ORGAHEZAflGN CHANGE: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY WETH CRITICAL ESSAY Thesis far the Deer» of M. P. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNSVERSIT"! Paufi M. Songpéeh-E 296:3 ORGANIZATION CHANGE: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGAAIHY NIT* CRITICAL ESSAY By Paul M. Sengpiehl l rf‘T-f'f'fllfi 7" n Lilia) I 0 Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Department of Political Science 1961 \j' - .‘ \ _\ m \Q II. III. IV. V. VI. TABLE OF COKTEKTS ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ORGANIZATIONAL KEKBER CHANCES A. SELF-ACTUILIZATION CONCEPT B. ATTITUDE FORCES C. ORGANIZATIONAL FORCES D. NANIFEST NEIBEE CHANCES LEADERSHIP: AN ORGANIZATIONAL FORCE A. LEADERS AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS B. ADEINISTENTIVE SUCCESSION CONCLUSION CROSS—REFERENCE INDEX TO CHANGE VARIABLES ILLUSTRATIONS ANFOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ii iii vi 10 26 33 33 45 54 56 59 62 ABSTRACT ORGANIZATION CHANGE: ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY WITH CRITICAL ESSAY By Paul M. Sengpiehl Scholars in varied disciplines for some time have been interested in the problem of change. Recently, a growing interest has developed concerning changes within organiz- ations. Because a bibliography covering material dealing with changes within organizations has not been compiled, a critical essay with an annotated bibliography should prove useful to students of private and public administration who are interested in organizational change problems. The central theme of this thesis deals with changes individuals make while they are members of an organization. Individual changes presented are attitude and behavior changes. “An attitude is a mental and neural state of readi- ness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all obJeets and situations with which it is related.'* In order to present a clearer understanding of individual changes of attitudes and behavior we will develop a pattern for change. Initial phases of this pattern deal with forces which influ- ence individual changes within organizations. Resulting phases of this pattern present manifest changes influenced by these forces. Many of these manifest changes are observed 'Goraon w. Allport, "The Historical Background of Medern Seeial Psychology", Handbook of Social Ps cholo , ed. Gardner Lindze , (Cambridge: Addison-Wesley Bfiblishing Co., Inc.) I, (1954 , 45. 111 as both changes and forces, which influence other changes. This pattern of individual change is presented in two parts: (1.) Individual Changes within Organizations; and (11.) Leadership considered as a force in individual changes. Organizational members are, of course, of primary im- portance in accomplishing organizational goals. As organ- izational members are important to organizations, it behooves students of administration to understand organisational mem- bers. We should understand the forces influencing organiza- tional member attitudes and behavior and member reaction to these forces. For this reason it is this thesis' purpose to synthesize literature as it relates to specific themes of individual behavior and attitude changes within an organiza- tional setting. While this essay is not meant to present an exhaustive treatment of this subject on individual changes, it does attempt to present a basis understanding of organiza- tional member changes. In the cssay's first part we discuss four topics related to organizational member changes: (A.) The Self-Actualiza- tion concept; (B.) Organizational Member Changes; (0.) Organ- izational Forces on Organizational Member Changes; and (B.) Organizational Member's Manifest Changes. An important force which either helps or hinders organ- izational member's change is leadership. Because of organ- izational leadership importance and because of subject material volume it is necessary to present a separate topic iv on leadership as a force influencing individual changes. In this part of our discussion we discuss two topics: (A.) Leaders and Organizational Members; and (B.) Administrative Succession. After the second part there is a conclusion followed by a cross-reference index of variables. These index variables provide a quick reference to original sources as these sources are numbered in the annotated bibliography. Cross-reference index variables are presented under: (A.) Forces Influencing Organizational Member Changes; and (B.) Manifest Organiza- tional Member Changes. Following the cross-reference index the annotated bibliography presents pertinent material in various dis- ciplines pertaining to forces influencing organizational mem- ber changes and to manifestations of organizational member changes. The annotated bibliography is divided into two parts: (1.) Books; and (B.) Periodicals. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Gratefulness is expressed to Mr. Stanley Gabis for his suggestion of this subject and constructive criticism on its presentation. Added gratefulness to Mr. Charles Joiner for his patient and helpful criticism of my thesis. Also, gratitude is expressed for my mother's and father's prayers, moral support and encouragement, which have been essential to completing this thesis. Vi I ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBER CHANGES A. SELF-ACTUALIZATION CONCEPT The basic variable for this thesis is organizational member changes. Our main concern is to understand these individuals in organizational situations. However, in order to know what happens in organizations we are assisted by understanding influences from outside organizations. Chris Argyris, for example, hypothesizes the self-actualization concept and then describes how this concept relates to organ- izational influences.1 The self-actualization concept concerns a series of individual changes commencing with infancy and progressing to adulthood. Individuals in our culture while infants are in a state of passivity and dependency upon their parents. They are capable of behaving only in a few ways. Their inter- ests are erratic, casual, and shallow producing short time perspectives. In this subordinate position they tend to lack awareness of or control over themselves. As adulthood pro- gresses, they become increasingly active and relatively inde- pendent. Adults are capable of behaving many ways, develop- ing deeper interests and establishing longer time perspect- ives. They achieve equal or superordinate positions to their peers, i.e., adults, and maintain relative control over their lives. During individual growth varied characteristics of an 1. Chris Argyris, Understanding Organizational Behavior (Homewood, Illinois: the Dorsey Tress, Tnc., leooT, p lff 2 infant or adult exist. Argyris believes that each character- istic of an adult or infant can be conceptualized on a conti- nuum upon which the individual can be plotted at a given time. The exact location of any individual differs from time to time. Argyris hypothesizes that the mature individual in our culture is a person who is predisposed toward the mature adult end of the continua. This mature individual is not completely interested in his own growth. Associated with this is the assumption that individuals are imcomplcte by them- selves. Completeness is achieved through interaction with others. Therefore, self-actualization occurs through this relationship with others. Organizations are means whereby individuals can achieve self-aetualization. Argyris contends that organizations are rational and make rational demands on individuals. Some characteristics of this rationality are specialization of tasks, emphasis on power, conformity and loyalty to organ- izational objectives. Assuming formal organization based on these characteristics and a relatively mature individual, Argyris hypothesizes a limited self-actualization of indivi- duals. These characteristics of formal organization place the mature individual in a relatively infantile situation. He has minimal control over his work world. He is passive, dependent, and subordinate. He uses only a few shallow abil- ities and is expected to produce. This work situation is 3 incongruent with the needs of a relatively mature individual in our culture. For this organizational situation Argyris proposes the following: "Proposition 1: There is a lack of congruency between the needs of healthy individuals and the demands of the (initial) formal organization. “Corollary 1: The disturbance will vary in proportion to the degree of incongruency between the needs of the individuals and the requirements of the formal organ- ization. "Proposition 11: The resultants of this disturbance are frustration, failure, short time perspective, and con- flict. "Proposition III: Under certain conditions the degree of frustration, failure, short time perspective and con- flict will tend to increase. "Proposition IV: The nature of the formal principles of organization causes the subordinates, at any given level, to experience competition, rivalry, intersub- ordinate hostility and to develop a focus toward the parts rather than the whole. "Proposition V; Employees react to the formal organ- ization by reactions such as day dreaming, aggression." B. ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBER CHANGES Members of an organization may be influenced to make numerous changes within organizations. Forces influencing organizational member changes are of two primary varieties, psychological and sociological. The present discussion syn- thesizes ideas and studies related to psychological forces. Regardless of a person's position within the organiza- tion, his attitudes influence his behavior. Our attempt is to describe several of these individual attitudes presented in literature on organization change. These attitudes are 4 discussed under four sections: (1.) Desire for security; (2.) Desire for achieving goals; (3.) Desire for finishing jobs; and (4.) Desire to participate. 1, Desire For Security How sure can a person be of remaining in the organization or remaining in his present position? Insecurity among organ- ization members of job or position may influence either differ- ing attitudes or differing behavior than under secure condi- tions. Bernard Stern states that force of habit tends to per- sist in an organizational member's set of behaviors, that is, an individual selects experiences which fit his habits. Some members may desire to maintain their economic status in organizations.1 Changes in work experiences and economic status would bring economic uncertainty. Uncertainty or in- security of the future may produce attitudes of fear which lead to resistance to organizational changes affecting habit or economic status. Presthas interjects the idea that attempts at decreasing anxiety or fear among organizational members increase their willingness to accept changes in habit or econ- omic status.2 Peter Blau provides an illustration of the importance of security among bureaucratic civil servants. In The Dynamics of Bureaucracy Blau points out that insecurity among the least 1. Bernhard J. Stern, "Resistance to the Adoption of Technical Innovation", Technological Trends and National Polic , Sub com- mittee on Technology of‘the National Resources Cemmi tee (Wash- ington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1937), p 60 ff 2. Robert V. Presthus, "Toward a Theory of Organizational Be- havior," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol 3 (June, 1958), p 51. 5 competent civil servants studied, resulted in unfavorable responses to organizational changes affecting their security.1 Civil servants in lower status positions tended to react similarly. Civil servants not in these two categories main- tained a favorable attitude toward organizational changes affecting themselves or their position.) The security of civil servant's position lends itself to a more favorable attitude and reaponse to organizational change than for a factory worker whose position is not as secure. This potential in- security among factory workers may be a reason for greater resistance to organizational changes affecting employees within industry. g; Desire For AchievinggCoals The desire to achieve goals or satisfy personal needs is as important to organizational members as the need for secur- ity. When obstacles interfere with achieving personal goals, these members frequently become frustrated. Argyris stresses the effects of formal organization whigh establishes a depend- ency less than normal for a mature, healthy individual as being an important cause of frustration.2 Individual frus- tration leads to dissatisfaction with work, position and related organizational factors. Should frustration continue, an organization member may feel he is a failure or inadequate 1. Peter Blau, The Dynamics of Bureaucracy (Chicago: the University of Chicago Press, 1955), p. 199. 2. Argyris, o . cit., p.13ff and Chris Argyris, "The Individ- ual and Organization: Some Problems of Mutual Adjustment," Administrative Scienceggparterly, Vol 2 (June, 1957, p. lef. AISO"NOte Figure 1. 6 to do his job. He may develop "short time perspectives" which produce uncertainty and insecurity. Should the member dislike these conditions and wish to react, he may find him- self in conflict with the entire system. Competition and hostility may add to the obstacles interferring with the achievement of his goals. These forces which prevent the member from achieving his goals or needs are also forces influencing him to change his attitude and behavior. Among the many studies on employee frustration in attempts to achieve their goals is Robert Guest's study of "Work Careers and Aspirations of Automobile Workers."1 After interviewing 202 hourly production workers employed at least 12 years in an automobile assembly plant, Guest found that assembly line workers were dissatisfied with their position in the organization. Frequently this dissatisfaction or frustration was expressed in their inability to control their work-pace, or achieve short-run and immediate gains in the organization. This frustration of employees' goals was important in their desire to leave the organization and work where they could achieve their goals; this, however meant greater insecurity. High wages and job security out- weighed this outside attraction, which was sublimated through ambition for their children's success. Another study by Robert Guest illustrates how workers frustrated in achieving their goals do not fully adjust to the 1. Robert H. Guest, "Work Careers and Aspirations of Auto- mobile WCrkers," American Sociological Reviewi Vol 19 (April, 1954), p. I63. 7 1 work pace of their job. This frustration of the workers interviewed influenced their decision to leave their posi- tion and seek another job. Helen Metzner and Floyd Mann in their study "Employee Attitudes and Absences" show how employee dissatisfaction for work conditions influenced low skilled white collar men workers and blue collar men workers to be absent from work.2 Similar results were not true for higher level white collar men or women. E. Wight Bakke in his article "Why Workers Join Unions" expresses the thought that union membership is a means for reducing employee's frustration and anxiety.3 Uhion member- ship enhances the worker's value, giving him social respect and economic security plus a measure of independence and control over his own affairs. Whereas the organizational situation may produce employee frustration and anxiety, the union restores many aSpects of a mature human being. These illustrations tend to substantiate Argyris' con- cept of mature adult individuals in the organizational sit- uation. In the two works by Guest employee dissatisfaction was due to the organizational work-pace and their inability to achieve short run or immediate gains. Hetzner and Mann 1. Robert H. Guest, "A Neglected Factor in Labor Turnover", Occupational Psychology, Vol 29 (Oct, 1955), p. 229ff. 2. Helen Metzner and Floyd Mann, "Employee Attitudes and Absences," Personnel Psychology, Vol (Winter ,1953),p. 467ff. E. RN? ht Bakke "Why Workers Join 6Unions", Personnel, Vol. §uly, 1945), p. 57ft. 8 showed how dissatisfaction with working conditions led to absences, and Bakke pointed out that employee dissatis- faction led to membership in unions where workers gain a measure of independence over their own affairs. Each study describes the employee as less than the mature adult, which tends to produce frustration. Frustration in turn shows that aelf-actualization is not achieved, which may lead to behavior changes as; leaving the organization temporarily or perma- nently, or Joining informal groups as these studies demon- strated. 3. Desire To Finish Jobs. Attitude forces as insecurity and frustration which tend to produce limited effectiveness are not the only forces in- fluencing individuals in organizations. Ronald Lippitt cx- pressca an attitude force on organizational members to com- plete a task.1 These members also desire to meet expectations and demands of a specialist or leader in the organization. This is important should the specialist designate these mem- bers to initiate a new policy. For then the desire to support the specialist and com plate the Job becomes an important force for successfully completing new policies. It also pro- duces a change in the individual's behavior. Another important factor in employee implementation of new policy is the knowledge or understanding that is related to new policies. Mervyn L. Cadwallader in his article "The 1. Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley, The D amies of Planned Change, (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Ugipany, 1958), p. 85ff. 9 Cybernetic Analysis of Change in Complex Social Organiza- tions" points out that man's ability to change his behavior to carry out a new policy is limited by the quantity and variety of information available at a particular time and place.1 Information may be supplied through past and present success and/or failures. Information is important in man's understanding of new policy, and the means of implementing that new policy, and thus bringing it to completion. 4. Desire To Participate Along with the worker's desire to complete a Job is a force which Andras Angyal refers to as "man's motivation to share or participate in the organization."2 This force is not limited to concluding a Job, but involves some degree of participation in planning affecting any part of his Job. In a study presented in Modern Organization Theory, Argyris expresses the idea that workers tend to accept changes in organizational policy without desiring to participate in planning these changes.5 Of the factory workers interviewed by Argyris, 88%ireported no concern when they did not parti- cipate in planning policy affecting them personally or their 1. Mervyn L. Cadwallader "The Cybernetic Analysis of Change in Complex Social Organizations, "The American Journal of Sociology, Vol 65 (Sept, 1959), p. 155f. 2. Andrea Angyal, Foundation for a Science of Personality, (New York: Commonwealth Fund, 1941), ch 6. 