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A CR055- CULTURAL COMPARISON OE

CHfiLDREN‘S JUDGMENT 0F PARENT CHILD. ' ‘

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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Children's Judgment of
Parent-Child Conflict in Germany, England, Finland,
United States and Mexico

presented by

Richard Frank Heber

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

_M..A...__ degree in __P.55Lchology

>V/7Mxt-(7L mm.

Major professor

Date May 17. 1955

 

0-169

  
 
  
  

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ABSTRACT

The Anderson Incomplete Stories were administered to
children in the seventh school year in the public schools
of Karlsruhe, Munich, and Hamburg, in Germany; Helsinki,
Finland; Birmingham, England; Nexico City, Mexico; and
Knoxville, Tennessee.

Story No. 2, Series A., of the Anderson Incomplete
Stories was used in the present study. In this story, a
child sent to the butcher shOp by his mother, stops to
play on the way home, leaving his meat on the edge of the
sidewalk. A dog comes along and runs off with half the
meat. The child is asked to complete the story in a few
sentences. A coding manual has been develOped by H. H.
Anderson and G. L. Anderson which records psychological
themes in non-overlapping categories.

Germany is noted for its cultural authoritarianism.
This authoritarianism should be reflected in cross-cultural
differences in domination, submission, honesty and anxiety
in parent-child relationships. Larlsruhe, iamburg, and
Nunich represent different sub—cultures within Germany.
These sub-cultural differences should be reflected in inter-
cultural comparisons of psychological themes.

The following clusters of psycholocical themes were
used in this study for sex, socio-economic, and cross-

cultural comparisons: tells truth, tells lie, resistance,

 

 

 

submission, domination, anxiet‘, punishment, and con-

 

 

structive thinking and action by the child and 21 the
mother.

More girls than boys gave themes of submission in

 

Karlsruhe, Hamburg, Munich, Helsinki, Birmingham, and
Knoxville. MeXico City was the only exception. Kerls-
ruhe was the only sample where significantly more girls
gave themes of anxiety. Five of the other six samples
were in the direction of more girls giving gpgggty themes,
though the differences by themselves were not significant.
Mexico City was again the only exception, the difference
between boys and girls here being negligible.

Twice as many children from the high socio-economic

group in Birmingham gave themes of resistance as did chil-

 

dren from the low socio-economic group. Significantly more
children from the high socio-economic groups in Hamburg,
flelsinki, and Mexico City gave themes of anxiety than did
children from the low socio-economic groups.

Knoxville and Birmingham, followed by Hamburg and
Helsinki, had the highest percentages of themes of tgllg

truth. Karlsruhe, iexico City, and Munich, in that order,

 

had the lowest percentages of tells truth. The order for

 

tells truth was reversed for themes of tells lie. Fewer

 

Knoxville children gave anxiety themes than did children

from any of the other samples. This may be related to

economic dislocation in the post-war period, in areas
from which our samples were drawn. The D'irminghem sample

gave the greatest percentage of themes of domination and

 

also of resistance. Birmingham also had the most physical

 

punishment, followed by Hamburg, Knoxville, harlsruhe,

 

Mexico City, and Munich in that order. Helsinki was lowest

with relatively few themes of physical punishment.

 

Hamburg, Helsinki, and Birmingham gave significantly

greater percentages of constructive thinking, feeling, and

 

 

action themes than Knoxville, Karlsruhe, Mexico City, and
Munich.

Knoxville and Birmingham had the highest percentages
of themes representing the higher levels of communication

and spontaneous relating: tells truth, constructive thinking,

 

feeling, and action, integrative outcomes, and resistangg,

 

and the lowest percentages of themes of tells lie. Hamburg

 

and Helsinki also tended to be high in those themes repre-
senting the higher levels of relating although they were not
as high generally as Birmingham or Knoxville.

Kerlsruhe, Mexico City, and Munich had the lowest per-
centages in all clusters of themes representing the higher
levels of communication. These three samplings were highest

in percentages of themes: tells lie.

 

These results strongly support the hypotheses.

Concerning the hypothesesabout authoritarianism in the
family, Kerlsruhe and Munich showed greater similarity
with Mexico City than they did with Hamburg. On the other
hand, Hamburg children showed greater similarity in auth-
oritarian patterns with children from Helsinki and Birming-
ham than they did in comparison with other German children

from Kerlsruhe and Munich.

A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON OF CHILDREN'S JUDGMENT
OF PARENT—CHILD CONFLICT IN GERMANY, ENGLAND,

FINLAND, UNITED STATES AND MEXICO

BY
Richard Franz Heber

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

Year 1955

3-H E

’17
CO

I

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to extend his sincere appreciation for

the continuous guidance and help he received from Dr. Harold
H. Anderson and Dr. Gladys L. Anderson in preparing this
thesis.

The author also wishes to express his gratitude to Mr. Franz
Geierhaas for his help in coding children's stories, to

mrs. Barbara Robinson for her c00peration in working out
some of the problems of reliability, to Miss Leona DeRosia
and Mrs. Mary Heber for typing and other assistance.

C:
CH
a E
on §

4.
CF)

TABLE

LIST OF TABLES . . . . .

I.

II.

III.
IV.

V.

INTRODUCTION . . . .

Background . . . .

Results of previous analyses

THE PRESENT STUDY . .
Aims . . . . . .
Hypotheses . . . .
Subjects . . . .
Methods and materials
Reliability of Coding

TREATMENT OF DATA . .

SEX COMPARISONS . . .
Hamburg, Germany . .
Munich, Germany . .
Karlsruhe, Germany .
Helsinki, Finland .
Birmingham, England .
Mexico City . . .

Knoxville, Tennessee

Discussion of sex differences

SOCIO-ECONOMIC COMPARISONS

Hamburg, Germany . .

OF

C ONTENTS

data

Page

OtO‘JU'IU'lCfll-‘l-‘P'

(O

15
17
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
52
35

56

Page
Munich, Germany. . . . . . . . . . . 57
Karlsruhe, Germany . . . . . . . . . 58
Helsinki, Finland . . . . . . . . . . 59
Mexico City . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Birmingham, England . . . . . . . . . 41
Discussion of socio-economic differences . . 42

VI. CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS . . . . . . . 45

Theme Cluster: Michael tells truth . . . . 45

Theme Cluster: Michael tells lie . . . . . 46

 

Theme Cluster: Submission . . . . . . . 47

 

Theme Cluster: Domination . . . . . . . 48

 

Theme Cluster: Anxiety . . . . . . . . 49
Theme Cluster: Physical punishment . . . . 50

Theme Cluster: Resistance . . . . . . . 51

 

Theme Cluster: Constructive thinking, feeling,
and action 2y Michael . . . 52

Theme Cluster: Constructive thinking, feeling,

and action 2y mother . . . . 55

lgtegrative outcomes . . . . . . . . . 54
Discussion of cross-cultural comparisons . . 55
VII..SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

APPEI‘IDH B O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 68

1

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. Distribution of Numbers of Boys and

Girls by Socio-Economic Level . . . . . 8
Table 2. Reliability of Coding in Categories . . 16
Table 5. Reliability of Coding Stories for

Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 4. Hamburg, Germany: Numbers and Percentages

of Boys and of Girls with Tallies Coded

in the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . 25

Table 5. Munich, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls with Tallies Coded
in the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . 26

Table 6. Karlsruhe, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls with Tallies Coded
in the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . 27

Table 7. Helsinki, Finland: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls with Tallies Coded
in the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . 28

Table 8. Birmingham, England: Numbers and Percent-
ages of Boys and of Girls with Tallies
Coded in the Several Theme Clusters . . 29

Table 9. Mexico City: Numbers and Percentages of
Boys and of Girls with Tallies Coded in
the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . . 50

Table 10. Knoxville, Tennessee: Numbers and Per-
centages of Boys and of Girls with
Tallies Coded in the Several Theme
Clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Table 11. Recepituletion of Sex Differences
Presented in Tables 4-10 Inclusive . . 52

Table 12. Hamburg, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from High, Middle, and Low
Socio-Economic Levels with Tallies Coded
in the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . 56

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

15.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

ii

Munich, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from High and Low Socio-
Economic Levels with Tallies Coded in
the Several Theme Clusters . . . . . . .

Kerlsruhe, Germany: Numbers and Percent-
ages of Children from High, Middle‘ and
Low Socio-Economic Levels with Tallies

Coded in the Several Theme Clusters . .

Helsinki, Finland: Numbers and Percent-
ages of Children from High, Middle and
Low Socio-Economic Levels with Tallies
Coded in the Several Theme Clusters . .

Mexico City: Numbers and Percentages of

Children from High, Middle, and Low Socio-

Economic Levels with Tallies Coded in the
Several Theme Clusters . . . . . . . . .

Birmingham, England: Numbers and Percent-
ages of Children from High and Low Socio-
Economic Levels with Tallies Coded in the
Several Theme Clusters . . . . . . . . .

Recepituletion of Differences Between
High and Low Socio-Economic Levels
Presented in Tables 12-17 Inclusive. . .

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the samplings with Tallies Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Michael Tells Truth

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the Samplings with Tallies Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Michael Tells Lie

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the Samplings with Tallied Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Submission . . . .

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in-
Each of the Samplings with Tallies Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Domination . . . .

 

Page

57

58

59

4O

41

42

45

46

47

48

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

25.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

iii

Page

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the Savplings with Tallies Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Anxiety. . . . . . . 49

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the Semplings with Tallies Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Physical Punishment. 50

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the Samplings with Tallies Coded
in the Theme Cluster, Resistance . . . . . 51

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in

Each of the Samplings with Tallies Coded

in the Theme Cluster, Constructive Think-

ing, Feeling, and Action by Michael .‘T . 52

 

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in

Each of the Samplings with Tallies COded

in the Theme Cluster, Constructive Think-

in , Feeling, and Action by Mother . . . . 55

 

 

Numbers and Percentages of Children in
Each of the Samplings Who Wrote Stories
with Integrative Outcomes. . . . . . . . . 54

 

I. INTRODUCTION

Background

 

This study is part of a cross-cultural research
prOgram, presently being carried out by Harold H. Anderson
and Gladys L. Anderson. These writers participated in a
Workshop on "Modern Psychologies and Education" held in
Frankfurt am Main, Germany, during the summer of 1952. At
the workshOp, problems of adult-child relations were dis-
cussed. From this discussion H. H. Anderson (2) states:

"It appeared that authoritarianism was to be found

. in each of the eight countries represented. Again,

no comparison was possible. Comments on the more

positive aspects of social learning, on human

relations in the school and home, and the school's
contribution to mental hygiene of childhood were

based almost exclusively on the Opinions of experts

and very little on research as such."

