (VHF)

 

4:35 p.m. The news; 4:40 TV Comedy; 5:10 Athletics:
Yugoslavia - Belgium; 7:15 An Actor is an Actor
7:45 p.m. Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik - newscast
8:30 p.m. Show program;9:30 U.S. feature film with:
Dean Martin, John Wayne; 11:30 Late news.

2nd4program (UHF)

 

7:00 p.m. The Belgrade program; 8:30 Popular music
9:30 p.m. The 24 Hours; 9:40 French feature film
9:55 p.m. War songs (Yugoslav)

Sunday

lst program

 

8:00 a.m.

8:50
9:20
10:55
11:30
4:55
6:25
8:00
9:15

assesses

"U "U'U'U'UD’D’SDW

11:00

E

87

Albanian Farmer's program; 8:15 Albanian
children's program; 8:30 Hungarian Farmer's
program
Hungarian cultural panorama; 9:15 The news
Folklore; 10:12 Farmer's program

Sesame Street - U.S.

serial, rerun

Lidsville - Children's serial, rerun
Athletics:

Peyton Place - U.S.
TV Dnevnik - newscast;
Musical program; 9:30 Basketball:

Yugoslavia vs. Belgium

serial; 7:45 Cartoons

8:30 Yugoslav serial film
European

championship for juniors - finals

Sports review;

11:15 Late news; 11:30 Next

week's program

2nd program

 

8:30 p.m.

Monday

Japanese feature film;

lstgprogram

 

4:25
5:15

p.m.
p.m.

6:00 p.m.

6:30
7:45
8:30

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

Hungarian TV Chronicle;

The news; 5

show

From children's books;

TV Mailbag;
Cartoons; 8

Caravan;

2nd program

 

7:15

9:25

p.m.

p.m.

Tuesday

lst

Travelogue film;

newscast; 8

World Around Us;

9:00 TV Drama;

10:00 The 24 hours

4:40 Albanian TV Review
:20 Chess - commentary; 5:40 Puppet
6:15 The news
7:00 Young people's program
:00 TV Dnevnik - newscast
10:15 Late news

7:50 Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik -
:30 Young Ones in Action, serial;
9:40 U.S. feature film with:

Shelley Winters

program

 

5:15
5:40
6:30
7:45
8:30

10:05

'0 'U'O'U'U'U
8

Hungarian cultural panorama;
Children's program;
Scientific studio;

Cartoons; 8
From Yugoslav TV Studios; 9:15 McCloud -

U.S.

serial

Late news;

5:35 The news
6:15 The news

7:15 British serial film
:00 TV Dnevnik — newscast

10:25 Classical music

02
79

Thur

43301-
4568

02

79

.1

P

F‘- I.‘

I. I. .0 0| 0| 0|
5 7 8 0
4 th 1

00m

film

88

Wednesday

 

lst program

 

3:10 p.m. Hungarian TV Chronicle; 3:25 Albanian TV Review
4:00 p.m. The news; 4:05 Chess - commentary

4:25 p.m. Cartoons; 4:35 Lidsville - children's serial

5:00 p.m. Basketball: Balkan Championship Yugoslavia
Rumania; 6:30 Reportage; 7:00 Cartoons

7:15 p.m. Entertainment program; 7:45 Cartoons

8:00 p.m. TV Dnevnik - newscast; 8:30 Kozara - Yugoslav

feature film; 10:30 Late news

2nd program

 

7:00 p.m. The Belgrade program; 8:30 TV Drama
9:28 p.m. The 24 Hours; 9:38 Musical program

Thursday

lstgprogram

 

4:45 p.m. Hungarian TV Chronicle; 5:00 Albanian TV Review
5:35 p.m. The news; 5:40 Children's program; 6:15 The news
6:30 p.m. Folk music; 7:00 Music; 7:45 Cartoons

8:00 p.m. TV Dnevnik - newscast; 8:30 NANA - French serial
9:17 p.m. Jazz; 11:47 Late news

2nd_program

 

7:00 p.m. The Belgrade program; 8:30 Krug - Information
9:25 p.m. The 24 Hours; 9:35 Upstairs-Downstairs -
British Serial

Friday

lst program

 

4:25 p.m. Hungarian TV Chronicle; 4:40 Albanian TV Review

5:15 p.m. The news; 5:20 Chess - commentary

5:40 p.m. Concert; 6:15 The news; 6:30 Popular Science

7:00 p m. Folk music; 7:30 Cartoon; 8:00 TV Dnevnik--newscast

8:30 p.m. Meetings; 9:40 On the Buses - serial

10:10 p m. Basketball: Balkan championship Yugoslavia -
Greek; 11:30 Late news

There is no significant difference in the program
Content. The second program has appeared offering serials,

films and local series. Naturally 1972 was considered a

89

transitional period for viewers to adjust to two programs
rather than one. By looking at the format there does not
seem to be a contrast to the existing channel but gradually
programs are added on, allowing a wider selection, especially
during the following year. In public opinion polls, viewers
reacted enthusiastically to Program II, but the major cri-
ticism was in the quality of productions. When asked whether
they preferred quantity or quality, the majority of those
question requested better quality programming.

One other notice should be made in the content of
programs during that year. The American serial "Peyton
Place" was added and received with overwhelming ratings.