3. Chris Argyris "Understanding Human Behavior in Organiza- tions: One Viewpoint, “Modern Organization Theory, ed. Mason Haire (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1959), p. l48f. 10 position. This idea differs from the idea Angyal previously stated. However, workers do become annoyed initially with these changes; but these annoyances decrease as workers gain control over their new Job. 0. FORMAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATIONAL FORCES Our present discussion attempts to distinguish the forces that originate in the organizational environment of employees as opposed to the previous discussion concerning psychological forces. Most of these organizational forces are initiating forces in a chain of reactions influencing many of the previously described psychological forces. The present discussion of formal and informal organ- izational forces influencing individual changes is divided into two main sections: (1.) Organizational Forces; and (2.) Organizational Informal Group Forces. A.third force, the discussion of leadership forces in organizations, is presented in the second part of this essay which deals pri- marily with leadership and its influences on individual changes. 1. Organizational Forces The organization is a complexity of many functions and parts important for accomplishing many purposes. Every func- tion and every part of an organization is a potential force influencing its members to behave one way or another. Our present discussion is not an exhaustive attempt to treat 11 every force an organization exerts on individuals. Our dis- cussion presents several forces illustrating some complexity involved in understanding forces and reactions to these forces. This discussion is divided into four parts: (a.) formal structure; (b.) working conditions; (a.) changed status posi- tion; and (d.) changed Job content. a. Formal structure Since formal structure of organizations is an extremely broad topic, this discussion will present the material writ- ten stating influences on individual changes in the following areas: (1.) formal principles of administration; (2.) change in formal rules; and (3.) change in authority structure. {1. formal principles For this discussion there is no need to dwell on defini- tions and implications involved in the scientific management school, which advocates the formal principles of management. We need only know what these principles are and how their implementation influences organizational members. Included among these principles are: specialization, unity of direct- ion, chain of command and span of control. *Bpecialization is the dividing of work functions among dif- ferent members. Unity of direction illustrates the principle that orders and decisions stem from one source. Chain of command pictures a hierarchical or pyramid structure through which orders travel from the tap level to the bottom where they are carried out. Span of control means that no one person can effectively handle more than 7, 9, or 11 subordi- nates who answer to him only.) In Argyris' discussion of the self-actualization concept, 12 he preposes that formal principles of management tend to render organizational members dependent, subordinate and passive.1 As the member descends the chain of command he becomes increasingly submissive. This situation, Argyris hypothesizes, develops attitudes of failure, frustration, short time perspectives and conflict within healthy mature organizational members. As previously noted, these attitudes in turn may be forces influencing individual changes in be- havior. Such behavior changes may be the following: leaving the situation through promotion, transfer, taking a new Job, increased absences, or other reactions discussed later. An example of formal principle influence is expressed in John Coleman's article, "The Compulsive Pressure of Democracy in Unionism."2 Here Coleman illustrates how implementation of these scientific management principles affect organiza- tional members. These effects are seen through member op- position to the concept unity of direction which influenced members to form a union. Unions became a means for protect- ing and advancing worker's dignity. (2. formal rules Another area of formal organization affects upon em- ployees is its formal rules. Cyril Sofer in his article, "Reaction to Administrative Change," illustrates the force 1. Argyris, Understanding,Organizational .o . cit. p.13ff. and Personalit’ and Or anfzationL (NewarEE—Harper and BrotEEF§T_I957¥T_p—77f§. Also note Figure l. ifi Ugiggifi' Coleman, "The Compulsive Pressure of Democracy am American Journa of 8001010 V l 61 Ma 1956), p. 5:22. g’ o ( y’ 13 produced by changes in formal rules of the British hospital service following nationalization.l This change in formal rules was unsettling to its members, provoking feelings of anxiety. This anxiety became, in turn, a force producing hostility toward those acting as change agents. (3. authorijy structure. Another important part of formal organizations is the authority structure. This structure determines the flow of orders throughout the organization. Changes in structure may produce a force which influences organizational members to modify their behavior. In a study "The Set-Up Man: A Case Study of Organiza- tional Change," George Strauss illustrates an instance of what happened when such a change in structure occured.2 Strauss describes a change where the chief mechanic was ordered to report directly to the departmental foreman rather than to the master mechanic. This change in authority struc- ture disrupted traditional relationships, created discomforts and resistance. The ultimate result was lowered morale and lowered production. Through this discussion we have attempted to present several forces of formal organization that influence organ- izational member attitudes and behavior. Among these forces 1. Cyril Sofer, "Reactions to Administrative Change:.A Study of Staff Relations in Three British Hospitals,“ Human Rela- tions, Vol 8 (Aug, 1955), p. 313. 2. George Strauss, "The Set-Up Man: A.Case Study of Organ- izational Change," Human Organization, Vol 13, no 2 (Summer, 1952) , p.22ff. * 14 are; (1.) formal scientific management principals, (2.) change in formal rules, and (3.) change in authority structure. Formal principles tend to increase employee dependency on the organization, limiting his self-actualization, producing atti- tudes of failure, frustration, short time perSpectives and con- flicts, which in turn influence behavior changes including promotion, transfer, turnover and Joining the union. Formal rule changes provoke attitudes of anxiety leading to hostili- ties. Authority structure changes produee discomforts which result in lower morale and lower production. b. Working conditions In addition to formal organization we observe such factors as employee work rooms, type of boss and wages, which compose the working conditions. These comprise only a few of many working conditions that are important for organizational mem~ bers. The most famous study describing the influence of work- ing conditions is the Hawthorne Study.1 This study first showed that illumination and physical fatigue are not im- portant forces affecting an individual's increasing or de- creasing productivity. It determined the importance of em- ployees' enjoyment of the experimental room where they were set apart as special organizational members. Added importance of special working conditions was an important force influenc- ing changes in employees' behavior. 1. Mason Hairs, "Industrial Social Psychology," Handbook of ggg%gl_§gy%hgfiggy, Ed. Gardner Lindzey (Cambridge: Addison- es ey is ing 00., Inc. 1954) II, p. 1106 also in F. J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson, Mana ement and the Worker, (Cambridge: Harvard University PFSE§T_T§EETTES_IV9-86. 15 Another example of working condition forces influencing employee changes in attitudes and behavior is observed in the article "Morale in War Industry.“l Here Daniel Katz and Herbert Hyman express the idea that good production, fair treat- ment by superiors, promotional Opportunities, satisfactory earn- ings, excellent health and safety conditions are important factors influencing high morale and greater production. Where earnings are unsatisfactory and promises to employees are broken, the results frequently are low morale and low pro- duction records. c. Change status_position At this point we have discussed both the formal organ- ization and working conditions as forces influencing organiza- tional member changes in attitudes and behavior. Another organizational force is its ability to change status positions of its members. Such a force may lead to differing reactions from these members. Among status changes to be discussed will be: (1.) promotion; (2.) transfer; and (3.) demotion. (liupromotion In the article, “The Effects of Changes in Roles on the Attitudes of Role Occupants,“ S. Lieberman uses an attitude study to demonstrate the effects in a change of roles.2 Lie- berman studied employee attitudes before and after promotion to positions of foreman and steward. Lieberman hypothesized a greater change in foreman attitudes due to the permanency of 1. Daniel Katz and Herbert Hyman, "Morale in War Industry," Readin s in Social Ps cholo , ed. Theodore H. Newcomb, et a1 W 1947), p 446f. 2.8. Lieberman, "The Effects of chan es in role on the a ti- tudes of role occupants, Relat ons, Vol9 Nov, 1956 p. 388ff. 16 this position, in contrast to the steward's position which is part-time. He further hypothesized that attitude changes would be congruent with the position. The study did show a greater attitude change among foremen, which was congruent with the position he held in the organization, than for the steward, whose attitude changes were statistically inconclu- sive for this.study. (2. transfer Personnel changes within organizations could be both favorable or unfavorable. Either way many results could happen in any given situation. L. Coch and J.R.P. French in their article "Overcoming Resistance to Change" show that transfer within the organization produces employee attitudes of resentment, frustration, loss of hope for re- gaining former levels of production and status.1 Attitudes of frustration are greatest Just following transfer when contrasts in status are most evident before the new Job is learned. This attitude change is a force influencing mem- bers to react by increased absences from work or by leaving the organization. (3. demotion Lieberman's study also presents attitude changes follow- ing demotion from positions of foreman and steward.2 Prev- ious attitudes acquired upon promotion to these positions were lost when workers returned to their former position. 1. L. Cosh and J.R.P. French “Overcoming resistance to change" Emman Relations, Vol 1 (Have, 1948), p. 516ff. 2. Lieberman, loc. cit. 17 This discussion attempts to show organizational forces of changed status positions influencing attitude and be- havior changes among organizational members. Among status changes discussed are: (1.) promotions; (2.) transfers; and (3.) demotions. From the Lieberman study we may assume that employee promotions do influence attitude changes, which may be erased by employee demotions. Employee trans- fers tend to produce attitudes of frustration, which may lead to increased absences and turnover. d. Changedglgb content This discussion of changes in Job content is similar to the topic on working conditions. The difference is that this discussion involves changes in working conditions. Change in Job content is a force influencing organizational members which leads to varied reactions. Many differing reasons may exist why a group of members react in other patterns. Illus- trating these reactions to changes in Job content is the study, "Social Stratification and Attitudes Toward Change in Job Content," where William Faunce presents the idea that differing social groups in society, or differing status posi- tions in the organization tend to react differently when organ- izational changes are made in job content.1 Faunce points out that higher social groups and urban people tend to have more favorable attitudes toward changes in their Jobs than do work- ing class and rural people. The higher one's status is in 1. William A. Faunce, "Social Stratification and Attitudes Toward Change in Job Content," Social Forces, Vol 39 (Dec. 1960), p.142ff. 18 organizations, the greater is his likelihood of favoring changes in his Job. These social groups and status positions are only a couple of variables which may influence organizational mem- bers to react one way or another. It would be impossible to ii; uss all variables or factors influencing these members, and impca;ible to desivnate nd discuss all changes in each organizational Job. Therefore our discussion is limited to three areas of changes in Job content affecting organizational members: (1.) increased responsibility and variety in Jobs; (2.) wages or incentive plans; and (3.) technical changes. (léiinoreased reappnsibility:and variety One means of changing Job content is accomplished by adding several functions to an existing position. This addition increases task variety, which in turn requires a greater reaponsibility for the increased amount of tasks. This organizational change could become an important force influencing either attitude or behavior changes in employees. Floyd C. Mann and Richard Hoffman in their book, Automa- tion and the worker, illustrate the results of increasing the scope of responsibility by enlarging Jobs of each operator through Job rotation among different types of Jobs.1 Changes in Job content produced increased interest and satisfaction among workers. Negative reactions and tensions were expressed due to speed and inadequacy of preparation for transition to 1. Iloyd Mann and L. Richard Hoffman, Automation and the Worker, (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1960), p. 103. 19 new situations. Much of this tension might have been les- sened had on-the-Job training been given. (2. wages Argyris hypothesizes that workers tend to accept organ- izational changes unless such changes decrease wages.1 Re- wards as wages may be important forces producing greater quantity or quality of work. in an Argyris study he found that 93w of employees reported attitudes of fear related to Job changes resulting in decreased wages. Similar results were expressed in a study by Olive Banks among steelworkers.2 Steelworkers tend to dislike organiza- tional changes they fear may lead to decreased wages more than when the change actually does decrease wages. Changes affecting wages tend to be more acceptable to higher status organizational members, while unskilled workers express least favorable attitudes toward changes affecting wages. This partially counters Argyris‘ idea that organizational changes affecting decreases in wages are less acceptable to individual members. A direct change affecting wages is the incentive plan, which bases wages on the amount of production. Elliott Jaques, in his article "The Social and Psychological Impact of a Change in Method of Wage Payment," shows the effect of an incentive plan change from piece-rates to an hourly rate 1. Argyris, Understanding..,op. cit. p. ll4f. and "Under- standing Human...,"loc. cit. p.vl48f: 2. Olive Banks, The Attitud§_of steelworkers to Technical Change, (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1960), p. 23ff. 43ff. 20 on individual attitudes.l Jaques points out that this in- centive change was accepted favorably both by management and workers. Even workers receiving a decrease in wages pre- ferred this change which increased their security by provid- ing a constant and known income based on a fair rate of pay. This contradicts Argyris‘ hypothesis that organizational changes influencing a decrease in wages will not be accepted. Argyris is partially verified since the change did increase security. Another study involving the incentive system of wage pay- ment was presented by Leonard R. Sayles in "A Case Study of Union Participation and Technological Changes."2 Following World War II when military production declined, many senior workers accepted less skilled positions in order to continue working. Without notice the superintendent changed the in- centive plan in such a way as to threaten a 30%:cut in earn- ings for everyone. Reaction to this change was made through a written grievance, which was rejected by management. This study contrasts previous studies in that the organizational change here decreased wages without affecting security. This completely contradicts Argyris' hypothesis. 1. Elliott Jaques, A.K. Rice, and J.M.M. Hill, "The Social and Psychological impact of a Change in Method of Wage Pay- ment,“ Human Relations, Vol 4 (Nov, 1951), p 317FF. 2. Leonard R. Sayles, "A Case Study of Union Participation and Technological Change," Human Organization, Vol 11, no 1 (Spring, 1952), p. err. {3. technical change Technical changes affect organizational members in many ways. G. Edward Weber in his article "Change in Managerial Manpower with Mechanization of Data-Processing" shows how employees holding clerical and semi-technical positions of employment are needed less since the introduction of the data- processing machine.1 This same data-processing machine change increased the need for administrative—professional personnel. How does technical change affect employee attitudes and be- havior? In the book The Attitude of Steelworkers to Technical Change, Banks states many worker attitudes and behavior.2 Unskilled workers, who seem threatened by this new force, ex- press the most unfavorable attitudes to technical changes. Higher skilled or managerial workers react favorable to tech- nical changes. Higher status workers are least threatened by technical changes. Among the many organizational changes in Job content in- fluencing employee attitudes and behavior are the following: (1.) increased reaponsibility and variety; (2.) decreased wages; and (3.) technical changes. Among the variables affect- ing attitude and behavior changes related to organizational changes in Job content are social groups, and differing levels of status positions in organizations. Changes increasing responsibility and variety in job content tends to produce 1. G. Edward Weber, "Changes in Managerial Manpower with Mechanization of Data-Processing," Journal of Business, Vol 32 (April, 1959), p. 153ff. 2. Banks, loc. cit. 22 favorable attitudes from workers. Attitudes of frustration exist because of inadequate preparation. Conflicting studies concerning organizational changes affecting wages leaves the question open to further consideration. Organizational status appears to be the key factor in differing reactions to technical changes. 