‘7 . . , MARITAL STATUS AS RELATED TO MALE ON CAMPUS COLLEGE ST UDENTS’ ATTITUDE TOWARD POLICE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY . _ Thesis for the Degree of M. S. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY CALVIN JAMES SWANK 1971 --.- III IIIIIIIIZIIIJIIIIIILIIIIIIIII IIIIIIIII IIIIIIII 44 3572 I'HES'C‘ MARITAL STATUS AS RELATED TO MALE ON CAMPUS COLLEGE STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARD POLICE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BY Calvin James Swank AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to The College of Social Science Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Criminal Justice 1971 APPROVED: fla/éz C ”701M” ‘L (Chairman) Robert C. TijanowiciS Ph. D. (Member) pjzpm Winston A. (MembeCI/rr. Clarence H. . Romagjgl”. ABSTRACT MARITAL STATUS AS RELATED TO MALE ON CAMPUS COLLEGE STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARD POLICE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BY Calvin James Swank Purpose Today throughout America many citizens feel that college students are becoming alienated from the values of conventional adult society. This, according to the litera- ture, is caused to some degree by the college atmosphere itself. In it students gain greater freedom and often be- come inclined toward social change. This evolves since the previous value—transmitting agencies such as the family, church, and school tend to lose impact as college students are often encouraged to think for themselves. If this is the case, and realizing that marriage is an adult institu- tion, the purpose of this study is then to determine if it, as such, has any significant effect on male college students' attitudes toward police. Methodology The research design used was that of a descriptive questionnaire type study. The hypothesis was formulated in order to determine whether or not there is a significant difference in attitude toward police, between married and Calvin James Swank single, male college students from the age of seventeen to thirty-five, living on campus at Michigan State University. The instrument, a modified version of Dr. Robert Portune's ATP (attitude toward police) scale, consisted of 20 items in this area. Scores were obtained from the measure, tallied, and analyzed using percentages and a chi-square (X2) test for independence. Results Results on the item analysis showed no significant chi-square values and only a slight relationship on some in- dividual items. The hypothesis (in the null form) was then considered sound on this basis and indicated no relationship between student attitude and marital status. An additional factor uncovered though not the pur- pose of this study was that attitude toward the police of both married and single students is far more favorable than had been anticipated. Implications and Limitations This study has shown that male students living on campus at Michigan State University have about the same at- titude toward police regardless of marital status. It is the author's feeling that this may be true for college students at Michigan State University in general. Although this is unproven it provides a base for additional research in this area. It must be remembered here, however, that Calvin James Swank generalizations cannot be made beyond the limits of the defined population although the results may have implica- tions for a broader population having similar characteristics. For example, this may be some indication of student attitude in general, but in this study only one large midwestern university was used which in no way accounts for attitudes in other sections of the country. In reference to the Criminal Justice System, a number of implications become evident. This study has shown that in the population sampled attitude toward the police for the most part was favorable. Also this study has hope- fully provided insight into possible solutions in student- police relations as well as some ideas on needed changes within campus police organizations. From this project police agencies may also gain some realization that students do not in all instances have an adverse reaction when ques- tioned regarding police behavior. MARITAL STATUS AS RELATED TO MALE ON CAMPUS COLLEGE STUDENTS' ATTITUDE TOWARD POLICE AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY BY Calvin James Swank A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Criminal Justice 1971 DED I CATION This volume is dedicated to Captain Claude A. Tindall and Mr. Richard F. Marsh, who know the reasons why. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The number of debts one incurs in writing a thesis is surprisingly large. My family, Bobbie and Jeff, have endured much during the hours of depression in this endeavor. Also the project could not have been completed with- out the able guidance of Mr. James Hennessy. Similarly, I wish to acknowledge the assistance given in typing the manuscripts to Phyllis Groenewoud, Pat Higgins and Nancy Gienger. And last but not least I would like to thank the members of my committee, Dr. Trojanowicz, Mr. Gibson and Mr. Romig for the contribution of their time toward this end. iii Chapter II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . General Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study . . . . . . Nature and Scope of the Study . Statement of Hypothesis . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . Organization for the Remainder of the Study REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . The Concept of Attitude . . . . General Attitude Studies . . . . Conservatism-Radicalism Study Attitude Toward Punishment of Criminals Attitude Toward Law and Justice Attitudes Toward the Police . . The General Public . . . . . . The Negro Community . . . . . Other Minority Groups . . . . The Poor . . . . . . . . . . . Youth Attitudes Toward Police Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . RESEARCH PROCEDURES . . . . . . Definition of Population and Sample Selection iv Page 10 10 13 l3 14 15 l6 16 21 29 30 32 36 38 38 Chapter IV. Description of Measure Used . . . . . . . . Research Design and Procedures . . . . . . . RESEARCH FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . Restatement of Hypothesis and Description of Findings 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . The Problem . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis and Methodology . . . . . . . . . Research Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications of the Study . . . . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX Page 41 43 45 45 47 59 59 6O 61 61 66 68 74 Table II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. LIST OF TABLES Page Do you think that police here do an ex- cellent, good, fair, or a poor job of enforcing the laws? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 How good a job do the police do on giving protection to people in the neighborhood? . . 17 How good a job do the police do on being respectful to people like yourself? . . . . . 19 You would have to replace at least half the police force to get a really good police . . 22 NORC results as to "respectfulness to people like ourselves," Negro vs. white . . . 23 Opinion in Watts area in reference to the existence of police brutality . . . . . . . . 24 Negroes of the Watts area, indications of observed police misconduct . . . . . . . . . 25 BSSR results on race discrimination . . . . . 26 Relationship in attitude toward police of Negroes, Mexican-Americans, and whites . . . 30 NORC attitude of the poor toward police . . . 31 Gallup Poll attitude of the poor toward police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Youth attitude toward police . . . . . . . . 32 Item: "The police keep the city safe" . . . 49 Item: "The police often make false ac- cusations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Item: "The police don't know right from wrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 vi Table XVI. XVII. XVIII. IXX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVIII. IXXX. XXX 0 XXXI. XXXII. Item: "The police keep us safe" . . . . . . Item: "The police try to help you when you are in trouble" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Item: "The police are not polite" . . . . . Item: "The police often use paid informers to gain information". . . . . . . . . . . . . Item: "The police use clubs on people even though they haven't done anything" . . . . . Item: "The police keep order" . . . . . . . Item: "Without policemen crime would be everywhere" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Item: "You can count on the police when you need help" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Item: "Policemen in general work hard . . . Item: "Most police officers try to act like big shots". . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Item: "The police are always mad at students" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Item: The police help me when I'm in need" . Item: "The police mean bad news instead of help " O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O 0 Item: "Police are brave men" . . . . . . . . Item: "Police look out for our city" . . . . Item: "The police don't give you time to explain what happened" . . . . . . . . . . . Item: "The police try to get smart with you when you ask questions" . . . . . . . . . vii Page 50 51 51 52 52 53 53 53 54 54 55 55 55 56 56 57 57 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION General Statement of the Problem and Purpose of the Study Today in America, college campuses are in upheaval more than ever before. New ideas of social reform prevail, and riots on campuses in many areas of the country have focused attention on the police, and the extreme sensitivity of students to the police role. Policing on a college campus has become more hazardous and difficult than in previous years. The attitude of today's adolescent has been shaped less by an authoritarian or patriarchal structure than by a somewhat permissive society.1 As a result many of the former traditional values of adult institutions have been rejected by college students. In these rejections lie the origins of campus social disorganization. This change in and of it- self creates new hostilities and resentment toward civil authority. Because the police are the most visible source of this authority they then become the target of attack. Like others who resent police authority, students fail to see that 1A. F. Brandstatter and Louis A Radelet, Police and Community Relations: A Sourcebook (Beverly Hills: The Glencoe Press, 1968), p. 63. the difficulties of law enforcement stem from the functions the police serve in the legal system, and the necessity of accommodating these functions in relation to the community asla whole. In the legal system per se, the primary police pur— pose is to deal with the criminal in action through routine patrol, detection of crime, accumulation of evidence, and recovery of stolen property.2 This responsibility as de- fined creates much of the problem. That is, most police contacts are a host of one-to-one relationships between the officer and another person under a variety of circumstances. As a personal symbol of government, the policeman then be- comes an obvious target of resentment against authority. Since police work requires broad contacts with the public, this high potential for becoming a focal point for resent- ment and hostility emphasizes the desirability of proper behavior on the part of police officers. Persons considering police actions often fail to take into account that many police encounters are unpredictable events and must be evaluated quickly and often decided upon at once.3 This problem does not negate the fact that the primary social function of the police is that of guardian-of—society. 2Elmer Hubert Johnson, Crime, Correction, and Society (Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press, 1968), pp. 365-66. 31bid., p. 372. 4 . Ibld. However, it does explain at least in part, police action of which society may disapprove. The governmental authority associated with this role however, is likely to isolate the policeman particularly from students oriented toward social reform. Much of this dilemma arises because student atti- tudes do not universally present a united front against crime.5 Such students frequently exhibit a commitment to total social change and a lack of concern for the problems within existing institutions. This special political be- havior of students and their resentment toward authority is considered by many an outgrowth of elements specific to the situation and environment of university life, disposing students toward deviant behavior.6 University students are generally at an age defined as biologically adult; many non-students of the same age have already entered upon adult activities, marrying, earn- ing money, and spending it as they wish. Students are often at the age where they may vote and marry and many do both. Yet few university students earn all their livelihood; many remain financially dependent on their parents, and the society at large still treats them in many ways as adolescents with- out responsibilities permitting or even approving of their 51bid., p. 373. 6Seymour Martin Lipset and Sheldon S. Wolin (eds.), The Berkeley Student Revolt: Facts and Interpretations (Garden City: Doubleday & Company Inc., 1965), P. 3. wayward actions:7 These same young people, who thus may be defined as socially irresponsible, are at the same time in most instances encouraged to be idealistic. The problem here is that value-transmitting institutions such as the police, family, church, and school tend to present morality 8 This does not in absolute terms of either right or wrong. mesh for the most part with the previous encouragement to- ward idealism. Also, university students, though well educa- ted, have generally not established a sense of close involve- ment with the normal adult institutions. That is to say, experience has not hardened them to a state of imperfection.9 For this reason actions by the police are often subject to close scrutiny and criticism in many instances. With all these factors taken into consideration and realizing the aforementioned attitudes exist--the question then arises as to what change in student attitude is ef- fected when some of the factors of student life are changed. To begin with, attitudes are nothing more than the end product of the entire socialization process which signifi- cantly influences man's responses to cultural products, to 10 other persons, and to groups of persons. If this is the 7Ibid. 81bid. 91bid. 10Marvin E. Shaw and Jack M. Wright, Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967), p. l. case, and assuming as previously implied that internaliza- tion of the ideals of adult institutions comes about to some degree through stable family living, this would then indicate that marriage may be a significant factor toward attitude change.11 If this is true there then should exist between married and single college students some variation in atti- tudes toward the police. The measure of this relationship is thus the purpose of this study. Nature and Scope of the Study / in the area of student attitudes toward police. For the As of this date a number of studies have been done most part, however, they have restricted themselves to the attitude of secondary and middle school students. The cri- teria they all seemed interested in dealing with were those of socio-economic status. The author however feels that other factors may make a significant contribution to the formation of attitudes toward police, and for this reason has undertaken an extensive analysis of the relationship be- tween such attitudes of married and single college students. It is hOped that through this study some light may be shed on college students and their attitudes toward law enforce~ ment, as well as on the relationship concerning this attitude which exists between married and single students. 