The serial became so pOpular that it was said that families
without TV sets would huddle around those that did; some-
times 10 or 12 viewers gathered at one time to see the
episodes. It became the "hot topic" in social circles, fan
mail flooded the studios in every region, and critiques
were written in newspapers. Polls showed it to be the

most popular program at the time. The series continued
until February 25, 1973 when the last episode came to an
end, not because of a concluding chapter, but because of

a decision made by executive committees either in the
government circles or television stations. The decision
came as a result of the rising popularity to an American
film which later became labeled, by politicians and the
"intelligentsia," as a "petit bourgeoise" program consist-

ing of mediocre characters, plots and themes. The real

9O

crux of discontent was pointed towards the political impli-
cations within the story. Specifically, the central char-
acters were members of the working or middle class, those
with enough money to live comfortably but not extravagantly.
It was these characters who were weaving in and out of jail
sentences, murders, adultery and crimes which are common-
place among the middle class. Through this theme, a political
connotation was derived; American producers and writers were
downgrading the "workers," depicting them as members of
society who are unhappy and displeased with the system

It is doubtful that the majority of viewers looked at the
program with this point in mind, however the decision

makers found enough threat in the piece to take it off the
air without discussion or explanation. Letters of disap-

61 television directors shook their

pointment were sent,
heads in disagreement, and the public remained ignorant of
the reason for the change. The question now arises, does

the public have an input into programming decisions?

This point will be discussed in a later chapter, however

this provides a concrete example of the lack of coordination
with the public, television professionals and members of

the Communist Party, in deciding on definite policies towards
programming.

The following year shows similar patterns in the

amounts of serials, films, etc.62

91

Program Schedule June 23—29, 1973

 

Saturday

lstgprogram

 

2:45 p.m. The news; 2:50 World Kayak Championship

3:50 p.m. Wrestling; 5:00 Handball: Yugoslavia vs. Rumania
6:00 p.m. Belgrade Chronicle; 6:15 Children's program

7:15 p.m. Steptoe and Son - British serial; 7:45 Cartoons
8:00 p.m. TV Dnevnik; 8:30 Children's Festival - Sibnik
9:20 p.m. An American in Paris - U.S. feature film with

Gene Kelly, Leslie Caron

10:50 p.m. Late news

7:
9:
10:

2nd4program

 

56 p.m. Today's program; 8:00 TV Dnevnik; 8:30 TV Drama
40 p.m. Interview with Jean Renoir
30 p.m. George Gershwin Music; 11:00 The 24 Hours

Sunday

8:
9:

ll:

lst program

 

20 a.m. Albanian program; 8:50 Hungarian program

35 a.m. The news; 9:40 Folk music; 10:12 Farmer's
program; 10:55 Children's program

25 a.m. Children's serial; 2:00 p.m. European Kayak
Championship; 3:40 Handball: Yugoslavia vs.
East Germany; 4:15 Continuation of Handball

 

 

4:40 p.m. European Kayak Championship; 5:40 Stens -
Documentary film; 6:00 film program
7:45 p.m. Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik; 8:35 Folklore
10:00 p.m. Old Melodies; 10:15 Sports Review
10:45 p.m. Late news; 11:05 Next week's program
2nd program
7:56 p.m. Today's program; 8:00 TV Dnevnik
8:30 p.m Stage Fright - directed by A. Hitchcock with
Marlene Dietrich; 10:00 The 24 Hours
Monday
lst program
4:45 p.m. Hungarian news; 5:05 Albanian news; 5:40 The news

5:45 p.m. Puppet Show; 6:00 Children's literature
6:15 p.m. TV news; 6:30 Spectators and the TV

7:00
8:30
10:20

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

92

Youth program; 7:45 Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik
The Cities; 9:00 TV Drama; 10:00 Late News
Culture and the society

2nd program

 

7:30
8:00
9:20

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

Tuesday

lst program

Sports; 7:50 Cartoons; 7:57 Today's Program
TV Dnevnik; 8:30 Disneyland - U.S. serial
Bounty Man - U.S. feature film with Clint
Walker and Richard Basehart

 

3:30
4:00
6:15
7:45
9:15

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

Wednesday

 

Hungarian news; 3:55 The news

Children's program; 4:30 Soccer - finals

TV news; 6:30 Science program; 7:15 Folk music
Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik; 8:30 Stop - Zagreb
Star Trek - U.S. serial; 10:05 News; 10:25 Ballet

lstgprogram

 

3:20
4:00
6:15
7:15
8:30
10:45

p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.
p.m.

Albanian news; 3:30 Hungarian news
Polish serial; 4:30 Soccer: Celik
Through Vojvodina; 7:00 Cartoons
Youth program; 7:45 Cartoons; 8:00
Soviet feature film; 10:00 Feature
Late news

vs. Tatabanja

TV Dnevnik
story

2nd prggram

 

 

7:56 p.m. Today's program; 8:00 TV Dnevnik

8:30 p.m. Musical entertainment; 9:30 Art in Yugoslavia
10:00 p.m. Ballet program; 10:30 The 24 Hours
Thursday

lstgprogram

3:45 p.m. Hungarian news; 4:05 Albanian news

4:40 p.m. The news; 4:45 Children's serial

5:15 p.m. Folk music; 5:45 Handball: Yugoslavia-

E. Germany

6:15 p.m. TV news; 6:30 Handball continued

7:00 p.m. Panorama; 7:45 Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik

8:30 p.m. The Karamazov Brothers - BBC serial
10:30 p.m. Viva la Musica; 11:00 Late news

93

2nd program

 

7:56 p.m. Today's program; 8:00 TV Dnevnik; 8:35 Krug
9:45 p.m. Cartoons - produced in Zagreb
9:45 p.m. Serial film; 10:45 The 24 Hours

Friday

lst program

 

4:45 p.m. Hungarian news; 5:05 Albanian news

5:40 p.m. The news; 5:45 Children to Children

6:15 p.m. TV news; 6:30 Art and the Nation - French serial
7:00 p.m. Folk music; 7:30 Cartoons; 8:00 TV Dnevnik

8:30 p.m. Dean Martin Show; 9:20 Gunsmoke - U.S. serial
10:10 p.m. Late news; 10:20 Book review

2nd program

 

8:00 p.m. TV Dnevnik; 8:30 On 625 Lines - Sweden
9:30 p.m. Informally - about students and schools
10:00 p.m. The 24 Hours

As indicated, "Peyton Place" on Sunday evening was
replaced by a film, from which country is not known.
Schedules show that during successive weeks American films
were played, and later, other foreign movies were

interjected.
Political Information Program

In the general structure of the programs one of the
important places belongs to the current affairs broadcasts
and news broadcasts, which made up 28.4% of the total
program in 1970, 32.3% in 1971 and has increased ever
since. The most important among these are:

TV News (TV Belgrade)

TV Chronicle (TV Zagreb)

94

TV Review (TV Ljubljana)

TV News and TV Chronicle (TV Skopje)

Evening Screen (TV Sarajevo)

TV News of the Day (TV Titograd)

These are the first news broadcasts about the
events of the day at home and abroad, with the addition
of local news. These newscasts are televised by each of
the above stations for its own area at 6:15 p.m. "Evening
Screen" started officially on March 17, 1969. Starting on
January 1, 1970, TV Skopje reshaped its first information
block in the evening. Brief news items were introduced in
the Macedonian language for a duration of five minutes and
TV Chronicle in Albanian for a duration of 15 minutes.
TV Titograd started its broadcast on November 20, 1971.

"TV Journal," the main evening newscast, gives full
coverage of the events of the day, with commentaries, inter-
views, statements, etc. In earlier years this broadcast
was prepared by TV Belgrade for the whole territory of
Yugoslavia, in cooperation with other stations. In 1968,
TV Zagreb and TV Ljubljana started broadcasting their own
TV Journals for their own areas. At first TV Skopje
broadcast its TV Journal twice a week (on Tuesdays and
Saturdays) and on other days it took over "TV News" from
TV Belgrade. On January 1, 1970, TV Skopje introduced TV
Herald as its own main evening newscast at 8:00 p.m. every
weekday except Sundays when it still takes over Belgrade's

news show.

118M

the

Sar
The
10:.
inf<
Belg

0f:

the:

PM

Part

eCor

95

The last evening broadcast repeats the most important
news of the day and reports news which has come in during
the evening.

TV Journal II (TV Belgrade)

Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow (TV Zagreb)

Latest Messages (TV Ljubljana)

TV News II (TV Skopje)

Evening Screen II (TV Sarajevo)

Sarajevo's newscast officially started on January 5, 1970.
The time for all broadcasting of the evening news is about
10:30 p.m. Outside of formal newscasts there are several
informal informational programs. "Time Machine" (TV
Belgrade) consists of old films which elaborate on points
of interest from various countries of the world, prepared
by special TV reporters or by private individuals during
their travels.

Then there are broadcasts devoted to the topical
problems of social, economic and cultural life with the
participation of well known figures in political and
economic life, workers, students, and other citizens.

Topical Talks (TV Belgrade)

Vista (TV Belgrade)

Portraits of Well Known Figures (TV Belgrade)

Dialogues (TV Zagreb)

"Sports Review" covers a synOpsis of sporting events of the
day, broadcast every Sunday from 9:35 to 10:05 p.m., in

which all the TV stations participate directly. "From

96

Dawn to Dusk" (TV Belgrade) is a series devoted to life in
the Army, and to questions submitted by the public. This

is shown once a month, on Tuesdays at 6:30 p.m. "Broad-
casts for Farmers" includefarming news, giving technical
advice and film stories from the International Farming
Magazine, which are exchanged among the members of Euro-
vision. This broadcast is prepared alternatively by TV
Belgrade and TV Zagreb, every Sunday from approximately
10:00 to 10:45 a.m. "TV Mailbag" (Belgrade), and "Technical
Advice to Viewers" (TV Zagreb), consist of viewers' opinions
of programs and of TV in general. These programs are pre-
pared alternatively by TV Belgrade and TV Zagreb for the
Serbo-Croatian area, every Monday, while TV Ljubljana and

TV Skopje have their own broadcasts of this kind for the
viewers in their local language area.

The news departments obtain their material from their
correspondents in all the country's major cities, also from
abroad in Paris, London, New York, Moscow, Rome, Bonn,
Prague, Beirut. The sources of filmed materials are Euro-
vision, the television agencies VISNEWS and UPTIN, and
lately CBS which supplies daily news clips with the neces-

sary film footage via airmail.

Culture, Science and Art Programs

 

The cultural programs during 1971 took up 3,047
hours or 32.9% of the total schedule. One of the basic

concepts of TV programming in Yugoslavia is that they should

97

be designed for all sections of the population. Through
this exposure it is hOped that audiences will increase
their interest as well as knowledge in the cultural field.
Credit is given to television which has tried to become
sensitized to new cultural trends in the contemporary
world. The current effort is to reach the younger people;
authors are trying to avoid the conventional and boring
methods of story telling, and producers are constantly

seeking creative means to enhance the cultural performance.
Drama

During the last two years television showed a large
number of modern works, classical drama and live broadcasts
from theaters as well as original plays written for tele-
vision. In contrast to previous war themes and events
which happened years ago, the writers of TV plays are now
more and more turning toward contemporary life. There is
an emphasis on psychology, love and social themes which are
light enough in plots to keep the unsophisticated viewer
interested. The national scripts are written mainly by
young authors who are just now obtaining recognition
through television.

The drama programs are broadcast on Monday and
Wednesday evenings, allowing a different style to be shown
each night. Monday is devoted to serious drama which covers
the best up to date works of both classical and contemporary

writers who are world known. Wednesday is reserved for

98

melodrama, sentimental love stories, etc. The editors are
hoping to bring the programs to the tOp of the popularity
list, through providing such repertoires as "Great Trials
in History," which updates historical memoirs and documents.
Cooperation between the theater and television have been
successful thus far. Many theatrical performances were
successfully shown on TV, from the main city theater as well
as in small towns. Furthermore, television continues efforts
to produce and adapt some performances in its own studios.
Fragments of plays, dialogues and monologues from the
repertoires of the national theatrical companies were also
frequently shown in various forms with the participation of
well known actors and commentators by theater directors.
From time to time anthologies of television dramas
are published serving as an exchange system to meet the

current requirements of individual stations.
Programs for Children and Youth

Children's and youth programs totalled 529 hours
or 5.7% of the total TV program. These include plays for
young people, special broadcasts for children, serials and
animated cartoons. There are regular broadcasts in which
children are told in words and pictures about subjects in
science, engineering, history, art, sport, school, and
children's organizations. In addition, many foreign
children's films and animated cartoons were televised to

expose them to talents and cultural differences abroad.