2. Informal Groungorces Also within organizations another powerful force is capable of exerting a high degree of influence on organiza- tional members, 1.6., the informal group. Its influence may be an important factor in individual behavior changes affect- ing production in organizations. This discussion attempts the following: (a.) to discuss leading informal group in- fluences on organizational members; (b.) to discuss the in- fluence of size of informal groups on organizational member changes. a. Informal group influence Many concepts are expressed in informal group litera- ture as influences producing individual attitude and behav- ior changes. This discussion presents several such concepts under the general topic of participation and cohesiveness. Participation and cohesiveness are the two forces combined in the remaining discussion. (1.;participation In a sense many of the informal group concepts are inter- related. Cohesiveness, which is the unity or uniformity of 23 purpose, goals and ideas, is similar to participation, which produces a unity of action among members of a group. Since a similarity exists in terms, bear in mind that this breakdown is more arbitrary than a real essential difference. There- fore, the purpose of separate terms is primarily for discus- sion purposes. Kurt Lewin uses the term "involvement" in his article "Group Decision and Social Change" to describe influences of groups producing greater attitude or behavior change than among individual members outside the informal group.1 In the article "The Experimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable," Nancy Morse and Everett Reimer pre- sent the concept of participation as an important force which produces increased satisfaction and increased produc- tion.2 The results are demonstrated through the use of an autonomy controlled and hierarchically controlled group among clerks in a company.* (’ Autonomy controlled group allows group member participa- tion in decisions affecting them, as: work methods; proces- ses; personnel matters as recess periods, handling of tardi- ness. Hierarchically controlled group decreases employee control and regulation over his activities. Staff officials develop work standards for employees. » . p. 122) l. K. Lewin, "Group Decision and Social Change," Readin s in Social Psvcholo , eds. E. Mhecoby, T. Newcomb, and W ar ey rd ed.; New York: Henry Holt, 19w).p.zozrr. 2. Nancy C. Horse and Everett Reimer, "Experimental Change of a Eajor Organizational Variable," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psyghology, Vol 52 (1955), p. 120ff. Also note Figure 2, 3. 24 Harold Kelley and John Thibaut in their article "EXperi- mental Studies of Group Problem Solving and Process" present the idea that "cooperative groups" or "group learning" is an important influence increasing organizational problem solv- ing.l "Cooperative groups" influence effective communication, greater friendliness and increased attractiveness. Such co- Operative forces influence greater work quantity among organ- izational members. a. cohesiveness Cohesiveness is often defined as a property or force exerted on group members to influence them to remain in the group and function as group members. Harold Leavitt in his article "Small Groups in Large Organizations" uses the concepts of "common goals" or "group pressure."3 These forces may influence organizational mem- bers to deny data of their senses, stick to decisions made in groups, or even solve problems faster. Leon Festinger, et al, in Social Pressures in Informal Groups point out several reasons why small groups influence individuals.4 Among these reasons are friendship, companion- ship, prestige, social status, approval, belonging and group 1. Harold Kelley and John Thibaut, "Experimental Studies of Group Problem Solving and Process," Handbook of Social Psy- chology, ed. Gardner Iindzey, (Cambridge: Addison-hesley Publishing 30., Inc.) II (1954) p. 750 ff. 2. George Caspar Homans, Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms, (New Yerk, Burlingame: Harcourt, Brace & world, The. , 88. 3. Harold J. Leavitt "Small Grou s in Large Organizations," Journal of Business, Vol 28 (Jan, {955), p. 12ff. 4. Leon Festinger, Stanley Schacter and Kurt Back, Social Pressures in Informal Groups (New Yerk: Harper and Bros., 1950), p. arr. 25 attractiveness. These influences either hold group members or influence attitude and behavior changes among individual members. Dorwin Cartwright in the article "Achieving Change in People: Some Application of Group Dynamics Theory“ OXPFGSSBS several principles influencing individual group members. Among these principles influencing individual changes are: (1.) individual change effected through a strong sense of group be- longing; (2.) group attractiveness produces greater influence on individual group member; and (3.) greater group prestige in member's eyes, greater influence over group members. This discussion of informal group forces demonstrates the importance of participation and cohesiveness as influences on individual attitudes and behavior. Participation was observed influencing increased attitudes of satisfaction among group members, although somewhat less influence on productivity. cohesiveness, friendship, prestige, approval, belonging and group attractiveness are among group influences affecting individual attitude and behavior changes. b. Group size The discussion on informal group influences has pre- sented direct informal group influences over its members, however group size and growth also indirectly influence individual group members. Stern states that group size de- termines the group influence over its members; for as member- ship increases cohesion decreases and the group's coercive power decreases. l. Stern, loc. cit. 26 marshall Dimock points out in Administrative Vitality that communication difficulties increase in larger groups. This situation increases impersonality and isolation and decreases group influence over its members.1 Small groups are more comfortable, require less adjustment, and lead to increased group influence over individual members. D. NIFEST MEKBER CHANGES Until this point our discussion has focused attention on many forces influencing individual changes. Uur present topic describes manifest individual member changes, while keeping in mind instrumental forces influencing these changes. since it is impossible to note every manifest individual attitude and behavior change we will not attempt an exhaus- tive treatment of these individual changes. for discussion purposes manifest changes are divided into two parts: (1.) individual attitude changes; and (2.) individual behavior changes. 1. individual Attitude Changes throughout organizations many organizational changes occur creating forces influencing individual attitude changes. Each organizational change is a potential force influencing attitude changes. Some attitude changes in response to organ- izational change may be merely favorable, producing attitudes of satisfaction among workers. other organizational changes are met by attitudes of frustration and resentment. Since 1. Marshall Dimock, Administrative vitality (New York: harper and Brothers, 1958), p ZETT. 27 individual attitude changes are part of the section on organ- izational member attitude forces and were discussed in that section we will not redevelop that discussion here. 2. Individual Behavior Changes Chris Argyris' self-actualization concept provides a basic hypothesis for discussing individual behavior changes within the organizational setting.l Organizations using formal principles of organization as chain of command, unity of direction, Specialization and Span of control place organ- izational members in submissive positions which are less than normal for healthy mature adult individuals. Argyris further states that mature adult individuals tend to produce atti- tudes of frustration in reaction to this organizational force. Adaptive individual behavior may react to these attitude changes by leaving the organization either temporarily or permanently. Another organizational member behavior change results from a desire to rise above frustration through pro- motion. He may react defensively through daydreaming, ag- gressive action, ambivalence, or regression. He may become disinterested and apathetic, observable in his goldbricking, setting rates, restricting quotas, making errors, cheating or slowing down production. He may create informal groups as sanctions for defense reactions, or formalize the informal group through the union, or he may emphasize material reward. All of these are individual behavior changes influenced by organizational forces. 1. Argyris, "The Individual..." loc. cit. and Personality gpd Organization, loc. cit. Also note Figure l 28 Responses to organizational forces are not all negative manifestations. Organizational forces producing attitudes of satisfaction may influence organizational productivity. This discussion is not meant to exhaust all manifest be- havior changes. Therefore, we will concentrate our discussion on the following behavior changes: (a.) productivity; (b.) turnover; and (a.) absenteeism. a. Productivity The predominant forces producing increased production stem from adequate working conditions which facilitate high morale among members and informal groups. Daniel Katz and Herbert Hyman in their article "Morale in War Industry" show that decreased production results from unsatisfactory working conditions.1 High production exists where workers morale is high, where wage scales are satis- factory, and where good labor management relations are estab- lished. George Strauss illustrates a decrease in productivity in the article "The Set-Up Man: A Case Study of Organizational Change." Here Strauss shows how an authority structure change requiring the chief mechanic to report to the departmental foreman rather than the master mechanic led to a decrease in production.2 Some authorities feel that productivity not only is a product of organizational environmental changes, but also is directly related to associations of organizational members.3 1. Katz and Hyman, loc. cit. 2. Strauss, loc. cit. 5. Leavitt, loc. cit. 29 These authorities may assume that productivity increases as individuals increase participation in organizational respon- sibilities and functions. Robert Golembiewski in his article "The Small Group and Public Administration" adds cohesive groups as forces influencing higher or lower levels of pro- ductivity.1 Group friction due to insecurity of individual status influences lower group productivity. Harold Kelley and John Thibaut in "Experimental Studies of Group Problem Solving and Process" apply the informal group approach to problem solving. This group approach tends to produce a greater physical output in problem solving, ex- cept when intellectual processes are involved.2 Morse and Reimer present interesting results on productivity because of group influence.3 In their study using autonomy and hierarch- ically controlled groups they found that autonomy controlled groups possessing high cohesiveness, morale and participation tend to produce less than hierarchically controlled groups. These results may leave doubts concerning assumptions that individual satisfaction, informal group participation, cohesiveness or morale along influence increases in product- ivity. However, 8. B. Mathewson in Restriction of Output Amonngnorganized Workers shows how informal groups restrict 1. Robert T. Golembiewski, "The Small Group and Public Admin- istration," Public Administration Review, Vol 19 (Summer,1959), p. lbOff. 2. Kelley and Thibaut, loc. cit. 3. Morse and Reimer, loc. cit. 30 productivity to increase Job security among organizational members.1 After this discussion on productivity the question seems as unresolved as before except that satisfaction, morale, in- formal groups, group cohesiveness, group participation are potential forces which may increase or decrease productivity. b. Turnover Organizational members may feel their frustration is un- bearable. Therefore, they could react by leaving the organ- ization entirely: this is turnover. Robert Guest in "A Neglected Factor in Labor Turnover" shows why workers leave their Jobs even after 12-15 years of service.2 Chief among forces influencing this behavior change is the highly repetitive mechanically paced work with rigid work standards. This lack of control of employees ever work routines produced attitudes of dissatisfaction which influ- enced their decision to leave the organization. MOrse and Reimer in “EXperimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable" used the autonomy and hierachically controlled group to illustrate increased satisfaction and productivity through increased participation.3 A side result is the high amount of turnover in the hierarchically control- led group where participation was limited. Coch and Fench in their article "Overcoming Resistance to Change" describe another situation involving employee turn- 1. S. B. Mathewson, Restriction of Output Amonngnorganized WOrkers (New Yerk: Viking‘Press,‘1931T, p. 15f. 2. Guest, "A Neglected Factor...," loc. cit. 3. Horse and Reimer, loc. cit. 21 over.1 In describing employee reaction to transfers within organizations employee turnover was greatest immediately after transfer. As the employee learned his new job the rate of turnover decreased. Attitudes of frustration result- ing from transfers influence organizational members to leave. This discussion shows that employee turnover may result from such organizational forces as: (1.) restrictive working conditions; (2.) directive leaders; and {3.) employee trans- fers. These reactions are merely a token number of organiza- tional forces which may tend to influence individual behavior changes. c. Absenteeism While leaving the organization may be too drastic an adaptation for individuals, still individual attitudes of frustration may be too great to bear. An organizational mem- ber mayfeel like leaving to relieve his tensions, and there- fore may decide to solve his problem by leaving only tempor- arily. This way he keeps his Job yet occasionally relieves his tensions. in the previously mentioned article Coch and French also mentioned that absences immediately after transfer were high.2 As organizational members learned their new job the rate of absences decreased. Helen Metzner and Floyd Mann in "Employee Attitudes and Absences" point out that absences increase as satisfaction decreases among low skilled white collar men and blue collar 1. Coch and French, op. cit., p. 519 2. Coch and French, 100. cit. 32 men.1 These results did not occur among higher levels of white collar men and white collar women. Argyris' study of foreman and workers provides informa- tion on absenteeism.2 The data from this study supported increased absenteeism as a foreman behavior change in reaction to work frustrations. Workers tended to follow the same course as foremen, by relieving their frustrations through increased absences. This discussion tends to show us that absenteeism may be an employee behavior adaptation to frustration chiefly among employees holding lower status positions and among employees immediately following transfer. 1. Metzner and Mann, loc. cit. 2. Argyris, loc. cit. II LEADERSHIP: AN ORGANIZATIONAL FORCE This topic on leadership could be discussed under organ- izational forces influencing employee attitude and behavior changes. Material variety on this subject does not, however, lend itself to such limited coverage. Therefore, the cssay's second part attempts a discussion on leadership as a force influencing organizational member attitude and behavior changes within organizational settings. Our discussion is divided into two sections: (A.) Leaders and Organizational Members; (B.) Administrative Succession. A. LEADERS AND ORGANIZATIONAL MEMBERS Leadership studies produce many theories concerning leader- ship functions: what he should be, how he should act, or what kind of man he will be in a certain time and place. Among leadership theories are: ”Trait theory," "situationist crit- iquc," "leadership styles," functional leadership, bureau- cratic, group-centered leadership, and reality-centered lead- ership.1 Each theory advances a thesis about proper leader- ship for organizations. Realizing the material volume available on all leader- ship theories, this topic alone could be a thesis.. Therefore, this section's purpose is not an exhaustive treatment of writ- ten material on this topic, nor a defense of any one theory. Our purpose attempts the presentation of several leadership roles and leadership techniques, showing how these roles and l. Cecil A. Gibb, "Leadership," Handbook of Social Ps cholo (Cambridge: Addison-Wesley Publishinng., 1954) II, 582 33 34 techniques influence organizational member changes in atti- tudes and behavior. Therefore our present section discusses: (1.) Leadership Roles and Organizational Members; (2.) Methods of Change. 1. Leadership Role and Organizational Kembers Leaders are those peeple who influence organizatioral member's behavior. Leaders who influence organizational mem- bers behavior have many functions in organizations. One leadership function increases and sustains organizational member morale.l Another leadership function interprets en- vironmental changes outside organizations. Other leadership functions might desire increased productivity. Leaders in- fluencing organizational member morale and productivity are forces influencing member attitude and behavior changes. These leadership functions do not represent all functions available, but merely provide a discussion basis for leader- ship forces on organizational members. Our discussion in- cludes: (a.) Leadership roles;2 and (b.) Leadership role influence on organizational members. a. Leadership roles In The World of Man, R. Dubin presents several leadership roles that could influence organizational morale and product- ivity.3 One leadership role suggested is that of "Spokesman." l. R. Dubin, The World of man (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958, p. 386ff. 2. A role is a set of behaviors expected of everyone in a particular position. John M. Pffifner and Frank P. Sherwood, Administrative Organization, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J. Prentice- Hall, Inc. 1963), 39. 3. Loc. cit. 35 In this role leaders are representative of member needs in organizations. Another leadership role is that of "goal setter." This leader establishes levels of achievement for employee attainment. A third leadership role is "decision- maker." This leader chooses between available organizational alternatives for attaining his objectives. Another leader- ship role is the “arbiter." "Arbiters" attempt solving inter- nal differences, while the other leadership role is an "example.“ Along with these specific roles are general roles as formal or informal roles. Dubin continues this discussion presenting the informal leadership role with the leader cen- tered in a face-to-face group.1 From this central position informal leaders direct group member activities from within the work force. Through his skill this leader becomes very influencial over other group members. Formal leadership roles are established through vested offices.2 Formal leaders may also use "symbolic" or "example" leadership roles for influencing organizational members under them. Unless a leader associates with these members he may play the “arbiter" role only with great difficulty. Marshall Dimock in Administrative Vitality_presents another leadership role, i.e., the "innovator."3 According to Dimock this type of leader is motivated by an inner con- cern and desire starting early in life. Such a leader enjoys 1. Ibid. 2. Ibid. 3. Dimock, op. cit., p. 123. 