H. H. Anderson, desiring to obtain some systematic
research data on human relations, devised six incomplete
stories, as a form of projective technique (see Anderson
Incomplete Stories, Appendix.A). Each of these stories
presents a possible conflict situation between one child and
another, or between a child and a parent or between a child
and a teacher. The incomplete stories are presented to the
subject, who is instructed to read what happens, and then
write, what. he thinks happens next and to finish each story
quickly in a few sentences. The detailed procedure for admin-

istration of the Anderson Incomplete Stories has been pres

viously published (5). A coding manual, developed by the authors

of the Anderson Incomplete Stories, has been devised to
record themes projected by the subject, in non-overlapping
categories. In addition, the story completion as a whole
is coded into one of six possible interpretive outcomes.
An abstract of the coding manual for Story No. 2 of

Series A, involving a child-parent conflict, is presented
below.

Using Series A of the Anderson Incomplete Stories as
their research tool, the Andersons undertook a study of
1,200 adolescent boys and girls in the public schools of
Karlsruhe, Germany, following the WorkshOp, in the summer
of 1952. The purposes of this study were: 1) "to obtain
some expression from children as to their perception of the
dynamic process of human conflict and of the outcome of con-
flict; and 2) to experiment with a method which might later
be adapted to children of different ages and different cul-
tures." Encouraged by preliminary results of the Kerlsruhe
-data, the Andersons repeated the study in 1955, using the
same method, with children in Knoxville, Tennessee and in
Lexico. In 1955-54, more data were gathered on Series A
and Series B from public school children in Braunschweig,
Munich, and Hamburg, Germany; Helsinki, Finland; Drammen,
Norway; Stockholm, Sweden; and Birmingham, England.

H. H. Anderson and co-wcrkers (1,4,5,) had previously

formulated several hypotheses on the circularity of social

-3.

behavior and had tested these hypotheses in observational

studies of classroom teaching and learning. These hypoth-

6868 are:

"1.

"2.

"5.

"4.

Socially integrative behavior in one person tends
to induce socially integrative behavior in others.
Because like tends to induce like this is a kind
of circular behavior. A relationship of integra-
tion or working with another has been designated
a growth circle.

Dominative behavior in one person tends to incite
dominative behavior in others. Because domination
tends to prolong or intensify conflict, reduce
communication, and lead to disintegration in human
relations, this relationship of domination-resis-
tance has been designated a vicious circle.

A third hypothesis is that as domination increases
in severity to a place where it is not clear whether
it is safe to resist, the individual shows confused
behavior, indecision, and vecillation between
approach—withdrawal.

A fourth hypothesis is that if environmental dom-
ination becomes too authoritarian or too severe,
it tends to induce submission or psychological
atrOphy. In this relationship there is little
response, little interaction." (5)

The Anderson Incomplete Stories and the coding manual

were developed, using these hypotheses as a base. Subsequent

analysis of date from the incomplete stories has also been

made on the basis of these hypotheses.

Results of previous analyses of date

 

In a preliminary analysis of child-parent conflict in

the exploratory Kerlsruhe study, the Andersons (5) found

their data from the Kerlsruhe children to be heavily skewed

in the direction of themes of lying, domination, punish-
ment, and submission. In another analysis of child-

perent conflict in the Kerlsruhe date, F. G. Geierhaas (6)
selected schools serving children from low and high socio-
economic homes and obtained significant differences between
frequencies of themes of truth, domination, and submission,
between socio-economic classes. H. H. Anderson (2), in
another similar analysis, with samples from Kerlsruhe, Ger-
many, Mexico City, and Knoxville, Tennessee, found the lowest
frequencies of themes of truth in Kerlsruhe, Mexico City
being higher, with Knoxville, Tennessee, the highest. The
order was reversed in themes of lying and deception. (Themes
of anxiety were conspicuously low for the Knoxville children.
Results of these preliminary analyses seem to support the
previously reported hypotheses of H. H. Anderson and co-

workers.

II. THE PRESENT STUDY

Aims

 

The present study reports a further analysis of
data from Story No. 2 (The Lost Meet), of Series A, of
the Anderson Incomplete Stories. The data used in this
study were obtained by the Andersons1 as explained above.
Cross-cultural comparisons will be made for data from
three sub-cultures of Germany (Hamburg, Munich, and Kerls-
ruhe); Helsinki, Finland; Birmingham, England; Mexico City;
and Knoxville, Tennessee. Socio-economic differences and

sex differences in children's responses are also reported.

 

1The following acknowledgments are made here at the request
of Harold H. Anderson and Gladys L. Anderson:

"The collection of data in this inter-cultural and cross-
national study has been possible only through the generous and
cordial cooperation of many persons. Acknowledgments are made in
the first published report for each of the geographical samplings.
Previous acknowledgments for assistance have been made for the
data obtained from Kerlsruhe (3), Mexico City (2), and Knoxville,
Tennessee (2). The data from.Drammen, Norway, Stockholm, Sweden,
and Braunschweig, Germany have not been translated and are not
included in the analysis above by Richard F. Heber. Heber's study
reports for Story No. 2, Series A, the first analysis of data
obtained from.Hamburg and Munich, Germany, Birmingham, England, and
Helsinki, Finland.

"We are pleased to express our special gratitude to the
following persons in Hamburg: Landesschulrat Matthewes and
Dr.'w. Koelle of the Hamburg City Schools; Prof. Dr. Curt Bondy,
Direktor, Psychologisches Institut, University of Hamburg, and
his assistant, Mrs. Anne Hardesty; and the members of the research

—5a-

team.from the Psychologisches Institut who administered the forms

in the schools: Christie Deichmann, Horst Finkemeyer, Hans Geest,

Herr Gdtting, Herr Haake, Hermann Heilmann, Clara Hein, Herbert Herzog,
Otto Hilbig, Hans-Joachim Knebel, Ruth Libnitzky, Gunter Meyer,

Ute Mdller, Hans Ockelmann, C. G. Sohimming, Horst Schroeder,

Heinz Schroer, Ernst Gunther Skiba.

"For the data from Munich we owe a special obligation to:
Stadt Oberschulrat Ederer; to Prof. Dr. Philip Lersch, Direktor,
and Dr. Heinz-Rolf Lackert, of the Psychologisches Institut,
University of Munich; and to the members of the research team organ-.
ized at the Psychologisches Institut: Hermann Brandstatter, Ilse Garbsch,
Erich Harrer, Doris Hoberg, Ludwig Krause, Ilsabe Reese, Beate Liller,
Gabriele Schiller, Lothar Schubert, Christel Zumsande.

"The data from Birmingham.were gathered through cordial coopera-
tion and arrangements made with school officials by Prof. E. A. Peel,
Head of the Department of Education, University of Birmingham.

Special gratitude is due Miss J. M; Payne, Secretary, and to the

staff and students who administered the research materials in the
schools: Mrs. N. M. Barnett, Dr. W. E. Flood, Dr. E. L. Payne,

Dr. W. J. Sparrow, Dr. W. Owen Storer, Mr. W. J. Fitzgerald,

Mr. Peter D. Flinn, Hrs. Holding, Mr. H. C. Honeybone, Mr. . Potgieter,
Mr. Robinson, Mrs. E. F. Stiles, Mr. Kenneth Tucker.

"Dr. George W. Albee, Fulbright Professor of Psychology at
the University of Helsinki, assumed responsibility for the administration
of the research materials after we left Helsinki. we are doubly
grateful to Dr. Albee for securing a research grant in Helsinki
to provide for the translation of the children's stories into English.
Gratitude is due Prof. Dr. Kai von Fieandt, Director of the Psycholo
ogical Institute of the University of Helsinki; to Miss Raija Holmstrdm
who translated into Finnish the text of Series A and Series B; and
to Dr. and.Mrs. Olli Kaarakka who translated the Finnish children's
stories into English. -- Harold H. Anderson and Gladys L. Anderson."

Hypotheses

 

The general objectives of the research program as
reported by H. H. Anderson (2) were to test a method of
investigation and with it to test the following hypotheses:

"1. Children brought up in an extremely authori-
tarian and dominating culture (Germany) are
different in their interpersonal relations from
children in less dominating (more democratic)
cultures.

"2. As compared with children in a more democratic
culture, children in the more authoritarian cul-
ture will show significantly higher frequencies
of responses of: anxiety, lying, cheating, decep-
tion, punishment, daydreaming (fantasy unrelated
to reality), escape from reality, ambiguous
unstructured relating, conformity, guilt, and
submission in fantasy conflict situations.

"5. Children in the more authoritarian culture will
also show significantly fewer responses of
honesty, sense of fair play, social problem
solving, communication, action, spontaneity,
cooperation and integrative behavior (working
together).

"4. When outcomes of interpersonal conflict are classi-
fied according to levels of increasing authori-
tarianism or domination, the distribution of out-
comes for German children will be skewed at the
bottom of the following levels of human relating:

a) Integrative, problem-solving
b) Domination-resistance
c) Ambiguous, unstructured, indecisive
d) Domination-submission." (2)
Subjects
This sample comprises children from the public schools

in seven communities in five different countries. These are

Kerlsruhe, Hamburg, and Munich in Germany; Helsinki, Finland;

-7-

Birmingham, England; Mexico City; and Knoxville, Tennes-
see. Throughout this report the samples will be referred
to by the name of the city.

In Knoxville, Tennessee the data are taken from one
junior high school which includes children from high,
middle, and low socio-economic levels. In all other
samplings, school officials were asked to designate schools
enrolling children from the highest and lowest socio-economic
levels and from schools which they regarded as representing
a middle socio-economic level. While no random sampling
method was adOpted the total samplings from Kerlsruhe and
from Helsinki may be regarded as fairly representative of
the children in these cities. While the general research
program undertakes to test a method for making inter-cultural
and cross-national comparisons, it must be stressed that none
of the samples from the several countries represents a national
group of children.

Table 1 gives a distribution by sex and socio-economic
level for each of the samples.

It can be noted that Munich is not represented by the
middle socio-economic group in Table l. The Birmingham
sample is also deficient in the middle socio-economic group.
The English authorities were unable to label any school as

being strictly of middle socio-economic class; as a result

-8-

TABLE 1

Distribution of Numbers of Boys and Girls

by Socianconomic Level.