11Henry A. Bowman, Marriage for Moderns (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965), pp. 39-42L Statement of Hypothesis The hypothesis for this study was formulated in order to determine whether or not there is a significant difference in attitude toward police between married and single male college students, from the age of seventeen to thirty—five, living on campus at Michigan State University. It is understood that from this study generalizations cannot be made beyond the limits of the defined population; however, some implications may be shown in regard to male college students in general. This in and of itself would provide a foundation upon which additional research could be under- taken. The rationale for the hypothesis is based on the theoretical construct that marriage creates a certain degree of social stability and greater acceptance of the values of adult institutions.12 In 1956 Paul Landis in his book Social Control implied: It is part of the human experience in marriage to learn to conform, to learn to harness one's drives in the interest of social welfare. Society is built on this principle and can be maintained only so long as it remains in operation.13 Kingsley Davis, expanding on this, brought out the point that conflict between the values of the married 12Paul H. Landis, Social Control (New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1956), p. 196. 13Ibid. and single, as well as the old and the young, is normal in human groups; what is significant in American society is the increased tempo and intensity. In part rapid social change is the cause of this marked division between married and single attitudes. The single and usually younger persons are growing up in a dynamic society and are likely to accept innovation where their married counterparts have in most cases matured in an earlier one, and wish to perpetuate the values and behavior patterns with which they are familiar.14 Thus single college students tend to identify with the peer group surroundings in the institution to which they are at- tached while married students, on the other hand, most often conform to the values of conventional adult society.15 Definition of Terms Attitude. An attitude is one's position or manner indicative of feeling, opinion, or intention toward a person 16 On a more theoretical plane it is considered a or thing. relatively enduring system of evaluative affective reactions based upon and reflecting the evaluative concepts of beliefs which have been learned about the characteristics of a 14Marvin B. Sussman, Sourcebook in Marriage and the Family (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968). p. 378. lsIbid. 16Albert and Loy Morehead, The New American Webster Handy Colle e Dictionary (New York: The New American Library, 1961), P. 3 . social object or class of social objects.l7 Attitude Toward Police. This is one's position, manner, feeling, opinion, or intention, toward law enforce- ment officers in general. Police. Those employees of the executive branch of our governments who function in the capacity as agents of law enforcement. Police Power. Police power may be defined as the broad and elastic power of government, especially of one of the states of the United States, to restrict, control, regu- late, and restrain individuals and groups in the use of their liberty and property in order to protect the health, safety, morals, convenience, peace, order, and general welfare of 18 other individuals and the public generally. Authority. Authority is defined as the right to 19 govern, control or command. Police Authority. This is the right of the state to act relative to the general health, safety, and welfare of its citizens.20 On Campus Student. A student who lives within the —- -..— 17Shaw and Wright, op. cit., p. 3. 18Julius Gould and William L. Kolb (eds.), A Dic- tionary of the Social Sciences (New York: The Free Press, 1964). PP. 508-509. 19Morehead, op. cit., p. 40. 20A. C. Germann, Frank D. Day and Robert R. J. Gallati, Introduction to Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1969), p. 21. geographical boundary of a college or university. Organization for the Remainder of the Study The remainder of the study is divided into four ad- ditional chapters as follows: Chapter II. Review of Related Literature. This chapter will be devoted to an analysis of the existing lit- erature in the area of attitude studies, and attempt to cover all known previous studies of this type concerning at— titudes toward the police. Both primary and secondary sources will be included in these areas. Chapter III. Research Procedures. This chapter will consist of a description of the sample, the measures used, and the steps taken in carrying out the project. Chapter IV. Research Findings. This chapter will cover the procedures used in analysis and all findings rele- vant to the hypothesis being tested in the study. Chapter V. Summary and Conclusions. This final chapter will include a brief statement of the problem, a description of the main features of the method, and the author's conclusions based on these findings. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE This chapter devoted to a review of related litera- ture will cover the concept of attitude, a number of general attitude studies and specifically, those studies previously done in relation to attitude toward the police. The Concept of Attitude In order for the researcher to fully understand at- titude we must first have it well defined. Professional use and definition of the term range, widely, from the operationally bound to the theoreti- cal. Despite the variation in the definition of the term, the existing definitions agree upon one common characteristic: attitude entails an existing predis- position to respond to social objects which, in interac- tion with situational and other dispositional variables, 1 guides and directs the overt behavior of the individual. Shaw and Wright (1967) in their study expanded somewhat on this definition. First, attitudes are relational and second, their refer- ents are specific. That is, an attitude is a character- istic which implies a type of relationship between the person and specific aspects of his environment. Third, attitudes differ from other personality constructs in their possession of an evaluative function. Fourth, 21J. A. Cardno, "The Notion of Attitude: An Histori- cal Note," Psychological Reprints, 1955, 1, pp. 345-52. 10 11 attitudes, rather than being overt responses, serve as predispositions to respond overtly. Therefore, as with any mediating variable, it is necessary to measure them indirectly.2 While making these distinctions, however, Shaw and Wright go on to say that "We especially wish to differentiate attitudes from such other similar constructs in social psych- ology as opinion, belief, and value, and from such constructs in general psychology as habit, cognition, motivation, set and trait." Of all these constructs, however, they felt it most important to discriminate between attitude and the concept of belief and motive.23 Belief i3 something they said is different from attitude in that it is an "acceptance at some level of probability that a thing exists.‘ Belief apppp'some- thing is defined as "the probability that specific relations exist between the concept and some other object, concept, value or goal."24 In other words, "a belief only becomes an attitude when it is accompanied by an affective component which reflects the evaluation of the preferability of the characteristics or existence of the object. The attitude would be the sum of such beliefs about the object."25 In making the differentiation between attitude and motive, Shaw and Wright explain: "Attitudes are similar to motives in that both refer to the direction behavior takes 22Shaw and Wright, op. cit., p. 4. 231bid. 24Ibid. 25 Ibid. 12 but not to the behavior itself."26 First, an attitude, un- like a motive, is not characterized by an existing drive state. Attitudes may be drive producing, however, in and of themselves they are not drives. The drives which come from certain attitudes are in fact motives. That is, they have specific goals which are labelled as such and attitudes do not.27 In further discussion of the concept of attitude, Shaw and Wright explain that attitudes have certain charac- teristics. That is, they are based upon evaluative concepts regarding char- acteristics of the referent object and give rise to motivated behavior. They are construed as varying in quality and intensity on a continuum from positive to negative. They are learned, rather than being innate or a result of constitutional development and matura- tion. They have specific social referents, or specific classes of things to which they refer. They possess varying degrees of interrelatedness to one another and are relatively stable and enduring. In these conceptual formulations Shaw and Wright believe that they have sufficiently covered the description of attitude structure. They do not, however, in these ex- planations claim to understand the process by which attitudes are formed and changed. They have merely attempted to better acquaint one reading about attitudes with what an attitude is.29 261bid., p. 5. 27Ibid. 28Ibid., p. 9. 29Ibid., p. 10. 13 General Attitude Studies Conservatism—Radicalism Study. A conservatism- 3O radicalism study was developed by Lentz in 1930. It in- cluded two forms (J and K), each with 60 controversial items toward which the person taking the test might take a conser- vative or liberal View. These statements were drawn from various fields of interest: ethics, education, feminism, freedom of speech, international affairs, sex and marriage, politics, race relations, religion, sports, transportation, mechanics and various other areas. Using "opposition to change" as a working definition of conservatism, and "belief in, or expectation of change" as a definition of radicalism, Lentz found that "several judges showed very little disagree- ment among themselves as to which statements were radical and . . 31 which were conservative." The test when originally given was called "The Social Science Opinionnaire" and consisted of two forms (H and I) composed of 100 items each. The original sample was made up of 324 undergraduate students in psychology, engineering and education. The person taking the test places a plus sign on the test beside items with which he agrees more than he disagrees, he places a minus sign beside those with which he disagrees more than he agrees. 30T. F. Lentz, "Utilizing Opinion for Character Measurement," Journal of Social Psychology, 1930, I, pp. 536-42. 311bid. 14 The subject then receives one point for conservatism for each conservative statement with which he agrees and one for each radical statement with which he disagrees. High scores indicate conservatism.32 In this study Lentz reports the equivalent forms reliability between these forms to be .835 (N = 580). The reliability of the 100 item forms (H and I) was .94. The validity of this test based on its use in 1941 with a sample of 93 persons reported a correla- tion of .71 t .035 (N = 93), between fogm J of the test and immediate emotional reactions. 3 According to Shaw and Wright this thus makes this attitude scale moderately well validated and highly reliable since it has had extensive use.34 (See Appendix for a copy of the Lentz Scale.) Attitude Toward Punishment of Criminals. This scale, concerned with attitude toward the punishment of criminals, was developed in 1931 by Wang and Thurstone for use with college students and has been modified for high school use. The original study was conducted at the Univer- sity of Chicago using enrolled students. The person taking this test is asked to respond by placing a check mark beside those items with which he agrees and a cross beside those with which he disagrees. A question mark is placed beside those questions about which he is uncertain. The scoring is 321bid. 33R. Alpert and S. S. Sargent, "Conservatism- Radicalism Measured by Immediate Emotional Reactions," Journal of Social Psychology, 1941, 14, pp. 181-86. 34Shaw and Wright, op. cit., p. 303. 15 such that an individual's score is the median of the scale values of the items with which he agrees. High scores indi— cate favorable attitudes toward the punishment of crimi- nals.35 The reliability estimates for the original scale (college form) range from .69 to .76. Both the college and high school forms seem to have good content validity. Shaw and Wright report that this scale correlates +.50 and +.30 with Thurstone's scale measuring attitudes toward capital punishment which is similar. These correlations suggest that the college form of the scale possesses construct vali- 36 (See Appendix for a copy of the Wang and Thurstone dity. scale.) Attitude Toward Law and Justice. "This study is made up of a set of eight items developed by Watt and Maher (1958) to measure attitudes toward law and justice."37 The sample consisted of 79 prisoners at Indiana State Prison who had been confined for the following crimes: murder, 30; violent crimes (armed robbery, burglary and larceny), 18; white collar crimes (fraud, forgery and embezzlement), 18; and sex offenses, 10. The subjects were asked to respond to each item by checking one of three alternatives: agree, disagree, 35L. L. Thurstone, (ed.), The Measurement of Social Attitudes (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931), Scale #21. 36Shaw and Wright, op. cit., p. 163. 7 . 3 B. A. Maher and N. Watt, "Prisoner's Attitudes To- ward Home and the Judicial System," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminologyyand Police Science, 1958, 49, pp. 327-30. 16 or no opinion. The scale is scored by a ratio in which the percentage of positive answers is divided by the sum of the percentages of positive and negative answers. The maximum value of the ratio is 1.0. Since half of the items are worded negatively, care must be taken to score disagreement with negative items as reflecting positive answers. High scores indicate positive attitudes toward law and justice. This test showed no reliability data. As far as validity goes, it correlated at .50. Such a result obviously testi- fies as to its validity.38 I am in agreement with Shaw and Wright and feel that this scale is of little value due to the low number of items and the fact that there is no re- liability data. (See Appendix for a copy of the law and justice scale.) Attitude Toward the Police The General Public. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice states that, "Contrary to the belief of many policemen, the over- whelming majority of the public has a high opinion of the work of the police."39 A study conducted by the National Opinion Research Center for the Commission produced these 38Shaw and Wright, op. cit., p. 263. 