36 risks. He is not discouraged by failures. He receives great- er satisfaction from a sense of a successful struggle. Such "innovators" may have important influences on organizational member behavior. Lewis Dexter continues this discussion on “innovator" leadership roles in his article "Some Strategic Considerations in Innovating Leadership."l Dexter states that "innovators" must study all roles available, choosing roles to gain maxi- mum effectiveness bringing about employee changes. He stud- ies adaptations of behavior, gestures and mannerisms in order to fit roles he must play. Eli Ginzberg and Ewing Reilley state that "innovating leaders" gain satisfaction steering organizations to greater profits, to a more dominant position in their particular market, or to a position commanding respect and leadership in their industry.2 "Innovators" attempt attaining these goals by rationalizing organizational production methods. innovating leadership role may tend to push leaders into another leadership role, i.e., "authoritarian” or "di- rective leadership role." Achieving goals may lead "direct- ive leaders" to urgent measures in attaining their ultimate goals. This may facilitate rapid changes. Other leaders may recognize increasing value of organiz- ational member attitudes and behavior. Such leaders may 1. Lewis A. Dexter, "Some Strategic Considerations in Inno- vating Leadership,“ Studies in Leadership, ed. Alvin W. Gouldner \New Ybrk: Harper and Bros., 1950), p. 593. 2. Eli Ginzoerg and Ewing Reilley, Effectin Change in Larg; Organization {New York: Columbia University ress, l957)p.19 . (Q 7 attempt greater member participation in decision-making. This is a "participative leadership“ role. b. Leadership role influence on organizational members Leaders assuming differing roles provide varying influ- ences on changing organizational member attitudes or behavior. Our discussion attempts presenting some manifest attitude and behavior changes influenced by leaders playing different roles. This discussion includes the following roles assumed by lead- ers: (1.) "group-centered leadership role;" (2.) "participa- tive" leadership role; and \3.) "directive" leadership role. 1. "employee centered leadership role"* ”Employee-centered" leaders may be either informal or formal leaders and still maintain identification with organ- izational member needs. The question for our analysis is: "how does this role affect organizational member attitude or behavior changes?" Donald Pelz states in "Leadership Within a Hierarchical Organization" that successful, valued or obeyed leaders help 1 organizational members achieve their goals. Greater leader concern for organizational members engenders a greater member acceptance of leaders and their suggestions. Pelz's claims are demonstrated by increased member satisfaction and product- ivity. * Dubin, loc. cit., uses the term “spokesman" as a symbolic or representative of organizational members. Robert Hahn & Daniel Katz, "Leadership Practices in Relation to Productivity and Morale," Group D namics, Eds. D. Cartwright & A. ZanbertEvan- ston, lllinois: ow Peterson, and Company, l953),620. In this study they use the arm "employee-centered" leader as the per- son who is personally interested in employee's needs. To me these ideas are so close that l have assumed that they are es- sentially the same. 1. Donald C. Pelz, "Leadership within a Hierarchical Organiza- tion," Journal of Social Issues, Vol 7 {Summer,l951), p.50. 38 Mason Hairs seconds this idea in his chapter on "Indus- trial Social Psychology."1 Here Haire states that "employee- eentered" leaders rather than production-centered leaders more effectively produce increased productivity. in "Leadership Practices in Relation to Productivity and Morale," Robert kahn and Daniel Aatz explain that "employee- centered" leaders engender better employee morale and produc- 2 "Employee-oriented" leaders are more person- tion records. ally interested in workers. He attempts to understand their problems, and is less punitive when mistakes are made. This increases employee morale and influences increased producti- vity. 2. pgrticipetive leadership The principal characteristic clarifying participative leadership is the relatively larger number of persons involved in decision-making. This leadership role may apply to top- management involvement in decision-making or organizational member involvement. Alfred Marrow and John R.R. French, Jr., in their study "Changing a Stereotype in industry" apply participative leader- ship successfully both to top and middle management.8 Marrow and French pointed out how the Specialist initially met resis- tance to his arguments for a policy change. This industrial 1. Haire, op. cit, p. 1116. 2. Robert L. Kahn and Daniel hatz, ”Leadership Practices in Relation to Productivity and Morale," Grou D amics eds. D. Cartwright and A. Zander (Evanston, IlIinois: Row, Peter- son, and Company, 1953), p. 620. 3. Alfred J. Marrow and John R. R. French Jr., “Changing a Stereotype in industry," Journal of Social issues, Vol 1 (August, 1945), p. 34ff. 39 psychologist finally achieved attitude and behavior change among top management following their involvement in empirical studies related to their organizational policy. After top managements‘ study proved their previous concept wrong, they enacted the policy change. Compliance with the new policy from middle management after their discussion of top manage- ments' study results. Upon their decision participation, middle management implemented the new policy. E. J. McCarthy in "Organization for New Product Devel- Opment?“ believes that successful organizational change is impossible merely with an innovating leader and an excellent staff.l McCarthy feels that every organizational member must participate in any innovation for successful changes. This participative Spirit aids overcoming existant organ- izational problems. Argyris in "Organizational Leadership and Participa- tive Management" states that organizational member partici- pation increases cohesiveness or employee "we-feeling".2 Argyris points out too that cohesiveness may influence either increased or decreased productivity depending on group determined production norms. Robert White and Ronald Lippitt in "Leader Behavior and Member Reaction in Three Social Climates" show that particip- ative leadership increases employee attitudes of satisfaction l. E. J. McCarthy, "Organization for New Product Development" ,igurnal of Businegg, Vol 32 (April, 1959), p. 131. 2. Chris Argyris, "Organizational Leadership and Participa- tive Management," Journal of Business, vol 28 (Jan, 1955),p.l. 40 illustrated in their increased originality.1 3. directive ieadership Directive leadership does not permit the "ideal type" of participation among organizational members. This form of leadership role is "authoritarian leadership." In Personality and Opppnization Argyris expresses the following employee reactions due to authoritarian leadership; leaving organizations, becoming submissive and dependent, re- leasing pent-up feelings, demanding increased leadership attention or competing among one another for the leader's favor.2 In Kahn and Katz's study they showed that directive leadership emphasizing detailed and frequent instructions influences decreased productivity.é Opposed to this view is White and Lippitt's study expressing how authoritarian lead- ership influences a greater productivity than does partici- pative leadership.4 White and Lippitt do point out that directive leadership influences greater discontent, less conversation, increased submission and dependence among organizational members. 1. R. White and R. Lippitt, "Leader Behavior and member Reaction in Three Social Climates," Grou D namics eds. D. Cartwright and A. Zander (Evanston, Illinois: How, Peterson and Company, 1953), p. 6lOf. 2. Argyris, Personality and Organization, op. cit., p.125. 3. Kahn and Katz, op. cit., p. 617f. 4. White and Lippitt, loc. cit. 41 Nancy Morse and Everett Reimer in "The Experimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable" found results similar to white and Lippitt.l Although productivity in- creased among organizational members under directive leader- ship, these members expressed attitudes of dissatisfaction and desire to bring this program to an end. Organizational member turnover was considerably higher under directive lead- ership than participative leadership. ' Francis Donahue and Norman Humphrey in "Changing Bureau- cracy and Social Power in a Chicago Ukrainian Parish" illus- trate Ukrainian laymen reaction to directive leadership.2 Dissatisfaction among these laymen with directive parochial leadership led to decreased clergy status. Laymen increased their own participation in all parochial affairs. This discussion of leadership and organizational members expresses: (1.) leadership roles; and (2.) leadership role influence on organizational members. Among leadership roles discussed are: (1.) "spokesman" or ”employee-centered" lead- er; (2.) "goal setter;" (3.) "decision-maker;“ (4) "arbiter;" (5.) 'example;" (6.) informal; (7.) formal; (8.) ”innovator" ' (9.) "directive leadership; and (10.) participative leader- ship. Then (l.) employee-centered leadership role, (2.) participative leadership role, and (3.) directive leadership 1. Horse and Reimer, loc. cii. Also note Figure 3 2. Francis M. Donahue and Norman D. Humphrey, ”Changing Bureaucracy and Social Power in a Chicago Ukrainian Parish," Human Organization, Vol 11, no. 2 (Summer, 1952), p. 24. 42 roles were discussed showing their influence producing organ- izational member behavior changes. Employee-centered leader- ship tended to influence organizational members' increased productivity and high morale. Participative leadership leads to cohesiveness among organizational members who may influence increased or decreased productivity depending on member norms. Directive leadership provides conflicting evidence related to resulting productivity. Directive leadership does produce discontentment, and greater turnover as attitude and behavior changes among organizational members. 2. Methods Of Change Many ideas in organizational change literature have been proposed for accomplishing changes in organizational employ- ees. Many methods apply directly to organizational member changes. Other methods may affect members indirectly. Import- ance of this discussion under leadership is that many methods of employee changes are used by organizational leaders to accomplish individual changes. Some methods may not use leadership for influencing change, however these methods are presented in this section too. Our discussion centers on five methods of change which have relatively different ap- proaches. Several approaches primarily similar to these five were not added for this reason. The five are discussed as follows: (8.) "Accommodation approach;" (b.) "Group de- cision;" (a.) "Group atmOSphere;“ (d.) "Reality-centered approach;" and (e.) "Planned change." 43 at_iccommodation approach In "Some Problems of Organization Change" Alex Bavelas proposes two approaches attempting a solution to problems of changing organizational members.1 One of these approaches is the accommodation approach. Its leading assumption is that show change is less threatening than rapid change. With a slow process many problems of employee change may be leisure- ly solved prior to actual organizational change. Slow proces- ses provide time to "get used to the idea'I of change. There— fore, a favorable behavior results. b. Group decision Also Bavelas emphasizes small groups with their partic- ipation as methods of bringing employee changes.2 This ap- proach brings rapid change, as opposed to the moderate slow- ness through accommodation. Basic to this approach is the group's acceptance of change rather than having the decision forced upon it. In this approach individuals composing the group establish a new frame of reference by their decision. Their group decision binds this new framework. c. Group_etmosphere “Group atmosphere" approach covers several organiza- tional areas.3 First, it applies to small local organiza- tional member behavior changes, accomplished by changing 1. Alex Bavelas, "Some Problems of Organizational Change," gpurnal of Social Issues; Vol. 4 (Summer, 1948), p. 51. 2. Ibid. 3. Charles R. Strother, "Methods of Modifying Behavior," Journal of Social Issues, Vol. 1 (August 1945), p. 51. 44 group member status relationships and by teaching new leader- ship technique. Another change is the group culture. For this change all group patterns must be changed. Finally group patterns must be changed. Finally "group atmosphere" seeks changes in the larger organizational group of which the small group is a part. d. Reality-centered approach In Personality and Organization Argyris approaches em- ployee behavior change through an ”accurate diagnosis of the l reality situation. This diagnostic approach tests what is reality and then applies appropriate leadership patterns. In a diagnosis there is required a self awareness and an awareness of others. Effective leadership "fuses," i.e., integrates, organizations and members together so both may obtain optimum self-actualization. Individual self-actual- ization is accomplished when an organizational member ful- fills his needs. Organizational self-actualization is achieved when organizational demands are accomplished. Then the fusion process is achieved. e. Planned change "Planned change" as presented by Ronald Lippitt, Jeanne Watson and Bruce Westley in The Dynamics of Planned Change is another diagnostic approach for achieving employee changes for accomplishing organizational changes.2 The first diag- nostic step determines organizational problems. After this 1. Argyris, op. cit., p. 207ff. 2. Lippit, Watson and Westley, op. cit., p. 126ff. 45 leaders determine objectives achieveable in alleviating such problems. Then leaders should account for forces aiding or hindering achieving their objectives. Following this they set up plans for solving problems, after which they commence to put solutions into action. Our present discussion has attempted to present several methods of change which may or may not be used by organiza- tional leaders influencing organizational members to make attitude or behavior changes. Among the influencing methods presented are: (1.) accommodation approach; (2.) group deci- sion; (3.) group atmOSphere; (4.) reality-centered approach; and (5.) planned change. B. ADKINISTRATIVE SUCCESSION The importance of leadership influence on organizational members has been previously noticed. Also we have noticed some employee reactions to these leadership forces. In ad- dition to these former leadership forces are indirect forces of succeeding leaders influencing organizational members' attitude and behavior changes. Replacing leaders is called administrative succession, which is the basis for our present discussion of forces on and manifest changes of organizational members. Our discussion presents the following discussion topics: (1.) Succession; (2.) Programs of Succession; and (3.) Succession and Structure. 1. Succession Why should administrative succession be such an important 46 force influencing organizational members? Varied organiza- tional changes may accompany leadership changes. Any such change is a potential force influencing affected organiza- tional members' behavior. Successors may be promoted to vacant positions because a former leader failed to accomplish his goals. Top manage- ment typically expects successors to improve production by making changes. Alvin Gouldner in his study "The Problem of Succession and Bureaucracy" indicates that top management frequently designate inadequacies of predecessors, and then watch successors' progress closely.l Successors may change former policy completely, implement it, or just interpret former rules. Oscar Grusky in "Administrative Succession in Formal Organization" continues this discussion by indicating that successors may change not only old policy, but also form new coalitions, which may tend to disturb norms.2 Or, it may create conflicts among staff members. Such staff con- flicts can influence lowered employee morale or decreased effectiveness of the system's function. An example illustrating leadership succession's influp ence on organizational members is presented in W. F. Whyte's study "The Social Structure of the Restaurant Industry.'3 1. Alvin W. Gouldner, “The Problem of Succession and Bureau- cracy," Studies in Leadership, ed. Alvin W. Gouldner (New York: Har er and Bros., 1950) p. 648ff. 2. Oscar rusky, "Administrative Succession in Formal Organ- izations," Social Forces, Vol 39 (Dec, 1960), p. 105ff. 3. W. F. Whyte, "The Social Structure of the Restaurant Ind- ustry," American Journal of Sociolqu, Vol. 54 (Jan, 1949), p. 302ff. Also note Figure 4 maniacal/ling. 3 ‘5, 47 Here Whyte describes a situation in which a restaurant wait- ress under tension during rush hours recieves help from a cooperating supervisor, who is concerned for waitress‘ needs. Upon succession of a less concerned supervisor,waitress' nervous tensions increased, especially among less experienced waitress. A series of resignations followed this increased tension. 2. Programs 0f Succession As already seen, succeSsion may be a potential force in- fluencing organizational individual behavior changes. Suc- cession may be part of an overall organizational plan to ac- complish organizational goals. One such program may promote organizational personnel, while another program recruits man- agement personnel from other organizations. A third program may propose personnel transfers laterally within the organi- zation. Other programs of succession may exist, but this discussion shall concentrate on program successions from "in- siders" and from "outsiders." a. "Inside" successors The "insider" attains his present position climbing the chain of command within organizations. As an "insider“ he is familiar with organizational policies, rules, informal arrange- ments and abilities. This experience places him in an advan- tageous'position to achieve organizational goals set for him. Alvin Gouldner in Patterns of Industrial Bureaucraqy proposes that "insiders" may incur obligations to friends as \r‘, 'n“r,.r.~. , . .‘ 48 they climb the organizational ladder.l These friends may be largely responsible for his being in his present position. This places "insiders" in positions subject to contrary pres- sures. Top management expects achievement of its goals, while his friends expect some favors. Evasion of friends for organizational goals may result in increased tensions, de- creased production, or even resignations from employees. On top of this an "insider" may find that his staff remains loyal to his predecessor. This only adds problems to accom- plishing his goals. Adding to this discussion on "insiders" Oscar Grusky recognizes that an "insider" is integrated into his organiza- tion and that this alignment could lead to problems.2 After promotion he may commence to initiate new informal alignments, or change policy, but in turn isolate himself from his former sources of information. Even though this is possible with "inside" succession, Grusky states that less short term in- stability exists among "insiders." This aids maintaining organizational morale and effectiveness. b. "Outside" successors "Inside successors may be new to positions, but "outside" successors are also new to organizations, since they are im- ported successors. There are advantages and disadvantageous connected with integrating "outside" successors into the organ- 1. A. W. Gouldner, Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy (Glencoe, Illinois: the Free Press, 1954), p. 72ff. 2. Grusky, op. cit., p. 108. 