99

Films

According to statistics in 1971, films accounted
for 100,562 minutes or 18.1% of the total programs. All
types of films are imported from abroad or made by Yugoslav
cinema enterprises, but this category does not include
films made by television corporations.

The number of minutes of programs shown in

individual stations are as shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Programming of Individual Yugoslav TV Stations.

 

 

 

 

m

m c o

p m >

(U .Q -r-\ 0) 0)

H (1) H -r'\ «'1

m H .0 m m

H Di 5 H O

(D (0 «'1 (U .54

m N g m m
Feature films 7,231 7,260 15,185 511 15,592
Serials 5,324 3,960 7,179 2,503 8,810
Cartoons 1,583 2,340 686 106 928
Children's serials 217 1,380 3,824 227 1,464
Children's animated
cartoons 917 300 2,211 -- 736
Popular science 590 720 7,471 -- 1,297
Total: 15,862 15,960 36,566 3,347 28,827

minutes minutes minutes minutes minutes

 

 

 

It is evident that the minute duration of films shown in
Ljubljana and Skopje is proportionally larger than that of

other stations. This is due to the fact that other

100

languages are spoken in the southern regions of Slovenia
and Macedonia, so that all films are broadcast several
times, each with a different sound track, whereas the
stations of the Serbo—Croatian regions broadcast films
in accordance with the agreement and the determined schedule
from Belgrade or Zagreb. It can also be seen from the
table that Sarajevo broadcasts a limited amount of films
for the Serbo—Croatian region. Minute duration mainly
refers to films broadcast only for viewers in the territory
of this Republic.

In an endeavor to raise the artistic value of the
films, the selection process reaches for the best works
by Yugoslav documentary film makers, many of which have
already gained notable recognition abroad. Besides the
regularly scheduled films, there are also special features
presenting them in a collage form. For example, there is
a series "Screen on the Screen" (TV Zagreb), made up of
sections from well known Yugoslav and foreign films with
suitable commentaries, interview, etc. It has been running
for years, and the public is still watching the series with
unabated interest. The program also shows films during their
production including the process of shooting, and film
festivals. Problems of national cinematography are also
discussed.

Most of the feature films and serials shown on
television are foreign produced, mostly American. This is

largely due to the international market in which the USA

101

has available the largest inventory of old films. In order
to vary the film repertoire as much as possible, not only

in subject matter but in national origin, measures have

been taken to extend the importation of films to other
European and overseas countries. Success has been achieved
in this regard with Polish, German, Swedish and Canadian
films. As a result of these measures, the share of American

films has recently decreased.63

Education

 

The total duration of these broadcasts remained
the same during 1970 and 1971, at 63,641 minutes or 11.5%
of the total program. However, since that time there has
been a significant increase as efforts to produce quality
shows with more creative input from educators has been
placed as a high priority. School television is mostly
broadcast by Radio Television Zagreb, which has been
specializing in this field since 1960. The total educational
program of this station was 32,100 minutes or 21.5% of
its total production in 1971. A school program was broad-
cast every day, and was repeated in the afternoons for the
pupils who attended school at different hours. The approach
is formal, with the goal to convey a determined amount of
knowledge to the audience in a limited amount of time. The
basic purpose of this approach is to make the program a
part of the classroom thus contributing to the efficiency

of learning techniques.

102

To rate the effectiveness of classroom television
a survey was made with the participation of teachers as
well as students using the system. The results showed that
86% of the pupils and 82% of the teachers watch school
broadcasts, although not regularly. This shows a positive
indication that the system is being utilized and will con-
tinue to be a helpful learning device.

In 1971, the total duration of the education broad-
casts by Television Belgrade was 16,462 minutes, or 12.6%
of the total program. The production emphasis was more
oriented towards general education, although broadcasts of
a more specific nature have appeared recently. The approach
of TV Belgrade was somewhat more innovative than in Zagreb.
An effort was made to include the participation of the
student, to work as a team in finding the answers, and
arousing curiosity. The basic criterion used in programming
was the level of education of participants, that being
divided into three categories: elementary school pupils,
elementary education of adults, and viewers with secondary
or higher education.

Efforts have also been made in Television Ljubljana
and Television Skopje, which have their own specific needs.
At the end of 1971, Sarajevo also started broadcasting
its own regular program intended for pupils and teachers of
elementary and secondary schools. (These broadcasts are
not devised entirely in accordance with the school curriculum

and include additional academic information.) Thus they

103

are intended for supplementary education with more exten-
sive insight into the history and literature of Bosnia and-
Herzegovina.

The basic question of financing educational tele-
vision programming has only been ad hoc and unsatisfactory.
With only one channel, television used to cater to the
interests of its subscribers, providing general programming
rather than specialized productions. But the demands are
growing and the financial resources are minimal. Other
than income from subscribers, efforts have been made to
solicit contributions from republican, educational, and
other institutions, but donations have been minimal.
Research is under way to finance the further development
of educational television so that it may become a more

effective part of the general educational system.

Commercials

 

In 1971, commercials took up 6.2% of the total
broadcasts which represents a decrease of 2% in relation
to the previous year when it was 8.2%. Commercials were
broadcast in the local programs except in special cases
when the television stations agreed on exchanging them.

In such cases the income from commercials was shared among
all the stations which televised a particular kind of
commercial in their area. The money obtained from commer-
cials is believed to represent 15 to 20% of the total

revenues of stations. In some cases advertising during

104

one telecast is the main source of funds for obtaining

TV rights. Although commercial broadcasts are very attrac-
tive to television stations from the financial point of
view, it is generally considered by the programming staff

a distraction from the continuity of one program leading

to another. The consensus is to minimize the number of

advertisements allowing enough time for the impact of the I»
message to reach the audience; redundance and lengthy r

themes are undesirable.