39President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington, D. C.: United States Government Printing Of- fice, 1967), P. 145. 17 answers to the following questions:40 "Do you think that the police here do an excellent, good, fair, or a poor job of enforcing the laws?" TABLE I Percent Excellent 22 Good 45 Fair 24 Poor 8 "How good a job do the police do on giving protec— tion to people in the neighborhood?" TABLE II Percent Very Good 42 Pretty Good 35 Not So Good 9 No Opinion 14 40National Opinion Research Center (NORC), "A National Sample Survey Approach to the Study of the Victims of Crimes and Attitudes Toward Law Enforcement and Justice" (Chicago: Unpublished, 1966), Ch. 8, p. 1. 18 "Results of other surveys are substantially consis- tent with this one. A Louis Harris poll in 1966 found that 76 per cent of the public rated Federal agents as good or excellent in law enforcement and the comparable figures for state and local agencies were 70 and 65 per cent respecti- vely."41 Also a Gallup poll in 1965 showed that 70 per cent of the public had a "great deal" of respect for the police, 22 had "some respect" and only four per cent had "hardly any."42 Surveys by NORC in 1947 and 1963 showed that 41 and 54 per cent, respectively, thought that the police had an "excellent" or "good" standing in the community. This im- provement was one of the most noteworthy for any occupation during the 16 year period. Moreover, a NORC study in 1964 concluded that about 40 per cent of the population believed that the social standing of policemen was too low and only 43 The Bureau of ten per cent thought it was too high. Social Science Research (BSSR) conducted a survey of three precincts in Washington, D. C. and found that 60 per cent of those polled thought the police had a high reputation in 41Louis Harris, "Eye-for-an-Eye Role Rejected," The Washington Post, July 3, 1966, Sec. E, p. E-3, Col. 4. 42Gallup Poll, "Tabulation Request Survey ALPO No. 709," (prepared for The President's Commission on Law En- forcement and the Administration of Justice, 1966), p. l. 43Robert W. Hodge, "The Public, The Police and the Administration of Justice" (Chicago: National Opinion Re- search Center of the University of Chicago, 1965), pp. 4-7. 19 their neighborhood; 85 per cent thought the police deserve more thanks than they get; 68 per cent thought that the police should get more pay; and 78 per cent thought that "just a few policemen" are responsible for the bad publi- city.44 These studies have found that the general public believes that the police do not engage in serious misconduct. A Gallup poll in 1965 showed that only nine per cent of the public believed that "there is any police brutality in their area."45 The 1966 NORC survey found, in answer to the question, "How good a job do the police do on being res- pectful to people like yourself?", the public answered: TABLE III Percent Very Good 59 Pretty Good 26 Not So Good 4 No Opinion 10 The previously discussed BSSR survey of Washington, D. C. disclosed that 78 per cent of those who reported having_ 4Bureau of Social Science Research, "Salient Find- ings on Crime and Attitudes Toward Law Enforcement in the District of Columbia" (a preliminary technical report sub- mitted to the U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, 1966), pp. 13A, 13B. 45Gallup Poll, op. cit., p. 2. 20 contact with the police considered that the officer acted properly during the last contact.46 Almost none believed that the officer used unnecessary force; four per cent thought that he acted unethically, unfairly, or illegally; four per cent thought that he was rude; and 11 per cent that he was indifferent, ineffective, or otherwise did poor work.47 The 1966 Harris poll found that only four per cent of the public believed that law enforcement officers in their com- munity take bribes.48 The University of California surveys for the Commission in San Diego and Philadelphia found that the large majority of white community leaders thought that police-community relations were good, although there was 49 some dissent. In the Michigan State University Studies conducted by Galvin and Radelet (1967) their findings for 46Bureau of Social Science Research, op. cit., 47Ibid. 48Harris, op. cit., p. E-3, Col. 5. 49Joseph D. Lohman and Gordon B. Misner, "The Police and the Community" (Berkeley: University of Cali- fornia School of Criminology, 1966), Vol. I, p. 50; Vol. II, p. 78. Report prepared for the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice by the School of Criminology at the University of California. The study consisted of intensive analysis of police-community relations problems and programs in San Diego and Philadel- phia, with six man teams visiting the two cities for six weeks each. During this time, they accompanied the police in their daily work and interviewed hundreds of police of- ficials and officers, judges, lawyers, minority group leaders, civic leaders, juveniles, and average citizens. 21 all 16 jurisdictions studied were similar. The Negro Community. In this area the NORC survey shows that non-whites, particularly Negroes, are signifi- cantly more negative than whites in evaluating police ef- fectiveness in law enforcement. In describing whether police give protection to citizens, non-whites give a rating of "very good" only half as often as whites and give a "not so good" rating twice as often. These differences are not merely a function of greater poverty among non-whites; they exist at all income levels and for both men and women. Other surveys indicate a similar disparity in views. The Louis Harris poll, for example, shows that 16 per cent fewer Negroes than whites—-a bare majority of 51 per cent--believe that local law enforcement agencies do a good or excellent 50Raymond Galvin and Louis Radelet,"A National Sur- vey of Police and Community Relations," (East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1967), p. 12. Report prepared for The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice by the National Center of Police- Community Relations at the School of Police Administration and Public Safety of Michigan State University. Question- naires were sent to the police department in all cities with populations of over 100,000; a 10 per cent sample of cities between 25,000 and 100,000 population; the 30 most populous counties; and all State Police agencies. Separate question- naires were sent to approximately a half-dozen civic and minority group leaders knowledgeable in police-community relations in the same cities. Visitation of one or two weeks at a time were made by teams of one to three men to 12 medium and large cities, two rural counties, and two state agencies. In addition, there was a review of the police-community relations literature and a reliance on the Institute's extensive experience concerning other localities throughout the country. 51 Table 8-2. National Opinion Research Center, op. cit., 22 job on law enforcement.52 A survey in Watts found that 47 per cent of the Negroes believed that the police did an "excellent or pretty good" job while 41 per cent thought they were "not so good" or poor. In Washington, D. C., the BSSR survey found that Washington Negroes have decidedly different attitudes than whites as to how the police carry out their duties as the responses to the following statement indicate: "You would have to replace at least half the police force to get a really good police." TABLE IV Nonwhite Nonwhite White White Males Females Males Females Percent Percent Percent Percent Agree 40 28 18 ll Disagree 40 52 60 62 Don't Know, etc. 20 20 22 27 About half the Negroes, in contrast to two-thirds of the whites, believed that the police deserve more respect than most people in the neighborhoods gave them. However, almost 52Harris, op. cit., Col. 5. 53John F. Kraft, Inc., "Attitudes of Negroes in Various Cities" (New York: John F. Kraft, Inc., 1966), p. 25. Report prepared for the Senate Subcommittee on Exe— cutive Reorganization. 23 as many Negroes as whites believed that the police had a high reputation in the neighborhood (almost 60 per cent), deserved more thanks than they got (over 85 per cent), and thought that the police should get more pay (68 per cent).54 A poll in Detroit in 1965 found that 58 per cent of Negroes did not believe that law enforcement was fair, and an earlier poll in 1951 found that 42 per cent of Negroes believed that it was "not good" or "definitely bad."55 In the area of police discourtesy and misconduct Negroes show even greater attitude differences from whites. The NORC National Survey found as to respectfulness to "people like ourselves" the following differences existed between the attitudes of Negroes and whites:56 TABLE V White Nonwhite Annual Income Annual Income $0 to $6,000 to $0 to $6,000 to $2!999 $9,000 $2,999 $9,000 Percent Percent Percent Percent Males: Police Very Good 56 67 34 31 Police Not So Good 4 4 22 6 Females: Police Very Good 66 66 28 41 Police Not So Good 3 l 12 45 54Bureau of Social Science Research, op. cit., p. 13A. 55Richard W. Ouderlugs, "How Citizens Rate A Police Department on Racial Fairness," Detroit News! Feb. 3, 1965 Sec. A., p. 1, Col. 3. 56National Opinion Research Center, op. cit., Table 8-3. 24 "A 1965 Gallup poll showed that only seven per cent of white males but 35 per cent of Negro males believed that there was police brutality in their area; 53 per cent thought 57 that there was none." A survey of the Watts area of Los Angeles concerning opinions on the existence of "brutality" found:58 TABLE VI Age Existence of Police Total 15-29 30-34 45 and over Brutality Percent Percent Percent Percent A Lot 22.2 24.4 25.0 17.1 A Little 24.6 35.6 22.7 14.3 None At All 15.1 17.8 11.4 14.3 Thus, nearly 47 per cent of all respondents and 60 per cent of all those from 15 to 29 years of age believed that there was at least some police brutality. Of those who had answered "a lot" and "a little" approximately half claimed that they had witnessed it.59 Another survey of Negroes in the general area of Watts by the University of California at Los Angeles found 57Gallup Poll, op. cit., p. 21. 58Kraft, op. cit., p. 13. 59Ibid. 25 that a high percentage of those surveyed believed the police engaged in misconduct, said they had observed acts of mis- conduct, or indicated that such an act had happened to some- one they knew or to themselves.60 TABLE VII Happened Saw It Happened To Happened In Area Happen Someone To You . You Know Police Percent Percent Percent Percent Lack Respect or Use Insulting Language 85 49 52 28 Roust, Frisk and Search People Without Good Reason 85 52 48 25 Stop and Search Cars For No Good Reason 83 51 49 25 Search Homes For No Good Reason 63 22 30 7 Use Unnecessary Force In Making Arrests 86 47 43 9 Beat Up People In Custody 85 27 46 5 60Walter J. Raine, "Los Angeles Riot Study: The Perception of Police Brutality in South Central Los Angeles Following the Revolt of August 1965" (Los Angeles: Univer— sity of California, 1966), at fig. 1. 26 This study also shows that males below the age of 35 were most critical of the police. For example, 53 per cent of young males reported they had been subjected to in- sulting language; 44 per cent to a roust, frisk, or search without good reason; 22 per cent to unnecessary force in being arrested; and 10 per cent to being beaten up while in custody. Well over 90 per cent of young males believed that each of these kinds of incidents occurred in the area and 45 to 63 per cent claimed to have seen at least one of them. There were no substantial differences based on economic levels. Negroes with higher education reported more in- sults, searches without cause, and stopping of cars without cause.61 The BSSR survey also showed a clear difference be- tween Negroes and whites in their beliefs concerning police discrimination between whites and Negroes. Sixty per cent of Negro males, as compared to 29 per cent of white males, said the police did discriminate. Of those who believed that Negroes were treated worse, the following differences existed as to the kind of discrimination: TABLE VIII Rudeness Picked on More Brgtality Percent Percent Percent Negro Males 53 60 48 White Males 25 38 -- Gllbid. 27 Yet as many Negroes as whites (almost 80 per cent) said that "there are just a few policemen who are responsible for the bad publicity."62 A survey in Harlem in 1964 concerning police brutal- ity showed that of the 63 per cent of the respondents with an opinion, 12 per cent thought that there was a lot of brutality, 31 per cent a little, and only 20 per cent none at all.63 Surveys may not accurately reflect the full extent of minority group dissatisfaction with the police. In- depth interviews with members of minority groups frequently lead to strong statements of hostility, replacing the neu- tral or even favorable statements which began the interview. For example, a study of 50 boys from the slums of Washington concluded that as a result of real or perceived excessive force, humiliation, and other police practices, they regarded the police as "the enemy."64 Attacks on police officers, interference with arrests, disturbances and riots starting with police incidents, and verbal abuse by citizens offer abundant testimony to the strong hostility. The way in which such hostility can become an important factor in a riot is illustrated by the following statement of a resident of Watts 62Bureau of Social Science Research, op. cit., p. 13B. 63Kraft, op. cit., item 35, p. 147. 64Paul A. Fine, "Neighbors of the President" (New Brunswick: Paul A. Fine Associates, 1963), p. 126. Report prepared for the President's Committee on Juvenile Delin- quency and Youth Crime. 28 to an interviewer:65 "Two white policemen was [sic] beating a pregnant colored lady like a damn dog. They need their heads knocked off. I agree 100 per cent for the Negroes going crazy--they should have killed those freaks. Yes, treating niggers like dirty dogs." The above incident, which was thought by many people in Watts to have been the cause of the 1965 Los Angeles riot, 66 never occurred. A survey of Watts residents by the University of California at Los Angeles showed that 21 per cent thought that police mistreatment was the cause of the riot.67 In contrast, only two per cent of whites considered police bru- tality as the cause. The study further found that those Negroes who believed that the police abused people (used excessive force, beat up persons in custody, were insulting, and engaged in other misconduct) or who claimed to have seen such abuse or to have been subjected to it, were more likely 68 to have been active participants in the riots. Thus in regard to the attitudes toward police of Negroes, the Commission's studies of police-community rela- tions in 11 localities throughout the country showed serious 65Kraft, op. cit., p. 2. 66Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riots, "Violence in the City--An End or a Beginning?" (Los Angeles: Office of the Governor, 1965), p. 12. 67T. M. Tomlinson, "Los Angeles Riot Study Methods Negro Reaction Survey" (Los Angeles: University of Califor- nia, 1966), Table 25. 68Raine, op. cit., fig. 22-25. 