49 izations, as is true with "insiders." Both Gouldner and George Simmel observe advantages in "outsider's" view of organizations.1 "Outside" successors, who are untied by friendships, habits or sacred precedents, are able to view organizations objectively. This aids them to observe what is wrong and to make suggestions for organ- izational changes, which potentially influence organizational member's behavior changes. Simmel continues, though, pointing out that organiza- tional members view "outside" successors with more suSpicion than an "insider" whom they know.2 Therefore, "outsider” impartiality could lead to increased conflicts. Oscar Grusky in "Role Conflict in Organization: a Study of Prison Officials" states that an "outsider" who is un- familiar with organizational experiences, with effectiveness of former policies may tend to rely on formal rules, empha- size closer supervision and stronger controls until organiz- ational integration is completed. Grusky illustrates this by an experience taking place among prison officials.3 Staff behavior resultant upon changed leadership roles shifted from COOperation to lack of c00peration, lack of direct com- munication, decline of informal groups and administrative l. Gouldner, loo. cit. and George Simmel, The Sociolo h 0% I e ree Geor e Simmel, trans. Kurt Woeff (Glencoe, Illinois: Press, I955), p. 216ff. 2. Simmel, op. cit. p. 216ff. 3. Oscar Grusky, "Role Conflict in Organization: A Study of Prison Officials,“ Administrative Science Quarteriy, Vol 3 (Mar, 1959), p. 464f. 50 inconsistency. This behavior shift led to increased anxiety. Inmate expression of hostility to leadership succession was demonstrated by damaging trucks and escaping. Marshall Dimock in "Bureaucracy Self-Examined“ showed that resistance an "outside" successor may receive from “in- l Dimock states that “outsiders"enter side" civil servants. an organization believing that 50% of former policies need changing and proceed to change policies. Some changes may be made without adequate information abOut effectiveness of former policies. Furthermore, Dimock states that many new- comers trying to manipulate organizations feel they are fencing "shadow-men." So subtle and effective is the com- munication system of old-time civil servants who come up through organizational ranks. Their resistance is keenly felt by "outside" successors. ”Outside" successor's usefulness frequently is seen in moments of crisis when organizational caperience of "insider" successors prohibit him from rising above organizational habit, tradition and inertia for meeting new challenges. Eli Ginzberg and Ewing Reilley illustrate such a situation in 2 the Ford Motor Company story. When General Motors passed Ford and increased its share in the automobile market, Ford sought to regain its leadership position by replacing its 1. marshall Dimock, "Bureaucracy Self-Examined,“ Reader in Bureaucragy, eds R. K. Merton, et al (Glencoe, Illinois: The FEee areas, 1956), p. 403. 2. Ginzberg and Reilley, op. cit., p. 35. 51 leaders with former General Motors leaders. Although there was no statement as to organizational individual effects, we can assume that policy changes were made by these leaders. Such policy changes are potential forces influencing member behavior possibly leading to behavior changes. 3. Succession And Structure Organizations provide any number of combined forces in- fluencing organizational member behavior upon succession. Type of organizational structure for example provides another influencing force related to succession programs. For our discussion we will use D. M. Sill's types of structure, i.e., corporate and federate structure.l Corporate structures cen- tralize authority at top level with a pyramidal form. Feder- ate structures maintain several independent and autonomous authority centers. Grusky eXpresses in his administrative succession arti- cle that top management succession in corporate structures leads to greater ramifications in policy and administration than succession in federated structures.z Greater policy changes lead to greater organizational personnel insecurity and tension. Grusky continues by illustrating added advantages of 3 federated structures due to the several autonomous divisions. l. D. M. Sills, The Volunteers (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1957), p. 3. 2. Grusky, op. cit. p. 112. 3. Ibid. ' J, ..'. 52 These divisions provide a buffer which tends to maintain personnel security when succession takes place at the top. This security is an important force in determining organiza- tional member response to organizational policies. An example of successor policy changes influencing organ- izational members in a corporate structured organization is observed in Richard McCleery's study Policnghange in Prison Management.l Such policy changes led to increased staff con- flict and increased inmate escaping upon succession. Our present discussion has dealt with topics related to administrative succession. Initially we attempted an under- standing of (1.) succession itself, (2.) organizational pro- grams of succession, and (3.) succession related to organiza- tional structure as they are related to organizational member behavior changes. Succession is an organizational force which potentially influences organizational member behavior. Such leadership changes may influence organizational member atti- tudes of frustration or increased tension, which may produce member behavior changes, i.e., decreasing productivity, being absent, or leaving organizations permanently. Organizational succession programs may also influence similar organizational member attitude and behavior changes. Among these influenc— ing organizational succession programs are: (1.) promote 1. Richard H. McCleery, Policy Change in Prison Management (East Lansing, Michigan: Governmental Researcthureau, Michigan State University, 1957) p. 28ff ‘ aw ofl'wr’v * 53 "inside" successors; and (2.) appoint "outside" successors. Also, differing organizational structures influence similar patterns of organizational member behavior changes. Among types of structures discussed are: (1.) corporate structure; and (2.) federate structure. - momentum. CONCLUSION Our thesis discussion concerns organizational member attitude and behavior changes. Our discussion presents: (1.) Argyris' concept of “Self-Actualization; (2.) Organ- izational member attitude forces influencing these changes; (3.) Organizational forces influencing attitude and behavior changes; and (4.) manifest Organizational Member attitude and behavior changes. Our second part presents a discussion of organizational leadership as a force on organizational member attitude and behavior changes. In our first topic on "Leadership and Organizational Members" we presented: (1.) several leader- ship roles and their influence on organizational member at- titude and behavior changes; (2.) several methods bringing about organizational member attitude and behavior changes as is used by organizational leaders. Our second topic on "Administrative Succession presented: (1.) administrative succession's influence on individual attitude and behavior ' changes; (2.) organizational succession programs influenc- ing organizational member attitude and behavior changes; and (3.) differing organizational structure during succession influencing organizational member attitude and behavior changes. This thesis provides an introduction for public admin- istrative students' understanding of organizational member 54 e f,h,1' ”e.‘fl'fi‘t. ‘f '. I! attitudes and behavior changes in organizational situations whether in industry or bureaucracy. It describes a frame- work, first describing forces influencing organizational member changes and manifest changes resulting from these forces. We hope it is useful to potential administrative leaders and researchers interested in further studies on organizational member attitude and behavior changes. -{..’.3a ‘1 (1' Q '.' CROSS-REFERENCE INDEX TO CHANGE VARIABLES This index of organizational member attitude and beha- vior changes presents leading forces on and manifest changes of individual attitudes and behavior. These forces and mani- fest changes are discussed in the cssay's context under lead- ing topics, which are presented in this index, as: (1.) Atti- tude Forces; (2.) Organizational Forces; (3.) Informal Group Forces; and (4.) Leadership Forces. Topics related to mani- fest changes are divided as follows; (1.) Attitude Changes; and (2.) Behavior Changes. Author's themes in addition to those presented in the cssay's text are presented in the annotated bibliography. These themes pertaining to our central thesis are related to the essay through this cross- reference of change variables. A. FORCES INFLUEECIHG INDIVIDUAL CHANGES l. Attitude Forces and Changes a. Security - 2,3,4,7,63 1. fear 26,35,60 2. anxiety - 46,74,76,80 4. instability - 56 5. tensions - l9,26,63,61,85 6. i norance - 25 b. Goa achievement 1. frustration - 2,3,4,43,44,46,53,55 2. satisfaction or dissatisfaction - 18,21,22,26,27,34, 51,60,6l,70,71,72,73,77,79,84 3. failure - 2,4,25,44,53,?8 4. inadequacy - 25 5. short-time perspectives - 2,4,44 56 57 0. Finish Job - 25 1. learning - 49 2. information - 49 3. knowing results - 49 d. Participate - 1,3,4,43 1. share - 1 2. cooperate - e. Conflict - 2,4,44 1. competition, 4,44 2. hostility - 4,37,43,44,76 f. Fatigue - 17 2. Organizational Forces a. Formal organization - 2,3,4 1. formal organization principles - 2,54,61 2. formal rules - 80 3. formal structure - 40, 81 b. Working conditions - 4,17,21,33 l. variety and responsibility - 45,60,61 2. wages - 71,77 c. Changed status position 1. promotion - 5,66,71 2. transfer - 53 3. demotion - 66 d. Changed Job content - 3,37,51,56 1. increase responsibility & variety - 5,26,31 2. wages - 3,5,60,63,79 3. change hours of work - 5 4. change production rules - 29,78 5. inadequate preparation - 26 6. technical change - 35,83,84 3. Informal Group Forces a. Group influence - ll,13,l7,24,31,50 1. participation - 24,31,53,65,72 a. cooperation - 22 b. communication - 13,22 c. friendship - 22 2. cohesiveness - l3, 18,22,32,57,63 a. common goals - 65 b. belonging - 13, 50 c. prestige - 13,50 d. attractiveness - 13,18,22,5O e. morale - 21,23,26,39,42,81 b. Group size and growth 1. group size - 11,35 2. group growth - 4O V" - W #440 '1 o- . r -.’ ._ L". y firs. m 73. y. '. 4. Leadership Force 8.. Leader roles l. spokesman or group-centered - 12,17,20,38,70,73,76 2. participative - 31,37,43,68,69 3. goal setter - 12 4. decision maker - 12,52 5. arbiter - 12 6. example - l2 7. informal - 12 8. formal - 12 9. innovator - 9,11,14 10. directive - 2,16,20,37,55,56,73 ll. planning leader - 20 b. Methods of change _ l. accommodation - 47 2. group atmOSphere - 82 3. group decision - 47,53 4. human relations program - 67 5. intensive discussion - 67,68 6. participative management - 43,69 7. planned change - 25 8. planned innovation - 48,52 9. psyche-group - 64 10. reality-centered approach - 2 11. socio-group - 64 0. Leadership succession 1. succession - 6,8,10,12,16,23,30,38,39,58,59,85 2. programs of succession - 10,14,15,l6,28,39,4l,58,59,76 3. structure and succession - 30,58,59 4. authority patterns and succession - 6,36,59 B. MANIFEST INDIVIDUAL CHANGES 1. Attitudes - 5,63,66,56,?5,80 2. Behavior a. b. 0. d. 8. f. g. h. 1. i: 1. m. Productivity - 2,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,29,32,33,34,37, 42,43,44,57,65,60,72,73,77,78,81 Turnover - 2,3,4,l7,23,38,44,58,59,60,6l,63,72,85 Absenteeism - 2,4,17,34,44,53,7l,85 Promotion, Demotion - 2,3,44,55,72 Transfer - 2,53 Form informal group - 2,3,40,44,79 Join union - 44,46,54,77 grievance - 79 decrease cohesive group - 4,37 roblem solvin - 27 ecrease quali y - 4 resistance - 68,75,76 emphasize material reward - 3,4, ILLUSTRATIO 1:" v AD —- -- d Figure l AhGYRIS KODEL l .1 L—~~-¢F ————————— h—i—e——-—~a———-——- qr-m-w Formal Organization Organizational Member Individual Attitude Individual Behavior Change Force NH 0" Frustration Failure Short Time Perspectives a. Turnover b. Absenteeism c. Restrict Production 60 Figure 2 MORSE-REIMER MODEL - Directive Leadership A, . L !.1... .1 ,4. .. i U I ‘ L'TJ LT"! LL": 3P :25 A Organizational Leadership r--1 L--.' C"; Organizational Member 8° Turnover ,_9 Forces b. Increase Productivity E:J Individual Behavior Change 0. Job Satisfaction A Individual Attitude Change Figure 3 HORSE-REIKER LODEL - Informal Group -§ Forces I.-- --! {”1 Organizational Member .. a. Turnover [:3 Behavior Changes b. Increase Productivity : Attitude Changes C. JOb Satisfaction Informal Group Force A 61 Figure 3 WHYTE LODEL - Succession /”\ I \\\ A c ,e I \ \ \I t .. ' 1 I | ’l \\ : ‘ z--!L lg , I ‘ — --------- 4 1 l l I J /' - Group Centered Leader ‘0 {fl} - Directive Leader Successor l. Tension ~. 2. Job Satisfaction f“; - Organizational Member 8° Turnover u.: b. adequate £25 - Attitude Change Productivity [:3 - Behavior Change a - Force AEROTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY This following annotated bibliography composes organ- izational material of author's themes related to organiza- tional member attitude and behavior changes discussed in the previous essay. Cited works are cross-referenced in pre- ceeding index of variables of change which are arranged in a pattern of forces influencing individual changes, and manifest individual changes. was I. Angyal, Andras. Foundation for a Science of Personality. New Yerk: Commonwealth Fund, 1941. ch.5,6. There are many forces which stimulate individual acts. These forces are based on needs that individuals want, fulfilled and goals they want achieved. Forces may be observed in individual attitudes which provide the readiness to behave in a certain way. One force is man's desire to share and participate in larger groups or organizations. 2. Argyris, Chris. Personality and Organization. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957. Organizations exert forces on their members producing adaptive behavior manifested by individual behavior changes. When individuals adapt, their attitudes and behavior changes to achieve an external balance with the outside environment. Among adaptations available to individual members are: absenteeism, turnover, pro- motion, transfer, decreased efficiency, lowering of work standards, and forming informal work groups. These mani- fest changes result from individual attitude forces. Among these forces are attitudes of frustration, failure, insecurity and conflict. The author continues by relating these forces to changes in individual behavior. Formal organization with spec- ialization, unity of direction, chain of command and span of control is the basic force that places employees in a dependent, subordinate and passive position in organiza- tions. This dependent, subordinate position created by 62 63 forces of formal organization tend to antagonize healthy mature individual needs.’ Individual antagonism develOps through attitudes of frustration, failure, short-time perspectives and conflict. Should these antagonisms in- crease or continue they may become forces that influence individuals to react by leaving the organization either temporarily or permanently, by climbing the organizational ladder, by transferring to another Job, or by decreasing work involvement. Another reaction to these antagonisms may be observed through individuals uniting into informal groups, thus reducing pressures (from each individual), easing tensions and producing greater security. Should individuals desire to remain in positions of conflict, increased frustration may result producing decreased work efficiency or discontinuance. Attitudes of failure may lead to lower work standards, fear of new tasks, or expectations of repeated failures. Leaders have a goal function according to Argyris. One function is to fuse employees into organizations so as to obtain organizational demands and obtain both organi- zational demands and individual needs. The second func- tion is to increase productivity. Both of these are manifestations of changes, which leaders strive to achieve. Communication of information and policy is a necessary force in producing these changes. Leaders may use varied techniques of change including pressure, persuasion and urging to achieve these changes. 3. Argyris, Chris. "Understanding Human Behavior in Organiza- tion: One Viewpoint," in Mason Haire (ed.) Modern Organ- ization Theory, New York: John Wiley and Sons,LInc. 195*. ch. 5. Frustration is a force producing individual changes. Frus- tration exists in a healthy individual who is dependent on or subordinate to formal organizations. Organizational members may adapt to frustration by leaving their situa- tion; by climbing the organizational ladder; by becoming defensive, as seen in individuals who daydream, by being aggressive, or by making grievances. Other ways of adapt- ing to frustrations are observed in individual apathy, creation of informal groups, or emphasis on material re- ward. Policy changes are among organizational forces which may produce employee changes. These policy changes may change individual job content, decrease wages, or decrease Job security. Individuals tend initially to be annoyed by changes in their work, however, this annoyance decreases as employees gain control over their job. 64 Employees are not necessarily interested in participating in these organizational changes. Argyris hypothesizes that employees will not react negatively unless these organizational forces decrease their wages or Job security. 4. Argyris, Chris. Understanding;Organizational Behavior. Homewood, Illinois: The Dorsey‘Press,Inc.,dl960. Individual attitude forces which produce organizational member behavior changes are frustration, failure, short- time perspectives, and conflict. These forces exist when individuals are in formal organizations. Frustra- tion exists when self-expression is blocked. Failure results when one is unable to define his own goals re- lated to his needs. Short-time perspectives are due to a lack of control over future stability. Conflict ex- ists through a disliking for frustration, failure, and short-time perspectives. These forces increase as in- dividuals increase.their dependence on organizations, or as his Job becomes increasingly specialized. Studies of organizational forces through policy changes produced interesting results related to individual be- havior and attitudes. These studies showed that work- ers tended to accept policy changes that did not decrease their wages or Job security. Workers did not desire to participate in change planning, although they were init- ially annoyed with these changes. Annoyance from change decreased as organizational members gained control over their Job. Where these policy changes produce atti- tudes of resentment, adaptrive measures were observed in the workers' actions. Workers' manifestations of change were observed through decreased emphasision quality, higher absentee records, decreased friendships, and de- creased cohesive groups. Turnover was too drastic an adaptation for these workers, therefore their adapta- tions were made through greater absenteeism and decreased quality of work. This study also showed the organiza- tional impact on foremen. Through these studies foremen expressed a greater degree of pressure, resulting from policy changes, than the workers. When this pressure existed, foremen showed a greater desire to achieve a higher status to evade this pressure. Another adapt- ive behavior open to foremen was an emphasis on mone- tary reward. The date does not show that greater ab- senteeism and turnover are adaptive behavior used by foremen. This may be true because foremen feel too old to change Jobs, have no Job to accept, or dislike los- ing their benefits. 