 

Socio-Economic Level

BOYS

GIRLS

Socio-Economic‘fevel

__

 

Location High Middle Low All High Middle Low All Total
Karlsruhe 5O 65 55 51 65 55 257
Munich 56 57 50 42 165
Hamburg 55 76 51 55 7O 56 281
Helsinki 56 4O 27 58 4O 28 209
Birmingham 156 65 124 55 598
Knoxville 98 119 217
Mexico City 48 174 50 62 19 555

 

TOTAL

1860

 

-9-

only schools designated as high or low are included in the

Birmingham sample. The Mexico City sample could not include

the boys in the high socio-economic group because the data

have not been returned by a translator. The children of all

samples were in the seventh school year and were predomin-
ately thirteen years of age.
Methods 222 Materials

The Anderson Incomplete Stories were presented to the
children as a group in the classroom with standardized
instructions. Except for the Helsinki sample, the tests
were administered by native examiners trained and super-
vised by H. H. Anderson and G. L. Anderson.

The American version of Story No. 2 ("The Lost Meat")
administered in Knoxville reads as follows:

Michael's mother sends him to the store to get
one pound of wieners. On the way home he puts the
package of meat on the edge of the sidewalk and plays
for a short time with his friends. A shepherd dog
darts forward quickly, claws half of the wieners out
of the package and rushes away with them. Michael
wraps up the remaining wieners and takes them home.

What does Michael say to his mother?
What does his mother do?
How does Michael then feel about it?

Think about these questions, then finish this
story quickly with a few sentences.

H. H. Anderson and G. L. Anderson empirically deveIOped

a coding manual for Story No. 2 which contains 55 categories

for Michael and 47 for the mother. A detailed discussion

-10-

of coding problems for Story No. 2 has been presented by
Geierhaas (6).

In the child's story repetition of the facts given
in the story are not coded except where the statement
bears on the problem of truth or falsehood. Otherwise,
in general, each verb is given a tally in an appropriate
category.

The categories included in the coding manual for

Story No. 2 are given in abbreviated form as follows:

 

 

Category

Number Categories for Michael

MN Michael tells truth spontaneously: whole truth

1D Michael tells truth spontaneously: in detail

2W Michael tells truth after conflict, anxiety,
fantasy lie: whole truth

2D Michael tells truth after conflict, anxiety,
fantasy lie: in detail

5W Michael tells truth delayed, after being ques-
tioned: whole truth

5D Michael tells truth delayed, after being ques-
tioned: in detail

4W Michael tells whole truth spontaneously after lie

4D Michael tells truth in detail spontaneously,

_ after lie

5W Michael tells whole truth after lie: extorted
or after pressure, punishment, scolding,
questioning

5D Michael tells truth in detail after lie:
extorted or after pressure, punishment,
scolding, questioning

6 Michael delays explanation, delays facing reality

7 Michael tells .nonessential part- -truth only

8 Michael plans, fantasies lie or deception

9 Michael tells lie after weighing circumstances

or after being questioned
10 Michael tells lie §pontaneously

 

11
12
15
14
15

16
17

18
19
21
22

23
24

24a
25

26

28

41a

41b

42

45

45b

44

45
45a
45b

450

-11-

Constructive action by Michael
Michael makes spontaneous restitution
Constructive feeling or thinking by Michael

Hostile, aggressive action or speaking by
Michael

Hostile, aggressive thinking or feeling by
Michael

Displaced emotion

Michael regrets telling truth

Anxiety, emotion before meeting the mother
Anxiety, emotion after meeting the mother
Tension reduction: escapes punishment

Michael begs, requests leniency, begs pardon,
forgiveness or sympathy

Submission by Michael (Action)

Submission by Michael (Thinking and feeling)
(Non-communication)

Michael regrets lie

Michael voluntarily promises mother (Communi-
cation)

Michael promises himself, vows (Non-communication)

Michael promises after punishment, scoldin ,
admonishing or forgiving (Communication?

Negative statement pertaining to Michael, con-
cerning some socially unacceptable act or
characteristic

Categories for the Mother

 

{other perceives from Michael: Something is
wrong; she suspects

Mother perceives from Non-Michael sources:
Something is wrong; she suspects

Mother questions: Fact finder (open mind), calls
I“ichael for questioning

Mother scolds, uses verbal domination or abuse
before truth or lie

Mother uses physical domination before truth or
lie

Mother communicates to Michael her distrust or
disbelief; accuses him

Seeks, or gets outside verification of the facts:

Communicating her intentions to Michael

Not communicating her intentions and actions to
Michael

Without seeking, by outsider or outside event
(Deus ex Machine)

46
47

48
49
50
51
52
55
54
55

56
57
58
59
6O
61
62
65
64
65
66
67
68
69
7O
71
72

75a
74
75
76

77
78

81

-12..

Mother behaves vaguely
Feeling of disbelief (Non-communication)

Mother becomes angry, excited

Mother's miscellaneous, unhappy emotion

Mother cries

Mother's negative feeling, feels sad

Mother accepts Michael (Action, communication)
Mother's positive feeling, mother "understands"
Mother believes truth

Mother believes lie

Deprivation of food (after Michael told truth)
Deprivation of food (after Michael told lie)
Deprivation of playtime (after Michael told truth)
Deprivation of playtime (after Michael told lie)
Restitution under duress (after Michael told truth)
Restitution under duress (after Michael told lie)
Physical punishment (after Michael told truth)
Physical punishment (after Michael told lie)
Mother tells father (after Michael told truth)
Mother tells father (after Michael told lie)
Punishment by father (after Michael told truth)
Punishment by father (after Michael told lie)
Michael sent to bed (after Michael told truth)
Michael sent to bed (after Michael told lie)
Miscellaneous punishment (after Michael told truth)
Miscellaneous punishment (after Michael told lie)
Scolding (after Michael told truth)
Scolding (after Michael told lie)
Michael sent to butcher
Mother makes restitution
Mother admonishes, regarding past behavior
Mother admonishes, threatens, regarding future
behavior
Mother shows tension-reduction
Mother forgives Michael (Power relationship)
Proverbs by anyone
Negative statement of mother's unhappy feeling
or act

In addition to coding in the categories, the child's

story as a whole is coded for interpretive outcome. The

levels of relating and definitions of outcomes were presented

-15-

by H. H. Anderson and G. L. Anderson (5) in their prelim-
inary report on the Kerlsruhe study. Abstracts of these

definitions are reproduced here.

I, Integrative; Problem-solving Outcomg

 

 

The solving of the problem. There must be
evidence of high spontaneity in both the mother
and her child; also of harmony and working to-
gether, active communication and evidence of
mutual confidence. For harmonious cooperation
there must be active communication in the place
of mere thinking and fantasy.

2:5, Domination-Resistance Outcome
A process of hostility and aggressiveness. There
must be evidence of mutual hostility, active ten-
sion, signs of working against each other; the
mother's hostility can be eXpressed in the form
of domination (punishment, scolding, exacting
promises), that she uses, and the child's resis-
tance need not be expressed orally or by action
but simply on the thinking and feeling level.

A, Ambiguous, Indecisive Outcome

There is lack of closure, low level of communica-
tion, story is essentially unstructured. There

is little or no interaction between the mother

-14-

and the child. Problem has not been faced,
and no attempt has been made at its positive
or negative solution. Relation between parent
and child little changed at end from that at
beginning. The experience did not serve as a
basis for social learning.
2:§, Domination-Submission Outcome

Authoritarian person makes the decisions, has
the answers. Child merely submits, conforms,
obeys. These stories show mother's domination
and Michael's subsequent submission. Child
accepts mother's verdict, submits to mother's
ideas, punishment, and often expresses his
submissive acceptance in the form of a promise,
vow, or submissive action.

In addition, the D-S level, Domination-Submission,

has two sub-categories:

Q, Domination, with no statement in the child's

story of resistance or submission.

S, Submission, with no statement of domination.

The Mexico City and Helsinki samples were translated
into English by interpreters familiar with local idiomatic
expressions and colloquialisms. The author coded the

children's stories from these translations. Geierhaas, a

-15-

native of Karlsruhe, Germany coded the children's stories
from the Hamburg and Munich samples directly from the
German. The data for Karlsruhe have been retabulated
from the Geierhaas study (6) and the data for Knoxville

from the study reported by Anderson (2).

 

Reliability g2 Coding

 

Geierhaas (6) has reported a detailed analysis of
reliability of coding Story No. 2 for the Karlsruhe
sampling. In that study, Geierhaas and the writer obtained
a reliability of 95.2% in independent coding of transla-
tions of Karlsruhe stories. The author and Geierhaas
obtained a reliability of 92.6% when the author coded the
translations of Karlsruhe stories and Geierhaas coded from
the original German. After obtaining these percentages
of agreement Geierhaas coded the Hamburg and Munich stories
directly from the German originals. Geierhaas and the writer
computed separate percentages of agreement for coding stories
from Helsinki, Birmingham, Mexico City, and Knoxville samples.
The obtained percentages of agreement are reported in Table 2..
The range of percentages of agreement is from 95.1% to 96.7%
with a mean percentage of agreement of 94.6%. Table 5 pre-
sents the percentages of agreement in coding independently
the outcomes of children's stories from the same samples
as given in Table 2. The range of percentages of agreement
in coding the outcomes of stories is from 92.0% to 100%,

with a mean of 97%.

-16..

TABLE 2
Reliability of Coding in Categories

 

 

 

Percentage

Sample Number of Stories of Agreement
Helsinki ‘ 25 95.5
Birmingham 25 95.4
Knoxville 25 95.1
Mexico City 25 96.7
MEAN 94.6

 

TABLE 5
Reliability of Coding Stories for Outcomes

 

Percentage
Sample Number of Stories of Agreement
Helsinki ' 25 100
Birmingham 25 100
Knoxville ' 25 92.0
Mexico City 25 . 96.0

 

MEAN 97.0

 

-17-

III. TREATMENT OF DATA
Children's stories have been coded into categories
which are regarded as themes or units of behavior or of
feeling. Certain categories having some similarity have
been grouped in clusters as explained below. In these
clusters a child is not counted more than once. For

example categories 8, Michael_plans, fantasies, lie or

 

 

deception; 9, Michael tells lie after weighipgpcircum-

 

 

 

 

stances, 23 ouestioning; 10, Michael tells lie §pontan-

 

 

 

eously, are combined into a cluster of lying and deception.
A child may have been coded in all three categories, but
will be counted only once for this cluster. Thus the

total frequencies for a particular cluster reflect the true
number of children projecting themas in that cluster.
Examples of coding for the various categories are given

in Appendix B.