29 problems of Negro hostility to the police in virtually all medium and large cities.69 In short, as the Philadelphia Urban League's 1965 report states, "many Negroes see the police as their enemies; and they see them as protectors of white people, not as protectors of Negroes as well."70 Other Minority Groups. The American Negro is not the only minority group which expresses hostility toward the police. The Michigan State University Study found that Latin Americans also tend to look upon the police as enemies who protect only the white power structure.71 The University of California survey in Philadelphia found that some Puerto Rican leaders felt even more alienated from the police de- partment than did Negroes.72 Such findings are consistent with the evidence provided by the 1966 riots among Puerto Ricans in Chicago and Perth Amboy, New Jersey; disturbances were started by conflicts with the police and were followed by expression of community problems relating to the police. Both the University of California and Michigan State University surveys revealed that relations between Mexican- Americans and the police in San Diego and other western 69President's Commission, Task Force Report: The Police, 9p. cit., p. 148. 70 Philadelphia Urban League, "Year End Report; 1965," p. 16. 71Galvin and Radelet, op. cit., p. 30. 72Lohman and Misner, 9p. cit., p. 106. cities could be improved. 30 73 A survey in Los Angeles found that Mexican-Americans were generally less negative toward police than Negroes but considerably more so than whites, as the following figures show:74 TABLE IX One of the very Definitely below best police de- standard in com- partments in parison with other the country police departments Percent Percent Whites 30 8.5 Mexican-Americans 22.8 14.5 Negroes 14.4 20.3 Police always Police often are respect constitu- conscienseless and tional rights of brutal in perfor- suspected crimi- ming duties nals Percent Percent Whites 34.8 11.1 Mexican-Americans 21.2 44.4 Negroes 12.1 38.2 The Poor. Two recent polls show that the poor have generally less favorable attitudes toward the police than 73Lohman and Misner, op. cit., Vol. I, p. 92 and Galvin and Radelet, op. cit., pp. 12, 30. 74 Police (Springfield: G. Douglas Gourley, Public Relations and the Charles C. Thomas, J 1953). pp. 75—76. 31 more affluent citizens. The NORC survey showed, as to the effectiveness of the police in enforcing the laws, the fol- lowing attitudes of white males broken down by income levels: TABLE X Annual Income $0 to $3,000 to 4$6,000 to Above $2,999 $5,999 $94999 $10,000 Percent Percent Percent Percent Excellent 17 25 24 32 Good 49 43 47 41 Fair 24 25 22 23 Poor 10 7 7 4 A 1965 Gallup Poll obtained the following responses 76 to this question: "How much respect do you have for the police in your area--a great deal, some, or hardly any?" TABLE XI A Great Deal Some* Hardly Any Percent Percent Under $3,000 per year 65 6 Above $10,000 per year 75 2 75N0RC, op. cit., Table 8-1. 76Gallup Poll, op. cit., p. 15. *The source used herein indicated no responses under the heading of "some" in the results. 32 Sixteen per cent of those earning under $3,000 thought that there was police brutality in their area while only eight per cent of those earning more than $10,000 77 believed so. Youth Attitudes Toward Police. Tension also exists between police and youth generally. For example, responses to the following question in a 1965 Gallup Poll showed sig- nificant differences based on age:78 "How much respect do you have for the police in your area, a great deal, some, or hardly any?" TABLE XII A Great Deal Some Hardly Any Don't Know Age Percent Percent Percent Percent 20-29 57 31 8 4 60-69 76 19 2 3 A recent study in Cincinnati conducted by Dr. Robert Portune revealed the following findings. The survey showed that more favorable attitudes were apparent in younger child- ren, girls, whites, pupils in academic groups, and boys who attended church regularly. In reporting on Portune's study, Johnson (1969) however, shows no indication of socioeconomic status as a significant contributing factor in these 77Ibid., p. 22. 78 , Ibid., p. 13. 33 attitudes.79 In a later study Dr. Portune discovered that the at- titudes of early adolescents toward police were non-negative rather than positive. When a police contact (either casual or formal) occurred, these attitudes invariably became nega- tive. Dr. Portune theorized that much, if not all, of this adverse reaction stemmed from mutual ignorance. Because of their ignorance of the police mission and function in a free society, early adolescents did not possess favorable attitudes sufficiently strong to survive the police contact. In addition, because of their ignorance of the special nature of the early adolescent, police officers failed to make the special efforts required to enhance the police image in the minds of this particular segment of American youth.80 In what is probably the most recent study in this area, Donald Bouma (1969) directed a survey of over 10,000 students in 10 school systems in various parts of the state of Michigan. The primary focus of this project was on junior high school students and their attitudes toward the 79Knowlton Johnson,"Socioeconomic Status as Related To Junior High School Students' Attitudes Toward Police, unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1969, p. 84. 80Robert Portune, The Police Cincinnati Juvenile Attitude Project, p. 10. This was the final report submitted to the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, United States Department of Justice under Grant #052 awarded by the Attor- ney General under the Law Enforcement Assistance Act of 1965 to the University of Cincinnati. 34 police.81 This study made the following conclusions: 1. A large majority of students think the police are "pretty nice guys," although fewer than half of the black students feel that way. 2. Only eight per cent of all the students and three per cent of the black students said they would like to be a policeman. 3. The police presence in the community was viewed positively, with almost two of every three students feeling the city would be better off if there were more police officers. 4. Over half of all students and 40 per cent of black students think police get criticized too often. 5. The closer questions approached situations which the student perceived to be real to him, the greater the possibility he would view the police operation negatively. 6. Attitudes toward the policeman-in-action were much more negative among black than among white students. 7. One-third of the white youth and two-thirds of the black youth think the police accuse students of things they do not do. 8. Just over a third of all students and only one out of five black students felt the police treated all people alike. 9. Police were seen to be most fair in their handling of various religious groups and least fair in their handling of people from different geographic areas of the city. 10. Less than half of the white students and only 17 per cent of the black students thought police treated Negro and white people alike. 11. Almost half of the students think police are always picking on the guy who has been in trouble before. 12. A third of the white students and half of the black students think police have it in for young people. 81Donald H. Bouma, Kids and Cops: A Study In Mu- tual Hostility (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1969), p. 45. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 35 Male students showed a less favorable attitude to- ward the police than female students. Students who uSually went to church or Sunday school had a considerably more favorable attitude toward the police than those who did not. The higher the occupational status of the father, the less antagonism the student expresses toward the police. Those students who had experienced negative police contact revealed more hostility than those who had not. Race is the most significant single factor associa- ted with differences in attitudes toward the police, with black students showing markedly more hostility. Antagonism toward the police increases significantly as the student moves through the junior high years. Any effort to improve youth attitudes toward the police would have to focus on this segment of the population. The vast majority of white students, but barely half of the black students would cooperate with police if they saw someone commit a murder. Two out of every three students would cooperate with police if they saw someone break into a store. If friends are observed in an offense, the willing- ness to cooperate drops sharply. Only 40 per cent would cooperate if they saw a friend steal a car and only 28 per cent would tell the clerk if a friend were observed shoplifting. Eight out of ten students think that criminals usu- ally get caught when, as a matter of fact, most usually do not get caught. Invariably, students felt their friends had con- siderably more antagonistic attitudes toward the police than the students themselves did, and that their friends would be less willing to cooperate with the police in reporting offenses. Generally, the students perceived the attitudes of their parents toward the police to be quite similar to their own. 36 25. No general differences were found between students reared in the North and those migrated from the South. The northern natives had more favorable attitudes on the police fairness scale, while the migrated students had more favorable attitudes on the police prejudice scale. 26. In almost every area, students thought school per- sonnel to be less fair than police. 27. Just half of the white students thought teachers and principals treated Negro and white students alike. Only one out of five black students felt that way. 28. Police were thought to be "pretty nice guys" by more students than were teachers. 29. Students had a much higher regard for teaching as an occupation than they do for police work, with almost three-fourths of them rating teaching as a good job. Summagy Concepts set forth by the preceding authors indicate that the general public, older people, girls, whites, and the affluent have more favorable attitudes toward the police than other segments within our population. Through this review one can see that varying attitudes do exist toward the police in our society. For this reason the purpose of Chapter II has been to enlighten the reader as to what type of attitudes presen- tly exist toward the police and provide a basis for this study on which research can be conducted concerning these attitudes between married and single male college students living on campus. 821bid., pp. 69-70. 37 The rationale behind this lies in the fact that to the extent attitudes are known, some implementation may take place in order to change them. In other words, before change can take place an attitude must be known. The following chapter of this study will be concer- ned with the procedures used in gathering these attitude responses. CHAPTER III RESEARCH PROCEDURES This study was conducted on the theory that marital status to some degree creates social stability and a cer- tain amount of conformity to the values of adult institu- tions. The police, according to Johnson writing in Crime, Correction, and Society, are an adult institution in that they are supported by an effective consensus of society and backed up by certain sanctions in the interest of social welfare.83 Assuming that this in fact is true and realizing as previously implied by Landis in Social Control that marriage is part of the human experience in learning to conform, the purpose of this study is then to determine if married male college students have a more favorable attitude toward police than their single counterparts. This provided the theoretical base upon which this project was undertaken. Definition of Population and Sample Selection The defined population for this study consists of all married and single male college students, between the 83Johnson, op. cit., p. 85. 38 39 age of seventeen and thirty-five, living on campus, during Fall term 1970, at Michigan State University. This population was selected for a number of rea- sons. To begin with, the administrative and financial limi- tations of the author in this project required a narrowly defined population since no outside funding was available. Also hypotheses are generally stated so as to indicate an expected difference or an expected relationship between the measures used in the research. The relationship or differ— ences that are stated in the hypotheses should be such that measurement of the variables involved can be made and neces- sary statistical comparisons carried out in order to deter- mine whether the hypothesis as stated is or is not supported by the research.84 This is simply to say that if the defined population is not narrowed then a testable hypothesis cannot be used on a small scale within it since it has become too broad. For this reason the defined population was narrowed to male college students as previously stated. In doing this, how- ever, a number of limitations come about which must be con- sidered. For at this point it becomes obvious that in such a pOpulation many variables are unaccounted for. For example, on campus students may lead more structured lives than those living in the surrounding community. This in itself could affect attitude toward police. On campus 84Walter R. Borg, Educational Research, An Introduc- tion (New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1965), p. 34. 