 

Commercials are broadcast in scheduled blocks, quiz g!
formats, sports, and intermissions. In addition to those
advertisements which are approved and organized, there are
those which have not been formerly agreed upon. Lately, a
new form of unpermitted advertising is becoming more fre-
quent: those during the broadcast of pop festivals. Using
television as a medium but without previous agreement, the
organizers of these performances announce a series of their
sponsors thus securing for themselves considerable financial
means. The programming staff is very concerned over the
growing problem, but as yet no solution has been reached.

The law neither forbids nor restricts advertising
by television. There are periodical demands in the repre-
sentative bodies, that certain restrictions should be intro-
duced, such as, the promotion of tobacco and liquor. Res-
trictions on the advertisement of liquor have recently been
enforced, but few doubt whether the same will be applied

to tobacco.

CHAPTER VIII

PUBLIC AND PROFESSIONAL OPINION TOWARDS PROGRAM CONTENT

Public opinion polls are gathered by a variety of
sources. The most popular source in Belgrade is the Daily
Barometer, an institution kept completely autonomous from
the television departments. The research staff is directly
hired by Television Belgrade to analyze the public's reac-
tion to program content on a daily basis. They are finan-
cially supported through the individual companies or
stations which hire their services, although there is a
desire to significantly expand their market to all com-
munications media, i.e., publishing companies, newspapers,
etc.

The research staff consists of both full time and
part time sociologists and students. The full time staff
are experts in the fields of sociology, psychology, research
methodology and content analysis. Part time personnel are
‘mostly students who perform the interviewing, which is
conducted personally from door to door. Surveys are made
quarterly totaling about 1,000 viewers who participate in
the questionnaires. The results of the surveys are dis-
tributed upon completion to 250 editors who then base

future programming decisions upon the direction indicated

105

106

in the analysis. However it is the feeling of the majority
of staff members within the institute that very little is
done on the part of program directors with the study that
was so expensive to produce. Analyses are thrown into
files, not to be recirculated to theandiences until two
years after the original publication. This lack of feed-
back to the general audience is extremely detrimental to
the process of encouraging input from the viewers as well
as from professionals. Whether this policy is intentional
or not, the quality of programs will remain limited until
all available resources are utilized.64 Meanwhile, inter-
views are conducted, surveys are completed, and the pub-
lished results continue to indicate trends of public
thought; yet the popularity of programs continues to
fluctuate with the political climate, the economy, and

the local interests of the day.

One of the most helpful studies done on content
analysis was completed in 1972 on the reactions towards
Program II. It was realized at the outset that public
reactions would not be as positive towards the second
program, as towards the first program, the reason being
that Program I had a ten year start and has recently gone

65 The study revealed that people were initially

color.
motivated to watch the first series of Program II because
of heavy promotion in the newspapers. However, television

producers anticipated a poor turnout in the number of

viewers because they were not sure whether the whole

107

territory of Serbia could receive the program. Besides,
an additional UHF converter needed to be purchased and
sales of these devices did not show a significant increase
before the first airing date.

It was concluded that the pe0p1e who watched the
second program were viewers with a higher educational back-
ground, the reason being that simple variety shows and
feature films which were shown on Program I became boring
or uninteresting to those with cultural interests. Of
those that watched, opinions ranged from disappointment
to excellent as follows:

35% excellent program

11% good

44% fairly good

3% little interest

7% completely disappointed with program.
There were some constructive suggestions for improvement,
although again opinions were diversified, and of various
percentages:

l. Asked for less differentiation; programs should
combine politics, culture and films together
instead of long time intervals devoted to each
segment.

2. Asked for the whole spectrum to be more diversified.

3. Would like the number of cultural programs increased.

4. Would like more educational shows.

5. Would like more sport.

6. Should satisfy the intellectuals.

Of the intellectuals, 70% asked for programs with more

108

variety, suggesting that the direction should include
both the educated and uneducated audiences.

51% of the intellectuals thought programs should be
more amusing and lighter in themes.

36% wanted programs to be more serious in comparison

to Program I.

13% thought that Program II should be similar to

Program I. E
The conclusion among the intellectuals was that the appeal 1
of Program II would only draw a specialized audience,

however it was hoped that efforts would be made to interest i

 

viewers with a variety of educational levels and interests. '
Audiences within Belgrade felt there was insuf-

f.icient coverage of local news. As a result, people turned
to Program I for this information. Once this opinion was
made known, producers made an effort to incorporate in-depth
local affairs which increased the number of viewers signi-
ficantly. When asked what the critical element was in
deciding whether to choose Program I or II, the overwhelming
response indicated that the feature films on the first
program made it more appealing to continue watching that
show. All of this only signifies that there is strong com-
petition between the two and it is a matter of time to let
the audiences become accustomed to two selections.

Perhaps the persons who seem the most concerned
about the quality of programming are the television profes-
sionals. However their concern is not often publicized and
their discussions are kept secret. In a meeting held in

December, 1972, it was originally decided that the comments

109

would be broadcast in the informative television programs.
Three reasons were given for the elimination of this
plan: (1) Comments on programs stayed secret with
program directors, (2) there was not any influence of
the public towards the program, (3) the producers
couldn't decide about the destiny of their work.66
Many of the opinions were published nevertheless,
in Nin, the daily political newspaper. One comment relayed
the concern that "television could easily become prey of
various monopolies and could produce an 'ideal' atmosphere
which is not in the best interest of society."67 The
chief director of informative programming, Dusan Mitevié,
did not agree with these doubts. When the commission com-
plained that it was not the responsibility of TV programmers
to make decisions regarding its political speakers and
subjects, Mitevié quickly made the point that
one of the greatest weaknesses of our tv is our
satiation of information about political reports
consisting of boring forums in which television
itself doesn't appear as the subject. This leads to
confining programs into local spheres.68
Mitevié was referring to the fact that television has six
or seven daily informative programs, which is more than
enough politically. This creates the Opinion from the
*viewers that television is a medium only for political
<axchange, rather than culture, education and entertainment.
Dmilan Kovaéevié, a television editor, agrees and believes
that there must be a way to be more creative about politics,
after all, "every American television program is very

jpolitical, even though there is no specific mention of

Ix111t108."69 Another member of the commission, Vuk Krnjevié,

 