Michael tells truth

 

Categories 1, 2, and 5 have been combined into a

cluster of themas of tells truth, either in a generalized

 

statement, or in detail. The truth may be spontaneous, or
may be told after expression of anxiety by Michael, or
after questioning by the mother. This cluster does not
include telling of truth after previous lying. Categories
included in this cluster are:

1W Michael tells truth spontaneously: whole truth

1D Michael tells truth spontaneously: in detail

-18...

2W Michael tells truth after conflict, anxiety,
fantasy lie: whole truth

2D Michael tells truth after conflict, anxiety,
fantasy lie: in detail

5W Michael tells truth delayed, after question:
whole truth

5D Michael tells truth delayed, after question:
in detail

It may be noted that Michael may fantasy a lie, then
actually not tell this lie, but tell the truth. The truth
would in this case be coded under 2W or 2D and be included
in the truth cluster. The number of cases, where lie is
fantasied but not told, is small but in such cases the
child who projected a truth-lie conflict was given the
benefit of the doubt and included in the truth cluster.

Note that fantasy of lie is coded in category 8, Michael

 

plang, fantasies lie 23 deception, and this category is

 

included in the cluster of Michael tells lie. Thus those

 

individuals projecting truth-lie conflict are included in

the truth cluster as well as the lie cluster. Many children
had Michael avoid facing reality and making explanation in

the story, and so there are stories with neither truth nor

lie themas recorded. Thus the number of children projecting
lie themas plus the number of children projecting truth

themas does not necessarily equal the total number of children

for any given sample.

-19-

Michael tells lie. Included in this lie cluster

 

are both actual and fantasy, lie or deception. The cate-
gories are:
8 Michael plans, fantasies lie or deception
9 Michael tells lie after weighing circumstances or
after being questioned

10 Michael tells lie spontaneously

 

Resistance. This cluster of resistance themas includes

 

hostile, aggressive action or feeling by Michael. Categories
of resistance are:

14 Hostile, aggressive action or Speaking by Michael

15 Hostile, aggressive thinking or feeling by Michael

16 Displaced emotion

17 Michael regrets telling truth

Practically all tallies in category 16 were for Michael's
expression of anger at the dOg, usually after scolding or

punishment by the mother.

Submission. Several categories include submissive

 

feeling or action:
25 Submission by Michael (Action)
24 Submission by Michael (Thinking and Feeling) (Non-
communication)
24a Michael regrets lie
25 Michael voluntarily promises mother (Communication)

26 Michael promises himself, vows (Non-communication)

-20-

27 Michael promises after punishment, scolding,

28

admonishing or forgiving (Communication)
Negative statement pertaining to Michael, con-
cerning some socially unacceptable act or

characteristic

Domination. Any physical or verbal abuse by the mother

 

is considered domination. Categories included here are:

45a Mother scolds, uses verbal domination or abuse

before truth or lie

45b Mother uses physical domination before truth or lie

56
57
58
59
6O
61
62
65
66
67
68
69
7O
71
72

Deprivation of food (after Michael told truth)
Deprivation of food (after Michael told lie)
Deprivation of playtime (after Michael told truth)
Deprivation of playtime (after Michael told lie)
Restitution under duress (after Michael told truth)
Restitution under duress (after Michael told lie)
Physical punishment (after Michael told truth)
Physical punishment (after Michael told lie)
Punishment by father (after Michael told truth)
Punishment by father (after Michael told lie)
Michael sent to bed (after Michael told truth)
Michael sent to bed (after Michael told lie)
Miscellaneous punishment (after Michael told truth)
Miscellaneous punishment (after Michael told lie)

Scolding (after Michael told truth)

-21-

75 Scolding (after Michael told lie)
75 Mother admonishes, regarding past behavior
76 Mother admonishes, regarding future behavior
Constructive thinking; feeling, 23 action by mother.
Any constructive thinking, feeling, or action by mother is
included in this thema. Categories are:
52 iother accepts Michael (Action, communication)
55 Mother's positive feeling, mother "understands"
54 Mother believes truth
Constructive thinking, feeling, 23 gbbgbb by Michael.
Any constructive thinking, feeling, or action by Michael is
included in this thema. Categories are:
11 Constructive action by Michael
12 Michael makes spontaneous restitution
l5 Constructive feeling or thinking by Michael
Examples of categories 12 and 15 are given in the story

illustrating integrative outcome in Appendix B. Category

 

12 is a special action example of category 11. All instances
of spontaneous restitution by Michael are coded separately
in category 12.

Integrative outcomes. Integrative outcomes by defin-

 

 

ition represent "constructive," problem-solving, inter-
action and communication. Stories having themas of Con-

structive actigb, thinking 2E feeling by Michael are not

 

necessarily integrative in outcome. The mother may be

 

-22-

dominative. Likewise, stories having themas of Constrbb-

tive action, thinking 23 feeling by mother may not have

 

integrative outcomes. Michael may express resistance or

 

 

submission. In addition to the clusters of constructive

 

behavior above, data will be treated separately for integra-
tive outcomes.

Anxiety. Any evidence of anxiety by Michael, either
in his overt actions in the story, or in statements by the
child-author indicating Michael's anxiety are included in
this cluster. Categories are:

6 Michael delays explanation, delays facing reality

18 Anxiety, emotion before meeting the mother

19 Anxiety, emotion after meeting the mother

21 Tension reduction: escapes punishment
22 Michael begs, requests leniency

Physical pgpishment. The meaning of physical punish-

 

ment is extended here to include all types of punishment
other than scolding or admOnishing. Categories included
in this cluster are:
45b Mother uses physical domination before truth or lie
56 Deprivation of food (after Michael told truth)
57 Deprivation of food (after Michael told lie)

58 Deprivation of playtime (after Michael told truth)

59 Deprivation of playtime (after Michael told lie)

6O
61
62
65
66
67
68
69
7O
'71

-25-

Restitution under duress (after Michael told truth)
Restitution under duress (after Michael told lie)
Physical punishment (after Michael told truth)
Physical punishment (after Michael told lie)
Punishment by father (after Michael told truth)
Punishment by father (after Michael told lie)
Michael sent to bed (after Michael told truth)
Michael sent to bed (after Michael told lie)
Miscellaneous punishment (after Michael told truth)

Miscellaneous punishment (after Michael told lie)

-24-

For each of the cultural samplings percentages of

boys and percentages of girls having tallies coded in the

several thema clusters are reported. The numbers and per-

centages of boys and of girls for each pOpulation sampling

are given in Tables 4-10 inclusive.

-25-

Hamburg, Germany. Table 4 presents the percentages
of boys and girls in the Hamburg sampling who had tallies
in the several clusters of themas mentioned above. Where
no figure on significance is reported, the difference was

not significant. From Table 4 it will be seen that a

higher percentage of girls than boys had Michael tells

 

truth and, conversely, a higher percentage of boys gave
lie themas. Both of these differences were significant at
a .02 level. It will also be seen from Table 4 that more

girls than boys gave themas of constructive feeling, think-

 

 

ing, and action b2 mothbb.

 

TABEE 4

Hamburg, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance Of
difference by
Thema N % N % chi square test
Michael tells truth 65 45.8 85 59.7 (.02)
Michael tells lie 72 50.7 51 56.7 (.02)
Resistance 16 11.5 15 9.4
Submission 70 49.5 78 56.1
Domination 88 62.0 85 59.7
Constructive (Michael)l4 9.9 15 9.4
Constructive (Mother) 20 14.1 54 24.5 (.05)
Integrative outcome 14 9.9 14 10.1
Anxiety 72 50.7 80 57.6

Physical punishment 52 5646 50 56.0

 

N 142 159

-26...

Munich, Germany. Table 5 presents the percentages
of boys and of girls in Munich, Germany having tallies
coded in the several clusters of themas. It will be
noted that the only significant difference is on Ebb-
mission, 52.5% of the girls having Michael submissive

as compared with 55.6% of the boys.

TABLE 5

Munich, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance of
difference by
Thema N % N % chi square test
Michael tells truth 26 55.6 52 54.8
Michael tells lie 45 61.6 61 66.5
Resistance 8 11.0 4 4.5
Submission 26 55.6 48 52.2 (.05)
Domination 42 57.5 51 55.4
Constructive (Michael) 5 6.8 8 8.7
Constructive (Mother) 5 6.8 5 5.4
Integrative outcome 5 4.1 2 2.2
Anxiety 28 58.4 55 58.0
Physical punishment 22 50.1 25 25.0

 

I
[I
I!
.ldlllll'llllu‘

 

\\\\\\\
u I. N

-27-

Karlsruhe, Germany. It will be seen from Table 6

 

that, as in Hamburg, the girls had a significantly higher
percentage of themas of constructive feeling, thinking,

and action by mother. Of the girls, 55.8% gave themas of

 

anxiety as compared with 45.8% of the boys.

TABLE 6

Karlsruhe, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance of
difference by
Thema N % N %- chi sqpare test
Michael tells truth 55 41.4 47 56.4
Michael tells lie 61 47.7 67 51.9
Resistance 5‘ 5.9 11 8.5
Submission 76 59.4 84 65.1
Domination 75 57.0 76 58.9
Constructive (Michael) 5 5.9 5 5.9
Constructive (Mother) 8 6.5 15 11.6 (.05).
Integrative outcome 5 5.9 5 5.9
Anxiety 56 45.8 72 55.8 (.05)
Physical punishment 59 50.5 55 25.6

 

N 128 129

 

-28..

Helsinki, Finland. Table 7 shows that once again,

 

as in Munich, the girls showed more submission, 65.2%

 

having tallies in this cluster as compared with 46.6%
of the boys. This difference was significant at a .02

level.