40 students may have less police confrontation than their off campus counterparts. Similarly, assuming hypothetically that married students off and on campus were alike, there is no guarantee that the same could be said for single students or vice versa. In this population females are also excluded as well as those males who do not fall within the defined age range. Thus we see many things left for further study in this area. It is however understood by the author that in de- fining the population narrowly, the results of the research on a sample of this population will be generalizable only to the narrow population, although the results may have impli- cations for a broader population having similar character— istics. The study sample drawn from the above population was selected in the following manner. The Michigan State Univer- sity student directory, which lists all enrolled students for the Fall term 1970 was marked so as to indicate all married students living in university housing. This was easily accomplished since the student directory lists all enrolled students' addresses as well as names. Once all married students were marked, the following random selection of 60 such students was taken. The directory was opened at an ungiven point counting five pages forward and down ten marked names until the desired sample size was obtained. An identical procedure was used in the selection of the 60 single students. This then created a total of 120 41 students as the sample drawn from the defined population. Description of Measure Used In this study a modified version of the Portune ATP (Attitude Toward Police) scale was used. This scale lists 20 statements (of the type teenagers would make) re- garding attitude toward police. Ten of these statements are positively framed, that is, they represent favorable state- ments regarding police. Similarly, ten items are unfavorable statements toward police. (See Appendix for a copy of Portune's ATP Scale.) Students react to each statement by selecting one of five responses: "strongly agree," "agree," “neutral," "disagree," or "strongly disagree." Each of the 20 items on the survey is scored on a five-point scale ranging from 0 to 4. Zero reflects a poor attitude toward police (whether the item is positively or negatively framed). Thus, with 20 items and a possible score of four per item, the best possible attitude toward police would be a score of 80. The worst possible ATP would be a score of zero, while a score of 40 represents a neutral attitude. Since the survey was designed in format and language for early teenagers, it was deemed inappropriate for college students who were to be sampled. Thus, the Portune ATP scale had to be modified in this respect in order to reach the intellectual level of the college student. When the modification was completed the selected sample of 120 students were then mailed the survey instrument 42 under cover letter and were asked to respond. (The cover letter and instrument are included in the Appendix.) This modified version of Portune's ATP scale, however, was set up only to measure a favorable or unfavorable response rather than the degrees to which a particular response might exist. This is, they were asked to respond either "true" or "false" to the question posed. This procedure was used in lieu of the agree to disagree scale for the following reason. It is felt that in all subjects within the defined population some attitude toward the police exists--either positive or nega- tive. For this reason and due to the fact that marital status, in regard to social stability is the point in ques- tion, the scale of degree seemed unnecessary. By using the true-false response, data also was much easier analyzed. Some disadvantages in this procedure do however come about. For it becomes obvious at this point that attitude, whether positive or negative, does exist in varying degrees and therefore is a valid criterion not considered in this study The scoring of this modified ATP scale was carried out in the following manner. All 20 responses for each re- turned questionnaire were tallied and separated into cate- gories of either favorable or unfavorable in regard to the married or single separation. Four columns were drawn and set up in a manner so that each response would fall under one of the four headings. This then gave the total responses in each of the categories available, either married favorable, married unfavorable, single favorable, or single unfavorable. 43 Percentages were then figured in order to determine the degree of these responses in general and a Chi-Square analy- sis was done on each question. The results of this scoring procedure will be covered in depth in the research findings of Chapter IV. Research Design and Procedures The basic research design used herein is that of a descriptive questionnaire type study. For truly the major purpose of descriptive research is to tell "what is."85 That is to say, it merely provides us with a starting point and, therefore, is often carried out as a preliminary step to be followed by research using more vigorous control and more objective methods.86 Realizing this, and based on the informative and administrative limitations of this study and also the desir- ability of generalizing results to all male college students, a stratified random sample was selected. The cost in money and time needed to survey large numbers of students was not only too great but unnecessary. Students were stratified, based on marital status and the sample drawn contained members from each of the university housing areas as well as all the men's dormitories. The sample was then drawn as previously reported and a Chi-Square analysis was completed 85Ibid., p. 202. 861bid. 44 in order to determine what significance if any existed. The Chi-Square (X2) is a non-parametric statistical technique through which observed (obtained) frequencies are compared with expected (normal) frequencies to determine if there is a significant difference between the observed and expected frequencies. The .05 level was chosen as the mini- mum acceptable level of statistical significance. In other words, to be significant the difference between the observed and expected frequencies must occur by change not more than five times in 100. Realizing this, the remainder of this report will be addressed to the hypothesis raised initially and the results of the statistical analysis. CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS Chapter IV is devoted to an in depth description of the analysis techniques used in this study and all findings relevant to the hypothesis being tested. Analysis Techniques In this study two methods of data anlysis were used: Percentages were computed on the overall totals of favorable and unfavorable responses within each group and compared as well as calculated on individual items on the questionnaire. Also as previously mentioned, a chi-square (X2) analysis was used since it provided the author with a simple and useful technique for comparing results obtained in the experiment to those results that would be expected on the basis of the hypothesis. This simply means that since the purpose of the chi-square is to compare observed fre— quencies with expected frequencies it stands to reason that the more closely the observed and expected agree, the smaller the value of chi-square.87 Contrawise, the greater the 7 .. Robert H. Koenker, Simplified Statistics: For Students in Education and Psychology (Bloomington: Mc Knight & McKnight Publishing Co., 1961), p. 105. 45 46 difference between the observed and expected results the greater the value of chi-square and the greater the possi- bility of a significant divergence or difference.88 Based on this assumption, a chi-square test for sig- nificance was used to determine the difference between the two groups and was computed using the formula X = N(AD-BC)2 (A + B) (C + D) (A + C) (B + D? . This use of chi-square is termed a test of independence since the expected or normal frequencies are those of the single students, and the observed or obtained frequencies are those of the married students. This test was computed on the overall raw score totals in the four available cate- gories as well as on each individual item contained on the questionnaire. Using a chi-square contingency table it was then determined that for significance to exist a chi-square value above 3.841 must be present at the .05 level.89 The Yates correction was also applied since chi-square is not stable when an expected or theoretical frequency in any cell is less than 20 (for the one degree of freedom case only).90 This simply means that if in any of the cells used in the chi-square the number is less than 20, .5 must be added to the diagonal having the smallest total, and subtracted from the diagonal having the largest total. This correction BBIbid. 891bid., p. 148. 9°Ibid., p. 109. 47 reduces the magnitude or chance of correlation by five-tenths and thus makes chi-square more accurate using low numbers. Restatement of Hypothesis and Description of Findings The restatement of the hypothesis in the null form is that there will be no significant difference in attitude to- ward police between married and single male college students, from the age of seventeen to thirty-five living on campus at Michigan State University. This null hypothesis was em- ployed principally because it is better fitted to the statis— tical techniques used which are aimed at measuring the likelihood that a difference found is truly greater than zero. In other words, the null hypothesis, in the form usually found in social science, states that no difference exists, and the statistical tools test this hypothesis by determining the probability that whatever difference is found in the research subjects is a true difference that also is present in the population from which the research sample is drawn.91 As previously mentioned, 120 questionnaires were mailed under cover letter to a random sample of 60 married and 60 single male students. From these a return of 39 married and 41 single were received. In analyzing the data five married and seven single had to be omitted since the 91Borg, op. cit., p. 32. 48 responses were either non-understandable or the respondent did not take the instrument seriously. This then left 34 questionnaires each on the variables being tested. In these some items were unanswered and thus a fluctuation from 30 to 34 existed on the various statements on one of the variables. The analysis procedures used, however, have taken into consideration this fluctuation as indicated in the tables. In regard to returns some explanation is also needed. The modified Portune ATP, it is felt, in order to upgrade total response, should undergo examination before additional sampling is done in this area. This means that some change in the instrument structure is needed in order to increase total returns. Also, it is believed that since the instru- ment was administered near the end of November, upcoming final examinations and the process of preparation for leaving on Christmas vacation may have reduced response totals. It is felt that if research is again conducted in this area these factors must be given consideration. The following results were thus obtained from those questionnaires returned using a chi-square (X2) analysis and percentages. In regard to overall item response, 79 per cent of the married students indicated a favorable attitude as did 73 per cent of the single students. Using this same raw data in the statistical analysis, a chi-square (X2) was computed on each individual item contained on the 49 questionnaire. For these to be significant correlations regarding attitude toward police, a chi-square value of 3.841 at the.05 level of significance must be obtained.92 The following tables show the results of this analy- sis. 1. "The police keep the city safe." TABLE XIII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 22 12 21 ll In regard to the item "the police keep the city safe" 65 per cent of the married students feel that they do, as did 67 per cent of the single students. With these results obtained this statement obviously shows no significant chi- square value or difference to exist between married and single students' attitudes in this area. 2. "The police often make false accusations." TABLE XIV Married Single FavorabIE' Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 25 8 15 19 92 Ibid., p. 148. 50 In the statement which reads "the police often make false accusations,‘ 76 per cent of the married students be- lieved this to be untrue, while only 44 per cent of the single students felt this way. The chi-square value obtained here was 2.90 and although this was the highest correlation obtained on any item it still fell far short of the signifi- cant level of 3.841. 3. "The police don't know right from wrong." TABLE XV Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable l9 4 20 13 Item #3 stated that "the police don't know right from wrong." In this case 97 per cent of both married and single students agreed that this was untrue. These two being iden- tical indicates no chi-square value. 4. "The police keep us safe." TABLE XVI Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable l9 4 20 13 In the statement "the police keep us safe," 61 per cent of the single students agreed that they do as did 58 51 per cent of the married students. Due to its narrow range this item also indicated no significant chi-square value. 5. "The police try to help you when you are in trouble." TABLE XVII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 31 3 30 4 In reference to the item "The police try to help you when you are in trouble," 91 per cent of the married and 88 per cent of the single students indicated that they did. This was also too narrow in range to obtain a chi-square. 6. "The police are not polite." TABLE XVIII Married .1 Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 33 l 29 5 Item #6 stated that "the police are not polite." Only 31 per cent of the married students believed this to be true while 15 per cent of the single students indicated an unfavorable response. On the chi-square a value of 1.645 was obtained showing a slight correlation, however not a significant one. 52 7. "The police often use paid informers to gain information.‘ TABLE IXX Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 12 18 10 23 In item #7, "the police often use paid informers to gain information," 60 per cent of the single students feel that they do and 70 per cent of the married students also feel that they do. Using chi-square a slight correlation was obtained, but it was not significant at the .05 level. 8. "The police use clubs on people even though they haven't done anything." TABLE XX Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 23 9 20 13 Item #8 read "the police use clubs on people even though they haven't done anything." In this 39 per cent of the single students believed this true while only 28 per cent of the married students indicated such a response. Chi- square was not significant. 9. "The police keep order." 53 TABLE XXI Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable UnfavoraBle 22 ll 22 11 In item #9 regarding the statement "the police keep order, 67 per cent of both the married and single students agreed that in most instances they do. The raw scores on this item were identical indicating no chi-square value. 10. "Without policemen crime would be everywhere." TABLE XXII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 23 ll 28 6 Number 10 stated "without policemen crime would be everywhere," 68 per cent of the married and 82 per cent of the single thought this to be the case. This difference, al- though showing some correlation, is not significant. 11. "You can count on the police when you need help." TABLE XXIII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 23 9 23 11 Item #11 read "you can count on the police when you 54 need help" showed the following results. Seventy-two per cent of those married feel that you can and 68 per cent of the single agreed. There was no correlation on chi-square. 12. "Policemen in general work hard." TABLE XXIV Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 30 4 I 28 6 In the statement "policemen in general work hard," 88 per cent of those married agreed as did 82 per cent of those single. These scores indicated no statistical signi- ficance. 13. "Most police officers try to act like big shots." TABLE XXV Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 28 5 23 11 In the item "most police officers try to act like big shots," 15 per cent of those married students polled say they do while 32 per cent of the single students indicate this to be true. A chi-square value of 1.861 was obtained and although showing a slight relationship, is not signifi- cant. 55 14. "The police are always mad at students." TABLE XXVI Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 32 2 33 1 In the item "the police are always mad at students," six per cent of the married believed this to be true while only three per cent of the single students indicated such a response. This range was also too narrow for any significant chi-square value. 15. "The police help me when I'm in need." TABLE XXVII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 26 7 25 6 In the item "The police help me when I'm in need," 79 per cent of the married students agreed and 81 per cent of the single students agreed. The range here was also too short for a chi-square value to be significant. 