110

said that foreign programs are of poor quality, that 50%
of the films and serials are foreign shows. "This leads
to the 'Peytonization' of our programs." Krnjevic is
referring to the serial of ”Peyton Place" which has gradually
become a synonym for everything that is bad in programming.
Mitovié again disagrees and feels that "Peyton Place"
was professionally done and of good quality. "It's not the
mediocrity of 'Peyton Place' but rather the mediocrity of
many Yugoslav television programs which creates these
ideological questions." He went on to explain that domestic
programs were the only way to withstand the bad influence
of foreign programs. Using some statistics he pointed out
that in a period of several years the production of programs
increased 34% but there was a need for 42% in order to
fill the time. In addition, Mitovié feels there is no
dichotomy made when providing a program for the general public
and for a specific audience. There is unloyalty between
Program I and Program II, a lack of concern for what each is
trying to accomplish. He concluded by saying that it seems
evident that television is not in tune with the times.

In another meeting the same year with the League
of Communists of the Belgrade radio and television, the
basic subject centered on the question of leadership and
conformity to the policies within the LCY. It was believed
that Belgrade radio and television had not contributed to
the revolutionary spread of nationalism, and that the

content in no way contradicted the philosophies of the

111

Socialist Republic of Serbia. However, the media was not
without faults. It seems that radio and television
stations
have not been fighting against concrete phenomena and
vehicles of nationalism, especially great Serbia;
that communists here have succumbed to the pressure
of the liberal atmosphere. They have not sufficiently
fought against the penetration of trash, petty bour-
geoise, consumer mentality, pro-western entertainment
and commercial programs.7
Again reference was made towards the "Peytonization" of
programs which concealed them behind the screen of "modern
trends." Specific mention was made towards the education
of socialism, and how this direction was not being pursued
enough on the part of the media. There should be more
effort to
enrich the existing programs with the introduction of
new ones in order to serve in a Marxist and communist
way, to the deve10pment and consolidation of the
self-management, democratic socialism, in the multi-
national and united, independent and nonaligned
Yugoslavia.
It was concluded that the Belgrade radio and television must
be Open to the public, above all to the working class.
In January 1973 a new plan was developed to create
a medium for critics via the newspapers to criticize tele-
vision programs. The programs included were those broad-
cast from all centers throughout Yugoslavia, including
Program I and II. These articles were published in the

newspapers of: Borba, Illustrovana Politika, Politika,

Knjiéenve novine, Komunist, Nin from Belgrade, Vjesnik, TV

 

news, prg_Makedonija from Skopje, Oslobodjenje from

 

Sarajevo as well as Svet, and Vecernje novosti from

 

112

Belgrade.72 There was diverse opinion written in the
journals; Opinions ranged from comments about regional
shows to local ones.

The above journals agreed that the first program
was of poor quality. The critics feel that this was due
to unavailable funds for the directors in order to make a
more attractive program. They explained that all the In:
centers in Yugoslavia should contribute to make this pro-

gram more understandable and entertaining. A suggestion

 

“it.

was made for well known entertainers to help better the
quality, because the program drew the largest audiences.
Some of the critics feel that the program should be
eliminated altogether. Particular mention was made of a
unique and unusual broadcast on Program II entitled "Do
You Believe in God?" Several interviews were conducted by
television journalists asking people if they believed in
God and why. The program served as a warning to certain
social and political parties because many of the answers
were "yes." Perhaps this is an indication that these
institutions are not as influential as they ought to be--
too many people go to church and believe in God.73 The
critics felt this was a brave effort to ask such delicate
questions because most people are afraid to give responses
to these points on television. The critics also felt that
this show should continue, that interviewers should seek

out people's opinions on subjects such as this.

Overall, Program I elicited the following comments:74

113

Dramas are in a crisis. More should be done by
YugosIav writers; they should be more original.
Illustrovana Politika

 

Music has a sufficient number of programs, but the
majority of them were "light." There should be more
folk and national music as well as more serious
themes. Politike

Films: All the films that were shown at the film
festival at Belgrade should be shown on television
because the audience is interested in the old as well
as new.

Education programs were not equally represented.
There should be more educational shows for youth on
adolescence, etc.

 

Informative: Critics feel that the COOperation between
all telev1§ion centers was good. The shows they mutually
decided to transmit were in good taste, throughout the
territory of Yugoslavia.

 

Sports: Lack of programs on mass physical culture.
They did not use doctor's opinions on the sport, no
medical background or explanation about the usefulness
of the sports. The portraits of outstanding sports-
men were done very well.
The critics were most severe in their comments towards the
second program, however, they feel that it has potential.
There were suggestions on localizing the music shows,
making the sports more versatile, and particular emphasis
was placed on mutual cooperation between television centers
throughout the country.

