l.‘ f '!,, ‘r :g-La_su;.¢ ‘.'_a' ...o ---..-,. __ '1. flu"hast-s.i-SsItumrrm . |.. . .‘ .1 ‘ . > ' .I 0 IN ADOLESCENT LEADERSHIP- '_ CLOTHING INFLUENCE ' ROLES Thesisffor the Degree of M, A, _ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY __ . ' . MICHELLE ANN MORGANOSKY j. . . - _r‘§....;{; , ' - Iz—r,.‘_..+m. ABSTRACT CLOTHING INFLUENCE IN ADOLESCENT LEADERSHIP ROLES BY Michelle Ann Morganosky The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships between four clothing variables (clothing mode awareness, clothing mode conformity, prestige clothing, clothing attractiveness) and three measures of leadership (representational leadership, organizational leadership and composite leadership). A positive relation- ship was proposed between the variables for both boys and girls. A questionnaire and 16 millimeter motion pictures were the means of data collection. The data were collected along with that of a larger interregional project from a population consisting of a sophomore class of a central Michigan high school containing 121 boys and 110 girls. Conformity to the clothing mode and clothing attractiveness were determined through analyses of the filmed subjects. Illustrations of clothing items in the- questionnaire were used to measure an individual's aware- ness of the clothing mode. To determine what items of Michelle Ann Morganosky clothing were considered "the latest thing going" by the group, the subjects were asked to designate the items in different dress categories which each considered to be "in" or "out." This formed the basis for a prestige clothing score for each subject. Information from the questionnaire provided a means of measuring three types of leadership. The first, representational leadership, was a measure of whom the students would most like to represent them as leaders at a national meeting of high school students. The second, organizational leadership, was a measure of the amount of participation in the formal organizations of the school system. Composite leadership, the third measure of leadership used, was a composite measure based on status characteristics considered important for the attainment of leadership or status. ‘ Stepwise multiple regression and correlation coefficients were the major forms of statisticalanalysis used to determine the relationships between variables. The findings of this study showed that clothing attractiveness was a significant predictor of representa- tional leadership, organizational leadership and composite leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness was a significant predictor for girls of composite leadership only. For both boys and girls, clothing mode awareness ‘was a significant predictor of representational and. Michelle Ann Morganosky composite leadership. Clothing mode awareness was also a predictor of organizational leadership for girls. However, clothing mode conformity was not found to be a significant predictor of representational leadership, organizational leadership or composite leadership for either boys or girls. Prestige clothing was found only to be a significant predictor of composite leadership for boys. CLOTHING INFLUENCE IN ADOLESCENT LEADERSHIP ROLES BY Michelle Ann Morganosky A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Human Environment and Design 1976 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express sincere gratitude to her advisor, Dr. Anna M. Creekmore, for her continual encouragement and astute guidance in directing this study; to each of the members of her committee, Dr. Joanne B. Eicher, Dr. Verda M. Scheifley, and Dr. Holly L. Schrank, for their helpful suggestions; to Mary Andrews for her assistance with the computer programming and statistical analysis; to fellow researchers, Lois Florkey and Nancy Thompson, for their assistance; and to her parents for their constant support and encouragement. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 v Chapter I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Components of Leadership Related to Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Measurement of Leadership . . . . . . . . . . 16 III. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 IV 0 PROCEDURE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 2 5 Selection of the Sample . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Selection of Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Collection of Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Method of Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Measures of Association . . . . . . . . . . 34 V. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Descriptive Data. . - . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Leadership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Clothing and Leadership . . . . . . . . . . 44 Relationship Between Clothing Mode Conformity and Leadership . . . . . . . . 45 iii Chapter Page Relationship Between Clothing Mode Awareness and Leadership . . . . . . . . 50 Relationship Between Prestige Clothing and Leadership. . . . . . . . . 52 Relationship Between Clothing Attractiveness and Leadership. . . . . . 54 Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Implications of Findings . . . . . . . . . . 70 Recommendations for Further Study. . . . . . 72 BIBLIOGMPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 7 4 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 8]- A. Tables of Biographical Data . . . . . . . . . . 82 B C Questionnaire O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 84 iv Table 1 10 LIST OF TABLES Percentage of 10,753 status criteria items falling within each status criteria category. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of boys and girls by socio- economic levels of their families . . . . Range, mean and standard deviation for composite leadership, representational leadership and organizational leadership. Significance of correlations relating composite leadership, representational leadership and organizational leadership. Significance of correlations relating clothing mode awareness, clothing mode conformity, prestige clothing and clothing attractiveness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson product moment correlation coefficients for clothing variables with composite leadership, representational leadership and organizational leadership. Results of multiple regression analysis pre- dicting representational leadership from clothing vafIables for boys . . . . . . . Results of multiple regression analysis pre— dicting representational leadership from clothing variables for girls. . . . . . . Results of multiple regression analysis pre- dicting organizational leadership from clothing variabIes for boys . . . . . . . Results of multiple regression analysis pre- dicting organizational leadership from clothing variables for girls. . . . . . . V Page 28 41 43 43 44 46 47 47 48 48 Table 11 Results of multiple regression analysis pre- dicting composite leadership from clothing variables for boys . . . . . . . . 12 Results of multiple regression analysis pre- dicting composite leadership from clothing variables for girls . . . . . . . . . . . . A.l. Numerical and percentage distribution of subjects according to age . . . . . . . . . A.2. Numerical and percentage distribution of subjects according to area of residence . . vi Page 49 49 83 83 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Some adolescents as they interact in group situa- tions, possess an unusual amount of influence. Most of the individuals within the group, and frequently those outside, will be aware of differences between members but the reasons for the differences may be hidden. Although social scientists have studied the phenomena of influence and leadership, they do not agree on the factors which contribute to the leader's ability to influence others. Some of the factors which have been found to distinguish the leader from the nonleader include 3 I I 1 O 2 O 0 intelligence, self confidence, soc10economic status, . 4 and dominance. lH. Pickle and F. Friedlander, "Seven Societal Criteria of Organizational Success," Personnel Psychology, 20 (1967), p. 172. 2D. Kipnis, and W.P. Lane, "Self-confidence and Leadership," Journal of Applied Psychology, 46 (1962), p. 294. 3A. Porter, "Validity of Socioeconomic Origin as a Predictor of Executive Success," Journal of Applied Psychology, 49 (1965), p. 12. 4M. Beer, R. Buckhout, M.W. Rorowitz and D. Levy, "Some Perceived Properties of the Differences Between 1 The process of the development of leadership in the group seems fairly clear. As the adolescent peer group evolves, some members of the group will take on a more active, influential role than others and consequently become recognized as leaders. Morgan defined a leader as the person who influences a group to follow the course of action he advocates.l The leader's influence within the gorup is com- municated to others both verbally (in terms of speech) and nonverbally (manners of acting and gestures). An individual's nonverbal communication includes his/her clothing and appearance. Stone states that the individual, through his appearance announces his identity, shows his value, expresses his mood, or proposes his attitude.2 Clothing is a manipulative part of the leader's near environment. The leader has a high degree of choice and control over what he/she wears. Therefore, it seems entirely possible that the leader uses clothing to com- :municate influence within the group and is recognized as a leader by others in part because of his/her clothing. .Leaders and Nonleaders," Journal of Psychology, 47 (1959), p. 52. ' 1Clifford T. Morgan and Richard A. King, Intro- Iduction to Psychology_(New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 19667! p- 589. 2Gregory P. Stone, "Appearance and the Self," Dress, Agrnment and the Social Order, ed. by M.E. Roach Tana JBB. EICher (New York: London, Sydney: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, 1965), p. 230. The relationship between clothing and leader- ship has previously been studied in terms of the social participation dimension of leadership, but no research has been found where the relationship between different types of leadership and the relative importance of various aspects of clothing has been investigated. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships which may exist between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractiveness and various types of leadership. A positive relationship between these variables would substantiate the theory that clothing contributes to the influence an adolescent leader possesses within the peer group. CHAPTER II MVIEW OF LITERATURE The theoretical framework for this study is pre- sented in the review of literature under the following headings: (1) Leadership, (2) Components of Leadership Related to Clothing, and (3) Measurement of Leadership. Leadership With the formation of a group some members are almost certain to take on a more active role than others, to be preferred to others, to be listened to with more respect than others, and to dominate others.1 Brown believes that when one member of the group is notably more influential than the others of a group he is a leader. Morgan3 states that a person who is well liked has a much better chance of having his ideas accepted and lDavid Krech, Richard Crutchfield, and Egerton L. Ballachey, Individual in Society (New York: McGraw Hill, 1962), P. 422. 2Roger Brown, Social Psychology (New York: The Free Press, 1965), p. 679. 3Morgan and King, Introduction to Psychology, p. 589. thus of influencing people. Social skills and personal popularity often characterize the person chosen for a position of leadership. Slater found that leadership is most strongly associated with those measures which are in turn most strongly correlated with popularity.1 Various definitions have been proposed to delineate the concept of leadership. Over time, definitions of leadership have changed. However, there are enough similarities in the definitions to permit an outline of the major progressions of thought dealing with leadership. The earliest definitions identified leadership as a focus of group process and movement.2 Chapin's definition of leadership as a "point of polarization for group cooperation" is an example of this type of defini- tion.3 Later definitions considered leadership as the art of inducing compliance. These theorists defined leadership as an instrument used by the leader to mold the group to the leader's will.4 Bundel, a compliance induction theorist, viewed leadership as "the art of 1Philip E. Slater, "Role Differentiation in Small Groups," American Sociological Review, 20 (1955), p. 304. 2Ralph M. Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership (New York: The Free Press, 1974), p. 7. 3F.S. Chapin, "Leadership and Group Activity," Journal of Applied Sociology, 8 (1924), p. 145. 4Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership, p. 9. inducing others to do what one wants them to do."1 The most recent definitions of leadership are stated in terms of power differences. Raven and French defined leadership as differences in power relationships among members of a group. Five bases of power are named. These are (l) the reward power (based on the perception by the individual, P, that the agent, 0, can mediate rewards for him); (2) coercive power (based on P's perception that O has the ability to mediate punishments for him); (3) legitimate power (based on the perception by P that O has a legitimate right to prescribe behavior for him); (4) referent power (based on P's identification with O); and (5) expert power (based on P's perception that O has some special knowledge or expertness).2 A similar progression of thought has occurred in the theories of leadership that has happened to the defin- itions of leadership. The earliest theories which attempt to explain the nature of leadership were the "great man" theories. These theories were based on the hereditary background and possession of superior qualities that differentiate the leader from the follower. Later theorists attempted to explain leadership in terms of lC.M. Bundel, "Is Leadership Losing Its Importance?" Infantry Journal, 36 (1930), p. 340. 