16. "Police mean bad news instead of help." TABLE XXVIII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 27 5 p 29 5 56 In the item "the police mean bad news instead of help," 16 per cent of the married students said "yes" while only 15 per cent of the single ones responded in this man- ner. No correlation was found due to the narrow range of scores. 17. "Police are brave men." TABLE IXXX Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 21 9 22 10 In the item "police are brave men,‘ 70 per cent of the married said "yes" as did 69 per cent of the single students. Raw scores here indicated no chi-square value. 18. "Police look out for our city." TABLE XXX Married . Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable UnfavorabIe 28 4 29 4 In the item "the police look out for our city," 88 per cent of both married and single students agreed; there was no significant chi-square value. 19. "The police don't give you time to explain what hap- pened." 57 TABLE XXXI Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 28 4 25 8 In regard to the item "the police don't give you time to explain what happened," only 12 per cent of the mar- mied believed this to be true while 24 per cent of the single students indicated such a response. In this item there was a slight correlation but not a significant one. 20. "The police try to get smart with you when you ask questions." TABLE XXXII Married Single Favorable Unfavorable Favorable Unfavorable 28 6 24 10 In item #20 which read "the police try to get smart with you when you ask questions," 29 per cent of the single students felt that they do while only 18 per cent of those married indicated such an attitude. A minor relationship was obtained on this, however it was far below the signifi- cant level. In these item analyses it is easy to see that no individual item obtained a significant chi-square value. Knowing this, the hypothesis then must be accepted on the 58 basis that marital status does not create any change in students' attitude toward the police. For in all instances shown there were only slight variations in these attitudes. An additional factor to be considered which came to light although not directly related to this study, is that students' attitudes in general seemed much more favorable than the author had anticipated. In almost all instances both married and single students regardless of the differ- ence on this variable showed Over 75 per cent favorable responses. This would then indicate that student attitudes toward police may not be as poor as the general public and the police themselves might think. For if the high percen- tages shown on this sample are any indication of college stu- dents' attitudes in general, then the position of the police in the minds of this segment of the population may in fact be better than realized.. In view of these findings the final chapter of this report will be concerned with conclusions, an overall sum- mary of the project and implications for further research. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Problem Today in America manycitizens feel that college students are becoming alientated from the values of conven- tional adult society. This, according to the literature, is caused to some degree by the college atmosphere itself. In it students gain greater freedom and often become inclined toward social change. This evolves since the previous value- transmitting agencies such as the family, church, and school tend to lose impact as college students are often encouraged to think for themselves. Since the college atmOSphere often expounds the need for social reform, the police in many in- stances then become the adult institution which imposes sanctions in the interest of social welfare, and the authority with which they are faced.93 Since the police in this light then represent an extension of parental authority of which students are trying to escape, confrontation is likely to 94 come about. In view of this possibility, students are 93Johnson, op. cit., p. 373. 94Lipset and Wolin, op. cit., p. 3. 59 60 considered by older segments of the population to be way- ward and irresponsible. In looking into such relationships between students and conventional society, and assuming as reported that marriage does cause stability and acceptance of adult insti- tutions, and since the police are one of these institutions, the purpose of this study was to determine if attitude to- ward police was then a value changed through marriage. This is the theoretical construct under which this study was undertaken. Hypothesis and Methodology The hypothesis chosen for this project was formula- ted in order to determine whether or not there exists a significant difference in attitude toward police, between married and single male college students from the age of seventeen to thirty-five, living on campus at Michigan State University. This was used both in the question as well as in the null form in order to facilitate statistical analysis. The research design developed was a descriptive questionnaire type study; it used a modified version of Portune's ATP scale. This scale contained 20 statements re- garding a personal attitude toward police and true or false responses were solicited. The modification was done since the initial questionnaire did not apply to the defined pOpulation. In relation to marital status, a stratified random sample was selected and the measure was administered. 61 Results were obtained in the four available categories and tabulated. Percentages and a chi—square (X2) test for independence were used in analyzing the data and the fol- lowing results were obtained. Research Findings Two significant factors were discovered in this study. First, in relation to marital status, it was shown that marriage has little or no significance on college students' attitudes toward police. Secondly, disregarding this variable, students' attitudes on the whole showed over 75 per cent favorable responses in this area. Such an indi- cation shows that this relationship may not be as strained as popularly thought. Implications of the Study As previously mentioned, the results of this study are generalizable only to the limits of the defined popula- tion. Implications on the other hand may exist beyond this boundary. To begin with certain things become evident. It has been shown here that male college students living on campus have about the same attitude toward police regardless of marital status. This in the author's eyes would tend to indicate that if such a finding is valid for this population, it may also be valid for college students at Michigan State University in general. That is to say that although girls and off campus males were not herein included, it is felt 62 that their attitudes in this area would be similar to the population sampled. This is due to the fact that they live in somewhat like surroundings and for the most part have the same values and norms. If this is the case and hypotheti- cally assuming it is true, what then is the attitude of college students in the west, south, east or the Ivy League schools? Such a factor should be considered, for this study has simply covered one aspect of a large mid-western univer- sity, and attitude most likely varies in regard to geogra— phical location. This alone provides a vast area for further research. Also as I look back into this project and the sur- rounding community I am inclined to believe that students who live on campus at Michigan State University have less police confrontation than their off campus counterparts. This I feel comes about for a number of reasons. To begin with, it is felt students living on campus don't drive cars to the degree the off campus student does. If this is the case the off campus student stands a greater chance of con- frontation since traffic violations are a known problem in the normal student age range. Also the campus police seem to have a somewhat more guardian type relationship with students than police officers in general since students make up their entire population. Another thing to be considered here is administrative policy. Many campus police agencies are given instructions from the hierarchy in the university concerning a "hands off" 63 policy regarding students where in the same instance any other agency would make an arrest. Assuming this to be true, a student living and spending most of his time on campus would then logically have a more favorable attitude toward police since he is given much greater freedom in his action. An additional item not heretofore considered is that this study has shown attitude toward the police to be favorable. If this is so, why then is there student-police confrontation in civil distrubances? The author feels that in these instances the police only represent the most visible symbol of the total society with which students are disen- chanted; thus they vent their hostilities in the direction of the police. It is not that they resent the police per se; they simply resent the status quo which the police in the performance of their duty are trying to uphold. If such a factor is well understood by a campus police organization, it is believed that student-police relations could be im- proved to some degree. For example, campus police depart- ments could attempt to move away from the traditional police image. In this they may become change agents themselves and thus improve their relationship with students. A number of things in this area which might be considered are items such as doing away with uniforms, removing guns from officers, and placing them in a position where they could become involved in relevant student movements. Also some attempt might pos- sibly be made to create a helping social agency type image 64 rather than one which students feel is oppressive. For as shown in this study, a large number of students have favor- able attitudes toward police, however it is not unlikely to assume that some of these same students participate in cam- pus disturbances. This parallel in itself says something for the point of view that student hostility may not be aimed directly at the police. But if this is the case in the pure sense, and the police only represent what students see as a symbol of authoritarian society, one could also then hypothesize from this that there is little possibility for improvement of police-student relations without some change in the entire society. Another thing not previously commented on is the difference that exists in the problems of policing a college campus and of the community in general. College students for the most part are young and to some degree adventure— some. Police officers who cannot find empathy with this type of individual should not work in such an agency. This is to say that the criterion used in recruiting campus police officers may to some extent need to be different from that used in other police agencies. For in dealing with college students it is felt that an officer must have a special realization of their aspirations, motivations, and values. If one has these qualifications his responsiveness to the needs of the students and their problems would be greatly increased. One solution to this problem may be to recruit police officers from the university setting to staff a 65 campus police department. This could be done by recruit- ment posters which imply the social helping image, and by using interviews through college placement services. In such an interview the point of assistance to other students could be stressed rather than the oppressive police concept. Also programs which create a greater awareness in the minds of students concerning the police role may alleviate the situation to some degree. This extension, along with grea- ter promotion of courses dealing with the role of law en- forcement in a democratic society may help in bringing about this awareness on the part of students. Universities having Criminal Justice and Law programs should assume the burden for courses in this area. In explaining the contribution made by this study to the field of Criminal Justice a number of things become evident. To begin with it has provided police agencies with some realization that students do not in all instances have an adverse reaction when questioned concerning police be- havior. It also has indicated that male college students within the employable age range have favorable attitudes toward police and thus provide a greater basis for consider- ation of applicants from this group than previously existed. In the author's opinion the most valuable contribu- tion of this project is that it dispels the assumption made by many police officers that college students for the most part are anti-police. The author wonders if the same could be said for police officers' attitudes concerning college 66 students. Limitations of the Study In this final section one should understand the limitations of this study in order to prevent generaliza- tions which may not be valid. To begin with, such generali- zations can only be made within the limits of the defined population. This includes only male college students living on campus at Michigan State University during Fall term 1970. In such a narrow population it becomes obvious that many variables are unaccounted for. Race for one may have been a singificant factor in attitude formation. Also the length of time a student has spent living in the university community could create some difference in attitude toward police as opposed to one who lives off campus. Sex also may show some differentiation, for this study is in no way generalizable to the female segment of this university. As previously mentioned in the implications section, it is also highly likely that college students in other sections of the country may have somewhat different attitudes toward police. Evol- ving from this is the consideration that Michigan State University campus police undoubtedly function to some degree in a different manner than other such agencies within the nation. This alone may be a significant factor in attitude formation since rapport between students and the campus police no doubt would cause a variation in student attitude when questioned in this area. 67 An additional limitation here is that there is some possibility that attitude of non-responding students, and those who did not answer all items may at least to some degree differ from the sample respondents. It is believed that this non—response however came about due to the close proximity of Christmas vacation and the structure of certain items on the instrument. As previously mentioned some re- evaluation in this area may be needed. Due to the research design some extraneous variables may also have had some in- fluence on the overall outcome. This may have been caused to some degree by the instrument. Another factor to be considered is that this study in no way reflects attitude toward police of the general population, as the same influences do not exist upon their lives as those which shape attitudes of college students. It is the author's hope that through these sections on implications and limitations the reader has gained some insight into the possibility for additional research in this area, and an understanding of the limits which apply to this study. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Banton, Michael. Race Relations. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1967. Barnes, Harry E. and Nogley K. Teeters. New Horizons in Criminology. New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1953. Bloch, Herbert A. and Melvin Prince. Social Crisis and Deviance. New York: Random House, 1967. Borg, Walter R. Educational Research: An Introduction. New York: David McKay Company Inc., 1965. Bouma, Donald H. Kids and Cops: A Study in Mutual Hostil- ity. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Puinshing Company, 1969. Bowman, Henry A. Marriage For Moderns. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1965. Brandstatter, A. F. and Louis A. Radelet. Police and Com- munity Relations: A Sourcebook. Beverly Hills: The Glencoe Press, 1968. Brown, Claude. Manchild in the Promised Land. New York: Signet Book Division of The New American Library, 1966. Brown, Michael. The Politic§_and Anti-Politics of the Young. Beverly Hills: The Glencoe Press, 1969. Buss, Arnold H. Psychopathology. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966. Caldwell, Robert G. Epiminology. New York: The Roland Press Company, 1965. Campbell, William G. Form and Style In Thesis Writing. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1969. Chevigny, Paul. Police Power: Police Abuses in New York Cit . New York: Vintage Book Division of Random House, I969. 68 69 Clinard, Marshall B. Sociology of Deviant Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1968. Cressey, Donald R. and David A. Ward. Delinquency, Crime and Social Processes. New York: Harper & Row, Pub- 1ishers, 1969. Day, Frank D. Criminal Law and Society. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1964. Dinitz, Simon, Russell R. Dynes and Alfred C. Clark. Deviance. New York: Oxford University Press, 1969. Eldefonso, Edward. Law Enforcement and the Youthful Of- fender: Juvenile Procedures. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967. Fever, Lewis S. The Conflict of Generations. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1969. Games, Paul A. and George R. Klare. Elementary Statistics: Data Analysis for the Behavigpal Sciences. New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1967. Germann, A. C., Frank D. Day, and Robert R. J. Gallati. Introduction to Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1969. Gibbons, Don C. Society, Crime, and Criminal Careers: An Introduction to Criminology, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice- Hall, 1968. Gould, William and William L. Kolb. A Dictionary ofnthe Social Sciences. New York: The Free Press, 1967. Gourley, G. Douglas. Public Relations and the Police. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1953. Hayes, William L. Statistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1963. Horrocks, John E. The Psychology of Adolescence. Cambridge, Mass.: Houghton-Mifflin, 1962. Johnson, Elmer Hubert. Crime! Correction and Sociepy. Home- wood, 111.: The Dorsey Press, 1968. Kiesler, Charles A., Barry E. Collins, and Norman Miller. Attitude Change: A Critical Analysis of Theoretical Approaches. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969. Koenker, Robert H. Simplified Statistics: For Students in Educationiand Psychology. Bloomington: McKnight and McKnight Publishing Co., 1961. 70 Kolstoe, Ralph H. Introduction to Statistics for the Be- havioral Sciences. Homewood, Ill.: The Dorsey Press, 1969. Landis, Paul H. Social Control. New York: J. B. Lippin- cott Company, 1956. Lipset, Seymour Martin and Reinhard Bendix (eds.). Class, Status, and Power: A Reader in Social Stratification. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1953. Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Sheldon S. Wolin (eds.). The Berkeley Student Revolt: Facts and Interpretations. New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday & Comapny,'l965. Marris, Peter and Martin Rein. Dilemmas of Social Reform. New York: Atherton Press, 1967. Morehead, Albert and Loy Morehead (eds.). The New American Webster Handy College Dictionagy. New York: THEVNew American Library, 1961. Nebergall, Roger E., Carolyn and Muzafer Sherif. Attitude and Attitude Change: The Social Judgement-Involvement Approach. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1965. Oppenheim, A. N. gpestionnaire Design and Attitude Measure- ment. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1966. Reckless, Walter C. and Simon Dinitz. Crigical Issues in the Study of Crime. Boston: Little, Brown and Com- pany, 1968. Schafer, Stephen. Theories in Criminology. New York: Random House, 1969. Schur, Edwin M. Our Criminal Society. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1969. Shaw, Marvin E., and Jack M. Wright. Scales for the Measure- ment of Attitudes. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Sussman, Marvin B. Sourcebook in Marriage and the Family. New York: Houghton-Mifflin, 1968. Sutherland, Edwin H. and Donald R. Cressey. Principles of Criminology. New York: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1955. Thurstone, L. L. (ed.). The Measurement of Social Attitudes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931. Toch, Hans. The Social Psychology of Social Movements. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1965. 71 Whittlemore, L. H. Cop. Greenwich: Fawcett Publications, Inc., 1969. Yablonsky, Lewis and Martin R. Haskell. Crime and Delin- uen . Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1970. B. PUBLICATIONS OF AND FOR THE GOVERNMENT, LEARNED SOCIETIES AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS Bureau of Social Science Research. "Salient Findings on Crime and Attitudes Toward Law Enforcement in the Dis— trict of Columbia," (a preliminary technical report sub- mitted to the U. S. Department of Justice, Office of Law Enforcement Assistance), (1966), PP. l3A-B. Fine, Paul A. "Neighbors of the President," (report prepared by Paul A. Fine Associates for the President's Committee on Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime), (1963), p. 126. Gallup Poll. "Tabulation Request Survey ALPO No. 709," (prepared for the President's Commission on Law Enforce- ment and the Administration of Justice), 1966. Galvin, Raymond and Louis Radelet. "A National Survey of Police and Community Relations," Unpublished, Michigan State University, (report prepared for the President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice by The National Center on Police Community Re- lations at the School of Criminal Justice (formerly Police Administration and Public Safety) of Michigan State University. Governor's Commission on the Los Angeles Riots. "Violence in the City--An End or a Beginning?", Los Angeles: Office of the Governor, (1965), p. 12. Hodge, Robert W. "The Public, the Police and the Administra- tion of Justice," National Opinion Research Center Paper, (1965) I pp. 4"70 Kraft, John F. "Attitudes of Negroes in Various Cities," (report prepared by John F. Kraft Inc., for the Senate Subcommittee on Executive Reorganization), (1966), p. 25. Lohman, Joseph D. and Gordon B. Misner. "The Police and the Community," Unpublished, University of California, (re- port prepared for the President's Commission on Law En- forcement and the Administration of Justice by the School of Criminal Justice), (1966), Vol. I., p. 50, Vol. II, p. 78. 72 National Opinion Research Center (NORC). "A National Sample Survey Approach to the Study of the Victims of Crimes and Attitudes Toward Law Enforcement and Justice," Unpublished paper, NORC, Chicago, 1966. Orrick, William H. Shut It Down: A College in Crisis. San Francisco: (A report to the National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence), 1969. Philadelphia Urban League. Year End Report, (1965), p. 16. Portune, Robert. "The Police Cincinnati Juvenile Attitude Project," (a final report submitted to the Office of Law Enforcement Assistance, United States Department of Justice under Grant #052 awarded to the University of Cincinnati), (1965), p. 10. Raine, Walter J. "Los Angeles Riot Study: The Prevention of Police Brutality in South Central Los Angeles Fol- lowing the Revolts of August 1965," Los Angeles: Uni- versity of California Paper, (1966), at Fig. 1. Report to the Ad Hoc Committee on Pupil Attitude Toward Police in the Cincinnati’Public Scfiools, March, 1970. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Admin- istration of Justice. Task Force Report: The Police. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Admin- istration of Justice. "The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society," Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967. Tomlinson, T. M. "Los Angeles Riot Study Methods Negro Reaction Survey," Los Angeles:, University of Califor- nia, (1966), Table 25. C . PERIODICALS Alpert, R. and S. S. Sargent. "Conservatism-Radicalism Measured by Immediate Emotional Reactions," Journal of Social Psychology, 14 (1941), 181-86. Cardno, J. A. "The Notion of Attitude, An Historical Note," Ppychological Reprints, l (1955), 345-52. Cochran, W. G. "Some Methods for Strengthening the Common X Tests," Biometrics, X (1954), pp. 417-51. 73 Lentz, T. F. "Utilizing Opinion for Character Measurement," Journal of Social Psychology (1930), 536-42. Maher, B. A. and N. Watt. "Prisoners' Attitudes Toward Home and the Judicial System," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, IM (1958), 327-30. D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Christian, Kenneth E. "In-Service Legal Training for Law Enforcement Officers: An Evaluation of Videotaped Criminal Law Lecture-Workshops." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1970. Johnson, Knowlton. "Socioeconomic Status as Related to Junior High School Students' Attitudes Toward Police." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1969. O'Neill, Michael W. "The Study of Violence Involving the Police: Construction of a Methodology." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1968. Scott, Randall David. "A Comparative Study of the Influence of Socioeconomic Status on the Attitudes of Children Toward Authority Figures." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, 1969. E. NEWSPAPER ARTICLES Harris, Louis. "Eye-for-an-Eye Role Rejected," The Washing- ton Post, July 3, 1966, p. E-3. Ovderlugs, Richard W. "How Citizens Rate a Police Department on Racial Fairness," The Detroit News, February 3, 1965, p. 1a. APPENDIX THE CONSERVATISM-RADICALISM (C-R) OPINIONNAIRE Here are some statements listed to see what people think about many questions. These are opinions and each person will agree with some and disagree with others. If you agree more than you disagree with a state- ment, mark a plus (+). If you disagree more than you agree with a statement, mark a minus (-). Be sure to place either a plus or a minus mark to the left of each number. 9. *10. 11. 12. 13. *14. 15. 16. *17. 18. 19. 20. Form J Three meals a day will always be the best general rule. The metric system of weights and measures should be adopted instead of our present system. Cleanliness is a much more valuable human trait than curiosity. We should celebrate Pasteur's birthday rather than Washington's as he has done the world a greater service. The proposal to change the present calendar to one having 13 months of 28 days is unsound. Even in an ideal world there should be protective tariffs. Our courts should be in the hands of sociologists rather than lawyers. Not the young men, but the old men, should fight our wars. In the Sunday School chiefly the Bible should be taught. Socially-minded experts, rather than voters, should de- cide the policies of government. Cat meat is out of the question for the human diet. Conscience is an infallible guide. The English and the Americans have the highest stan- dards of morality. Our universities should have as many research workers as teachers. Ministers should preach more about immortality than about social justice. A commission form of government would not be desirable for the nation. Negroes should be permitted to attend educational in- stitutions with whites. People who are religious will be happier in the future life than will others. Married women should not be allowed to teach in public schools. Any science which conflicts with religious beliefs should be taught cautiously, if at all, in our schools. 74 21. *22. 23. *24. *25. *26. 27. 28. *29. *30. 31. 32. 33. *34. *35. 36. 37. *38. *39. 40. 41. 42. *43. *44. *45. *46. 75 It is more important to believe in God than to be un- selfish. Since the theory of evolution has been accepted by most scientists, it should be taught in our schools. Skirts which do not come to the knee should not be worn by grown women. Criminals should be treated like sick persons. It is to be hoped that men will improve the comfort of their dress by abandoning or replacing the present necktie and collar. Cremation is the best method of burial. Conservative people are usually more intelligent than radical people. Trial by jury has been, and always will be, the most effective way of securing justice. Our spelling should be revised and simplified. Capital punishment will some day be done away with. The average person needs greater caution more than greater daring. One is never justified in taking another's life, even when it would be a merciful act. The Star-Spangled Banner is the most stirring in theme and noble in sentiment of national anthems. At the age of 21, people should have the privilege of changing their given names. The Bible is valuable primarily because it contains some of the world's best literature, and not because it is the word of God. Race prejudice is, on the whole, beneficial as it keeps many undesirable foreigners from the country. Democracy as practiced in the United States is the best of all modern governments because it is most suited to the needs of modern times. Freedom of teaching, that is, allowing teachers to teach what they think is the truth, is necessary for real education. American civilization may some day be wiped out as was Roman civilization. It is not probable that wood ever will be converted into humanly edible food. The Japanese race is, on the whole, crafty and treach- erous. Children should be brought up to have higher respect for our ancestors (generally). Radical agitators and propagandists should be allowed to speak publicly in parks and streets. Telling a lie is worse than taking the name of God in vain. National boundaries may some day become as truly oblit- erated as state lines have become in America during the past 150 years. In college, students should be allowed to attend class as much or as little as they like. *47. 48. *49. *50. 51. *52. *53. 54. *55. 56. *57. *58. 59. *60. 