The critical question remains regarding the direction
the media will follow, based upon proposals, public Opinion
polls, and countless numbers of meetings. There is an
ideological, political, practical, or experimental emphasis
which could be chosen. Based upon reactions from students

and the younger generation75 it is hOped that a practical

approach will be taken. This means more current themes

 

114

in films, plays and locally produced programs. A constant
up-dating of information regarding politics, education, and
documentaries needs to be sought. Specifically, old WOrld
War II battles with Nazi Germany, which dominate every
Yugoslav film, need to be minimized or eliminated. What
happened twenty years ago, the victories as well as the
struggles, should have its place in history, but it does
not provide for creative programming and only creates apathy
towards the military and politics.76 This attitude was
felt not only by the youth, but was also articulated by
the general audiences. People feel that they must dwell
upon the era of peace and progress rather than war and its
devastating costs. From a more political point of view the
general consensus is that it is important for the people of
Yugoslavia to remember the contributions made by Marshal
Tito during World War II, to recall the sacrifice of
thousands of fellow Serbs, Croats and other republicans.
This is what builds pride and unity towards a great country;
patriotism should never be forgotten, but must be con-
stantly renewed.77
As the League of Communists grows in numbers and
influence, and with external pressure from President Tito
as well as party members within radio and television, one
can anticipate the direction the media must follow. If
the Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia is going to reach its
goals, it must utilize every source and instrument it has

to make those plans work. In a projective proposal for

115

1974 and 1975 television programming78; it was decided to

infiltrate political themes throughout the content. This

was inspired by the wish that the "TV media must become,

in a more active way, a means to struggle against all the

weaknesses and deviations of our society.”9 The article

indicated a hOpe for closer OOOperation between all Yugoslav

TV centers including the new additions of Kosovo, Vojvodina, _.

Novi Sad, and Pristina. In a section of the proposal

 

entitled "What Is New," the following comment was written: 1
More attention will be on the period of World War II, I
the heroic struggle of the partisans, and the history
of the worker's movement. Marxist education and
philosophy will also receive greater priority.80

In reference to specific programs, ground work is being

laid for the information programs to "become more objective,

but will obtain [gig] a harder line on the Communist Party

of Yugoslavia." The daily shows will have more commentaries

on the workers, scientists and cultural endeavors of writers

who promote the ideologies of democratic socialism. For

example, there will be a documentary entitled "Journal

Program"; "Reflector," which explains actual themes of the

socialist system; "Eyes to Eyes," talking between politicians

and workers; "White Book," contact with other countries;

"Program for the Field Workers," demonstrations of new

technical machinery for agriculture; "Culture Today,"

joint effort to combine politics and culture; "Television

and the Spectators," dialogues between television viewers

and the critics within television.

116

There does seem to be an effort to include the
audience in program content. However, many professionals
agree that public opinion is not given enough consideration
in the decision making process. Whether they will correct
this tendency remains to be seen. The conclusion that may
be made is that the intent on the part of the party is to
decide what is beneficial for the Yugoslav society, in
reaching the goals of the government. This above all is the
first priority and the media serves as an efficient instru-
ment in achieving that goal. It is hoped by American
journalists that the system will encourage more creativity
in the writing, reporting, and producing of programs. Yet
if one studies the trends of recent developments, one may
readily agree with Dan Morgan, Washington ngp correspondent
in Belgrade.

Yugoslav intellectuals are complaining bitterly
(but privately) about a climate of McCarthyism since
President Tito halted a long period of political
liberalization last fall. There are daily accusations
against sociologists, philOSOphy professors, writers,
poets, book publishers and movie directors. Works
that won literary awards only a year or so ago have
been publicly condemned, as have the juries that
selected them.

Older Communists and veterans have led the way in
smearing and attacking the younger intellectuals who
have dealt critically, and sometimes irreverently, with
the early postwar events in this country. Liberals are
disheartened by what they fear is the end of a long
period when works seemed to be judged more on their
literary and artistic merits than on their political
content.

In general, Yugoslavia's intelligentsia has not
played as active a role in pressing for political
reform and wider freedoms as have their counterparts
in less free Soviet-style countries. Few people here

117

believe that writers represent a threat to the regime
of President Tito. For this reason there is specula-
tion that the anti-intellectual wave may be evidence
of an internal power struggle within the League of
Communists.

Secrecy has been imposed on internal political
developments, so the dimensions of this struggle are
difficult to gauge. All that can be said with cer-
tainty is that intellectuals make easy targets for
political elements maneuvering to restore strict party
control and ideological uniformity. Liberals fear
that the current pressures may result in a sharp turn
towards cultural mediocrity.8

This mediocrity will affect the quality of tele-

vision programming, providing less incentive for producers
to continue to fight for higher standards. If audiences'
opinions are neglected, and psychologists are discouraged,
thorough research indicating trends and attitudes of
viewing audiences will be discarded. But western influence
continues to provide competition in the sense that the
Yugoslavs do not want to be left behind. Priorities in
Yugoslavia should be devoted to domestic programming in
order to inform and educate their peOple, but the advanced
technical skills used by other countries should be shared
and taken advantage of; this includes audience evaluations
and program content analysis. _Only through cooperation

and utilization of all their resources can Yugoslavia

provide quality service within their information media.

FOOTNOTES

1
Facts About Yugoslavia; pub. Yugoslav Review,

NIP Borba, Belgrade; pp. 58-59.

21bid.

 

 

3Soskic, Budislav, The League of Communists of
Yugoslavia in the System of Socialist Self-Management,
pub. the Secretariat for Information of the Federal
Executive Council, Belgrade, pp. 30- 32.

4

 

 

 

 

 

Ibid.

5Srdjan Sokolovié, former journalist for Yugo-
slavia's national wire service, Tanjug; guest lecturer at
Universities of Washington, Oregon, and Stanford, and
currently acting head of the Department of the Institute
of Journalism, Belgrade.

6Letter from the President of the League of Com-
munists of Yugoslavia and the Executive Bureau of the
Presidium of the LCY. Released by Yugoslav News Agency

Tanjug.

71bid., p. 8.

8"LCY Sponsors Meeting on Information Media Tasks,"
Tanjug Domestic Service in Serbo-Croatian 1512 GMT,
Belgrade, December 15, 1972.

9

Ibid., pp. 15-16.

loIbid., p. 18.

lllPolitika, a daily national newspaper, publiShed
in Belgrade.

2"December Debates," Tanjug, 9p, cit., 0945 GMT,
December 15, 1972, p. 19.

13"Conclusions Approved," Tanjug, 9p, cit.,
0800 GMT 16, December 15, 1972.