65 Banks, Olive. The Attitude of Steelworkers tpMTechpical Change. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1960. Wages are an organizational force that may be a policy change. This change may either produce fears that pol- icy changes may threaten decreased wages or it may actually decrease wages. A fear of decreased wages is less acceptable to workers than an actual wage decrease. "Unskilled workers" and those feeling wage losses are least favorable to organizational changes affecting wages. Older men show no negative reaction to such pol- icy changes. higher status individuals give greatest approval to policy change involving wages. 6. Bendix, R. Max Weber, An Intellectual Portrait. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc. 1960. pp 302-311. Administrative Succession is leadership replacement in organizations. Succession thus becomes a force affect- ing organizational members. Succession may be made by a charismatic leader. His control is established through his own personal qualities. Charismatic leaders tend to be radical. They challenge established prac- tices. Such forces may lead to increased tensions on organizational members. Other patterns of leadership authority available for succession are bureaucratic patterns and traditional patterns. The bureaucratic form is based on established rules, which tend to in- crease employee security. 7. Blau, Peter. The Dynamics of Bureaucrapy. Chicago: The University onChicago Press, 1955. chfil2. Organizational forces which increase Job security among individual employees produce favorable reaponses. Org- anizational changes producing insecurity influence the less competent and lower rated civil servants to resist such changes. 8. Dalton, M. Men Who Manage. New Yerk: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1959, pp 66,67, Succession is an organizational force allowing the_pro- motion and transfer of key personnel. This organiza- tional force may be both functional and dysfunctional. Programs promoting key personnel rewards abilities dis- covered for many posts. Programs of organizational rotation could be a disciplinary action taken to break up a clique. DiSpersal o cliques may be more disrupt- ive than the clique itself. Rotation may break up un- desirable cliques, may hinder the formation of other 66 cliques, and may offer new promises to frustrated offers. However, rotation and promotion may be forces which influence clique members or other organizational members to react in differing ways. 9. Dexter, Lewis A. ”Some Strategic Considerations in In- novating Leadership," in Alvin W. Goulner (ed.) Studies in Leadership. New York: Harper and Brothers, 19 . pp 592-600. Leaders are forces influencing changes in organizational members. The author states that leaders are innovators, who desire to bring about new change. For achieving maximum effectiveness, leaders may make an intensive study. This study includes the roles to be played and the limits adopted in this role. Gestures, mannerisms, and even style of clothing enter into this effective- ness of role execution. lO. Dimock, Marshall. "Bureaucracy Self-Examined" in R. K. Merton, et al. (eds.), Reader in Bureaucracy; Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1956. pp 402-4037 Civil servants who have worked up through bureaucratic ranks resist in subtle and effective ways "outsider" successor changes. This group develops common under- standings, prejudices, appreciations, loyalties, and similar outlooks as they progress through the bureau- cracy. When l'outside" successors attempt to organiza- tional manipulation, these civil servants resist his actions. Generally successors enter an organization feeling that 50% of the existing procedures must be changed, whereupon they proceed to insist on changes without substantial investigation. 11. Dimock, Marshall. Administrative Vitaligy. New York: Harper and Brothers,_l958. ch. 12. Manifestation of individual change is observed in form- ing informal groups. Group activity is more comfort- able than formal organizations. Formal organizations decrease communication, increase impersonality and iso- lation which increases informal group development. In- formal groups may lose interest in larger group object- ives, and thus resist changes that would threaten their security. However, workers within these working groups may achieve higher productivity. Through a sense of group pride and loyalty they may achieve this high pro- ductivity. 67 Leaders, as a force on individuals, should prepare organizations for potential future changes. Premature changes without adequate preparations cause confusion and bitterness among members. Both officials and em- ployees should be intelligently and emotionally pre- pared for changes. This may require individual changes in thinking and attitudes. Individual anxieties must be anticipated. New Jobs and reaponsibilities should be analyzed. Leaders who have an innovative spirit behave in an en- ergetic way. Forces motivating this innovative leader are from an inner concern or desire more than from out- side forces. Such leaders are independent and do not need special incentives. Their satisfaction is achieved through a sense of successful struggle and accomplish- ment. Qualities needed are: ability to overcome ob- stacles, exercise power within limits, to struggle, persevere, contrive, and be resourceful. 12. Dubin, R. The World of Man, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. I958. ch. 21. The chief goal of a leader is to build and sustain the organizational member morale. Leaders may accomplish this goal by: playing the role of a spokesman or sym- bolic group leader, being a goal setter, being the decision-maker, resolving internal differences, or set- ting the example. Successors who strive to attain this chief goal playing these roles prevent stagnation in organizations. Many successors change basic policy to meet environmental changes affecting the organization. Although this may create instability among employees, it does contribute to the organization's adaptation to surrounding environments. 13. Festinger, Leon. Schacter, Stanley, and.Back, Kurt. Social Pressures in Informal Groups. New Ybrk: Harper and Bros. 1950, ch. 1,5,7. Small groups produce forces that influence individual attitude and behavior changes. Among these forces in- fluencing individual changes are group prestige approval and attractiveness. Group members form friendships within organizations which bring pressures on individual group members. Influence sources stem from individual group members. Some sources are group laws and taboos and roup conforming ressures. These group forces exer pressure on ind vidual attitudes and behavior through verbal and formal rules transmitted through com- municative processes. Group uniformity is basic for cohesiveness. Greater group cohesiveness produces 68 greater group influence on individual members to change. 14. Ginzberg, Eli, and Reilly, Ewing. Effecting Change in Large Organization. New York: Columbia UniversityIPress, 1957. pp l9ff, 35 Through an innovating spirit, leaders influence organi- zation member behavior changes. Success to an innovat- ing leader is gauged in terms of growth, love of progress, and profits. Satisfaction is achieved through steering organizations toward greater profits or a more dominant market position. Achieving this satisfaction means im— proving organization methods. Improved relations in every area of activity may be necessary to maintain this success. Personal striving for organizational success becomes an important influence on members under him. Leadership succession is a method for achieving organi- zational success. An example of this is observed when General Motors acquired the lead and increased its ad- vantage over Ford in the automobile market. Ford took radical steps to regain this former lead.’ One such step was to fill its top positions with former General Motors executives. l5. Gouldner, A.W. Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1054. part 2. Successors from "outside“ the organization are both new to the specific Job and to the entire plant. Such a successor knows his superiors are Judging his perform, ance. In this situation it is difficult for him to dis- regard top management's views. Since the "outsider" is untied to friendships within an organization, he is able to view plant operations objectively suggesting improve- ments. many times he has a good idea of changes needed before he enters the plant. Since he is an ”outsider" he is freer to initiate his ideas than if he were an "insider". Organizational members may fear "outsider" successors and may tend to resist him due to their fear of change. A successor who is promoted up through org- anizational ranks may have problems because of friends he has obligated himself to as he ascends. This sub- Jects him to opposing pressures. Or a successor may inherit a staff that is loyal to his predecessor. A successor's method for solving this problem is stra- tegic replacements. This may be accomplished by rid- ding himself of his staff, adding new posts elsewhere, or paying off friends by promoting them to his staff. 69 16. Gouldner, Alvin W. "The Problem of Succession and Bur- eaucracy," in Alvin W. Gouldner (ed.). Studies in Leadership. New York: Harper and Brother, 1950. pp 644-659. Top management's idea of succession implies improvement of predecessor‘s inadequacies. A successor's progress is watched closely by top management. "Outsider" suc- cessors may facilitate this improvement, since there are no friendship ties within an organization. This helps him observe organizations objectively. "Inside" successors have informal ties which hinder their achiev- ing top management's goals. These forces influence organizational members to act in one way or another. 17. Haire, Mason. "Industrial Social Psychology," Gardner Lindzey (ed.). Handbook of Social Ps cholo . Camb- ridge: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. I954, vol 2, ch 29. Hawthorne studies show that a change in individual pro- ductivity is not a function of illimination or physical fatigue. Individual turnover can no longer be observed in terms of an economic man unable to maximize his dol- lar income. Adaptive behavior as turnover and absente- eism is controlled largely by social psychological factors. Some forces are outside the job entirely. 18. Homans, George Caspar. Social Behavior: Its Elementagy Forms. New Ybrk, Burlingame:'Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. 1961. Group cohesiveness exists when there is individual attraction within a group. This attraction is a force influencing members to remain within the group. In- dividual group attraction may be observed in group activity interest and/or social approval. High cohes- iveness exerts a great pressure on group members in- fluencing attitude and behavior changes. Greater change pressure exists in a highly cohesive group than from a low cohesive group. High group cohesiveness results in little variability in productivity. This level of pro- ductivity may be maintained either at a high, middle, or low level. Productivity tends to decrease slightly as satisfaction increases. 19. Jaques, Illiott. The Changing Culture of a Factory. New York: Dryden, 1952. ch 4-9. High productivity resulting in greater profits is accom- plished through an increased energy by organizational 70 members. Individual effort may be decreased due to tensions between various staff and employee groups. Tensions may be resolved by communicating information necessary for clarifying organizational roles. A spec- ialist may work with subgroups in order to locate any force decreasing productivity. Upon finding these forces the Specialist interprets these forces to the work group, encouraging it to solve its own problem. 20. Kahn, Robert L. and Katz, Daniel. "Leadership Practices in Relation to Productivity and Morale," D. Cartwright and A. Zander (eds.). Group Dynamics. Evanston, Illin- ois; Row, Peterson, and Gempany,’l953, pp 612-628. Some leadership techniques achieve better production record while others do not. A supervisory leader who spends more time planning his work and performing Spec- ial skilled tasks achieves a better production record, while a leader who performs tasks that his men perform has a lower productivity record. Leaders who are more interested in their workers problems, who are more under- standing and less punitive when mistakes are made, tend to achieve greater production from their men. Leaders who emphasize production and technical aspects of work tend to have lower production records. 21. Katz, Daniel and Hyman, Herbert."(Morale in war Indus- try," in Theodore Newcomb, and Eugene Hartley (eds.). Readings in Social Psyphology, New York: Henry Holt and—Co. 1947. pp 437;447. A circular relationship exists between individual morale and production. Good production produces good feelings that lead to increased efforts. Low production reduces motivation and leads to low production. Worker's morale is related directly to his immediate physical and psy- chological work situation. If production is good, his treatment is fair, promotional opportunities are good, earnings are satisfactory, health and safety conditions are superior, then worker satisfaction and production will be high. 22. Kelley, Harold and Thibaut, John. "EXperimental Studies of Group Problem Solving and Process," in Gardner Lindzey (ed.). Handbook of Social Psychology. Cambridge: Addison-Wesley Publ. Co. Inc. 1954. vol 2, ch 21. Organizational members may produce greater or less work quantities depending on group cohesiveness. Group Attrac- tiveness may motivate individuals to complete a task rapidly. Effective communication and warm friendship are influenced by this attraction. Increased member 71 satisfaction in a group increases its influence on individual members. 23. Levenson, Bernard. "Bureaucratic Succession," Amitai Etzioni (ed.) Complex Organization. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1961 p. 362-375. "Anticipatory succession" is an organizational program for training personnel for higher-level positions. Mor- ale and productivity of work units may decrease follow- ing succession of a promoted supervisor. This decrease exists while new supervisors learn the ropes of new positions. Productivity may depend on supervisor's pro- motability. Subordinates observing supervisors as un- promotable may withdraw from the organization entirely, or may resign himself to the fact that he has reached a point of no promotion, which could lead to lost interest or minimum performance. Such a subordinate may be in- novative, may assert himself at meetings, or may write numerous memorandas. In this manner he sets up a public relations for his organizational value. Or, this sub- ordinate may be rebellious, scrutinizing all assumptions and procedures of work. 24. Lewin, K. "Group Decision and Social Change," in E. Maccoby, T. Newcomb, and E. Hartley (eds.). Readings in Social Psychology. New Ybrk: Henry Holt, 1958 pp 197- 21L. Groups influence individual attitude and behavior changes. Individual changes are made easier within groups than apart from groups. The effects of group influence are more permanent and acceptable if individ- ual members participate in that change. 25. Lippit, Ronald. Watson, Jeanne and Westley, Bruce. The Dynamics of Planned Change. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1958. The technique of "planned change" is a deliberate effort to improve systems. The person bringing about this change is either an outside agent, specialist, consult- ant or executive. Prior to "planned change" the "change agent" makes several assumptions concerning: 1. what is the organization; 2. the process leading to the trouble; 3. the trouble itself; 4. the processes leading to the solution of the problem; and 5. the ways to bring about the desired change. The organizational problem, in the power structure, may be a faulty channeling of energy, or may be a breakdown in organizational communications. 0n the other hand organizational problems may originate outside the system entirely. In this situation the 72 problem may be related to organizational values, goals or strategies. There are many organizational forces which influence changes. Primary forces are dissatis- faction, pain, environmental demands, and organizational demands. "Change forces" during a change may be seen in a desire to complete a task, a desire to meet the “change agent's" expectations and demands, and a need for change throughout the system after a change in one part. The specialist's role is important for any success. He must diagnose the problem, assess organizational motivation and capacity to change, appraise his own motivation and resources, select appropriate "objectives,“ choose his proper helping relationship, establish and continue his helping relationship, guide each phase of change, choose techniques and behavior appropriate in change relation- ship, and contribute to professional skills and theories. 26. Mann, Floyd, and Hoffman, L. Richard. Automation and the Worker. New York: Henry Holt and Company,‘l960. ch 4. Job satisfaction is a force which tends to facilitate organizational change. Workers gained satisfaction when their Jobs provided increased Job responsibility plus greater Job rotation. Negative responses to changes resulted from tensions traced to the speed and inade- quacy of preparation for Job transitions. Frustration could have been lessened by on-the-Job practical ex- perience for transferred Operators in addition to formal classroom training. 27. March, James G. and Simon, Herbert A. Or anizations. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1959. pp I73-I9 . Worker dissatisfaction for organizational policy leads td a search for a more satisfactory solution. earch for alternative solutions decreases when individual satisfaction increases. Individuals usually prefer policies to continue producing present satisfactions, or policies closely related. 28. Martin, N.H., and Strauss, A.L. "Patterns of Mobility within Industrial Organization," in W. L. Warner and N. H. Martin (eds.). Industrial Man. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959. pp 85-100. Succession of "insiders" produces leaders who are inte- grated in the organization. Organizational movement may be vertical, or horizontal. Horizontal movement provides the successor with a wide breadth of experience for any situation. This could prove disruptive to organ- ization, for the leader is expected to make changes no matter what exists. 73 29. Mathewson, S.B. Restriction of Output Among Unorganized Workers. New York: Viking Press, 1931. pp 15,86,146. Workers will restrict production in reaction to organ- izational policy changes affecting wage payments. This reaction may be due to a fear of being laid off. Work- ers feel that restriction of output would postpone lay offs, and stabalize their employment and earnings. 