2B.H. Raven and J.R.P. French, "Legitimate Power, Coercive Power, and Observability in Social Influence," Sociometry, 21 (1958), p. 83. environmental factos. The latter supported the idea that one emerges as a leader as a result of time, place and circumstances.1 Both the great man theorists and the environ- mental theorists neglected the interactive effects of the individual and the environment. Recent theorists generally believe that the characteris- tics of the individual and the demands of the situa- tion interact so as to permit one or more individuals to rise to the leadership position.2 Characteristics of leaders considered singly, hold little diagnostic or predictive significance. In combination, however, it appears that they may interact to give us a general description of leader- ship.3 At one time or another, the social, psycho- logical, and physical characteristics of leaders have been investigated in research studies. Several studies dealing with the social backgrounds of leaders indicated that the leaders were more highly 1Stogdill, Handbook of Leadership, pp. 17-18. 21bid., p. 23. 31bid., pp. 81-82. 1,2,3,4 educated, were from a higher socioeconimic 5.6.7.8.9 and had a higher level of 10,11,12,13 14,15,16 status, intelligence and scholarship than the lC.L. Hulin, "The Measurement of Executive Success," Journal of Applied Psychology, 46 (1962), p. 305. 2G.F. Lewis, "A Comparison of Some Aspects of the Backgrounds and Careers of Small Businessmen and American Business Leaders," American Journal of Sociology, 65 (1960), p. 349. 3Mabel Newcomer, The Big Business Executive (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955), p. 69. 4C.A. Gibb, "The Principles and Traits of Leader- ship," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 42 (1947), p. 283; 51bid., p. 283. 6M.K. Remmlein, "Analysis of Leaders Among High School Seniors," Journal of Experimental Education, 6 (1938)] p0 4190 g ' 7Lewis, "A Comparison of Some Aspects of the Back- grounds," p. 351. 8Newcomer, The Big Business Executive, p. 52. 9Porter, "Validity of Socioeconomic Origin as a Predictor of Executive Success," p. 12. 10 p. 283. llPickle and Friedlander, "Seven Societal Criteria of Organizational Success," p. 172. 12Remmlein, "Analysis of Leaders Among High School Seniors," p. 419. l3F.J. Reynolds, "Factors of Leadership Among Seniors of Central High School, Tulsa, Oklahoma," Journal of Educa— tional Research, 37 (1944), p. 358. 14O.W. Caldwell and Beth Wellman, "Characteristics of School Leaders," Journal of Educational Research, 14 (1926), p. 12. 15A.B. Crawford, "Extra-curriculum Activities and .Academic Work," Personnel Journal, 7 (1928), p. 124. Gibb, "The Principles and Traits of Leadership," 16K.C. Garrison, "A Study of Some Factors Related to Leadership in High School," Pea ody Journal of Education, nonleader. Leaders were found to score higher than non-leaders on measures of certain social characteristics. These include the ability to enlist cooperation,1 popularity,2 prestige,3 social participation,4'5 cooper- 8,9,10,11 ativeness,6’7 and Sociability. The personality 1T.E. Stephenson, "The Leader-Follower Relation- ship," Sociological Review, 7 (1959), p. 190. 2Garrison, "A Study of Some Factors Related to Leadership," p. 17. 3L.D. Zeleny, "Characteristics of Group Leaders," Sociology of Social Research, 24 (1939), p. 148. 4A.M. Rose, "Alienation and Participation: A Comparison of Group Leaders and the 'Mass,'" American Sociological Review, 27 (1962), p. 835. 5J.A. Hornaday and C.S. Bunker, "The Nature of the Entrepreneur," Personnel Psychology, 23 (1970), p. 52. 6Joan S. Guilford, "Temperament Traits of Executives and Supervisors Measured by the Guilford Per- sonality Inventories," Journal of Applied Psychology, 36 (1952), P. 230. 7C. Argyris, "Some Characteristics of Successful Executives," Personnel Journal, 32 (1953), p. 52. 8Rose, "Alienation and Participation: A Compar- ison," p. 835. 9Stephenson, "The Leader—Follower Relationship," p. 191. 10C.W. Burnett, "Leadership on the College Campus," Educational Research Bulletin, 30 (1951), P. 38. 11 p. 283. Gibb, "The Principles and Traits of Leadership," 10 of the leader was characterized by a higher degree of 1,2,3,4 5,5,7 self confidence, dominance, and aggressive- ness.8’9 Investigators of recent studies of leadership have shown comparatively little concern with the leader's physical characteristics although several studies com- pleted before 1947 had shown positive relationships to physical characteristics. The general trend of these studies indicate a low positive relationship between lGibb, "The Principles and Traits of Leadership," p. 282. 2Beer, et al., "Some Perceived Properties of the Differences Between Leaders and Nonleaders," p. 52. 3Kipnis and Lane, "Self-confidence and Leader- ship," p. 294. 4Guilford, "Temperament Traits of Executives," p. 230. 5Beer, et al., "Some Perceived Properties of the Differences Between Leanders and Nonleaders," p. 53. 6Pickle and Friedlander, "Seven Societal Criteria of Organizational Success," p. 173. 7Remmlein, "Analysis of Leaders Among High School Seniors," p. 419. 8Burnett, "Leadership on the College Campus," p. 40. 9Gibb, "The Principles and Traits of Leadership," p. 283. ll 1,2,3 4,5 height and leadership, and weight and leadership. As early as 1904 Terman conducted a study of grade school children in which he found the pupils who were leaders were larger, better dressed, and better looking.6 In a study done by Page at the United States Military Academy at West Point, the ranking of a selected group of cadets on leadership was found to be more closely related to "bearing and appearance" than to any other factor.7 Flemming, in an investigation of junior and senior high school girl leaders, found a positive correlation between leadership and attractiveness in personal appearance. Burnett found feminine attractiveness and feminine lL.H. Moore, "Leadership Traits of College Women," Sociologypof Social Research, 20 (1935), p. 138. 2W.H. Sheldon, "Social Traits and Morphologic Type," Personnel Journal, 6 (1927), p. 55. 3Zeleny, "Characteristics of Group Leaders," p. 144. 4Sheldon, "Social Traits and Morphologic Type," p. 55. 5Zeleny, "Characteristics of Group Leaders," p. 144. 6L.M. Terman, "A Preliminary Study in the Psy- chology and Pedagogy of Leadership," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 11 (1904), p. 432. 7D.P. Page, "Measurement and Prediction of Leader- ship,” American Journal of Sociology, 41 (1935), p. 31. 8E.G. Flemming, "A Factor Analysis of the Person- ality of High School Leaders," Journal of Applied Psy- chology, 19 (1935), p. 597. 12 grooming related to leadership for female college students.1 Pupil leaders in a study done by Reals, were found to possess a better general appearance than non- leaders.2 Reals' study differed from previous reports principally in the fact that five factors frequently associated with leadership, curriculum chosen, sex, age, scholarship and intelligence, were held constant for both leaders and nonleaders. The previously mentioned studies have shown that differences in physical characteristics, social background, personality characteristics, and social characteristics distinguished the leader from the nonleader. In a study of highschool students, Moore3 was able to identify, categorize, and rank order on the basis of response per- centages those variables which affected the adolescent's position or status within the peer group. The variables which Moore found to affect a student's position or status within his peer group were personality, academic performance, school activities and athletics, appearance, social inter- action, morality, and student wealth or family position. 1Burnett, "Leadership on the College Campus," p. 40. 2W.H. Reals, "Leadership in the High School," School Review, 46 (1938), P. 530. 3Noel S. Moore, "Status Criteria and Status Vari- ables in an Adolescent Group" (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1967), p. 92. 13 Moore ranked these characteristics and calculated per- centages for the variables influencing one's position or status within the group in the following manner: (1) personality--32.31 percent; (2) academic performance-- 20.53 percent; (3) school activities and athletics-- 16.54 percent; (4) appearance--ll.90 percent; (5) social interaction--7.94 percent; (6) morality--3.29 percent; (7) student wealth or family position--2.9l percent; (8) miscellaneousr—4.50 percent. Because of the similarity of Moore's categories to variables recognized as compon- ents of leadership, the rank and percentage of responses falling in each category reveals the relative importance of each variable in a hierarchy of prestige or influence. Thus, Moore's findings could be a basis for a measure of leadership where each member of the group has a relative rank or position in relationship to all other group members. Components of Leadership Related to Clothing The relationship between clothing and leadership has previously been studied mainly in terms of the social participation dimension of leadership. Allen found that fad and fashion leaders were more frequent social par- ticipants and more frequently held offices than fad and 14 fashion nonleaders.l Renn in her study of college students found that those students who expressed a high desire to participate in organizations and to hold poSitions also expressed a high interest in clothing.2 The results of Harrison's study of college males indicated interest in clothing to be positively related to social participation3 while Freedle reported positive relationships between the college females interest in clothing and social participation.4 In Strickland's study the girls who participated more in organizational activities and also held positions demonstrated greater clothing awareness.S lHelen H. Allen, "Adolescent Fad and Fashion Leaders Compared with Fad and Fashion Non-Leaders on Selected Personality Factors and Social Participation" (Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1971), p. 51. 2Emma J. Renn, "Clothing Behavior and Relation- ships to Desire for Social Participation to Reasons for Desiring Social Participation" (Master's Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, 1965), p. 53. 3Elizabeth L. Harrison, "Clothing Interest and Social Participation of College Men as Related to Clothing Selection and Buying Processes" (Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1968), p. 51. 4Johnnie A. Freedle, "Clothing Interest and Social Participation of College Women as Related to Clothing Selection and Buying Processes" (Master's Thesis, University of Tennessee, 1971), p. 51. 5Earline Strickland, "Relationship of Clothing and Personal Appearance to Social Acceptance and Par- ticipation of Girls in a Mississippi High School" (Master's Thesis, Iowa State, 1969), p. 82. 15 Janneyl and Sohn2 both found that fashion leaders tend to be leaders in other areas as well. Other components of leadership such as peer acceptance, popularity, and academic achievement have been studied in relationship to clothing. Van DeWal found those subjects who were highest conformers in dress tended to be among the highest level of peer acceptance.3 However, Ehrman's results indicate that girls lower in peer acceptance had a greater desire to conform in dress than did girls who were higher in peer acceptance.4 Kelley and Eicher's study of dress and popularity revealed a positive relationship between dress and popularity.5 Hamilton studied adolescents with acceptable clothing and found them to be more active in clubs, hold more lJ.E. Janney, "Fad and Fashion Leadership Among Undergraduate Women," Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 36 (1941), p. 278. 2Marjorie A. Sohn, "Personal and Social Charac- teristics of Clothing Fashion Leaders Among Fraternity Men," (Master‘s Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, 1959), p. 23. 3Shally L. VanDeWal, "A Study of the Relation- ship Between Clothing Conformity and Peer Acceptance Among Eighth Grade Girls," (Master's Thesis, Purdue University, 1968), p. 69. 4Sandra J. Ehrman, "Clothing Attitudes and Peer Acceptance" (Master's Thesis, Colorado State University, 1971), p. 37. . 5Eleanor A. Kelley and Joanne B. Eicher, "A Longitudinal Analysis of Popularity, Group Membership, and Dress," Journal of Home Economics, 62 (1970), pp. 246-250. 16 offices, and have higher grade point averages than adolescents with non-acceptable clothing.l In summary, the relationship between clothing and leadership has previously been studied mainly in terms of the social participation and elected officer dimensions of leadership. However, the literature does seem to suggest that clothing is used by the leader more to his/ her advantage than by the nonleader. Measurement of Leadership The principle determinants of the methods used to measure leadership in studies reflected situational con- cenrs. For example, methods of measuring leadership of business executives differ from the methods used to measure leadership among college students. Generally, measurement of business and military leadership has received much attention from social scientists, and leadership measurement in these areas is more highly developed. Perhaps the most extensive research reported has been the Ohio State Leadership Studies which were initiated in 1945 by the Personnel Research Board. These studies were designed as a ten year project to develop lJanice Hamilton and Jessie Warden, "The Student's Role in a High School Community and His Clothing Behavior," Journal of Home Economics, 58 (1966), pp. 789-791. 