TABLE 7

Helsinki, l"inland: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance of

difference by

Thema N % N % chi sguare test
Michael tells truth 49 47.6 55 51.9
Michael tells lie 52 51.1 56 54.0
Resistance 11 10.7 7 6.6

Submission 48 46.6 67 65.2 (.02)
Domination 58 56.5 65 59.4
Constructive (Michael) 4 5.9 5 4.7
Constructive (Mother) 17 16.5 18 17.0
Integrative outcome 7 6.8 7 6.6
Anxiety 51 49.5 59 55.7
Physical punishment 18 17.5 16 15.1
N 105 106

 

-29-

Birmingham, England. As shown by Table 8, the girls

 

in Birmingham had Michael more submissive than the boys.
Of the girls, 66.7% gave themas of submission as compared
with only 39.4% of the boys. The Birmingham girls gave
more themas of constructive feeling, thinking, and action
by Michael than the boys, the difference being significant

at a .01 level.

TABLE 8

Birmingham, England: Numbers and Percentages.
of Boys and of Girls
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance of
difference by
Thema N % N % chi square test
Michael tells truth 127 57.4 105 58.2
Michael tells lie 61 27.6 62 55.0
Resistance 46 20.8 55 18.6
Submission 87 59.4 118 66,7 (.01)
Domination 171 77.4 141 79.7
Constructive(Michael) 15 6.8 28 15.8 (.01)
Constructive(Mother) 51 14.0 55 18.6
Integrative outcome 10 4.5 8 4.5
Anxiety 120 54.5 108 61.0
Physical punishment 112 50.7 92 52.0

 

N 221 177

-30-

Mexico City. There were no significant differences
between boys and girls in Mexico City on any of the

clusters of themas.

TABLE 9

Mexico City: Numbers and Percentages
Of Boys and of Girls
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance of
difference by
N % AN % chi square test
Michael tells truth 85 58.5 59 55.1
Michael tells lie 100 45.0 50 45.0
Resistance 19 8.6 9 8.1
Submission 129 58.1 55 47.7
Domination 156 61.5 56 50.5 (None)
Constructive (Michael) 5 1.4 1 .9
Constructive (Mother) 18 8.1 10 9.0
Integrative outcome 6 2.7 2 1.8
Anxiety 95 41.9 58 52.5
Physical punishment 66 29.7 25 22.5

 

N 222 111

-31-

Knoxville, Tennessee. In Knoxville, as:fipwn in

 

Table 10, 69.7% of the girls gave themas of submission
as compared with 41.8% of the boys. The girls also

gave more themas of domination than the boys. Both of

 

these differences were significant at a .01 level.

TABLE 10

Knoxville, Tennessee: Numbers and Percentages
of Boys and of Girls .
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

BOYS GIRLS Significance of
difference by
Thema N 4% N p% chi square test
Michael tells truth 60 61.2 80 67.2
Michael tells lie 25 25.5 19 16.0
Resistance 14 ~14.5 6 5.0
Submission 41 41.8 85 69.7 (.01)
Domination 56 57.1 85 71.4 (.01)
Constructive (Michael) 4 4.1 10 8.4
Constructive (Mother) 12 12.2 9 7.6
Integrative outcome 4 4.1 5 4.2
Anxiety 12 12.2 16 15.4
Physical punishment 27 50.0 54 55.0

 

N 98 119

-52...

Discussion of sex differences

 

TABLE 11

Recapitulation of Sex Differences
Presented in Tables 4-10 Inclusive

"B" designates a higher percentage of boys, "G"
designates a higher percentage of girls. "*" indicates
that the difference was significant at the .05 level or
better.

 

 

 

p.
E p
(D CU or-i (D
.C.‘ H I} U H
to s .2 u) H
$4 I! 3-. G s: O «A
Clusters of Themas 'g ,3 r3 ’3 ’g ‘3 a
E c a H a K o
w :5 c; (D or-I (D S:
E1 1B=__F1 BL..-@- 2 i<
Michael tells truth G% B B G G B G
Michael tells lie B% G G G G - B
Resistance B B G B B B B
Submi s 3 io n G Ge:- G G-x— G-::- B G-ze
Domination B G G G G B G*
Constructive (Michael) B G B G G* B G
Constructive (Mother) G% B G* G G G B
Integrative outcome G B - B - B G
Anxiety G B G* G G G G
Physical punishment B B B B G B G

 

-55..

Table 11 presents a recapitulation of sex differences
presented in Tables 4-10 inclusive. Of the seventy cells
in Table 11, it can be noted that eleven of the differences
were significant. In the significant differences, ten of
the eleven had higher percentages for the girls.

0n themas of submission, the girls gave significantly
higher percentages than the boys in Munich, Helsinki,
Birmingham, and Knoxville. The girls in Karlsruhe and

Hamburg also gave more themas of submission than the boys,

 

though the differences by themselves were not significant.
Thus, except for Mexico City, higher percentages of EEB'
mission themas were consistently given by the girls.

Except for Munich, higher percentages of girls gave
anxiety themas in all cultural samplings, the difference
in Karlsruhe being significant at a .05 level.

Higher percentages of girls in Munich, Karlsruhe,
Helsinki, Birmingham, and Knoxville gave themas of parental
domination, though except for Knoxville none of the differ-
ences, by themselves, were significant. Hamburg and Mexico
City were the only samples where higher percentages of boys

gave themas of gomination. These differences were not

 

significant.
More boys in all the sanples except Karlsruhe gave

themas of resistance. None of the differences by themselves

-54-

were significant. In Hamburg, Munich, Karlsruhe, Hel-
sinki, and Mexico City, more boys gave themas of physical

punishment.

 

In Birmingham and Knoxville, more girls gave themas

of physical punishment. Again none of the differences

 

were significant.
In five of the seven samplings, higher percentages

of girls wrote themas of constructive thinking,_feeling,

 

and actiog by mother. In Hamburg and Karlsruhe the higher

 

percentages for girls represented significant differences.
Hamburg was the only sampling with significant differ-
ences between boys and girls in percentages of truth and
percentages of lying. A higher percentage of Hamburg girls
gave themas of Michael tells truth, significant at a .02

level. More Hamburg boys wrote themas of Michael tells lie,

 

also significant at a .02 level.

There were no significant differences between boys and
girls in Nexico City. There was at least one significant
difference between boys and girls in each of the other

samples.

-35-

V. SOCIO-ECONOMIC COMPARISCNS

In making research plans, in each of the communities,
it was desired to make comparisons of children at different
socio-economic levels. In Knoxville, only one school is
represented, in which children from all socio-economic levels
including very high and very low were enrolled tOgether.
Data from Knoxville are therefore excluded from this compar-
ison. In the other communities school officials were asked
to designate schools enrolling children from the high, middle,
and low socio-economic levels. For Munich and Birmingham no
data are reported here for the middle socio-economic groups.
Tables 12-17 inclusive report for the socio-economic levels
the numbers of children and percentages of children at each
level who reported themas in the several clusters of cate-
gories. Where no figures for significance of differences
are reported, the differences were not significant. In
these tabulations data for boys and girls have been combined.
The treatment for boys and girls together was desirable in
order to keep the numbers larger and is in part justified
by the scattering of sex differences among the samples

reported above.

-56-

Hamburg, Germany. Table 12 give the distribution
by socio-economic levels for numbers and percentages of
children in the several clusters of themas. Table 12
shows that the high and middle socio-economic levels in
Hamburg had significantly higher percentages of children

who gave themas of gpnstructive thinking, feeling, and

 

 

action by mothgg, and themas of anxiety, than did the low

socio-economic group.

TABLE 12

Hamburg, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from’High, Middle, and Low Socio-Economic Levels
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

High Middle Low Significance of
difference by

 

Thema N g N % N' % chi sguare test

Michael tells

truth 40 58.8 75 50.0 55 52.2
Michael tells

lie 29 42.6 65 45.2 51 46.5
Resistance 8 11.8 15 10.5 6 9.0
Submission 58 55.9 79 54.1 51 46.5
Domination 45 66.2 ,85 56.8 45 64.2
Constructive

(Michael) 8 11.8 16 11.0 5 4.5
Constructive

(Mother) 16 25.5 55 22.6 5 7.5 (.02)
Integrative

outcome 8 11.8 18 12.5 2 5.0
Anxiety 40 58.8 90 61.6 22 52.8 (.01)
Physical

punishment 31 45.6 49 55.6 22 52.8

 

N 68 146 67

 

-57-

Munich, Germany. As seen in Table 15, none of the

 

differences between high and low socio-economic groups in
Munich were significant. The two category clusters with
greatest differences between high and low socio-economic

levels are Michael tells truth and Michael tells lie. The

 

socio-economic differences represented in these two clusters
are consistent, and are consistent with an inference of higher
personal integrity among children in the lowest socie-economic
level. This leaves Open a question as to why among Munich
children of the upper socio-economic levels there would be

a lower percentage of tells truth themas and a higher per-

 

centage of tells lie themas.

 

TABLE 13

Munich, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of children from High and Low Socio—Economic Levels with
Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

High Low Significance of

difference by

Thema N p_% N % chi sguare test
Michael tells truth 26 50.2 52 40.5
Michael tells lie 59 68.6 47 59.5
Resistance 4 4.7 8 10.1

Submission 59 45.5 55 44.5 (None)

Domination 49 57.0 44 55.7

Constructive (Michael) 7 8.1 6 7.6
Constructive (Mother) 5 5.8 5 6.5
Integrative outcome 5 5.5 2 2.5
Anxiety 51 56.0 52 40.5
Physical punishment 26 50.2 20 25.5

 

N 86 79

 

 

QQQQQQQQQQ

oooooooooo

-58-

Karlsruhe, Germany. Table 14 shows that in Karlsruhe

 

fewer children from the low socio-economic level gave themas
of submission than did children from the middle and high
socio-economic levels, the differences being significant

at a .01 level.

TABLE 14

Karlsruhe, Germany: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from High, Middle, and Low Socio-Economic Levels
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

High Middle Low Significance of
difference by

 

Thema N % N % N % chi square test

Michael tells

truth 22 56.1 56 45.8 22 52.4
Michael tells

lie 54 55.7 59 46.1 55 51.5
Resistance 5 8.2 7 5.5 4 5.9
Submission 58 62.5 95 72.7 29 42.6 (.01) H-L & M-L
Domination 57 60.7 71 55.5 41 60.5
Constructive

(Michael) 1 1.6 6 4.7 5 4.4
Constructive

(Mother) 5 8.2 16 12.5 2 2.9
Integrative outcome 1 1.6 6 4.7 l 1.5
Anxiety 25 57.7 72 56.5 55 48.5
Physical

punishment 20 52.8 50 25.4 22 52.4

N 61 128 68

-59-

Helsinki, Finland. Significantly more children from

 

the high socio-economic level in Helsinki gave themas of
constructive thinkigg, feeling, and action by the mother
and themas of anxiety than did children of the middle and

low socio-economic levels.