30. McCleery, R.H. Policy Change in Prison management. Governmental Research Bureau, Michigan State'Uhiversity, East Lansing, Michigan, 1957. pp 21-34. Succession may lead to a change in rules and policies. Such policy changes may be executed with lack of inform- ation about the effectiveness of former practices. In a centralized prison such succession led to a disruption of the entire system, which was manifested in increased violence and inmate escape rates. 31. McGregor, Douglas. "The Conditions of Effective Leader- ship in the Industrial Organization," S.D. Hoslett (ed.) HumanAFactogsgin Mapggement. New York; Harper and Bros. I951: pp 23‘35. Forces increasing employee job security are group ap- proval, knowledge of what is expected, preparation for change, and consistent discipline. Employee job secur- ity may be enhanced by increasing his participation in problem solutions or discussions affecting him, or by allowing him to assume added reaponsibilities. 32. Olmsted, Michael S. The Small Group, New Ybrk: Randon House, 1959. pp 50-51. Group cohesiveness produces high morale, which is im- portant for high productivity. A negative action pro- duced by this cohesiveness restricts productivity. 33. Roethlisberger, F.J. and Dickson, William J. Management and the Worker. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, I947 ch. 8 Productivity was increased in Western Electric's "relay assembly room" as the psychological work conditions were improved. The women enjoyed working in the experi- mental room where little supervision existed and where their importance was felt; they knew that the entire company was observing this experiment. 74 34. Smith, Henry Clay. Psychology of Industrial Behavior. New York Toronto, London: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1955 pp 132-3 Job satisfaction among industrial workers sometimes influences lower productivity whereas sometimes dis- satisfied workers achieve better records of product- ivity. Dissatisfied workers tend to have higher rates of absences, while other dissatisfied workers may leave permanently. 35. Stern, Bernard J. “Resistance to the Adoption of Tech- nical Innovation," Sub Committee on Technology of the National Resources Committee. Technological Trends and Natipnal Poligy. Washington: U.S. Government Print- ing Office. 1937. pp 36-67. Psychological forces produce individual resistance to technical innovations. Such resistance is "rooted“ in the individual's desire to set his own behavior. Change upsets habits, stirs up fears, and disturbs the desire for personality equilibrium and status. Personal equilibrium is shattered when uncertainty is temporarily substituted for stability. Life be- comes more complex since it is less routinized. The closer a new policy approximates the old aids its acceptability. 36. Weber, Nbx. The Theory of Social and Economic Organi- zation. (trans by A. M. Henderson and T. Parsons) Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1947. pp324-386. Succession exists in three patterns of control. These patterns are based on: rational grounds; traditional grounds; and charismatic grounds. Succession in a rational pattern or bureaucratic administration is based on established rules. These rules weigh indi- vidual successor's qualifications. Succession of traditional leaders is determined by ones relation- ship to the chief. Succession under a charismatic pattern of control is based on emotional ties. Each pattern of control is a force that influences organ- izational individual behavior. 37. White, R. and Lippitt, R. "Leader Behavior and Member Reaction in Three Social Climates," in D. Cartwright and A. Zander (eds.) Grouprynamics. Evanston, Illin- ois: Row, Peterson and Company. Types of supervision are related to organizational changes in "job content." “Autocratic supervision" results in employee hostility and aggression. It dis- rupts group cohesion, and brings about a lack of 75 initiative and originality in workers. Similar res- ponses would result in opposition to organizational policy changes and innovations. 38. Whyte, William Foote. Human Relations in the Restaurant Industry. New York: McGraw-Hill BookIGOmpany, Inc. 4 . ch 22. Succession of supervisor could disturb organizational equilibrium. Readjustment by industrial individuals may be both painful and costly. Personnel morale may be built on loyalties to a predecessor. Succession may lead to factions, divided loyalties, which could lead to personnel resignations. One sulution to this situation would be for the successor to follow his predecessor's practices or he may build up informal worker relationships, create a receptive atmosphere for employees with problems, and encourage work with- out direction providing help when needed. 39. Whyte, W. H. Jr. The Organization Man. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1956} p 305. Succession can be a force to improve morale. Systematic changes allow vertical mobility, thus promoting motives to succeed and produce. Transferring encourages adapt- ability among top personnel. This increases his adapt- ability to all environments within a large organization. 40. Williams, Robin M. Jr. American Society. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1951. pp 455-461. Informal groups develop within formal organizations as growth progresses. Western Electric experiments il- lustrate the effects of this social atmosphere. In- creased subgroups, which tend to assume a hierarch- ical form require co-ordination. Additions of new members and increased subgroups produce internal org- anizational structure changes which influence group members attitude and behavior. 41. Wolff, Kurt. The Sociology of George Simmel. (trans. by Wolff) Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1950. pp 216-221. 402-408. "Outside" successors import qualities that do not and cannot stem from the organization or its groups. "Out- side" successors are not informally committed to any subgroups or staff members, therefore they tend to be impartial. This impartiality allows them to survey organization with less prejudice. They are not tied 76 down by habit, piety, or precedent. Such freedom, how- ever, could promote general insecurity among organiza- tional personnel. 42. Worthy, James C. "Factors Influencing Employee Morale," in S. D. Hoslett (ed.). Human Factors in Management. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951. pp 302-323. Informal groups are forces influencing organizational morale. Such informality provides a high degree of on the job freedom. Informality requires a high order of administrative ability to operate successfully. High morale and good results are closely related. PERIODICALS 43. Argyris, Chris. "Organizational Leadership and Parti- cipative Management", "Journal of Business, vol 28, (Jan. 1955), 1-7. Leadership in organization should use the technique allowing subordinates a greater Opportunity to parti- cipate in various decisions affecting them directly_ or indirectly. Increased participation provides a "we-feeling" toward the entire organization. It decreases conflict, hostility, and "cut-throat" com- petition among participants. Due to their dependence on organizations, individuals tend to be frustrated in the work situation. Management may solve this problem by decreasing dependency through increased employee participation in decisions. This solution may require a change in executive training methods. Executives should be taught to understand the "adapt- ive value" of informal employee activities. Then an executive would have a better understanding of basic organizational difficulties which would aid his solving them. 44. Argyris, Chris. "The Individual and Organization: Some Problems of Mutual Adjustment," Administrative Science gparterly, vol 2, (June, 1957, 1-24. Frustration may produce individual behavior adaptations. Frustration is facilitated by organizational formal principles that cause subordinates at any level to ex- perience competition, rivalry, and intersubordinate hostility. Subordinates adapt to these situations by leaving, climbing the organizational ladder, using defense reactions, as day-dreaming or by being apath- etic, and by being disinterested. This may be seen in behaviors of goldbricking, setting rates, restricting quotas, making errors, cheating, or slowing down. Other adaptive measures are: creating informal groups to sanction defense, formalizing informal groups, and evolving group norms. 45. Argyris, Chris. "The individual and Organization: An Empirical Test," Administrative Science Quarterly, vol 4, (Sept, 1959) 145-167. Empirical study in two departments of an industry. One department reported a high degree of variety and res- ponsibility, while the other department reported work to be routine. Adaptive behavior represented in the department of highly skilled employees who had greater variety and responsibility showed: little emphasis on 77 78 monetary reward, a sense of self worth, low spoilage, development of strong friendships, and a creativeness outside the plant. Adaptive behavior among low skilled workers where a low degree of variety and reaponsibil- ity existed was: acceptable production rates, little interest, high emphasis on money, lack of self worth, high spoilage, few friends, and lack of creativity out- side the occupation. 46. Bakke, E. Wright. "Why Workers Join Unions," Personnel, vol 22, (July, 1945), 57-46. When frustration and anxiety increase and basic needs are not fulfilled, workers tend to adapt by Joining the unions. Among basic needs are desires to control their own affairs for understanding, for a feeling of integrity, to achieve creativity, and to predict the forces at work in their work-world. 47. Bavelas, Alex. "Some Problems of Organizational Change," Journal of Social Issues, vol 4, (Summer, 1948) 48-52. Techniques of change are related to maintaining a social framework. Organizations accumulate a common fund of experience providing its own "culture." This culture is observed in proper behavior. Among these behavior patterns are proper ways to work, loaf, cooperate, or re31st. Alternations in this "culture” could seriously dislocate the social organizational culture causing frustration and anxiety to its participants. Small social culture changes may be assimilated into the existing culture without much difficulty. Large changes may dislocate systems in such a way that no stable net- work would exist for change assimilation. Two methods are offered to meet these problems. Both the "accomo- dation approach" and the “group decision" provided soc- ial culture change. The"accommodation approach" re- quires an extended period of time through which indiv- iduals gradually accept culture changes. Problems re- lated to those changes are solved leisurely allowing the individuals to "get used to the idea.“ The "group decision" is applied to small groups for local changes. Changes are made by the group collectively rather than being forced upon individual members. The new group culture is bound by decision of the group. 48. Brown, William H. I'Innovation in the Machine Tool In- dustry," Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1957, vol 71, (Aug, 1957), 406-425. Organization's planned change determining its future is a force influencing individual behavior. When org- anizational markets fall or disappear it becomes 79 profitable to introduce new machine tools to increase product demand. Innovation increases this demand. Outside competition decreases demand, and thus shortens the period before innovation must take place. 49. Cadwallader, iervyn L. "The Cybernetic Analysis of Change in Complex Social Organizations," The American Journal of Sociology, vol 65, (Sept, 195973154-157. Learning and innovation are forces which influence organizational member changes. Innovation, the intro- duction of something new, is limited by informational quantity and variety present in organizations. Indiv- idual behavior is modified resulting from Specific acts, as present or past successes and failures. 50. Cartwright, Dorwin, "Achieving Change in People: Some Application of Group Dynamics Theory," Human Relations vol 4, (Nov, 1951), 581-592. Individual behavior and attitudes are grounded in the group he belongs. These members may change or resist depending on their reference group's influence. This illustrates the importance of understanding groups and their influence as mediums of change. One prin- ciple important in understanding group influence on members is the strong sense of member belonging. An- other principle influencing individual behavior changes is the group's attractiveness to its members. Greater influence is achieved when group prestige is greater in the member's estimation. Strong resistance will result if a change makes one individual a deviant from group norms. Change may be established in groups by creating a shared perception of group member's need for change. Needs, plans, and consequences of change must be shared by all group members. Another principle is that changes must be made throughout the group. 51. Centers, R. "Motivational Aspects of Occupational Strat— ification," igurnal of Social Psychology, vol 28, (Nov, 1948), 187-217. Attitudes toward change in "Job content" vary with class status levels. Each individual is exposed to differing work experiences and Jobs, which bring different mean- ings to work functions. Reactions to change in Job con- tent differ also with individual status levels. The degree of worker participation required to initiate change varies with status. Low status workers expressed greater dissatisfaction to changes in job content. No businessman eXpressed this dissatisfaction. Higher status personnel expressed a greater desire for self- expression, while lower groups emphasized their desire for security. 8O 52. Clark, Burton R. "Organizational Adaptation and Pre- carious Values: A Case Study " American Sociological Review, vol 21, (June, 1956, 527:556. Planned change used by a California Adult Education Program Administrator is a force which influences organizational member behavior. Planned change meant changing policies and objectives to fit public demands. Since this program was marginal, the administrator es- tablished a service educational program. Teachers were retained on class popularity. Organizational survival depended on the administrator's ability to adapt this program and its members to supporting social groups. 53. Coch, L. and French, J.R.P. "Overcoming Resistance to Change," Human Relations, vol I, (Nov, 1948), 512-552. Technique of change for new workers is the group-method of learning. Skill is a minor factor to learning a new Job, for motivation is the major factor. Organizational transfers affect personnel behavior and attitudes. Trans- fers produce resentments, frustrations and loss of hope for regaining former status or production. Frustration leads to high turnover and absenteeism, which is great- est Just after transfer when status contrast is greatest. As the transferee learns his new Job, frustration de- creases. The "group method" is used as an aid to trans- ferees increasing their relearning rate. If this "group method" produces negative attitudes, it may demonstrate the strongest resistance to organizations. A high "we- feeling" with positive cooperative attitudes produces the best relearners. Turnover among separate personnel is much higher than among group members. Antagonistic attitudes, whether from individuals or groups, tend to restrict production. 54. Coleman, John R. "The Compulsive Pressure of Democracy in Unionism," American Journal of Sociology, vol 61, (May, 1956), 519-526. Organizational personnel reduce their dependence on man- agement's formal authority by Joining a union. This individual behavior change is an important basis for the rise of trade unions. Trade unions were formalizations of organizational small groups. Unions became employee instruments for protecting and advancing his own dignity as a free worker. 55. Donahue, Francis M. and Humphrey, Norman D. "Changing Bureaucracy and Social Power in a Chicago Ukranian Parish," Human Organization, vol II, (Summer, 1952), 23-26. 81 Case study showing how dissatisfaction for authori- torian clergy led to the Chicago Ukranian Parish's refusal to submit to this domination. This reaction led to a decline of status among its clergy, and an increased participation for the laymen in all parochial affairs. 56. Faunce, William A. "Social Stratification and Atti- tudes Toward Change in Job Content," Social Forces, vol 39, (Dec, 1960), 140-148. Attitudes toward change in "job content" were favor- able when associated with a higher class background or identification with the higher class, with an urban background, with higher education, with higher organ- izational authority positions, and with a supervisory climate perceived as "autocratic." Male attitudes were more acceptable to changes in "Job content" than were women irrespective of class background, class identification, or position in organizations. 57. Golembiewski, Robert T. "The Small Group and Public Administration," Public Administration Review, vol. 19, (Summer, 1959) 1494156. Instability is a force which produces group friction and lower productivity. Highly cohesive groups can maintain or lower productivity levels. Therefore, productivity is influenced by group norms, which sets behavior standards. Group members, except when devi- ating from norms, are unaware of group norm influence. 58. Grusky, Oscar. "Role Conflict in Organization: A Study of Prison Officials," Administrative Science Quarter- ly, vol 5, (mar, 1959), 4654467. Succession of leaders affect the attitudes and behav- ior of organizational members. Succession is disrupt- ive and creates temporary disequilibrium. Highly bur- eaucra ized organizations have less influence on in- dividual behavior because of succession. A study of succession in a prison camp showed the result of a successor's relying on formalized relationships, closer supervision, and stronger security controls when he entered the new organization. The result was observed in increasing rates of prisoner escapes, which rose to unprecedented heights after replacement. Staff morale reached a new low resulting from this succession. 82 59. Grusky, Oscar, "Administrative Succession in Formal Organizations," Social Forces, vol 59, (Dec,l960), 105-115. Succession is an important organizational change which involves key official replacement. Succession is an important problem that leads to organizational in- stability. This problem must be dealt with by all organizations. Succession is disruptive. It sets up conditions for new policies. It disturbs traditional organizational norms, and promotes change in formal and informal relationships, which influence individ- ual attitudes and behavior. Succession does provide "new blood", new ideas, and vitalizes organizational action in adapting both to internal demands and en- vironmental pressures. Succession, however, also may promote conflict among staff members, lower employee morale, contribute to a lack of cohesiveness, and de- crease the effective functioning of the system. 60. Guest, Robert H. "Work Careers and Aspirations of Automobile Workers " American Sociological Review, Vol 19, (Apr, 1954) 155-165. Tension, frustration and lack of variety in the work situation influence worker attitudes and behavior. Some desire to quit their Job to alleviate tensions. Fear of not finding a new Job, fear of losing their insurance values, plus their high wages achieved through seniority prevents them from leaving the organization permanently. 