17 research methodology and to obtain information about leadership. The secondary objective of the project was to gain information which could be of value in the selec- tion, training and assignment of persons for leadership roles. The Ohio State Leadership studies deal almost exclusively with business executives, foremen, teachers, college administrators, Air Force and Navy officers.1 The Ohio State Leadership Studies staff developed the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire as a measurement of leadership. The questionnaire described behavior in terms of its frequency of occurrence and was used by a subject to describe his own behavior or the behavior of others. Two strongly defined factors in leadership, consideration (the extent to which a super— visor is human relations oriented or how warm he is in dealings with subordinates) and initiating structure (the extent to which a person likes to direct group activities *and, in a sense, is directed toward getting out the work), were produced.2 Recently a more sophisticated version of the Leadership Behavior Description Questionnaire has been developed. This questionnaire uses a multifactor 1Ralph M. Stogdill and Carroll L. Shartle, Methods in the Study of Administrative Leadership (Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research, 1955), p. vii. 2Stogdill, "Handbook of Leadership," pp. 128-141. 18 approach to measure leadership, rather than the previous two factor approach. A particularly disturbing feature of the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire is that results obtained from self-descriptions using the same instrument and descriptions of the same subjects given by others were not in close agreement.1 This discrepancy may be caused by a failure to behave in a similar manner to the rating. Likewise, discrepancies could also occur when an observer incorrectly rates the behavior of the subject being observed. The Leadership Opinion Questionnaire developed by Fleishman consists of 40 items related to supervisory or managerial behavior.2 This measurement device has limited use because the leader is asked to indicate how he believes he should behave, rather than how he does behave. Cassel developed a leadership measure consisting of 50 "leadership situations" with four alternative choices for handling each situation. Each alternative is scored and differentially weighted. The combined total lCecil A. Gibb, in the Seventh Mental Measure- ments Yearbook, ed. by Oscar K. Buros (Highland Park, New Jersey: The Gryphon Press, 1972), P. 1150. 2Edwin A. Fleishman, "The Measurement of Leader- ship Attitudes in Industry," Journal of Applied Psye chology, 37 (1953), p. 154. 19 score is called the "Decision Pattern."l Again, this measure does not distinguish between reported behavior and actual behavior. Measurement of high school and college leadership has mainly been defined as the amount and intensity of social participation. Boardman's study of college leaders used a measure of leadership in terms of incidence of office holdership.2 In a similar manner, Moore used a functional definition of leadership which made it synonymous with holding office.3 The above review illustrates various ways in which leadership has been measured. Methods of measure- ment appear to be influenced by the environment in which the leadership occurs. Measurement problems include discrepancies between self descriptions, actual behavior, and descriptions of others. According to Slater, "the chosen leader of a group is perhaps the man who has the highest hypothetical combined rating on all possible characteristics related 1Russell N. Cassel, "A Construct Validity Study on a Leadership and Social Insight Test for 200 College Freshmen Students," Journal of Genetic PsychologX, 99 (1961), p. 165. 2William K. Boardman, Lawrence G. Calhoun, and John H. Schiel, "Life Experience Patterns and Develop- ment of College Leadership Roles," Psychological Reports, 31 (1972), P. 333. 3Moore, "Leadership Traits of College Women," p. 137. 20 1 The use of Moore's2 to the group's purposes and needs." status categories as the basis for a measure of leader- ship provides a measure which accounts for a combination of many different characteristics associated with leader- ship. Moore's status categories could be used as the basis for a measure of leadership because the subjects studied in this project were fairly similar to Moore's subjects. lSlater, "Role Differentiation in Small Groups," p. 304. 2Moore, "Status Criteria and Status Variables," p. 92. CHAPTER III STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships which exist between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, the wearing of prestige clothing, clothing attractiveness and three types of leadership (representational leadership, organ- izational leadership, and composite leadership). The following definitions, hypotheses, and assumptions were used to guide the research study. Definition of Terms Leadership occurred when one member of the group was noticeably more influential than other members of the group. Representational Leadership was the number of times a student was mentioned by his peers as the one to repre- sent the high school at a meeting of high school students. Organizational Leadership_was the extent to which individuals participated in the high school organiza- tional system including the professional, athletic, and 21 22 academic areas. Individuals participating in officer- ship roles within organizations reflected a greater amount of leadership than those participating as organ- ization members only. Composite Leadership was based on the importance that Moore's1 subjects placed on status characteristics. Clothing Mode was the most frequently occurring items of all clothing worn by the subjects. Clothing Mode Conformity was the extent to which each subject wore the clothing items which occurred most often in the sample. Clothipg Mode Awareness was the extent to which each subject consciously recognized the clothing items which occurred most often in the sample. Prestige Clothing was the term used to designate the prestigious quality ("the newest thing going" versus "completely out of it") of items in every dress category. Clothipg Attractiveness was the aesthetic quality of the image created by the clothing each individual wore. Hypotheses The following hypotheses have been proposed for this study: 1Noel S. Moore, "Status Criteria and Status 'Variables in an Adolescent Group" (Ph.D. dissertation, wayne State University, 1967), pp. 57-58. 23 A. There will be a positive relationship between clothing and representational leadership. Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. Prestige clothing is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of representational leadership for girls. Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of representational leadership for girls. Prestige clothing is a predictor of representational leadership for girls. Clothing attractiveness is a prediCtor of representational leadership for girls. B. There will be a positive relationship between clothing and organizational leadership. 'H 9: 10‘ 11° 12‘ 13‘ 14‘ Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. - Prestige clothing is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of organizational leadership for girls. Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of organizational leadership for girls. 24 H Prestige clothing is a predictor of 15 organizational leadership for girls. H16: Clothing attractiveness is a predictor of organizational leadership for girls. C. There will be a positive relationship between clothing and composite leadership. H17: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. H18: H - Prestige clothing is a predictor of 19 composite leadership for boys. H20: Clothing attractiveness is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of composite leadership for girls. H21: Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of composite leadership for girls. H22: H23: Prestige clothing is a predictor of composite leadership for girls. ° Clothing attractiveness is a predictor H . 24 of composite leadership for girls. Assumptions 1. Leadership is measurable. 2. Leadership can be measured several ways. 3. Variables which influence an individual's position within the group are similar to those variables ‘which Moore found to influence an individual's position in.the group, therefore, Moore's status categories can be used as a basis for a measurement of leadership. CHAPTER IV PROCEDURE The procedure for this study in many ways coin- cides with that which has been set up for a larger interregional research project.1 The data were collected at that time from the chosen sample; however the develop- ment of the composite leadership measure as defined in the current study was not included in the interregional research project. The unique contribution of this study is the comparison of a syntheses of facets of leadership with the two other measures of leadership: representa- tional and organizational. In this study further inves- tigation was made of the relationships between various clothing measures in the prediction of leadership. 1Interregional project W-98, "The Relationship of Clothing to the Personal and Social Acceptability of Adolescents," interregional research included Colorado State University, University of Hawaii, University of Nevada, Michigan State University, University of Minnesota, University of Missouri, Utah State University, Washington State University, and University of Wisconsin. Michigan State University Study under the direction of Anna M. Creekmore, Agricultural Experiment Station Project 1020. 25 26 Selection of the Sample The sample selected for the research project consisted of the entire sophomore class of a central Michigan high school. The high school was randomly selected from four secondary schools located in the central Michigan area meeting the following criteria: (1) an enrollment large enough to provide a minimum of 100 boys and 100 girls in the sophomore class for purposes of sample size, (2) a single public high school serving the entire city and surrounding rural area to insure a full range of socio-economic levels located within the com- munity including both rural and urban students, and (3) a dress code which did not require uniforms for the student body so that a reasonable amount of freedom was permitted in selection of dress which is obviously essential for this research. Selection of Measures The measures for this study, with the exception of composite leadership, were developed along with those used for the larger interregional research project. In addition, Van Staden's2 Prestige Clothing Measure, and 1"The Relationship of Clothing to the Personal and Social Acceptability of Adolescents," Washington Agricul— tural Experiment Station Bulletin, No. 750, (1972), Michigan State University Study under the direction of Anna M. Creekmore. 2Francine Johanna Van Staden, "The Relationship of Prestigious Clothing to Acceptance by the Peer Group 27 Florkey's1 Clothing Attractiveness Measure were used. A discussion of the development and selection of the instru- ments used to measure leadership and clothing will follow. Leadership The results of Moore's technique for measuring status within the high school was the basis for the development of the composite leadership measure used in this study.2 Moore found that seven basic characteristics influenced an individual's status or influence within the high school. The general characteristics identified were: (1) personality, (2) appearance, (3) academic performance, (4) social activities and athletics,'(5) social interaction, (6) morality, (7) wealth or family position and (8) miscellaneous. Moore ranked these characteristics and calculated percentages for the vari- ables influencing one's position or status within the group as shown in Table 1. Each of the characteristics, with the exception of morality, had been measured for each of the subjects of Adolescent Boys and Girls," (Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1970), pp. 30-35. 1Lois A. Florkey, "Clothing Attractiveness and Personal Attractiveness Related to Social Acceptance of Adolescent Boys and Girls," (Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1976), p. 23. 2Moore, "Status Criteria and Status Variables," p. 92. Table 1.--Percentage of 10,753 status criteria items falling within each status criteria category. 28 a Status gggggggg 32%: 3:533 T§:3% Personality 15.84 16.46 32.31 Appearance 5.55 6.34 11.90 Intelligence and Academic Performance 11.25 9.28 20.53 School Activities and Athletics 9.90 6.63 16.54 Social Interaction 3.01 4.92 7.94 Morality 1.90 1.37 3.29 Wealth or Family Position 1.14 1.77 2.91 Miscellaneous 2.26 2.23 12:29 TOTALS 50.85 49.00 99.92 aNoel S. Moore, "Status Criteria and Status Variables in an Adolescent Group," (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1967), p. 92. O O I O 1 in the larger interregional research pr03ect. Smucker's measure of informal peer acceptance was used as a measure of personality; personal attractiveness as measured by 2 Florkey as a measure of appearance; honor roll score as lBetty V. Smucker, "Conformity to and Awareness of the Clothing Mode Related to the Peer Acceptance of Adolescent Boys and Girls," (Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1969), pp. 25-26. 2Florkey, "Clothing Attractiveness and Personal Attractiveness," p. 23. 29 measured by Florkey1 as a measure of academic performance; Smucker's2 formal peer acceptance as a measure of school activities and athletics; and Van Staden's3 popularity and dating scores as a measure of social interaction. The representational leadership measure was the one used previously in the interregional study. Repre- sentational leadership was determined by counting the number of choices as "student in your grade whom you would most like to represent your high school at a meeting of high school students" that a subject received. The organizational leadership information was also a part of the data from the interregional study. Scores for organizational leadership consisted of total point values for participation in each organization multiplied by the prestige rank of each organization. The formula used was as follows:4 1Florkey, "Clothing Attractiveness and Personal Attractiveness," p. 22. 