14"The Press in Authoritarian Countries," Quoted
from IPI Survey, International Press Institute, Zurich, 1959.

118

 

119

15K. Kempers, "Freedom of Information and Criticism
in Jugoslavia," Gazette, Vol. 13, No. l, 1967, p. 317.

16Raymond H. Anderson, New York Times correspondent
in Belgrade, Yugoslavia, "Colder to U.S., Warmer to Russia";
"Return to Ideology Bewilders Yugoslavs," New York Times,‘
Jan. 20, 1973, p. 5.

17The Constitution of the Social Federal Republic
of Yugoslavia (hereafter SFRY), Secretariat for Information
of the Federal Executive Council, Belgrade, 1963, p. 16.

181616., p. 22.

19Ibid., p. 37.

201bid., p. 25.

21Vecernje novosti, Belgrade, Feb. 28, 1972.
22"Press Must Remain Free and Independent, Yugoslav

Communists Maintain," Radio Free EurOpe Research, Report
1427, May 30, 1972.

 

 

23Radio Belgrade domestic, Feb. 21, 1972, 0600 hrs.

24"Session of Main Committee of Union of Journalists
of Serbia," Politika, Dec. 6, 1972, p. 6, col. 3.

25Ibid., p. 6.
26"Ribicic Discusses Tasks of Communist Newsmen in
Slovenia," Ljubljana Domestic Service in Slovena, 1400

GMT 17, Jan. 18, 1973.

27Ibid.

 

28..Yugoslav Newsmen," Tan 1119, Rijeka, March 9, 1973.

ngbid.

30"Report on Joint Session of the Presidium and the
Executive Committee of the Slovene SAWP in Ljubljana,"
Ljubljana Domestic Service in Slovena, 1400 GMT, Jan. 26,
1973.

31"Action Program of the League of Pressmen of
Yugoslavia Energetically Against Ideas Strange to Self-
Management," Report released from Ix Congress of LCY on
June 10, 1973; Voice of America, Belgrade, clipping from
press file.

32Tanjug, Belgrade, Nov. 14, 1972.

120

33Reuter, Feb. 2, 1973, Belgrade.

34Reuter, July 25, 1972, Belgrade.

35Reuter, Oct. 6, 1972, Belgrade.

36Dusko Otok, former Washington Post correspondent
to Moscow, 1970-73; currently stationed in Belgrade.

37Robert G. Kaiser, from Moscow, "A Dispatch that
Could Not be Printed in a Soviet Newspaper," International
Herald Tribune, July 13, 1972, p. 4, col. 5.

38

 

Politika, May 27, 1972.
39Anderson, 9p, cit., p. 5.

40Jugoslav Radio and Television, JRT Yearbook
1971/72. Issued by the Institute of Journalism, Belgrade,
p. 142.

411219:
42;p;g,, p. 143.
431212:
44;p;g., p. 144.

45Mr. Sundrica, director of Television Dubrovnik,
Interview conducted July, 1973.

46JRT, 9p, cit., p. 146.
47Ibid.
48Privredni pregled, Belgrade, September 29, 1972.

Included in Radio Free_Europe Research Files, "Yugoslavia:
Communications Media," August 23, 1973.

 

491bid.

50v . .
Sundrica, 9p, Clt.

51Information gathered through explanation by
television staff, Zagreb, August, 1973.

52Ibid., Belgrade.
53Ibid., Ljubljana.

54Data for Tables 2a, 2b, 2c, and 2d were taken from
JRT, 9p, cit., pp. 421-24. Accountable data for 1972 has
not yet been published.

121
55Lado Pohar, director and founder of research
department, TV Ljubljana.

56Neda Ostoié, director of research department for
TV Zagreb, Rade Konéara 217.

57Pohar, 9p, cit.

58JRT, gp, cit., pp. 293-94.

59Ibid., p. 296. Abbreviations signify city of
broadcast: Bg, Belgrade; Zg, Zagreb; Sk, Skopje; Tg,

Titograd; Lj, Lubljana; Sr, Sarajevo.

60Ronald Sher, director of Information Services,
American Library--branch of American Embassy, Belgrade.

61Anna Barbic, Institute of Sociology in Philosophy,
Ljubljana.

62Sher, 9p, cit.

63Mira Kun Broéié, head of foreign selection of
programs, Barometer Research Institute, Belgrade.

64Ana Somolo, researcher for Daily Barometer;
interview June 26, 1973.

65"The Audience and the Second Program," Jan.,
1973, pub. Daily Barometer, Belgrade.

66Bogdan Tirnanié, "In Front of the Face of the
Public," NIN, daily newspaper, pub. Belgrade, Dec. 12,
1972.

‘

671bid.

681bid.

691bid.

70"Meeting of the Communists of Radio Television
Belgrade," Politika, Wednesday, Dec. 6, 1972, p. 12,
col. 3, Belgrade.

7lIbid.

72Professor Milorad Djuric, "Critics in Newspapers,
pub. Daily Barometer, January, 1973, Belgrade.

73Ibid.

74Ibid.

122

75Private interviews with families throughout the
country regarding personal opinion towards television.

76Ibid.

 

Ibid., politicians.
78"Plan of the Program for Television Belgrade,
1974/1975," Politika, June, 1973.

791bid.

BOIbid.
81Dan Morgan, Washington Post correspondent,

"Yugoslav Liberals Mourn Tito's Crackdown on Arts, Letters,"
The Detroit News, Thursday, Oct. 25, 1973, Section lO-B.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Barbié, Anna. Institute of Sociology in PhiloSOphy
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Broéié, Mira Kun. Head of foreign selection of programs,
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Caserman, Andrej. Institute of Sociology in PhiloSOphy
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Daly, John. Press and cultural officer, American Con-
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Pavlié, Breda. Researcher, Institute of Sociology in
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Secretariat for Information of the Federal Executive Council,
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123

124

Sher, Ronald. Information officer for American Embassy,
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Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
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125

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MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES

 

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