61. Guest, Robert H. "A Neglected Factor in Labor Turn-F over," Occupational Psychology, Vol 20, (Oct,l955) 217-251. Tensions and frustration caused by pressures of mech- anically paced Jobs influenced workers with 12-15 years seniority to leave their position entirely. At the time of interview all these workers had left their Job. A majority worked somewhere else in non-repeti- tive factory jobs where pay was less. Among reasons for leaving were: the pressure of machine pacing; lack of variety; and lack of challenge. The dominant personal expression was the need to control his own life. All of these reasons are identified with task specialization of formal organizations. 62. Janowitz, M. and Delany, W. "The Bureaucrat and the Public," "A Study of Informational Perspectives," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol 2, (Sept,l957) 141-162. 85 Leaders of many large, highly bureaucratized industrial and governmental organizations are compelled to make decisions on policy changes without first hand informa- tion of the field situation. Upon leadership succesion policy changes without adequate information compound the forces influencing employee behavior. Such influ— ences could disrupt an entire organization. 3. Jaques, Elliott, Rice, A. K. and Hill, J.M.M. "The Social and Psychological Impact of a Change in Method of Wage Payment," Human Relations, vol 4, (Nov, 1951), Policy changes that enhance Job security tend to be accepted favorably. Policy changes related to wages paid on an hourly basis instead of piece rate basis provide more worker security and better working rela- tions. Only a slight drop in effort was registered among workers. These workers were highspeed repeti- tive workers. Changeover has not affected the work of steels cohesive groups. Generally speaki', policy changes have been acceptable to highly sk illed and to the "not so skilled" who identified themselves with their work. There was no change in turnover due to reduced earnings. 64. Kelman, Herbert G. "Two Phases of Behavior Change," Journal of Social Issues, Vol 8, (No 2, 1952), 81-88. Two techniques are presented to change group members behavior: the "socio-group" process; and the "psyche- group" process. The “socio-group" process re-educates members in interpersonal relation techniques so they will be able to lead groups toward a visualized group goal. The "psyche-group" process seeks to satisfy group member emotional needs. An element of this pro- cess develops lasting friendships, while another ele- ment provides lasting satisfaction. 65. Leavitt, Harold J. "Small Groups in Large Organizations, Journal of Business, Vol 28, (Jan, 1955), 8-17. Productivity and job satisfaction are highest when group members are allowed the highest degree of partici- pation. The placing of this democratic subculture into a hierarchical and autocratic parent structure may lead to difficulty. There are group conditions that aid group effectiveness and remain consistent with authori- tarian structures. A leader may permit group problem discussion without allowing members to actively parti- cipate in the decision. Group effectiveness say he achieved when group goals are accepted by its members. Progress toward group's goal holds group members to- gether and maintain morale. 84 66. Lieberman, A. "The Effects of Changes in Roles on the Attitudes of Role Occupants," Human Relations, Vol 9, (Jov, 1956), 585-402. Hypothesis is tested that occupants of a role develop attitudes congwuent with role expectations. Attitudes f foremen and stewaris were tested before and upon promotion to these positions. Results showed a greater change in foreman attitudes than in the steward. This difference was due to the nature of each role. The foreman role was a permanent position which was disas- sociated from unions. Employees occupying these roles tind tg become anti-union in their_attitudes. The S SWBTL is a part-time position. These members may be re-elected to this position and do remain in the union. Steward attitudes were less tiei to their role. This is consistent with his part-time status. Roles do affect individual attitude and behavior changes. Then workers change their role and reference group, changes are produced in their attitulaa 1"i behavior related to this new role. Changes in o’e's role means a change in functio“, which leads to attitude and behavior changes. 67. Mano, Floyd C. "Changing, Superior-Subordinate Relation- ships," Journal of Social Issues, Vol 7, (No a, 1951), 56-630 Motivation is a basic force to every change, whether in attitude or behavior. Basic motivation for axy change is a need to otange. Several techniques may be used whereby individuals may feel a need to change. Cne such teciri; e is a superior's genuine concern for their prohlers. Another technique emphasizes high personal participation and involvement in planning. A third technique is the group influence. Techniques such as "Human Relations Training Program" or “intensive discussion" may be used to change organ- izational relationships. The "Human Relations Train- ing Program" technique attempts changing superior-sub- ordinate relations, so that employees will perceive foreman as their friend. Should the attitudes and practices of higher supervision be inconsistent with this training course content, the course will fail or may even result in decreased satisfaction. The tech- nique of intense discussion is a procedure for changing a whole set of relationships. The initial discussion is between the change agent and the highest supervisors. Then the "Change Agent" has a series of discussions with the immediate subordinates on a person-to-person basis. Upon achieving an understanding of each member's views on the problem, a meeting of the whole "family" is called observing the problem and discussing their goals. 85 68. Narrow, Alfred J. and French, John R.R. Jr. "Changing a Sterotype in Industry," Journal of Social Issues, Vol I, (Aug, 1945) 55.57. Resistance is one individual behaviorial reaction to policy changes. Resistance may be based on a biased Judgment. Such a biased Judgment states that older women who were over 50 are inferior workers and thus should not be hired. Desired policy change origin- ated by an industrial psychologist met with resist- ance from top management down to the lowest levels of supervision. The psychologist proceeded to pro- duce this change in policy through a re-education technique. This re-education process started with top management, which was met with stiff counter- arguments. Then he involved top management in a re- search project. Research results disproved personal bias to management's delight. After a sample testing of individual supervisors failed to produce the de- sired response, the psychologist proceeded to "re- educate" the supervisors as a group. First he pre- sented the research findings of top management's study to the group and then discussed it. Upon discussing the origins and motives for their bias, the group mem- bers reached a decision to experiment by training older women. Through this group decision the policy change was gradually established. Arguments and persuasion failed to uproot this strong bias, however, top man- agement's research participation and supervisor's group participation in discussion and final decision brought about the actual policy change. 69. McCarthy, E.J. "Organization for New-Product Develop- ment," Journal of Business, Vol 52, (April, 1959), 128-152. ‘ Technique for introducing a new product in an organiza- tion depends on an innovating attitude of management, which is instilled into all employees. This means that the entire company must be willing to take chances, do things out of the ordinary, and cooperate to overcome all problems. 70. McGregor, Douglas "The Staff Function in Human Rela- gions," Journal of Social Issues, Vol 4, (Summer,1948), -22. High productivity is achieved when leaders create and maintain healthy human relations which facilitate the satisfaction of individual worker's needs. Leaders use skills and knowledge to bring greater satisfaction and thus achieve individual needs. Low productivity occurs when satisfaction is hampered due to increased frustra- ion. 86 71. Hetzner, Helen and Mann, Floyd. "Employee Attitudes and Absences," Personnel Payphology, Vol 6, (Winter, 1955), 467-485. Worker's rate of absences are related to their degree of organizational satisfaction. Worker satisfaction is related to their job interest, wages, promotional possibilities and personnel practices. It was hypo— thesized that the rate of worker absences increases as worker satisfaction decreased. The results of the study verified this hypothesis for low skilled white collar men and blue collar men, but did not hold true for white collar women or high level white collar men. 72. Horse, Nancy C. and Reimer, Everett. "Experimental Change of a Major Organizational Variable,“ Journal 9f Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol 52, (195 120-129. Two hypotheses are tested in this study. One is that increased participation in decision-making by rank-in- file employees increases Job satisfaction of organiza- tional members, while a decreased participation in decision-making decreased satisfaction. The second hypothesis states that increased participation in decision-making by rank-in-file employees increased their productivity, while a decreased participation decreased productivity. Two clerical work groups were set up to test these hypotheses. One group was an "autonomy group," which had wide latitude in making decisions on methods, processes, and personal matters. The other group was "hierarchically controlled" de- creasing personal control over changes in job content. Results showed greater satisfaction in the "autonomy group" toward the job, supervisors, and the company. Decreased satisfaction existed in the "hierarchically controlled group" for all three. Productivity was considerably greater in the "hierarchically controlled group", however turnover also was considerably greater. All but one who resigned due to dissatisfaction came from the "hierarchically controlled group." It is pos- sible that productivity might be greater in the "auton- omy group" if costs of turnover were added as a crit- eria of productivity. 75. Pelz, Donald C. "Leadership within a Hierarchical Organ- ization," Journal of Social Issues, Vol 7, (No 3,1951), 49-550 Successful leadership is a force influencing group mem- bers to achieve their goals. Study findings show that 87 small work groups favor a leader who would "go to bat" for them. However, larger white collar working groups preferred a supervisor who sided with management. Now the important factor in being a successful leader is being an influencial leader. The influence of this successful leader depends on his role, and is not measured by his interaction. Studies show that influencial supervisors who attempt to help employees achieve their goals us- ually succeed. Resulting from this help by the super- visor, concrete achievements are reached and increased employee satisfaction is attained. Data also shows that non-influencial supervisors attempting to help employees achieve their goals often fail. This leads to frustrated employee expectations, and often a decrease in employee satisfaction. 74. Presthus, Robert V. "Toward a Theory of Organizational Behavior," Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol 5, (June, 1958), 48L72. Formal organization is a force influencing individual behavior changes. Organizational goals and values in- fluence members to change their attitudes and behavior. Changes in attitudes and behavior decrease individual anxiety toward organizations. Should this anxiety in- crease individuals may reapond either by resigning, or by being aggressive. 75. Rice, A. K. and Trist, E. L. "Institutional and Sub- institutional Determinants of Change in labour Turn- over," Human Relations, Vol 5, (Nov,1952), 547-571. Organizational policy changes influence workers to resist these forces. In this study the change in pol- icy was related to the "governing system," which sets the proportion of male or female entrants into the factory. The change in policy would decrease the amount of female entrants hired. Organizational members tend to resist this policy change. 76. Richardson, Stephen A. "Technological Change: Some Effects on Three Canadian Fishing Villages," Human Organization, Vol 11, (Fall, 1952), 17-27. "Inside leaders, through informal ties, provide a great- er influence for introducing changes in the fishing in- dustries of a small Canadian island. They gained ac- ceptance for their changes. Hostility and resistance would have resulted had the change been introduced by an outside leader. Local pressure did tend to resist change. Reasons for resis ance hinged on lack of in- formation. Organizations on the island had no source 88 of information off the island. Anxiety over falling prices and fear of unemployment influenced this resist- ance among organizational members. 77. Roethlisberger, F. J. "The Foreman: Master and Victim of Double Talk," Harvard Business Review, Vol 25, (Spring, 1945), 285-298. Job dissatisfaction among foremen has influenced their increased receptiveness to unionization. This resulted when their "take home" pay was less than the workers under him. Also they were stripped of their authority plus their job becoming more difficult due to an influx of uneXperienced workers. 78. Roy, Donald "Work Satisfaction and Social Reward in ducts Achievement," American Sociological Review, Vol. 18, (Oct, 1955), 507-514. Psychological failure influences employees to restrict quotas and goldbrick. Quota restriction below maximum efficiency is a means of "getting even" with manage- ment. Free time is guarded preciously in Spite of their gold-bricking. All of these are common behaviors for those experiencing failure. 79. Sayles, Leonard R. “A Case Study of Union Participation and Technolo ical Change," Human Organization, Vol 11, Spring, 1952 , 5-15. Case study showing how dissatisfaction in a working situation over an incentive system led to a cohesive group, which developed into a union. This group prov- ided a counter force for solving the problem with man- agement. Later, when the volume of military production declined, most workers accepted less skilled and lower- paying Jobs. Afterward, without prior notice the super- intendent changed their incentive plan, which threatened a 50% cut in employee earnings. With the former cohes- ive group dissolved, and informal leadership in the hands of older men with seniority, there was no open resist- ance to this change except for a formal grievance note, which was overlooked. 80. Sofer, Cyril "Reactions to Administrative Change: A Study of Staff Relations in Three British Hospitals," Human Relations, Vol 8, (Aug, 1955), 291-516. Case study is presented of a change in formal rules after the nationalization of three British Hospitals and its influence on their members. Such a change failed to influence the whole body of informal relation- ships, traditions, and values which remained out of gear 89 with the formal arrangements. This change was unset- tling, producing anxiety among employees who expressed in mutual antagonism and hostility toward the "change agent." These anxieties required alleviation during the course of transformation in order to re-establish normal working conditions. 81. Strauss, George "The Set—Up Man: A Case Study of Crganizational Change," Human Organization, Vol 15, (Summer, 1952), 17-25. Case study is of an organizational change in the assem- bly line department of a national company didicated to a policy change centralizing departmental reaponsibil- ity. This change in authority pattern was made without a full understanding of its wider ramifications. The change disrupted traditional relationships, created discomfort and resistance among personnel, which was observed in lower production and lower morale. 82. Strother, Charles R. "Methods of Modifying Behavior," Journal of Social Issues, Vol 1, (August, 1945),46-5l. Producing changes in individual behavior involes three component areas that are changeable. These components are: the "instigations" which are antecedent condi- tions that may be eliminated or modified; the "needs" of individuals; and the "instrumental acts," which may be replaced by a new set of conditions. Techniques may be used to change these components. "Instigating" conditions may be changed by industrial counselors, who diagnose what is wrong and suggest rules to be changed, supervisors replaced, or improve health con- ditions. Individual "needs" may be changed through contemporary psychology, which distinguishes the nat- ure and strength of needs; whether bases on "constitu- tional factors, inter-personal relationships," or "cultural influences." "Instrumental acts" may be changed through techniques of "re-education." The importance of these ideas and their relation to individuals is not 103 when dealing with groups, for these same individuals are members of groups. A tech- nique for changing groups is the "group atmosphere." One phase of this technigue changes individual status relationships in groups, and teach individual members new leadership techniques. A second phase is to change the entire group culture by introducing new patterns into all organized group phases. The third phase is accomplished by changing the larger group "atmoSphere" of which this group is a part. 9O 85. Thompson, James D. and hates, Frederick L. "Technol— ogy, Organization, and Administration," administrative Science guarterly, Vol 2, (Dec, 1957), sac-04o. Technology is an organizational force influencing individual changes. As technology becomes more spec- ialized there is an increased demand for specializa- tion of personnel and equipment. Increased technology is followed by increased professionalism, new values, and a new code of ethics. 84. Weber, G. Edward "Changes in Managerial Manpower with Mechanization of Date-Processing," Journal of Business, Vol 53, (April, 1949), 151-165. Technological change influences personnel changes with- in organizations. The introduction of mechanization of data-processing has decreased demand for clerical and semi-technical employment. Supervisory employment re- mained stable while administrative-professional employ- ment increased. The rise of management proportions is associated with efforts to change operations. 85. Whyte, W. F. "The Social Structure of the Restaurant Industry," American Journal of Sociology, Vol 54, (Jan, 1949), 5025516: Espanding organization is a force producing changes in organizational structure. Expanding organizations require additional supervisory help. Tension exists in a waitress during rush hours. This tension is a latent force that may influence individual behavior changes. Succession in this industry can lead to in- creased tensions which may result in changed individ- ual behaviors, should the successor be unskilled in helping waitresses. Adaptive behavior toward in- creased nervous tensions due to succession led to a series of resignations among waitresses. hit)”: as: Bill HICHIGQN STQTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES 111 “III!" III) W Ill IIIIIHI 9 1 1 4 312 3 033 78 2