2Smucker, "Conformity to and Awareness of the Clothing Mode," pp. 25-26. ’3Van Staden, "The Relationship of Prestigious Clothing to Acceptance," pp. 30-35. 4Organizational leadership is called formal acceptance by Smucker. The formula used to obtain the organizational leadership score in this investigation is identical to the formula used by Smucker in obtaining her formal acceptance score. 30 E? (OP x R)n n 1 RL = representational leadership OP = organizational participation R = rank of organization n = number of organizations r = maximum number of organizations Clothing The four clothing measures used in this study, Clothing Mode Awareness, Clothing Mode Conformity, Prestige Clothing and Clothing Attractiveness were developed from the interregional project data. A modification of Horn's technique for measuring clothing mode conformity and awareness was used for the interregional study.1 The following formulas were“used to calculate the clothing mode conformity and clothing mode awareness scores. IS = n (F/T x 100) CMC = 2 IS IS = Item score n = number of items per category F = frequency of item in sample T = total sample CMC = clothing mode conformity 1 Marilyn J. Horn, "A Method for Determining Normative Patterns of Dress," Proceedings of the National Textiles and Clothing Meeting_(Minneapolis, Minnesota, June 19-22, 1968), pp. 49-55. 31 IS = n (F/T x 100) CMA = 2 IS IS = Item score n = number of items per category F = frequency of item in sample T = total sample CMA = clothing mode awareness The prestige clothing measure developed by Van Staden from the interregional project data was deter- mined by asking the subjects to write "in" under the item of dress that they considered to be "the newest thing going" and "out" under items considered to be "completely out of it." The prestige value or value as accepted "fashion or fad" that students gave to every item in every category was determined by counting the number of student choices falling in every clothing category. An ”in" as well as "out" percent score of total possible for each item was then worked out. A 16 millimeter movie was taken of each subject as he or she walked out of the room and this film was used to determine which item the subject was wearing in every category. The prestige clothing score for each individual was calculated as follows: a. "In" score obtained for the item worn in every category multiplied by number of items in every category. b. "Out" score obtained for the item worn in every category multiplied by number of items in every category. 32 c. Total of "in" scores minus total "out" scores equals prestige clothing score. d. Prestige clothing score plus constant (1000). This was necessary to make all scores pOSitive. The modal item in each category was included when prestige clothing scores were calculated because the students did in some cases consider the mode to be the "newest thing going" rather than other items shown, thereby indicating that some of the students may have given a rejection value to a new item. Clothing attractiveness was determined by using a rating scale of one to ten (one indicated a low level of clothing attractiveness for the subject and ten a high level). Raters assigned scores which reflected their estimate of the level of each subject's clothing attractiveness. An average was computed from the indi- vidual ratings of the six observers and was used in the statistical analysis. Collection of Data To facilitate a single administration of the questionnaire, the subjects were assembled in a large auditorium and were allowed as much time as necessary to complete the entire questionnaire. Upon completion of the questionnaire, as the students entered the hall from the auditorium in single file a movie film was taken of each subject. The questionnaires were numbered 33 consecutively to coincide with the order in which the subjects were filmed. Every tenth student carried a number to insure accuracy in the processing and analysis of the film. Method of Analysis The data obtained from the questionnaires and the film analysis were encoded to numerical codes and recorded on computer coding forms. This coding was then punched on computer cards. Transformations were performed on the raw data to arrive at the specific scores for each variable. The data were separated by sex and separate analyses were conducted. The computer program used in data analySes”were those available through the 6.0 version of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. All analyses were implemented on the Control Data Corporation 6500 computer at the Michigan State University Laboratory. The statistical methods employed for investiga- tion of existing relationships between variables were Pearson product moment correlation coefficients and multiple regression analyses. For purposes of this study a probability of .05 or less was accepted as an indication that the relationship did not occur by chance. The two basic research questions asked of the data in this study were: (1) What are the relationships 34 between clothing and leadership? and (2) What are the interrelationships among clothing variables in predicting leadership? The analysis strategies needed to test the hypotheses relative to the above research questions are associations. Thus, correlation and multiple regression models were required. Measures of Association Correlation.-—Correlation analysis provides a single summary statistic describing the strength of association between two variables.1 When both variables are measured on a linear interval seale, the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient can be computed. Such a coefficient represents the degree to which two variables vary together. The coefficients range from -l.0 to +1.0. A coefficient of 0 always indicates that no linear relationship exists; a +1.0 coefficient implies a "perfect" positive relationship (i.e., an increase in one variable is always associated with a concommitant increase in the other variable); and a coefficient of -l.0 indicates a "perfect" negative relationship (i.e., lNorman H. Nie, Dale H. Bent, and C. Hadlai Hull, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1970), p. 43. 35 one in which an increase in one variable is always associated with a decrease in the other variable.1 The three assumptions underlying the use and interpretation of this statistical tool are:2 1. The relationship between variables is linear. 2. The variables are measured in common estab- lished units, and the units are real numerical quantities. 3. The distribution is a bivariate normal dis- tribution. These assumptions can be satisfied based on the nature of the clothing and leadership variables and an under— standing of the proposed hypotheses in relation to their foundations in past research. Regression.--The regression analysis is an exten- sion of the correlation coefficient. Regression refers to the extent to which we can predict the value of one variable given a related value of a second variable. The basic equation for the regression line is: Y = a + bX e The expected value of Y (dependent variable) is the sum of a (the Y intercept) plus b times X (the beta weight or lIbid., p. 144. 21bid. 36 constant representing the slope of the line times the observed value of the independent variable). This equa- tion can be extended to include multiple independent or dependent variables. Multiple regression is an extension of the use of the bivariate correlation coefficient to multivariate analysis. The correlation coefficient allows the researcher to measure the linear relationship between one independent variable and a dependent variable. Multiple regression allows one to study the linear relationship between a set of independent variables and dependent variables while taking into account the inter- relationships among the independent variables.1 Stepwise regression is a powerful variation of multiple regression which provides a means of choosing independent variables which will provide the best pre- diction of the dependent variable under study from the fewest independent variables. This method allows for the construction of a prediction equation one independent variable at a time. The first step is to choose the single variable which is the best predictor. The second independent variable added to the regression equation is that which provides the best prediction in conjunction with the first variable. Variables are added step-by-step lIbid., p. 175. 37 in this manner until the desired number of independent variables are selected or until no other variables will make a significant contribution to the prediction equation.1 The statistic that indicates how closely the two or more variables are associated is R2, the coefficient of determination. R2 is the proportion of the total variation in the dependent variable associated with the independent variable. This term is often converted into the percentage of the variation in the dependent variable (in this case leadership) associated with or explained by knowledge of the independent variables (clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractiveness). Measures of the accuracy of the prediction are the standard error of beta and the F statistic. The standard error represents the extent to which, on the average, the observed values of the independent variable are dispersed around the line of regression (the best fitting line). Beta is the constant representing the slope of the line. The significance of beta is measured by the F statistic. When the F statistic is large enough to reject the null hypothesis, then the specified equation is better than a chance predictor of the dependent vari- able given the independent variable. lIbid., p. 180. 38 The assumptions of the simple and extended regression analyses are: 1. Normality. 2. Homoscedasticity--the variation in Y is constant for all changes in the value of X. 3. Linearity--the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is linear. These conditions can be assumed to be satisfied because there is no evidence to suspect the contrary. CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The discussion of the results will include a description of the research situation and subjects' back- grounds as well as relationships between clothing and leadership. Descriptive Data The sample was not a random sample of high school students and therefore does not include a representative cross section of adolescents with the result that general- izations to other pOpulations cannot be made. However, based on the Cornfield-Tukey argument for inference,1 conclusions can be drawn to a population that hypothetically could exist. Therefore, in order to understand the possible implications for other groups a description of the subjects' backgrounds has been included. The school which included both urban and rural students had an enrollment of 1,193 for 1967-68 for grades 1J. Cornfield and J. Tukey, "Average Value of Mean Squares in Factorials," Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 27 (1956), pp. 907-949. 39 40 nine through twelve with 281 students in the sophomore 1 A total of 231 sophomore students, 121 boys and class. 110 girls, participated in this study. Ninety-four percent of the subjects were 15 or 16 years of age. Six percent were 17 and one girl was 18 (Table A.1, Appendix A, page 83). Forty-four percent of the subjects resided in rural areas of the community while seven percent con- sidered themselves as residents of the suburban area and forty-nine percent were from the city which had a pop- ulation of 6,754.2 (Table A.2, Appendix A, page 83). The socioeconomic level of each subject was determined by using the McGuire-White Index3 which is based on analysis of the parents' occupation, education and income. Five categories were utilized with upper level being the highest social class. Although the sample contained all five socioeconomic classes, the majority of subjects were in the lower middle and upper lower levels as indicated by Table 2. Information obtained from the 1960 Census revealed that the median years of schooling for persons 25 years 1Michigan Education Directory and Buyers Guide, 1967—68. 20.5. Bureau of the Census, Census of Population: 1960 (Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce), p. 24. 3Carson McQuire and George D. White, "The Measure- ment of Social Status" (unpublished research paper in Human Development, No. 3 (revised), Department of Educa- tional Psychology, The University of Texas, 1963). 41 Table 2.--Distribution of boys and girls by socioeconomic levels of their families. Socioeconomic BOYS Girls Total Status No. % No. % No. % Upper 1 0.8 3 2.7 4 1.8 Upper-Middle 11 9.1 8 7.3 19 8.2 Lower-Middle ‘39 32.2 32 29.1 71 30.6 Upper-Lower 58 47.9 56 50.9 114 49.4 Lower-Lower 12 9.9 11 10.0 23 10.0 Totals 121 99.9a 110 100.0 231 100.0 aError due to rounding. or over was 12.0 and 10.4 for the city and county ’ respectively, compared with 10.8 for the state. The median income for the residents of the city was $5,681 while the median income was $5,091 for County residents and $6,256 for the state. Nearly one-third of the employed male residents of the city were engaged in semi-skilled occupations and one-half of the employed males within the county were engaged in semi skilled work or farming. The students in this study were considered by the researchers to be conservatively dressed when compared to the adolescent dress as shown by current fashion literature, or by students of larger urban areas. 1U.S. Bureau of the Census, Michigan General Social and Economic Characteristics: 1960 (WEEfiington, D.Ci: U.S. Department of Commerce), pp. 183-185, 191, 206, 287, 312. 