TABLE 15

Helsinki, Finland: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from High, Middle, and Low Socio-Economic Levels
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

High Middle Low Significance of
difference by

 

Thema N % N % N ‘% chi sguare test

Michael tells

truth 40 54.1 57 46.5 27 49.1
Michael tells

lie 52 45.2 27 55.8 9 16.4 (.01) H-L & M-L
Resistance 10 15.5 5 6.5 5 5.5
Submission 56 48.6 47 58.8 52 58.2
Domination 58 51.4 49 61.5 54 61.8
Constructive

(Michael) 5 4.1 5 6.5 l 1.8
Constructive

(Mother) 22 29.7 8 10.0 5 9.1 (.01) H-M & H-L
Integrative r

outcome 8 10.8 5 5.8 5 5.5
Anxiety 49 66.2 55 45.8 26 47.5 (.01) H-M & H-L
Physical

punishment 10 15.5 17 21.5 7 12.7

 

-40-

Mexico City. Table 16 shows that the high socio-
economic group in Mexico City had higher percentages of
of children than the middle or low groups in the use of
anxiety themas. The difference between the middle and

low groups was not significant.

TABLE 16

Mexico City: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from High, Middle, and Low Socio-Economic Levels
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

High Middle Low Significance of
a difference by
Thema N g N g N ‘% chi square test
Michael tells
truth 12 40.0 59 55.5 75 57.8
Michael tells lie 15 45.5 54 49.1 85 45.0
Resistance 2 6.7 12 10.9 14 7.5
Submission 19 65.5 58 52.7 114 49.1
Domination 18 60.0 67 60.9 107 55.4
Constructive
(Michael) 1 5.5 2 1.8 l 0.5
Constructive
(Mother) 5 10.0 11 10.0 14 7.5
Integrative
outcome 2 6.7 2 1.8 4 2.1
Anxiety 19 65.5 55 50.0 77 59.9 (.05) H-L
Physical
punishment 8 26.7 54 50.9 49 25.4

 

N 50 110 195

 

-41-

Birmingham, England. In the high socio-economic

 

group in Birmingham, 25.9% of the children gave themas

of resistance as compared with 10.2% of the children in

 

the low socio-economic group. This difference is signif-
icant at the .01 level of confidence. Table 17 also shows
that children from the high socio-economic level in Birming-

ham gave more themas of constructive thinking, feeling and

 

 

action py the mother and by Michagl.

 

TABLE 17

Birmingham, England: Numbers and Percentages
of Children from High and Low Socio-Economic Levels
with Tallies Coded in the Several Thema Clusters

 

 

High Low Significance of
, difference by
Thema N % N % chi square test
Michael tells truth 162 57.9 68 57.6
Michael tells lie 84 50.0 59 55.1
Resistance 67 25.9 12 10.2 (.01)
Submission 144 51.4 61 51.7
Domination 217 77.5 95 80.5
Constructive (Michael) 56 12.9 7 5.9 (.05)
Constructive (Mother) 54 19.5 10 8.5 (.01)
Integrative outcome 15 5.4 5 2.5
Anxiety 162 57.9 66 55.9

Physical punishment 159 49.6 65 55.1

 

N 280 118

 

 

QQQQQQQQQQ

----------

-42-

Discussion of socio-economic differences

 

 

TABLE 18

Recapitulation of Differences
Between High and Low Socio—Economic Levels
Presented in Tables 12-17 Inclusive

"H" designates high socio-economic level and "L"
designates low socio-economic level. An asterisk
(*) indicates that the difference was significant.
The letter denotes the level having the higher
percentage.

 

 

>.

E p

o m -H

£1 *4 S o

63 :3 .5: C)

a ,c a z c o

:3 o m 0r"| -r-1 0

.9 ”-1 r! U) E ”-1

E C 514 H $4 >4

m s m 0 ca 0

CE: :2; x1 23' £0 2.

Michael tells truth H L H H H H
Michael tells lie L H L H* H L
Resistance H L H H L H»
Submission H H H* L H L
Domination H H H L H L
Constructive (Michael) H H L H H H*
Constructive (Mother) H* L H H% H H*
Integrative outcome H H H H H 4 H
Anxiety H* L L H% H* H
Physical punishment H H H H H L

 

-43..

Table 18 presents a recapitulation of differences
between high and low socio-economic levels as presented
in Table 12-17 inclusive. It can be noted that the differ-
ences in ten of the sixty cells are significant. Munich
is the only sampling where there is not at least one signif-
icant difference between socio-economic levels. In general
there seems to be no consistent pattern by which the middle
socio-economic levdls relate either to the high or the low.

In Hamburg, Helsinki, and Birmingham, the high socio-
economic groups had significantly higher percentages of
children who gave themas of anxiety than the low groups.

In Mexico City, though the difference was not significant,
the high socio-economic group had a higher percentage of
children who gave themas of anxiety. Karlsruhe and Munich
were the only samplings where more children from the low
socio-economic levels gave themas of anxiety.

Except for Mexico City, in all of the samplings more
children from the high socio-economic levels wrote themas
of physical punishment. None of these differences by them-
selves were significant.

In all samplings, more children from the high socio-
economic levels wrote stories with integrative outcomes
than did children from the low levels. In all the samplings

except Karlsruhe, more children from the high socio-economic

-44-

levels gave themas of constructive thinking, ififillflg’ E22
action by Michael than did children from the low levels.

In all the samplings except Munich, more children from the
high levels gave themas of constructive thinking, feeling,

and action by mother than did children from the low levels.

 

Thus on themas of constructive thinking, feeling, and action

 

by Nibbggl,or by mother, and in stories with integrative
outcomes, the high socio-economic levels consistently gave
higher percentages.

In four of the six samplings, more children from the

high socio-economic levels gave themas of both dominatibb

 

and Egbmissiog than did children from the low levels. It
can be noted that this conforms to the hypothesis that,
where there is considerable domination, there will be con-
siderable submission as well.

There was no consistent pattern of differences between
high and middle, or between middle and low socio-economic
levels. The division into socio-economic levels on the
basis of schools was coarse in view of the great variability
within schools. Undoubtedly, there was greater variation
in the schools designated as middle than in the schools
designated as high or low. This variability in the schools
designated as middle socio-economic level could well account

for the lack of any consistent pattern for this level.

-45-

VI. CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS

Thema Cluster: Iichael tells truth. Table 19
presents the numbers and percentages of children who
wrote themas of truth in each of the several samples.

It can be noted that Knoxville children gave the highest

percentage of tells truth. The difference in percentages

 

of tells truth between Knoxville and Birmingham was not

 

significant. The differences between Knoxville and each
of the other samples were significant at a .05 level or
better. The difference between Birmingham, second highest
in percentage of truth, and Helsinki was significant at

a .05 level. The differences between Birmingham, on the
other hand, and Karlsruhe, Mexico, and Munich, were
significant at a .01 level. Hamburg and Helsinki were

significantly higher than Karlsruhe, Mexico City and Munich.

TABLE 19

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,
Michael Tells Truth

 

Frequency of

 

 

Size of Michael tells

City Sample truth %
Knoxville 217 140 64.5
Birmingham 598 250 57.8
Hamburg 281 - 148 52.7
Helsinki 209 104 49.8
Karlsruhe 257 100 58.9
Mexico City 555 124 57.2

Munich 165 58 55.2

 

-45-

Themg Cluster: Michael tells lie. Table 20 indicates
that more children in Munich gave themas of lying than did
children in any of the other samples. The differences
between Munich and the other samples were significant at
a .01 level, as evaluated by the 't' test. The differences
between Karlsruhe, Mexico City, and Hamburg were not sig-
nificant, but Helsinki and Birmingham were significantly
lower than these three at the .01 level of confidence.
Knoxville was significantly lower than all the other samples

in percentage of children who gave themas of lying.

TABLE 20

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,
Michael Tells Lie

 

 

Frequency of

 

 

Size of Michael tells
City Sample lib 9%
Munich 165 106 64.2
Karlsruhe 257 128 49.8
Mexico City 555 150 45.0
Hamburg 281 125 45.8
Helsinki 209 68 52.5
Birmingham 598 125 50.9

Knoxville 217 42 19.5

 

aaaaaaa

-47-

Thema Cluster: Submission. Table 21 shows that

more Karlsruhe children gave themas of submission than

 

did children in any of the other samples. Karlsruhe was
significantly higher in percentage of children who gave

submission themas than Hamburg, Birmingham, or Munich

at the .05 level or better by the 't' test. Munich, the
lowest of the samples in submission themas, was signifi-

cantly lower, at the .05 level or better, than all samples

except Birmingham and Hamburg.

TABLE 21

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,

 

 

 

 

Submission
Size of Frequency of
City Sample Submission %
Karlsruhe 257 160 62.5
Knoxville 217 124 57.1
Helsinki 209 115 55.0
iexico City 555 182 54.7
Hamburg 281 148 52.7
Birmingham 598 205 51.5

Munich 165 74 44.8

 

ananananan

-48-

Thema Cluster: Domination. It will be noted in

 

Table 22 that a very high percentage of Birmingham children

gave themas of domination. The differences between Birming-

 

ham and all the other samples are significant at the .01
level by the 't' test. None of the other differences in

percentage of children who gave themas of domination are

 

significant.

TABLE 22

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,

 

 

 

 

Domination
Size of Frequency of
City Sample Domination %
Birmingham 598 512 78.4
Knoxville 217 141 65.0
Hamburg 281 171 60.9
Karlsruhe 257 149 58.0
Helsinki 209 121 57.9
Mexico City 555 192 57.7

Munich 165 95 56.4

 

-49-

Thema Cluster: Anxiety. More Birmingham children
gave themas of anxiety than did the children in any
other sample. Birmingham, Hamburg, Helsinki, and Karls-
ruhe ranged from 57.5% to 49.8% and none of these differ-
ences were significant. These four were significantly
higher than Munich at a .02 level or better in percentages
of children giving themas of anxiety. Knoxville was not
only the lowest of all the samples in expressions of anxiety,
but was significantly lower than each of the others at the

.01 level of confidence.