76 Our present system of athletics in America is at fault in that it does not provide for mass participation. The A.B. degree should continue to require four and only four years of work above the high school. We should Europeanize our native Americans, as well as Americanize Europeans among ourselves. We cannot say whether Christianity is sound or not be- cause we have never practiced it systematically. Preaching is one of the most effective ways of teaching people to lead better lives. Our present system of law, based upon outgrown condi- tions, should be replaced by a progressive system based upon the conditions of our present order. We owe our progress to radically minded people rather than to the "middle of the road" folk. Generally speaking, Americans are more intelligent and enterprising than people of most any other country. The naval custom for a captain to stay with his ship until she sinks is outmoded, sentimental, and unneces- sary. It would not be possible to invent an ice cream which could be made merely by Opening a tin can and exposing the contents to the air. Deformed babies of whose permanent helplessness we can be sure, should be put to death at the outset. Something more effective than our present brooms and mops and vacuum cleaners should be devised for cleaning our homes. All children should have some sectarian religious train- ing either on Sunday or week days. Most members of the D.A.R. would repudiate as dangerous characters modern personalities equivalent to the progeni- tors through whom they claim membership in the organiza- tion. Form K The age of six is the logical time to start school. Free Trade is economically unsound. Any science which conflicts with religious beliefs should not be taught in our schools. School boards are right in barring married women from teaching positions. College or university professors should not put forth their own radical views in the class room. A man should be a booster for his city to help it grow. The present tendency among women to wear less clothing should be encouraged, especially in warm weather or climates. The world needs a new religion. *9. 10. *11. *12. 13. 14. *15. 16. 17. 18. 19. *20. *21. *22. 23. *24. *25. 26. 27. *28. *29. 30. *31. 77 Our responsibility to people of other races should be as great as our responsibility to our own race. Science will never be able to create life. Workers in industry should receive a part of the profits of their company in addition to their salary. Woman should have as much right to propose dates to men as men to women. The ministry is a more noble calling than the law. The ceremony of baptism is more than a symbolic rite of the church. Church hymns should be revised to fit modern discovery. Radical foreigners who wish to visit the United States should not be admitted. Capital punishment will never be done away with. Turkish people should not be admitted to our country as citizens. _ The mind and spirit of man have kept pace with the rapid change in his material environment. In case of war, men's wealth, as well as their lives, should be drafted so that no war debts exist after the war is over. Censorship of speech, press and entertainment should be completely abolished. In presidential campaigns, the nominee receiving the second greatest number of votes should become the Vice—President, and the Vice-President given a more important role. No individual, even though he feels that life is not worth living, is justified in committing suicide. We should change our minds and policies progressively and constantly. Facilities should be increased for open forum discus- sions among the peOple where grievances against the existing social or political order could be voiced. Advertising is worthwhile because it increases pur- chasing power. Race prejudice is useful in that it prevents inter- marrying. Historic heroes should be "debunked." We should make our immigration restrictions with regard to the desirability of an individual, regardless of his nationality, and abolish the practice of a fixed quota for each nationality. As long as our captains of industry are as humane to their employees, and as long as wealthy people are as philanthropic as at present, there will be no need for socialism. All legislative bodies should be constituted as to give representation to all groups in proportion to their voting strength (Republicans, Democrats, Socialists, Communists, Anarchists, etc.). *32. *33. *34. *35. *36. *37. 38. *39. 40. 41. *42. 43. *44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. *50. 51. 52. *53. *54. 55. 78 All oil beneath the earth's surface should be common property of all men, and he who pumps it our should pay royalty to society as a whole, and not to any one man or group of men. Divorce by mutual consent would be a much better system than our present one. Aristocracies of worth should replace those of wealth or birth. Cremation should be made compulsory. Taxation should be used to mitigate the inequalities and to secure a greater socialization of wealth. The chivalry of women to men and of men to weaker (less intelligent, less informed) men is about as essential as the chivalry of men to women. World patriotism should be second to national patriotism. Faith healing is not miraculous, but always psychologi- cally explainable. Most all men should wear neckties. There should be a definite and appreciable amount of compulsory military training. The Continental attitude towards mistresses is saner than ours. Much more energy should be expended in conserving what mankind does know, than is discovering what it does not know. If Russia demonstrates very clearly that communism is better than capitalism, then we should accept the former. It is bad for a married man to take another man's wife to the movies. "My country, may she always be right, but my country, right or wrong," is a good slogan. The best way to remedy the modern divorce situation would be to make the conditions of divorce more stringent, so that marriage would be considered in a more serious light. It would not be desirable to have a Chinese family move in next door. The presidential term of office of four years is as it should be. Well-trained elementary teachers should receive the same salary as well-trained high school teachers, if not more. It is not fitting that a statue of Einstein should oc— cupy a niche in Dr. Fosdick's Riverside Drive Church. Modern fiction should be required to pass a board of censors before publication. The Government should own the water power sites and dis- tribute the power. Children should be encouraged to choose, independently of parents and relatives, their own religion. Criminals retard our moral progress more than all other people combined. 79 *56. A marriage code should be in force in the United States, whereby the wife is not only given a right in the com- mon property, but is made jointly responsible for the support of the family. *57. Our national government should appropriate for the next twenty years at least 20 billion dollars for research work (chiefly in the social sciences of psychology, education, sociology, politics, and govern- ment). *58. Science should endeavor to discover and develop a harmless liquor, retaining almost all the good features, but lacking the harmful ones, of alcoholic beverages. 59. Football helps put a college on the map, and should be heartily supported by all the alumni. *60. The United States should enter a world federation of nations. *These are radical items. The person receives one point if he rejects them. He also receives one point for acceptance of the unmarked, conservative items. ATTITUDE TOWARD PUNISHMENT OF CRIMINALS This is a study of attitudes toward punishment of criminals. On the other side of this page you will find a number of statements expressing different attitudes toward punishment of criminals. V’ Put a check mark if you agree with the statement. X Put a cross if you disagree with the statement. Try to indicate either agreement or disagreement for each statement. If you simply cannot decide about a state- ment you may mark it with a question mark. This is not an examination. There are no right or wrong answers to these statements. This is simply a study of people's attitudes toward the punishment of criminals. Please indicate your own convictions by a check mark when you agree and by a cross when you disagree. College Form Scale Value 5.8 1. A person should be imprisoned only for serious offenses. 1.1 2. It is wrong for society to make any of its mem- bers suffer. 9.0 3. Hard prison life will keep men from committing crime. 4.8 4. Some criminals do not benefit from punishment. 2.7 5. Most prisons are schools of crime. 8.2 6. We should not consider the comfort of a prisoner. 8.6 7. A criminal will go straight only when he finds that prison life is hard. 0.5 8. No punishment can reduce crime. 3.1 9. Prison influence is degenerating. 5.5 10. Only habitual criminals should be punished. 10.0 11. We should employ corporal punishment in deal- ing with all criminals. 5.3 12. I have no opinion about the treatment of crime. 0.8 13. Punishment of criminals is a disgrace to civi- lized society. 9.3 14. Solitary confinement will make the criminal penitent. 4.1 15. It is advantageous to society to spare certain criminals. 1.5 16. Only humane treatment can cure criminals. 3.1 17. Harsh imprisonment merely embitters a criminal. 9.8 18. No leniency should be shown to convicts. 80 Scale Value 3.4 8.1 10.6 1.8 (”N b O 0 Nfl 00 O 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. GUI 81 Many petty offenders become dangerous criminals after a prison term. Failure to punish the criminal encourages crime. Only by extreme brutal punishment can we cure the criminal. The more severely a man is punished, the greater criminal he becomes. A criminal should be punished first and then reformed. One way to deter men from crime is to make them suffer. Punishment is wasteful of human life. A bread and water diet in prison will cure the criminal. Brutal treatment of a criminal makes him more dangerous. A jail sentence will cure many criminals of further offenses. Prison inmates should be put in irons. We should consider the individual in treating crime. \ Even the most vicious criminal should not be harmed. It is fair for society to punish those who of— fend against it. Humane treatment inspires the criminal to be good. . Some punishment is necessary in dealing with the criminal. High School Form A person should be put in prison only for very bad crimes. It is wrong for the government to make any people suffer in prison. Hard prison life will keep men from committing crime. Punishment does not make some criminals any better. In prison many men learn to be worse criminals. We should not bother about the comfort of a prisoner. A criminal will go straight only when he finds that prison life is hard. There isn't any punishment that will keep men from committing crime. Scale Value 3.1 5.5 10.0 £00 0 O 6.100 oh I-‘ WI" I-‘U'l g...- 0 (I) COLD I-" hm exp 0 b4» cs 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. l7. l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 82 Prisons make men worse than they are. Only men who have committed several crimes should be punished. We should use physical punishment in dealing with all criminals. I don't know anything about the treatment of crime. We should be ashamed to punish criminals. Putting a criminal in a cell by himself will make him sorry. It is better for us to be easy on certain criminals. Only kind treatment can cure criminals. Cruel prison treatment makes criminals want to get even. No kindness should be shown to prisoners. Many men who aren't very bad become dangerous criminals after a prison term. If we do not punish criminals, we will have more crime. Only by very cruel punishment can we cure the criminal. Severe punishment makes men worse criminals. A criminal should be punished first and then reformed. One way to keep men from crime is to make them suffer. We cannot make a good citizen of a criminal if we punish him. Having to live on bread and water in prison will cure the criminal. Cruel treatment of a criminal makes him more dangerous. A jail sentence will cure many criminals. Prisoners should be chained. In order to decide how to treat a criminal we should know what kind of person he is. Even the very worst criminal should not be mis- treated. It is fair for the government to punish men who break the law. Kind treatment makes the criminal want to be good. We have to use some punishment in dealing with criminals. ATTITUDES TOWARD LAW AND JUSTICE Mark the statements which you agree with in the first column, those you disagree with in the second column and those you have no opinion about in the third column. Agree Disagree *These items are negative be counted as a positive a negative response. No Opinion *1. *3. *7. Cops often carry a grudge against men who get in trouble with the law and treat them cruelly. For the most part, jus- tice gets done by the police and the courts. Many of the people in prisons are actually innocent of the crimes they were convicted for. Most policemen are honest. Any jury can be fixed and most of them are fixed. We would have less crime if our laws were more strict. The big-time crooks never get arrested in this country. It's just the little guy that gets caught. Most judges are honest and kindhearted. and disagreement with them should response; agreement is counted as 83 PORTUNE ATP—SCALE (1) Age (2) Grade (3) Course of study (4) Favorite school subject (5) Boy Girl (6) Favorite school activity (7) Own home (8) Attend church or Sunday school regularly (9) Parent or guardian occupation 1. POLICE KEEP THE CITY GOOD. SA A SD 2. POLICE ACCUSE YOU OF THINGS YOU DIDN'T DO. SA A SD 3. THE POLICE ARE STUPID. SA A SD 4. POLICE PROTECT US FROM HARM. SA A SD 5. THE POLICE REALLY TRY TO HELP YOU WHEN YOU'RE IN TROUBLE. SA A SD 6. THE POLICE ARE MEAN. SA A SD 7. THE POLICE OFFER YOU MONEY TO TELL ON OTHER KIDS. SA A SD 8. POLICE USE CLUBS ON PEOPLE FOR NO REASON AT ALL. SA A SD 9. THE POLICE KEEP PEACE AND ORDER. SA A SD 10 WITHOUT POLICEMEN THERE WOULD BE CRIME EVERYWHERE. SA A SD 11. YOU CAN RELY ON THE POLICE IN TIMES OF DISTRESS. SA A SD 12. POLICEMEN ARE DEDICATED MEN. SA A SD 13. POLICE TRY TO ACT BIG SHOT. SA A SD 14. THE POLICE ARE ALWAYS MAD AT KIDS. SA A SD 15. POLICE HELP ME TO HELP MYSELF. SA A SD 84 85 16. POLICE REPRESENT TROUBLE IN- - STEAD OF HELP. SA SD 17. POLICE ARE BRAVE MEN. SA SD 18. THE POLICE ARE PROTECTIVE OF OUR COUNTRY. SA SD 19. POLICE DON'T EVEN GIVE YOU A CHANCE TO EXPLAIN SA SD 20. POLICE TRY TO GET SMART WITH YOU WHEN YOU ASK A QUESTION. SA SD SA Strongly Agree A Agree U Uncertain D Disagree SD Strongly Disagree MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY East Lansing, Michigan 48823 College of Social Science, School of Criminal Justice, Olds Hall Dear Sir: I am a student at Michigan State University and am conducting a study in order to determine the difference in attitudes toward the police held by married and single students. I would greatly appreciate your filling out the enclosed questionnaire and returning it to me as soon as possible. This information will add greatly to my study and may provide some insight into this difference if it exists. Sincerely, Calvin J. Swank 1619 L Spartan Village East Lansing, Michigan 48823 CJ8=CC Enclosure 86 Married Are you between 17 and 35 years of age? MODIFIED PORTUNE (ATP) SCALE Single Yes No True or False Responses 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. T F The police keep the city safe. The police often make false accusations. The police don't know right from wrong. The police keep us safe. The police try to help you when you are in trouble. The police are not polite. The police often use paid informers to gain information. The police use clubs on people even though they haven't done anything. The police keep order. Without policemen crime would be every- where. You can count on the police when you need help. Policemen in general work hard. Most police officers try to act like big shots. The police are always mad at students. The police help me when I'm in need. Police mean bad news instead of help. Police are brave men. Police look out for our city. 87 19. 20. 88 The police don't give you time to explain what happened. The police try to get smart with you when you ask questions. HICHIGQN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES I III 9 312 3103443572