42 The separate variables will be discussed briefly before the relationships between clothing and leadership are discussed. Leadership In Table 3 the means, standard deviations and ranges of composite leadership, representational leader- ship, and organizational leadership are given. The amount of relationship between composite leadership, representational leadership and organizational leadership expressed as correlation coefficients, is given in Table 4. There was a high degree of relationship between the different measures of leadership for girls. For boys, organizational leadership and composite leadership as well as representational leadership and composite leader- ship were highly related. However, organizational leadership and representational leadership were not highly related for the boys. Perhaps male students do not necessarily regard as leaders those boys who take the lead in formal school organizations. Clothing The amount of relationship between the clothing variables as indicated by the correlation coefficients is given in Table 5. The high amount of relationship between prestige clothing and clothing conformity was explained by Van Staden as a limitation in the method of 43 Table 3.--Range, mean and standard deviation for composite leadership, representational leader- ship and organizational leadership. - Standard Leadership Range Mean Deviation Composite Boys 5.31-29.93 14.69 6.21 Girls 6.51-36.60 15.94 6.98 Representational Boys 0-29 3.22 5.98 Girls 0-38 3.66 7.97 Organizational Boys 5-51 11.33 8.67 Girls 5-54 10.36 10.10 Table 4.--Significance of correlations relating composite leadership, representational leadership and organizational leadership. Leadership Organizational Representational Composite Boys .69** .66** Girls .58** .75** Representational Boys .36** Girls .73** ** Highly significant P = .01 level 44 Table 5.j-Significance of correlations relating clothing mode awareness, clothing mode conformity, prestige clothing and clothing attractiveness. Clothing Conformity Attractiveness Prestige Awareness Boys .33** .31** .27** Girls .28** .43** .18 Prestige Boys .82** .39** Girls .40** .25* Attractiveness Boys .44** Girls .28** * Significant P = .04 level ** Highly significant P = .01 level measurement. This high correlation indicates that the prestige clothing for boys was not very different from the clothing mode.l Clothing and Leadership The results of the proposed hypotheses will be discussed according to the clothing variables. lVan Staden, "The Relationship of Prestigious Clothing to Acceptance," p. 43. 45 Relationship Between Clothing Mode Conformity and Leadership Conformity to the clothing mode was hypothesized to be a predictor of representational leadership, organ- izational leadership and composite leadership. (Hypoth- eses l,5,9,l3,l7 and 21 on pages 23-24. These hypotheses were based on the theory that conformity is possibly a prerequisite for attainment of the leadership status. As indicated in Table 6, composite leadership and repre— sentational leadership were moderately related to clothing mode conformity for girls. For boys, only composite leadership was significantly related to clothing mode conformity. However, the results of the multiple regres- sion analysis indicate that clothing mode conformity was not a significant predictor of representational leader- ship, organizational leadership, or composite leadership for boys or for girls (Tables 7,8,9,10,11 and 12). As a contributor in the prediction of represen- tational, organizational and composite leadership, clothing mode conformity consistently ranked either third or fourth for both boys and girls. Since the .05 level of significance was not reached for the prediction of leadership, the hypotheses were not supported. . lVan Staden, "The Relationship of Prestigious Clothing to Acceptance," p. 43. 46 Table 6.--Pearson product moment correlation coefficients for clothing variables with composite leader- ship, representational leadership and organ- izational leadership. Leadership Composite Repigiigta- Organizational Conformipy Boys .423** .172 .176 Girls .317** .202* .052 Awareness Boys .426** .312** .238* Girls .496** .421** .393** Prestige Boys .437** .160 .198* Girls .219* .091 -.035 Attractive- ness Boys .577** .491** .324** Girls .512** .290** .237* *Significant P = .05 level **Highly significant P = .01 level Although the review of literature does suggest the relationship between conformity and leadership, perhaps the leader's dress is one area where he chooses not to conform completely. Hollander suggested that the leader of a group, as a result of initial compliance with the norms of the group, acquires idiosyncrasy credit. Idiosyncrasy credit is defined as the degree to which an individual may deviate from the common expectancies of the 447 Table 7.--Results of multiple regression analysis predicting representational leadership from clothing variables for boy . Multiple R . .5265 R2 = .2772 F-Statistic = 10.9320 9 < .000 Degrees of Freedom: 4 and 114 Stepwise Regression Procedure . Standard F-Statistic Addi ive Variables Beta Error of Beta (probability) R3 Clothing Attractiveness .295 .056 27.401 (.000) .241 Clothing Mode Awareness .002 .001 5.342 (.022) .028 Clothing Mode Conformity -.001 .001 .643 (.424) .008 Prestige Clothing .000 .002 .016 (.900) .000 Table 8.--Results of multiple regression analysis predicting representational leadership from clothing variables for girls. Multiple R = .4442 R2 = .1973 F-Statistic = 6.3899 F < .000 Degrees of Freedom: 4 and 104 Stepwise Regression Procedure . Standard F-Statistic Additive Variables Beta Error of Beta (probability) R2 Clothing Mode Awareness .006 .002 12.502 (.001) .177 Clothing Attractiveness .092 .073 1.562 (.214) .015 Clothing Conformity .002 .002 .740 (.389) .005 Prestige Clothing -.001 .002 .163 (.687) .001 4E3 Table 9.--Results of multiple regression analysis predicting organizational leadership from clothing variables for boys. Multiple n = .3635 R2 = .1321 F-Statistic = 4.3387 8 < .003 Degrees of Freedom: 4 and 114 Stepwise Regression Procedure . Standard F-Statistic Additive Variables Beta Error of Beta (probability) R2 Clothing Attractiveness .243 .090 7.346 (.008) .105 Clothing Mode Awareness .002 .001 2.604 (.109) .021 Prestige Clothing .002 .003 .799 (.373) .003 Clothing Mode ’ Conformity —.001 .002 .406 (.525) .003 Table 10.--Results of multiple regression analysis predicting organizational leadership from clothing variables for girls. Multiple R = .4205 R2 = .1769 F-Statistic = 5.5862 9 < .000 Degrees of Freedom: 4 and 104 Stepwise Regression Procedure . Standard F-Statistic Additive Variables Beta Error of Beta (probability) R2 Clothing Mode Awareness .008 .002 14.009 (.000) .155 Prestige Clothing -.004 .003 1.425 (.235) .012 Clothing Attractiveness .106 .094 1.282 (.260) .010 Clothing Mode Conformity -.001 .002 .130 (.719) .001 49 Table ll.--Results of multiple regression analysis predicting compgsite leadership from clothing variables for boy . Multiple R a .6618 R2 = .4380 F-Statistic = 22.2104 9 < .000 Degrees of Freedom: 4 and 114 Stepwise Regression Procedure . Standard F-Statistic Additive Variables Beta Error of Beta (probability) R2 Clothing Attractiveness .277 .052 28.747 (.000) .333 Clothing Mode Awareness .002 .001 10.247 (.002) .068 Prestige Clothing .003 .002 3.788 (.054) .036 Clothing Mode Conformity -.000 .001 .083 (.773) .000 Table 12.--Results of multiple regression analysis predicting composite leadership from clothing variables for girls. Multiple R = .6097 R2 = .3718 F-Statistic = 15.3861 9 < .000 Degrees of Freedom: 4 and 104 Stepwise Regression Procedure Standard F-Statistic Additive Variables Beta Error of Beta (probability) R2 Clothing Attractiveness .215 .057 14.405 (.000) .262 Clothing Mode Awareness .005 .001 12.630 (.001) .093 Clothing Mode Conformity .002 .001 2.036 (.157) .016 Prestige Clothing .001 .002 .099 (.754) .001 50 group. After acquiring such credit, the leader is later permitted by group members to depart from group norms without jeopardizing his status in the group.1 Hollander further emphasizes, Leadership status, therefore, assuredly demands conformity to the group's expectancies regarding the role, but still leaves the leader with sway in the sphere of common expectancies associated with members at large. The leader may deviate from these, or bring about their reconstruction, if his prior activities have generated an appropriately high level of credit. Perhaps in the present study, the leaders had previously generated an apprOpriately high level of credit so that they were permitted greater deviation from the clothing mode in their choice of dress. Also, nonconformity may be positively or negatively sanctioned by the group. Nonconformity in dress can frequently be positively sanctioned by the adolescent peer group especially when it appears in the form of clothing fads. Relationship Between Clothing Mode Awareness and Leadership Awareness of the clothing mode was hypothesized to be a predictor of representational leadership, organ- izational leadership, and composite leadership (Hypotheses _ lE.P. Hollander, "Conformity Status, and Idio- syncrasy Credit," Psychological Review, 65 (1958), p. 120. 2Ibid., p. 125. 51 2,6,10,14,18 and 22 on pages 23-24). These hypotheses were based on the theory that the leader needs to be more aware of group needs and functions. As indicated by the correlation coefficients in Table 6, clothing mode aware- ness was positively related to representational leader- ship, organizational leadership and composite leadership for both boys and girls. The results of the multiple regression analysis indicate that clothing mode awareness was a significant contributor in the prediction of repre- sentational leadership, organizational leadership, and composite leadership for girls (Tables 8, 10 and 12). Clothing mode awareness was also a significant predictor for boys of representational leadership and composite leadership but not of organizational leadership (Tables 7, 9 and 11). Clothing mode awareness was a particularly significant contributor in the prediction of leadership for girls. Clothing mode awareness accounted for 18 percent of the variance in representational leadership scores (Table 8), 16 percent of the variance in organiza- tional leadership scores (Table 10), and 9 percent of the variance in composite leadership scores for girls (Table 12) . These significant relationships between clothing mode awareness and leadership for boys and girls support the idea developed in the review of literature that the leader needs to be more aware of group processes and 52 activities. Chowdhry and Newcomb stated that the ability to function as a leader is highly dependent on the ability to perceive opinions and attitudes of the group. The more awareness a leader has of an environment, the more satisfactorily he/she can perform in the leadership position.1 It appears that the leader's awareness of group concerns includes the awareness of what other group members are wearing. Even though the leader may not con- form to the group's modal dress, it seems to be important for the leader to be aware of what the group's clothing mode is. This awareness is particularly important for the girl leaders. Relationship Between Prestige Clothing and Leadership Prestige clothing was hypothesized to be a pre- dictor of representational leadership, organizational leadership, and composite leadership (Hypotheses 3,7,11, 15,19 and 23 on pages 23-24). As developed in the review of literature, the theory supporting these hypotheses is that the leader seems to be better dressed and more fashionable than other group members. Thus, the leaders' clothing would be more prestigious. The correlation coefficients in Table 6 indicate that prestige clothing , lKamla Chowdhry and Theodore M. Newcomb, "The Relative Abilities of Leaders and Non-Leaders to Estimate Opinions of Their Own Groups," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 47 (1952), P. 56. 53 was positively related to composite leadership for boys and girls and to organizational leadership for boys. The results of the stepwise multiple regression analysis indicate that prestige clothing was in general not a significant pre- dictor of representational leadership, organizational leadership, or composite leadership for boys or for girls (Tables 7,8,9,10,11 and 12). Since the .05 level of sig- nificance was not reached for the prediction of leadership from prestige clothing, the hypotheses are not supported. The lack of significant findings between prestige clothing and leadership contradicts the findings of Janney and Sohn. Janney and Sohn both found that fashion leaders tend to be leaders in other areas as well. Per- haps prestige clothing is not necessarily considered fashionable clothing. Another possible explanation of differences in results might be due to Sohn and Janney's use of college age subjects. Possibly, fashionableness is considered more important for college age leaders than high school leaders. Again it should be mentioned that the subjects in this study found it difficult to distinguish between the latest styles of clothing assumed prestigious and the clothing mode. Therefore, the limitations of the prestige clothing measure might account for the lack of significant findings between prestige clothing and leadership. 54 Relationship Between Clothing Attractiveness and Leadership Clothing attractiveness was hypothesized to be a- predictor of representational leadership, organizational leadership, and composite leadership (Hypotheses 4,8,12, 16,20 and 24 on pages 23,24). These hypotheses were based on the theory that the leader's clothing is more attract tive than non-leaders' clothing. Group members are drawn to an attractive leader and part of a leader's attractive- ness is his clothing. The results of the correlation coefficients given in Table 6 indicate a positive rela- tionship between clothing attractiveness, representational leadership, organizational leadership and composite leadership for both boys and girls. As indicated by the results of the stepwise multiple regression analyses, clothing attractiveness significantly contributed as a predictor of representational leadership, organizational leadership and composite leadership for boys. For girls, clothing attractiveness was a significant predictor of composite leadership only. The contribution of clothing attractiveness in the prediction of leadership was particularly high for boys. Clothing attractiveness was the main contributing variable in the prediction of leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness accounted for 24 percent of the variance in representational leadership scores (Table 7), 11 percent 55 of the variance in organizational leadership scores (Table 9), and 33 percent of the variance in composite leader- ship scores for boys (Table 11). 