TABLE 25

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,

 

 

Anxiety
Size of Frequency of
City Sample T"Anxiety %
Birmingham 598 228 57.5
Hamburg 281 152 54.1
Helsinki 209 110 52.6
Karlsruhe 257 128 49.8
Mexico City 555 151 45.5
iunich 165 65 58.2

Knoxville 217 28 12.9

i

-50-

Thema Clusteg: Physical punishment. Birmingham was
significantly above the other samples, at a .01 level, in

percentages of children who gave themas of physical punish-

 

mggt. Hamburg was significantly above all but Birmingham,
at the .05 level or better. Knoxville, Mexico City, Karls-
ruhe, and Munich ranged from 28.1% to 27.5%. Helsinki was
significantly lower, at a .01 level, than all of the other

samples.'

TABLE 24

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,
Physical Punishment

 

Frequency of

 

 

Size of Physiggl
City Sample Punishment %
Birmingham 598 204 51.5
Hamburg 281 102 56.5
Knoxville 217 61 28.1
Karlsruhe 257 72 28.0
Mexico City 555 91 27.5
Munich 165 45 27.5

Helsinki 209 54 16.5

 

-51-

Thema Cluster: Resistance. By comparison with the

 

 

 

Tables immediately above, the percentages of children in

all samples who wrote themas of gesistance are relatively

 

low. Birmingham, which in Table 22 showed the highest per-
centage of parental domination, in Table 25 shows the highest
percentage of resistance to parental domination. Not only
that, the percentage of children in Birmingham expressing

themas of resistance was practically twice that for Hamburg,

 

the second highest. Birmingham was significantly higher than
all of the other samples at a .01 level as evaluated by chi

square.

TABLE 25

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,

 

 

 

 

Resistance
Size of Frequency of
City Sample Resistance %
Birmingham 598 79 19.8
Hamburg 281 29 10.5
Knoxville 217 20 9.2
Helsinki 209 18 8.6
Mexico City 555 28 8.4
Munich 165 12 7.5
Karlsruhe 257 16 6.2

 

-52-

Themg Cluster: Constructive thinking, feeling,and
action by Michael. Table 26 gives the numbers and percent-

ages of children who gave themas of constructive thinking,

 

feeling, and action 21 Michael. Tests of significance were
not made here because of the range of low percentages. It
can be noted that Hamburg and Birmingham, samples which were

high in the cluster of themas of Egsistance by Michael are

 

high here also.

TABLE 26

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,
Constructive Thinking, Feeling, and Action 21 Michael

 

 

Frequency of con-
structive thinking,

 

 

 

Size of feeling, and action
City Sample p1 Michael %
Birmingham 598 45 10.8
Hamburg 281 27 9.6
Munich 165 15 7.9
Knoxville 217 14 6.5
Helsinki 209 9 4.5
Karlsruhe 257 10 5.9
Mexico City 555 4 1.2

 

-55-

Thema Cluster: Constructive thinking, feelibg, 322
action by mother. It can be noted in Table 27 that Ham-
burg, Helsinki, and Birmingham were higher in percentage

of children who wrote themas of constructive thinking,

 

feeligg, and action by mother than Knoxville, Karlsruhe,

 

 

Mexico City,and Munich. The differences were significant

at a .05 level or better as evaluated by chi-square.

TABLE 27

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
with Tallies Coded in the Thema Cluster,
Constructive Thinking, Feeling, and Action by Mother

 

 

 

Frequency of con-
§tructive thinking,

 

 

 

Size of feeling, and action
City Sample by mother %
Hamburg 281 54 19.2
Helsinki 209 55 16.7
Birmingham 598 64 16.1
Knoxville 217 21 .

9
Karlsruhe 257 25 8.
Mexico City 555 28 8.
Munich 165 10 6.

 

-54-

Integrative outcomes. Table 28 shows that Hamburg,

 

Helsinki, and Birmingham were again, and in that respective
order, higher in percentage of children who wrote stories

with integrative outcomes than Knoxville, Karlsruhe, Munich,

 

and Mexico City. The differences were significant at a

.05 level or better by chi-square.

TABLE 28

Numbers and Percentages of Children in Each of the Samplings
Who Wrote Stories with Integrative Outcomes

 

 

Frequency of

 

 

‘ integrative ,

City N outcomes %
Hamburg 281 28 10.0
Helsinki 209 14 6.7
Birmingham 598 l8 4.5
Knoxville 217 9 4.1
Karlsruhe 257 8 5.1
Munich 165 5 5.0
Mexico City 555 8 2.4

 

-55-

Discussion of cross-cultural comparisons

 

In the introductory section of this paper four
hypotheses from Anderson (2) were listed. For example:
"Children brought up in an extremely authoritarian and
dominating culture (Germany) are different in their inter-
personal relations from children in less dominating (more
democratic) cultures." The hypotheses also stated that
children in the more authoritarian culture were expected
to show significantly higher frequencies of responses of:
anxiety, lying, cheating, deception, punishment, daydream-
ing, escape from reality, ambiguous unstructured relating,
conformity, guilt, and submission, and would show fewer
responses of honesty, sense of fair play, social problem
solving, communication, action, spontaneity, 000peration
and integrative behavior. Evidence on all of the above
points is not provided in this report. Future analyses of
the other stories of the Anderson Incomplete Stories will
provide evidence on the points omitted here.

H. H. Anderson summarized a general impression found
in the literature: "Germany has for generations been known
for its rigorous and persistent authoritarianism. Nor is
there evidence in the writings of psychiatrists, sociolOgists
today of a perceptible diminishing of authoritarianism in

Germany of today." (2)

-55-

A question in the general research plan was whether
samples from all Germany would be similar and consistent
with the hypotheses. People in Munich claim they are
different than Hamburg peOple and peOple in Hamburg claim
they are different from peOple in Munich. Germans also
allege that peOple in Karlsruhe are different from those
in either Munich or Hamburg. Hamburg has long been a very
cosmOpolitan seaport city, and through its shipping its
culture has been subjected to international influence by
persons from many corners of the earth. It might be expected
but it is not known whether or wherein parent-child relations
in Hamburg might be similar to or different from those else-
where in Germany. Is there a German national character and
what do the data in this research program reveal as to sim-
ilarities and differences in human relations in these three
geographically separated German cities? It is not the purpose
here to attempt to identify or trace the cultural influences
that have borne upon the cities selected for these studies.

On the thema cluster Michgbl tells truth, Knoxville and

 

Birmingham samplings were the highest, and were signifi-
cantly higher than all other samplings. Hamburg and Helsinki
came next in that order, and they were significantly higher
than Karlsruhe, Mexico City, and Munich, the samplings which

gave the lowest percentages of tells truth.

 

-57-

It has been mentioned above that the cluster of

Michael tells lie is not necessarily a reciprocal of

 

Michael tellg truth. 0n the cluster of themas Michael

 

tells lie, however, the order of samplings was practically

 

reversed. Munich was significantly higher than all other
samples. Karlsruhe, Mexico City, Hamburg, Helsinki, Birm-
ingham and Knoxville followed in that order. Thus the

data on tells truth and tells lie are consistent with the

 

 

hypotheses.

On the cluster of submission themas Karlsruhe, Knox-

 

ville, Helsinki, Mexico City, Hamburg, and Birmingham gave

the highest percentages in that order. Munich was the

lowest and significantly lower than the other samplings.

This gives the appearance of being contrary to the hypotheses.
However, Munich was very much higher in the cluster Michael
tells lie than any of the other samplings. When the child
wrote a story with themas of lie or deception the story

usually did not contain themas of submission.

 

The Birmingham sampling gave the highest percentage of
themas of domination and was significantly above all other
samplings. Differences between the other samplings were not
significant. This also appears contrary to the hypotheses.

However, on the thema of resistance Birmingham gave the highest

 

percentage and was significantly higher than all other sam-

1ings. Karlsruhe had the lowest percentage of resistance.

 

-58-

Resistance is communicated and is a higher level of

 

spontaneous relating.than submission. Both Karlsruhe and

 

Birmingham had high percentages of domination but Birm-
ingham had a high percentage of resistance and a low per-

centage of submission, while Karlsruhe had a very low per-

 

centage of resistance and a high percentage of submission.

 

 

So the high percentage of domination in Birmingham was

 

accompanied by a high percentage of resistance while the

 

high percentage of domination in Karlsruhe was accompanied

 

by a high percentage of submission. There is a qualita-

 

tive aspect to domination which is not taken into account

0

in the data here, where the amount or kind of domination

 

 

that a child gave in the story was not considered. It can
be noted that Karlsruhe, Munich, and Mexico City, the sam-

plings lowest on tells truth, were also the lowest on

 

resistance.

 

Birmingham had the highest percentage of themas of
physical punishment, followed by Hamburg, Karlsruhe, Knox-
ville, Mexico City, and Munich, in that order. The analysis
reported here does not take into account the type of punihh-
ment. In Birmingham the most common type of punishment was
to be 'sent to bed without tea' whereas in Karlsruhe the
most frequent types of punishment were whippings, slaps, etc.

The most striking result in comparison of percentages

of clusters of anxiety themas is the very low percentage

-59-

of the Knoxville sampling. Excepting Hexico City, all
other samplings were from war areas still laboring under
economic dislocation. This may be related to the expres-
sion of themas of EEEQEEX by these children. Many EurOpean
children who gave themas of anxiety wrote stories contain-
ing statements that the mother had no money to buy more
meat, or that there was nothing else for supper. Such
stories were rare in the Knoxville sampling.

On the thema of constructive thinking, feeling, and

 

 

action by Eichael, Birmingham and Hamburg were significantly
higher than Munich, Knoxville, and Helsinki, which in turn
were significantly higher than liarlsruhe and Mexico City.

On the thema of constructive thinking, feeling, and action

 

 

 

by mother and on stories with integrative outcomes, Hamburg,

 

Helsinki, and Birmingham in that order, were significantly
higher than Karlsruhe, Munich, and Mexico City. The results
from these three clusters of themas are consistent with the
other clusters of themas which represent high levels of
spontaneous relating (tells truth, resistance)in that Karls-
ruhe, Munich, and Mexico City have the lowest percentages.
These results and consistencies strongly support the hypotheses.
Hamburg results were more similar to Helsinki and Birm-
ingham results than they were to the results from narlsruhe

and Munich. Mexico City, Munich, and Karlsruhe were similar

-50-

in that all three were consistenly at the bottom in per-
centages of children who gave themas which were repre-
sentative of the higher levels of human relating. The
differences between harlsruhe, Munich, and Hamburg leave

Open to question the concept of a German national character.
These data indicate a greater similarity of authoritarianism
in parent-child relations between the Latin culture of Mexico
City and the German cultures of Karlsruhe and Munich than
within the so-called German culture which would include

Hamburg.