1 Although clothing attractiveness was not a sig- nificant contributor in the prediction of representational leadership or organizational leadership for girls, clothing attractiveness significantly accounted for 26 percent of the variance in composite leadership scores (Table 12). These significant relationships between clothing attractiveness and leadership uphold the idea developed in the review of literature that clothing attractiveness is a part of the leader's attraction. The findings presented here indicate that clothing attractiveness is an even more important part of the boy leaders' attrac- tiveness than the girl leaders' attractiveness. Florkey found that clothing attractiveness was highly related to personal attractiveness for both boys and girls.1 Summary of Findings Clothing attractiveness was a significant pre- dictor of representational leadership, organizational leadership and composite leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness was a significant predictor for girls of composite leadership only. For both boys and girls, 1Florkey, "Clothing Attractiveness and Personal Attractiveness," p. 34. 56 clothing mode awareness was a significant predictor of representational and composite leadership. Clothing mode awareness was also a predictor of organizational leader- ship for girls. Prestige clothing was found only to be a significant predictor of composite leadership for boys. The significant findings between clothing vari- ables and leadership variables support the proposed theory that clothing contributes to the influence an adolescent leader possesses within the peer group. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary This study grew out of a larger interregional project1 which was designed to explore the relationship of social class, social participation, social acceptance and conformity to and awareness of clothing norms. The major concern of the present study was to determine the relationships between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness and leadership. A review of the pertinent socio-psychological literature revealed that as the group develops, various social roles or positions will also develop. One of these social positions is that of the leadership position. Theorists have attempted to explain that one obtains or "comes into" the leadership position in various ways. Hereditary, environmental and a combination of both hereditary and environmental factors have been used to lWashington Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, Number 750, "The Relationship of Clothing to the Personal and Social Acceptability of Adolescents." 57 58 explain the process of obtaining and maintaining the leadership status within a group. The literature indicated that the leader differed from other group members with respect to various social, psychological, and physical characteristics. However, recent studies have shown comparatively little concern with the leader's physical characteristics. Furthermore, little research has been done where the relationships between the leader and his clothing has been investigated. Previous research revealed that the leader tended to be the member who most fully conformed to the norms of the group, was more aware of group needs and processes, and was attractive to other group members. Because the choice and use of clothing is an aspect of the leader's behavior, the leader was hypothesized to be more aware of the clothing mode, conform more to the clothing mode, wear more prestigious clothing and have a higher level of clothing attractiveness. Even though a cause and effect relationship between clothing and leadership was beyond the limits of the data, a positive relationship between clothing and leadership would give some support to the proposed theoretical relationship that the leader uses clothing to his/her advantage within the group and is recognized as a leader by others in part because of his clothing. 59 The population for this study consisted of the sophomore class of a midwestern high school. Question- naires designed to obtain data about social class and other demographic factors, representational leadership, and organizational leadership, were administered to 121 boys and 110 girls. Data concerning clothing mode con- formity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing and clothing attractiveness was also collected using 16 millimeter colored motion pictures. The data for boys and girls were separated by sex for all relationships investigated. The results of Moore's technique for measuring status within the high school was the basis for the development of the composite leadership measure used in this study.1 Six of the seven characteristics that Moore identified as factors influencing an individual's status within the high school were combined to form the composite leadership measure. Correlation coefficients and step- wise multiple regression equations were the major forms of statistical analyses employed. The proposed hypotheses, results and conclusions are recorded as follows: A. There will be a positive relationship between clothing and representational leadership. lMoore, "Status Criteria and Status Variables." p. 92. 60 The first four research hypotheses are discussed 'together since they were simultaneously investigated using a multiple regression technique. As stated they are: H1: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. H2: Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. H : Prestige clothing is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness is a predictor of representational leadership for boys. The four clothing variables were entered as independent variables into a stepwise regression procedure to predict representational leadership for boys. The results of this analysis are reported in Table 7 (page 47). Clothing attractiveness and clothing mode aware- ness were significant predictors of representational leadership. They accounted for 27 percent of the variance in representational leadership. Clothing attractiveness contributed more to the prediction than clothing mode awareness but both were significant predictors of repre- sentational leadership. The correlation coefficients representing the relationship between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness and representational leadership are reported in Table 6 (page 46). 61 The magnitude of the correlation coefficients relating clothing mode conformity and representational leadership for boys and the results of the regression analysis suggest that there was no relationship between representational leadership and clothing mode conformity for boys. Thus, Hl was not supported. Clothing mode awareness was positively related to representational leadership. The magnitude of the correlation (r=.34) indicated a moderate relationship. Since clothing mode awareness was predictive of repre- sentational for boys, H2 was supported. H3 Was not supported. Prestige clothing did not significantly contribute to the regression equation and was not significantly correlated with representational leadership for boys. Clothing attractiveness for boys contributed more to the regression equation than did any other variable and was moderately correlated with representational leadership (r=.49). Thus H4 was supported. Research hypotheses 5,6,7 and 8 investigated the relationships between clothing variables and representa- tional leadership for girls. As stated they are: H5: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of representational leadership for girls. Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of representational leadership for girls. H : Prestige clothing is a predictor of representational leadership for girls. 62 H Clothing attractiveness is a predictor 8. of representational leadership for girls. The four clothing variables were entered as independent variables into a stepwise regression pro- cedure to predict representational leadership for girls. The results of this analysis are reported in Table 8 (page 47). Clothing mode awareness was the only significant predictor of representational leadership for girls. Eighteen percent of the variance in representational leadership was accounted for by clothing mode awareness. The correlation coefficients representing the relationship between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness and representational leadership for girls are reported in Table 6 (page 46). Clothing mode conformity was positively related to representational leadership. However, the relation- ship was slight, as evidenced in the magnitude of the correlation (r=.20). Since clothing mode conformity was not predictive of representational leadership for girls, H5 was not supported. H6 was definitely supported. Clothing mode aware- ness contributed more to the regression equation than did any other variable and was moderately correlated with representational leadership for girls (r=.42). 63 The magnitude of the correlation coefficients and the results of the regression analysis suggest that there was no relationship between representational leadership. and prestige clothing for girls. Therefore, H7 was not supported. Although clothing attractiveness was slightly related to representational leadership (r=.30), it was not predictive of representational leadership for girls. Thus, H8 was not supported. B. There will be a positive relationship between clothing and organizational leadership. A multiple regression analysis with a stepwise procedure was also implemented to determine the relative contribution of the various clothing variables in pre- dicting organizational leadership. The hypotheses dealing with the relationship between the clothing variables and organizational leadership for boys were stated as: H9: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. H10: Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. H11: Prestige clothing is a predictor of organizational leadership for boys. ° Clothing attractiveness is a predictor H . 12 of organizational leadership for boys. The four clothing variables were entered as independent variables into a stepwise regression procedure 64 to predict organizational leadership. The results of this analysis are reported in Table 9 (page 48). The results of this regression analysis suggested that clothing attractiveness was the only significant 'predictor of organizational leadership, accounting for ll percent of the variance. Clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, and prestige clothing did not significantly contribute to the predictive equation for organizational leadership. The correlation coefficients representing the relationship between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness and organizational leadership for boys are reported in Table 6 (page 46). The magnitude of the correlation coefficients and the results of the regression analysis suggest that there was no relationship between clothing mode conformity and organizational leadership for boys. Thus, H9 was not supported. ' Although clothing mode awareness and prestige clothing were both slightly related to organizational leadership (r=.24 and .20 respectively), neither con- tributed to the predictive equation for organizational leadership for boys. H and H are therefore not 10 11 supported. 65 H12 was definitely supported. Clothing attractive- ness was a significant predictor of organizational leader- ship for boys and was moderately correlated with organiza- tional leadership (r=.32). The hypotheses dealing with the relationships between the clothing variables and organizational leader- ship for girls were stated as: H13: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of organizational leadership for girls. H Clothing mode awareness is a predictor 14 of organizational leadership for girls. H Prestige clothing is a predictor of 15 organizational leadership for girls. H Clothing attractiveness is a predictor 16. of organizational leadership for girls. The four clothing variables were entered as independent variables into a stepwise regression procedure to predict organizational leadership for girls. The results of this analysis are reported in Table 10 (page 48). The results of the regression analysis suggested that clothing mode awareness was the only significant predictor of organizational leadership, accounting for 16 percent of the variance. Clothing mode conformity, prestige clothing and clothing attractiveness did not significantly contribute to the predictive equation for organizational leadership. 66 The correlation coefficients representing the relationship between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness and organizational leadership for girls are reported in Table 6 (page 46). Although clothing mode conformity had a low cor- relation with organizational leadership for girls (r=.20), H13 was not supported because clothing mode conformity failed to contribute significantly as a predicator in the regression equation. Hl4 was definitely supported. Clothing awareness was a significant predictor of organizational leadership for girls and was moderately correlated with organiza- tional leadership (ré.39). H15 was not supported because of the lack of relationship between prestige clothing and organizational leadership as indicated by the correlation coefficients and the results of the regression analysis. Clothing attractiveness for girls was positively related to organizational leadership (r=.30). However, H16 was not supported because clothing attractiveness was not predictive of organizational leadership. C. There will be a positive relationship between clothing and composite leadership. The hypotheses dealing with the relationships between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, 67 prestige clothing, clothing attractiveness and composite leadership for boys were as follows: H17: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. H18: Clothing mode awareness is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. Prestige clothing is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. H19: Clothing attractiveness is a predictor of composite leadership for boys. H20: The four clothing variables were entered as independent variables into a stepwise regression pro- cedure to predict composite leadership. The results of this analysis are reported in Table 11 (page 49). The results of the regression analysis suggested that clothing attractiveness, clothing mode awareness and prestige clothing were significantly predictive of composite leadership, accounting for 48 percent of the variance. Clothing mode conformity did not contribute to the predictive equation for composite leadership. The correlation coefficients representing the relationship between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness, and composite leadership are reported in Table 6 (page 46). H 7 was not supported because clothing mode con- 1 formity failed to be a predictor of composite leadership 68 for boys. However, there was a moderate relationship between clothing mode conformity and composite leadership (r=.42). H18, H19 and H20 were all definitely supported. Clothing attractiveness contributed more to the regres- sion equation than did any other variable and was highly correlated with composite leadership (r=.58). Both clothing mode awareness and prestige clothing significantly contributed as predictors to the regression equation and were moderately related (r=.43 and.44, respectively), to composite leadership for boys. The hypotheses dealing with the relationships between the clothing variables and composite leadership for girls were stated as: Clothing mode conformity is a predictor of composite leadership for girls. H21: ' Clothing mode awareness is a predictor H O 22 of composite leadership for girls. - Prestige clothing is a predictor of H . 23 composite leadership for girls. : Clothing attractiveness is a predictor 24 . . . of comp031te leadership for girls. H The four clothing variables were entered as independent variables into a stepwise regression pro- cedure to predict composite leadership for girls. The results of the analysis are reported in Table 12 (page 49). 69 Clothing attractiveness and clothing awareness were significant predictors of composite leadership for girls. Thirty-six percent of the variance in composite leadership was accounted for by clothing attractiveness and clothing awareness. Clothing attractiveness contrib- uted more to the prediction than clothing awareness, but both were highly related to composite leadership. The correlation coefficients representing the relationship between clothing mode conformity, clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing, clothing attractive- ness and composite leadership are reported in Table 6, (page 46). H21 was not supported because clothing mode con- formity was not predictive of composite leadership for girls. The magnitude of the correlation between clothing mode conformity and composite leadership was moderate (r=.32). H was definitely supported. Clothing mode 22 awareness contributed significantly to the regression equation and was highly correlated with composite leadership (r=.50). The magnitude of the correlation coefficient and the results of the regression analysis suggest that there was no relationship between prestige clothing and com- posite leadership. Thus, H23 was not supported. 70 H24 was supported because clothing attractiveness was a predictor of composite leadership and highly cor- related with composite leadership (r=.51). The results of this study supported ten of the 24 ,proposed hypotheses. Clothing mode awareness and clothing attractiveness were significant predictors of represen- tational leadership for boys while only clothing mode awareness was a significant predictor of representational leadership for girls. Clothing attractiveness was a significant predictor of organizational leadership for boys, while clothing mode awareness was a significant predictor of organizational leadership only for girls. Clothing mode awareness, prestige clothing and clothing attractiveness were significant predictors of composite leadership for boys while clothing mode awareness and clothing attractiveness were significant predictors of composite leadership for girls. Significant correlation coefficients indicated that for 18 of the 24 hypothesized relationships, clothing was positively related to leader- ship. Implications of Findings Since the data revealed a definite relationship between clothing and leadership, the proposed theory that the leader uses clothing to reflect and extend his influ- ence within the group and is recognized as a leader by others in part because of his clothing cannot be 71 discounted. Perhaps the leader uses clothing to assist him/her in obtaining and possibly maintaining the leader- ship position. Although clothing is only one of many variables associated with leadership, it is an important variable because clothing is a highly visible clue to possible leadership. The most recent studies dealing with leadership have tended to neglect the study of the leader's physical characteristics. Instead more emphasis has been placed on various personality and social charac- teristics. However, many of these characteristics such as self—confidence, creativity and c00perativeness are not readily observable and frequently involve more stringent measurement techniques. Clothing is quite visible and can be used as a potential clue to teachers, parents and others involved with high school students in understanding group functioning and processes. The sample for this study was not a random sample of high school students and therefore does not include a representative cross section of adolescents with the result that generalizations to other populations cannot be made. However, based on the Cornfield-Tukey argument for inference,1 conclusions can be drawn to a p0pulation that hypothetically could exist. 1Cornfield, "Average Value of Mean Squares," pp. 907-949. 72 The results of this study revealed that clothing was an excellent indicator of which students were or were not likely to be leaders within the high school group. By knowing a boy's level of attractiveness in his cloth- ing, one can predict whether he will be more or less likely to be a leader. However for girls, awareness of the clothing mode was the most influential factor in predicting whether or not she was more or less likely to be a leader. There are many situations where it is necessary or helpful for those outside the group, or even those inside, to identify which person is most likely to be a leader. A very visible part of our everyday environment is clothing. Therefore, it is readily accessible as an indicator of leadership potential. Although an individual's clothing is only one aspect of those factors which contribute to his/her leadership potential, it is an important aspect because a large amount of information can be obtained about leader- ship with relatively little amount of effort. Educators, parents and others who have contact with high school students should be alert to the clues which clothing can provide about social interaction. Recommendations for Further Study A refinement of the leadership measures is strongly recommended. Particularly, Moore's technique 73 for measuring status within the high school should be repeated as a measure of leadership and the same subjects studied in terms of their clothing. Reactions of those outside the peer group to the leader's clothing also need to be investigated. A study employing the stepwise multiple regression statistical technique using clothing and other factors found to be highly related to leadership would provide valuable information as to the relative importance of clothing in relationship to other factors influencing leadership. Furthermore, a replication of this study using adult men and women as subjects would contribute to an understanding of leadership. It is the belief of the researcher that one might expect similar results as found in this study using adult subjects. Finally, because of the benefits to be derived from using a random sample in terms of statistical infer- ence, a study investigating the relationship between clothing and leadership where the sample is randomly selected is strongly recommended. BIBLIOGRAPHY 74 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Brown, Roger, Social Psychology. New York: The Free Press, 1965. Gibb, Cecil A. Seventh Mental Measurements. Edited by Oscar K. Buros. Highland Park, New Jersey: The Gryphon Press, 1972. Krech, David, Crutchfield, Richard, and Ballachey, Egerton L. Individual in Society. New York: McGraw Hill, 1962. Morgan, Clifford T., and King, Richard A. Introduction to Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1966. Newcomer, Mabel. The Big Business Executive. New York: Columbia University Press, 1955. Nie, Norman H., Bent, Dale H., and Hull, C. Hadlai. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1970. Stogdill, Ralph M. Handbook of Leadership. New York: The Free Press, 1974. Stogdill, Ralph M., and Shartle, Carroll L. Methods in the Study of Administrative Leadership. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Bureau of Business Research, 1955. Stone, Gregory P. "Appearance and the Self," in Dress, Adornment and the Social Order. Edited by Roach, M.E., and EiCher, J.B. New York, London, Sydney: John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated. 1965. pp. 216-245. Articles Argyris, C. "Some Characteristics of Successful Execu- tives," Personnel Journal, 32 (1953), 50-63. 75 76 Beer, M., Rorowitz, M.W., and Levy, D. "Some Perceived Properties of the Differences Between Leaders and Nonleaders," Journal of Psychology, 47 (1959), 49-56. Boardman, William K., Calhoun, Lawrence G., and Schiel, John H. "Life Experience Patterns and Develop- ment of College Leadership Roles." Psychological Reports. 31 (1972). 333-334. Bundel, C.M. "Is Leadership Losing Its Importance?" Infantrprournal. 36 (1930), 339—349. Burnett, C.W. "Leadership on the College Campus." 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"Leadership in the High School." School Review. 46 (1938), 523-531. Remmlein, M.K. "Analysis of Leaders Among High School Seniors." Journal of Experimental Education. 6 (1938), 413-422. Reynolds, F.J. "Factors of Leadership Among Seniors of Central High School, Tulsa, Oklahoma." Journal of Educational Research. 27 (1944), 356-361. Rose, A.M. "Alienation and Participation: A Comparison of Group Leaders and the Mass." American Sociological Review. 27 (1962), 834-838. Sheldon, W.H. "Social Traits and Morphologic Type." Personnel Journal. 6 (1927), 47-55. Slater, Philip E. "Role Differentiation in Small Groups." American Sociological Review. 20 (1955), 300-310. Stephenson, T.E. "The Leader-Follower Relationship." Sociological Review. 7 (1959), 179-195. Terman, L.M. ("A Preliminary Study in the Psychology and Pedagogy of Leadership." Journal of Genetic Psychology. 11 (1904), 413-451. Zeleny, L.D. "Characteristics of Group Leaders." Sociology of Social Research. 24 (1939), 140-149. 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The Pennsylvania State University. 1959. Strickland, Earline. "Relationship of Clothing and Personal Appearance to Social Acceptance and Participation of Girls in a Mississippi High School." Master's Thesis. Iowa State. 1969. "The Relationship of Clothing to the Personal and Social Acceptability of Adolescents." Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin. No. 80 750. (1972). Michigan State University Study under the direction of Anna M. Creekmore. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Census of the Population: 1960. Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce. U.S. Bureau of the Census. Michigan General Social and Economic Characteristics. 1960. Washington, D.C.: Department of Commerce. Van DeWal, Shally L. "A Study of the Relationship Between Clothing Conformity and Peer Acceptance Among Eighth Grade Girls." Master's Thesis. Purdue University. 1968. Van Staden, Francine Johanna. "The Relationship of Prestigious Clothing to Acceptance by the Peer Group of Adolescent Boys and Girls." Master's Thesis. Michigan State University. 1970. APPENDICES 81 APPENDIX A TABLES OF BIOGRAPHICAL DATA 82 83 Table A.l.--Numerical and percentage distribution of subjects according to age. Boys Girls Total Age No . % No . % No . % 15 43 35 62 56 105 46 16 67 55 44 40 111 48 17 ll 10 3 3 l4 6 18 0 0 l l l 0 Total 121 100 110 100 231 100 Table A.2.--Numerical and percentage distribution of subjects according to area of residence. Area of Boys Girls Total Residence No. % No. % No. % Town 53 44 60 54 113 49 Suburb 14 12 3 3 l7 7 Rural 54 45 47 43 101 44 Total 121 101* 110 100 231 100 *Error due to rounding. - APPENDIX B QUESTIONNAIRE 84 Dear Students: We would like your help in our survey about teenagers and their clothing. It is only with the help of you students that our study can be of value. At the beginning of each section you will find directions for the correct procedure to follow in that section. We would very much appreciate your cooperation in completely filling out the following questionnaire to the best of your knowledge. Thank you. Name Age Male Female Check where you live: In Town Suburb Rural Area 2 Below is a list of the organizations in your ’your position in those to which you belong. Name of Organization Committee Chairman of Committee So omore Class . Art C u . io;Visua . Girls Athle ic Association uture Nurses Future Teachers . Pen Pals P C ub . Science C u . French Club Future Business Leaders of America . K C u . Annual ta . Band . Choir . Cheerleaders . Future Farmers u ure omemakcrs . S l ht Staff . Student Council . ars t Foo . Jr. Varsi Foot . Varsit Basket 11 . Jr. Varsit Basket 11 Baseball . Cross Co Golf . vanastics Tennis . Track .rest in ther school. Check ected Officer (other than president) Write name of position President Do Not firite “In This Column Please indicate the main wage earner in your family. father mother other (please specify) (example: stepfather, uncle, brother) Please indicate the source of income for the major wage earner in your family. a) wages, hourly wages (weekly paycheck) b) profits and fees from a business or profession c) salary paid on a monthly basis d) social security or unemployment insurance e) odd jobs, irregular work, seasonal work f) if other, please eXplain HIM Please eXplain in detail what the main wage earner does at work. Please eXplain Specifically type pf work. Examples: salesman in a clothing store, waiter, manages 20 other workers in an office, works on the assembly-line, owns and manages a small store with 6 employees. Does any other person contribute to the financial support of your family? yes no If yes, please explain who (mother, brother, uncle). Please eXplain in detail the type of work done by this person. Do Not Write in This Column. 