-61-

VII. SUKKARY

The Anderson Incomplete Stories were administered to
children in the seventh school year in the public schools
of Karlsruhe, Munich, and Hamburg, in Germany; Helsinki,
Finland; Birmingham, England; flexico City, Nexico; and
Knoxville, Tennessee.

Story No. 2, Series A, of the Anderson Incomplete
Stories was used in the present study. In this story, a
child sent to the butcher shOp by his mother, stops to play
on the way home, leaving his meat on the edge of the side-
walk. A dog comes along and runs off with half the meat.
The child is asked to complete the story in a few sentences.
A coding manual has been developed by H. H. Anderson and
G. L. Anderson which records psychOIOgical themas in non-
overlapping categories.

Germany is noted for its cultural authoritarianism.
This authoritarianism should be reflected in cross-cultural
differences in domination, submission, honesty and anxiety
in parent-child relationships. Karlsruhe, Hamburg, and
Munich represent different sub-cultures within Germany.
These sub-cultural differences should be reflected in inter-
cultural comparisons of psychological themas.

The following clusters of psychological themas were
used in this study for sex, socio-economic, and cross-

cultural comparisons: tells truth, tells lie, resistance,

 

 

-62..

submission, domination, anxiety, punishment, and con-

 

 

 

 

 

structive thinking and action by the child and by the
mbther.

More girls than boys gave themas of submission in

 

Karlsruhe, Hamburg, Munich, Helsinki, Birmingham, and
Knoxville. Mexico City was the only exception, Karls-
ruhe was the only sample where significantly more girls
gave themas of anxiety. Five of the other six samples
were in the direction of more girls giving anxiety themas,
though the differences by themselves were not significant.
Mexico City was again the only exception, the difference
between boys and girls here being negligible.

Twice as many children from the high socio-economic

group in Birmingham gave themas of resistance as did chil-

 

dren from the low socio-economic group. Significantly more
children from the high socio—economic groups in Hamburg,
Helsinki, and Mexico City gave themas of anxiety than did
children from the low socio-economic groups.

Knoxville and Birmingham, followed by Hamburg and
Helsinki had the highest percentages of themas of Eflllfi
£3232. Karlsruhe, iexico City, and Munich, in that order,

had the lowest percentages of tells truth. The order for

 

tells truth was reversed for themas of tells lie. Fewer

 

Knoxville children gave anxiety themas than did children

from any of the other samples. This may be related to

-53-

economic dislocation in the post-war period, in areas
from which our samples were drawn. The Birmingham sample

gave the greatest percentage of themas of domination and

 

also of Eiélétanfié' Birmingham also had the most physical

punishment, followed by Hamburg, Knoxville, harlsruhe,

 

iexico City, and Munich in that order. Helsinki was lowest

with relatively few themas of physical punishment.

 

Hamburg, Helsinki, and Birmingham gave significantly

greater percentages of constructive thinking, feeling, and

 

 

action themas than Knoxville, Karlsruhe, Mexico City, and
Munich.

Knoxville and Birmingham had the highest percentages
of themas representing the higher levels of communication
and spontaneous relating: telle truth, constructive thinking,

feeling, and action, integrative outcomes, and resistance,

 

and the lowest percentages of themas of tells lie. Hamburg

 

and Helsinki also tended to be high in those themas repre-
senting the higher levels of relating although they were not
as high generally as Birmingham or Knoxville.

Karlsruhe, Mexico City, and Munich had the lowest per-
centages in all clusters of themas representing the higher
levels of communication. These three samplings were highest

in percentages of themas: tells lie.

 

These results strongly support the hypotheses.

-54-

Concerning the hypotheses about authoritarianism in
the family, Karlsruhe and Munich showed greater similarity
with Mexico City than they did with Hamburg. On the other
hand, Hamburg children showed greater similarity in author-
itarian patterns With children from Helsinki and Birmingham
than they did in comparison with other German children from

Karlsruhe and Munich.

l.

4.

Anderson,

Anderson,

Anderson,

Anderson,

Anderson,

H.

-55-

REFERENCES

H. Domination and Integration in the
Social Behavior of Young Children
in an Experimental Play Situation.
Genet. Psychol. Monogr., 19: 541-
W195?

 

H. Children's Judgment of Social Con-
flict: An Intercultural and cross-
national study. (A paper presented
to the Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, and
Letters, 1955)

H. and Anderson, G. L. Children's Per-
ceptions of Social Conflict Situa-
tions: A Study of Adolescent Children
in Germany. American gpurnal pf
Orthopsychiatry, Vol. XXIV, No. 2,
1954

 

 

H., and Brewer, H. M. Studies of Teachers'
Classroom Personalities, I: Domin-
ative and Socially Integrative behavior
of Kindergarten Children. App . Psychol.
Monogr., No. 6, 1945

H., and Brewer, J. E., and Reed, M. F.
Studies of Teachers' Classroom Per-
sonalities, III: Follow-up Studies
of the Effects of Dominative and
Integrative Contacts on Children's
Behavior. Appl. Psychol. MonOgr.,
Stanford University Press, 1946—

 

Geierhaas, F. G. Problems of Reliability in Evaluating

Story Completions about Social Con-
flicts by German Adolescent Children.
Unpublished M. A. thesis, Michigan
State College, 1955

Geierhaas, F. G. Problems of reliability in Evaluating

Story Completions about Social Con-
flicts by German Adolescent Children.
(A paper presented to the Mich. Acad.
Sci., Arts, and Letters, 1955)

l.

-55-

APPENDIX A

Text of Anderson Incomplete Stories, Series A
(American Edition)

Frank and Peter were walking to school. Suddenly Frank
grabs Peter's cap and throws it high up into the nearest
tree so that Peter could not reach it with his hand.
Frank had never done anything like this before. Neither
had Frank and Peter quarreled with each other the day
before.

Why did Frank do this? What does Peter do?
What does Frank think? How does Peter feel about it?

Think about these questions and then finish the story
quickly with a few sentences.

Michael's mother sends him to the story to get one pound
of wieners. On the way home he puts the package of meat
on the edge of the sidewalk and plays for a short time
with his friends. A shepherd dog darts forward quickly,
claws half of the wieners out of the package and rushes
away with them. Michael wraps up the remaining wieners
and takes them home.

What does Michael say to his mother?
What does his mother do?
How does Michael then feel about it?

Think about these questions, then finish this story
quickly with a few sentences.

The teacher suddenly discovers that fifty cents has dis-
appeared from her desk. She looks up and sees that all
the class are working on their arithmetic assignment.

She wonders what happened to the money and what she should
do.

What does the teacher do?
Finish this story also with a few sentences. Tell what

happened to the money and also exactly how the teacher
feels and what she does.

4.

-57-

Elizabeth is sitting in the living room working on
her homework. Suddenly she remembers her mother's
new coat. She wonders how she would look in it.
When taking the coat off she notices that she had
got some ink spots on her mother's new coat. Just
as Elizabeth is trying to wipe out the ink spots her
mother enters the room.

What does her mother How do they both feel
say? about it?

What does Elizabeth What does each one do?
say?

Think about these questions and finish this story
quickly with a few sentences.

George and Karl are playing with a football. They
know that they should not play football on the narrow
space in front of the house. George gives a strong
kick and the ball hits a window and makes a big crack
in it. Karl thought that someone had appeared behind
the window. No one could have seen who had kicked the
ball against the window.

Finish this story with a few sentences. Tell how the
two boys felt about it and what they did.

Elsa often handed in her home composition late to the
teacher. This time it was an especially important
composition and she had, moreover, written it on time.
On the way to school she lost her composition notebook
and could not find it anywhere.

What does Elsa say to her teacher?
What does the teacher say?

Think about these questions and finish this story with
a few sentences.

-68-

APPENDIX B

The following are examples of coding in categories
and outcomes. The child's entire story is reproduced
unless otherwise indicated. The numbers in parentheses
are the numbers of the categories in which the verb or
phrase is tallied. The categories are listed by abbre-
viated title on pages of the test. All examples are

stories written by children in Birmingham, England.

Integrative outcome. "Michael tells his mother

 

exactly what happened (1W) although his mother told him
to hurry home (24). His mother says she is a little
annoyed about the sausage (48) but is pleased (55) to
know her son told the truth (55). Michael thinks I'm
pleased (15) that I told her (15) because she understood
perfectly (55). He takes some more money (12) out of his
money box and fetches some more sausage (12).“

Domination-resistance outcome. "Arriving home Michael

 

tells his mother a lie (10) and says that someone stole the
sausages from him (10). Michael's mother does not believe
(47) what Michael says (47) and she makes him (61) go back
to the shOp (61) and buy some more out of his pocket money (61).

Michael feels rather angry (15) to think that his mother should

-59-

not believe him (15), but after all if he had gone straight
home from his errand (25) this would not have happened (25)."

Ambiguous outcome. "How worried Michael then became

 

(18) but he soon thought up an excuse (8). When he got home
he said, 'Mom, the butcher had no more sausages (9) and I
am very sorry (22) but I have lost the change (9).' His
mother forgave him (78) but in bed that night he felt uncom-
fortable (24a) so he told her the truth in the morning (4W)."

Domination-submission outcomp. "Michael tells his mother

 

the truth (1W). His mother scolds him (72) and sends him to
bed (68) without any tea (56) not long after he comes down
again (25) for he feels very ashamed of himself (24), he says
he is sorry (25) to his mother, and he will never do it

again (27)."

Domination outcome. "Of course his mother is very cross

 

with him (48) and asks what happened to them (42). Michael

of course tells his mother the truth (5W), so his mother tells
hime he is a very naughty boy (75) to play with his friends,
when he should have brought it home (75). So his mother sends
him to bed (68) without any tea (56)."

Submission outcome. "As Michael was a silly boy (28) he

 

didn't say anything to his mother (6) but then tells lies (9).
He told his mother that he had only had a half pound of
sausages from the start (9). Michael's mother then asked for

the change (47) as a pound of sausages are half a crown she

-70-

wanted one and three change (47). Michael then told the
truth about the dog (5D) and going off to play with the
other boys (5D). Michael then said he would never do it

again (26), his mother forgave him (78) and he hasn't done

it since (25)."

ROOM USE 0:3,?

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