4 Please indicate the source of income for the second person who contributes to your family's financial support a) wages, hourly wages (weekly paycheck) b) profits and fees from a business or profession c) salary paid on a monthly basis d) social security or unemployment insurance e) odd jobs, irregular work, seasonal work f) if other, please explain Please indicate highest level of education achieved by each of the following: father mother main wage earner (if other than mother or father) finished 7th grade or lower finished 8th grade finished 9th grade finished 10th or 11th grade graduated from high school 1 to 3 years of college college graduate graduate school after college don't know H- D‘CQ H: (“D Q o O" 93 VVVVVVVVV 'Pi f the main wage earner is a college graduate, what the highest degree he holds? [.4 U) Do Not Write In This Column I l p 7 List the full names of penth grade students that best fit each of the following: 1. Which students in your grade are your best friends (the ones you feel closest to)? 2. Who do you think are the most popular students in your grade? 3. Give the names of the students in your grade that you would most like to date. A. List the names of students in your grade whom you would like to represent your high school at a national meeting of high school students. 5. If all the students in your grade were asked to help on a class project which of the students would you like to work with? You will find all the tenth grade students' names listed below. We would like you to show the degree of closeness you would most prefer with each by circling the prOper number beside their name. Classify each student according to the categories listed below. Notice that each situation represents a different degree of "closeness? Please be sure to circle one number by every name. Beside each student's name circle one number which is closest to how you feel: 0 if you don't know this person very well 1 if you would be in the same class with this person 3 if you would enjoy eating lunch with this person 4 if you would choose this student to be a close friend Students' Names Circle Students' Names Circle Number here Number here 0 0 O 0 000000000 10 I; You will find,on the following pages, pictures of both boys and girls items of clothing. The pictured items are divided into categories according to style and ways of wearing them. Circle one item in each category which you think is most commonly worn by the majority of boys or girls in your class. A. Girls Shirt Length 1. 5. 6. ,.About 6" ..Lbout 4” .1About 1" - 2" .At Knee Cap Just Below 2” Below ,Above Knee Above Knee ,Above Knee Knee Knee 8; Girls Leg Covering : i f I i I E i X i ‘ 1 l J \ Colored Fish Net Colors gxtured Knit Hosiery Hosiery Nylon Hosiery Hosiery Bobby Socks No or Anklets Cover h ,r / 5 V Jumper a. Blouse & Sweater Skirt, Blouse \\ l i ‘\ h . 3 Skirt & Blouse c. Type 01' Clothing Skirt & Shell or Sweater 13 E. Girls Fabric Design of Dresses or Skirts 1. Solid Color ‘4. Large Prmt 7. Small Stripe 10. Plaid any} '_‘;:?'.’_-_--" - mm (‘12...— M” - 11. Small Stripe Plaid D ’.‘ . ‘Q I it . . . . - ' . ' l . 9. Large Stripe JUMP?llllg'gllmffglll“? 3111115111111; EIEIgIEIEIgIg JED: : :flfllfltlillfrgflfliz'illll- ‘ .flmn ; E E's-Eiglélfi V Mlgfllfli. Waikiki)"; LWETQ. .lslélsifiiéls . W}: I.117"?.:vllfl:z.4-1MEAIH‘y7flHftf; .4- -Iéliélélfil'é'. = ..|llls-":m1|e.»:lfllér H“: ' "flag“? .5 ‘ ‘ .1 HM "fl ‘lflt 77/] Ml ., IEI§I§IsIE -. .m; mur. .um. name. 2 mum ) 1 20 (£111ng ,ChOCk 14 F. Girls Shoes 1. Penny Loafer 2. Plain Loafer 3. Tassal Loafer 4.Buckle Loafer 5. High Top (Tie or Buckle) 6. Moccasin .'. ‘ 1-‘:-.V \ -fl- 9"! 7. Tie Oxford 8. White Tennis Shoe 9. Colored Tennis Shoe W 10. Plain FlfltS 1.1. Flats With Open Work 12..Sandal fi 13. Patent Block Heels 14. Stack Heels (Pump or Sling Back) (Pump or T—Strap) Q, Boys Trousers Length 15 1 1 1 ' 27" g g £9 . Long with 4. 2" above 5. 1+" above Wrinkle 2. TOp of Shoe 3. Ankle Ankle Ankle 8.. Boys Trousers - Lip ”~— _ ‘ a" ‘:‘- -— ’- .v #— ’M”’ N .o J”... .._ h.“ M..- "u . —. ._.____.__'—-‘"' ._ . ..« “.‘.-.._—.—_-—- -._ - // } ‘ / 1 \ k to :13 L/l 1. Very Tight 2. Tight 3. Medium 1*. Loose 5. Baggy I.Boys Trousers pg; J. Boys Trousers Typg 1. Jeans 2. causal Slacks 3. Dress Slacks 16 K.Boys Shirt Cb rs fl / \ ;\ : 1. 2. 3. ° 1». Button-down Collar convertible Cellar Cbllarless Knit Shirt Plain Cbllar 7. Turtle Neck J area or 1.31..reatshirt Mock Turtle Neck L6 BOYS Shirt Egbrig DOS-:1. ‘\ g—-——-—o ." 3 __..~- l. 2. 3. iolid Cbllar Small Stripe Plaid Large Print Small Print Horizontal Polka Dot Striped M. Boys Shirt Tails IN or OUT 0 1. 2. ' 3. 4. Dress Shirt Dress Shirt Pullover Pullover Jae Shirt IN OUT OUT IN our N’. Boys Shirt 9.9.1229. 1. Black 6. Geld 11. Purple 2. Light Blue 7. Graen 12. Red 3. Dark Biue 8- Olive-Green 13. Tim 4. Brown 9- Grey 14. White- 5. Cranberry 10. Orange? 15. Yellow 17 0. Boys Shoes 8: Socks Slip On With Buckle 2. Slip On 3. Penny loafer 4. Tassal Loafer 3. High Top Loafer 6. Moccasin ' 11. Tie Oxford 1. Low 10. Open Weave Fabric ’- Sport Tennis ' )4 . High Cut. Pointed 14. Desert Boot 15. cwboy Beet 16. Military or Work Boot Toe , Dress Shoe 4 ‘1 mum 1. White Socks 2. Dark Socks 3. Patterned Socks 4. Light Socks 5. No Socks (black. Grey, brown, (tan. gold. rust. dark blue 8: green) cranberry. light green) .1. New school: over the pictures and write ”IN“ by any one of the items in each category which you think is the "newest thing going". Write “OUT" by the items which are completely ”out of it'. If none of the pictures in a category represents what you think is the ”I!" or "013‘!"I its. show how your idea is different by marking over the pictured item most nearly like it. Dear Students: We would like your help in our survey about teenagers and their clothing. It is only with the help of you students that our study can be of value. At the beginning of each section you will find directions for the correct procedure to follow in that section. We would very much appreciate your cooperation in completely filling out the following questionnaire to the best of your knowledge. Thank you. Name Age Male Female Check where you live: In Town Suburb Rural Area 2 Below is a list of the organizations in your school. Check Do Not Hrite 'your position in those to which you belong. “In This Column lected Officer (other than president) Write name of position Name of Organization Committee Chairman of Committee President Sophomore Class . Art Club . o—Visua . Girls Athletic Association . Future Nurses Future Teachers . Pen Pals C u . cience C u . French Club Future Business Leaders of America . K C u . Annua Sta . Ba . Choir . Cheerleaders . Fu ure Farmers . u ure Homemakers . S t1 ht Staff . Student Council . ars Foo . Jr. Varsit Foot . Varsit Basket 11 . Jr. Varsi Basket . Baseball . Cross Coun Golf . G nastics . Tennis . Track restlin ther Please indicate the main wage earner in your family. father mother other (please Specify) (example: stepfather, uncle, brother) Please indicate the source of income for the major wage earner in your family. a) wages, hourly wages (weekly paycheck) b) profits and fees from a business or profession ) salary paid on a monthly basis ) social security or unemployment insurance ) odd jobs, irregular work, seasonal work ) if other, please eXplain HJQQO *— “In _— Please eXplain in detail what the main wage earner does at work. Please eXplain Specifically type 2i work. Examples: salesman in a clothing store, waiter, manages 20 other workers in an office, works on the assembly-line, owns and manages a small store with 6 employees. Does any other person contribute to the financial support of your family? yes no If yes, please explain who (mother, brother, uncle). Please explain in detail the type of work done by this person. Do Not Write in This Column. I}, Please indicate the source of income for the second person who contributes to your family’s financial support. wages, hourly wages (weekly paycheck) profits and fees from a business or profession salary paid on a monthly basis social security or unemployment insurance odd jobs, irregular work, seasonal work if other, please eXplain Please indicate highest level of education achieved by each of the follOWing: father mother main wage earner (if other than mother or finished finished finished finished graduate H' S‘CQ H: (D Q o 0‘ W vvvvvvvvv P'Fi mew father) 7th grade or lower 8th grade ch grade 10th or 11th grade graduated from high school 1 to 3 years of college college graduate school after college don't know the main wage earner is a college graduate, what the highest degree he holds? Do Not Write In This Column '0 7 List the full names of tenth grade students that best fit each of the following: 1. Which students in your grade are your best friends (the ones you feel closest to)? 2. Who do you think are the most pOpular students in your grade? 3. Give the names of the students in your grade that you would most like to date. a. List the names of students in your grade whom you would like to represent your high school at a national meeting of high school students. 5. If all the students in your grade were asked to help on a class project which of the students would you like to work with? You will find all the tenth grade students' names listed below. ‘We would like you to show the degree of closeness you would most prefer with each by circling the proper number beside their name. Classify each student according to the categories listed below. Notice that each situation represents a different degree of "closeness? Please be sure to circle one number by every name. Beside each student's name circle one number which is closest to how you feel: 0 if you don't know this person very well 1 if you would be in the same class with this person 3 if you would enjoy eating lunch with this person 4 if you would choose this student to be a close friend Students' Names Circle Students' Names Circle Number here Number here 10 I. You will find,on the following pages, pictures of both boys and girls items of clothing. The pictured items are divided into categoriestaccording to style and ways of wearing them. Circle one item in each category which you think is most commonly worn by the majority of boys or girls in your class. A. Girls Shirt Length ‘a-o- % V% s t u 1. 20 30 he 50 6o , About 6" . About #” -1About l" - 2" .At Knee Cap Just Below 2" Below Above Knee Above Knee Above Knee Knee Knee B; Girls Leg Covering Colored Fish Net =5tured Knit Hosiery Hosiery Bobby Socks No or Anklets Cover C. Type 01‘ Clothing Jumper & Blouse Skirt, Blouse & Sweater Skirt & (Blouse Skirt & Shell or Sweater 13 E. Girls Eabric Design of Dresses or Skirts 1. Solid color h. Large Print 7.&m£iflxnm 10. Plaid i . . Hr * . .* {3* *-. *1 9"“ X'x' V in ,(fi'n‘ ¥ 0 a t 91'9“ it . ~a* *3. # ,, ($.99 8. Medium Stri 11. Small Stripe Plaid :_ 'féimltgmusggn:23mg imn; §I§I§I§I§I§I§ LNLWEMQM‘WfiW; sIsIeIsIsIsls HWHLJME silflgglnhz -‘ .n.. .ml" E's-E sl%!$le f":WBR‘WH".:vllmt.;¢m{.¥zlll:1:{1m} EIfiIEIEIEIEI= gmgmnrs un.:.-.uwu1m:sm gig Ia E :‘lllll'f‘i :mz'.."mur '; "mammal?! mum. 12.Ghmmmfimum 14 F. Girls Shoes / 1. Penny Loafer 2. Plain Loafer 4.Buckle Loafer 5. High Top (Tie or Buckle) 6. Moccasin 8. White Tennis Shoe 9. Colored Tennis Shoe a “6 ?)\' 10. Plain Flats 11. Flats with Open Work 12. Sandal t/g 13. Patent Block Heels 1H. Stack Heels (Pump or Sling Back) (Pump or T-Strap) G. Boys Trousers Length 1 as a l. . Long with 1+. 2" above 5. 1+" above Wrinkle 2. TDp of Shoe .Ankle Ankle Ankle H.. Boys Trousers ‘ _1?_i_t_ l! w \u 1:! 1. Very Tight 2. Tight 3. Medium l+. Loose 5- Baggy I.B'oys Trousers M J. Boys Trousers Type 1. Jeans 2. Causal Slacks 3. Dress Slacks I'No cuff 16 K.che Shirt Cb re _ / \/;\ : 1. 2. 3. ° 4. Button-down Collar convertible Collar Cbllarleee Knit Shirt Plain Collar Turtle Neck J erssg or ISweatshirt Hock Turtle Neck L." Boys Shirt Ejabricc esi \‘ M, l I h: 1. 20 3. iolid Collar Small Stripe Plaid Large Print Small Print Horizontal Stripes M. Boys 5mm Tails IN or OUT 0 0 1. 2. 30 1+. Dress Shirt Dress Shirt Pullover Pullover Jac Shirt IN OUT OUT IN our N’. Boys Shirt 952193;; 1. Back 6. Gold 11. Purple 2. Light Blue 7. Green 12. Red 3. Dark Blue 8. Olive'Green 13. Tan 4. Brown 9- Guy 14. White- 5. cranberry 10- Orange? 15. Yellow 17 0. Boys Shoes 8: Socks I ." _‘ J'lip On With Buckle 2. Slip On 3. Penny Loafer l+. Tassel Loafer 9. High TOp Loafer 6. Moccasin 11 0 Tie OXfOI'd f .. High Cut, Pointed _Toe, Dress Shoe 14. Desert Boot 1. White Socks 2. Dark Socks 3. Patterned Socks 1+. Light Socks 5. No Socks (black, Grey, brown, (tan, gold, rust. dark blue & green) cranberry, light green) I. L LI. How go'baek over the pictures and write "IN" by any one of the items in each category which you think is the "newest thing going”. Write ”OUT” by the items which are completely “out of it'. If none of the pictures in a category represents what you think is the "IN" or 'OUT" item show how your idea is different by marking over the pictured item most nearly like it. "‘Wfijlyfllfl'fllllfljlllnlWilli!“ 2454