A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF VARIOUS MOTIVATIONAL TECHNIQUES
UPON THE PERFORMANCE OF A
SPORTS SKILL TEST

Thesis for the Degree of M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
DIANIIE KAYE GATES
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ABSTRACT

A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS MOTIVATIONAL
TECHNIQUES UPON THE PERFORMANCE OF A
SPORTS SKILL TEST

By
Dianne Kaye Gates

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness
of three motivational technique upon the performance of college
women on the Dyer Tennis Test in order to determine which technique,
or techniques aid in the performance of a learned skill.

The subjects used for this study were female undergraduate
students from four beginning tennis classes of Michigan State
University. Twenty women were randomly selected from each class
and comprised one of the four groups. Eighty students were initially
chosen, however, in the final analysis 75 were available for use in
the study. Each group was administered the test under a particular
form of motivation. Those motivational techniques utilized were:

Group I -- Control
Group II - Competition with own score

Group III - Competition with classmate of equal ability
Group IV - Class grade based on performance

The groups received one pre-trial after which the actual
testing began consisting of three trials of 30 seconds each.
Individual scores were the sum of the three trials. The mean,
standard deviation, analysis of variance and the Scheffe t-test were

employed to compare the effectiveness of the various techniques.

Dianne Kaye Gates

The mean of each of the experimental groups was greater than the
mean of Group I, the controls, nevertheless, no significant difference
was detected between Group I, II or III. However, the analysis of
variance and the Scheffe t-test did show a significant difference in
Group IV. This group showed an increase in performance above that of
Groups I. II or III at both the five and one percent level of
significance.

The results of the present study suggest that in order for
beginners in tennis to want to improve themselves, they must be
motivated by some concrete method such as grades. This method is a
tangible, status symbol which appears to have more effect upon
performance than the non-rewarding, external and verbal motivational

techniques.

A COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VARIOUS MOTIVATIONAL
TECHNIQUES UPON THE PERFORMANCE OF A

SPORTS SKILL TEST

By

Dianne Kaye Gates

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partical fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Health, Physical Education
and Recreation

1971

r40.
.5 ,..

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express her sincere thanks to Dr. Jean Anderson
for her advice and guidance throughout the preparation of this study.
Appreciation is extended to the instructors who allowed me time
in their classes and also to the subjects who participated.
I sincerely thank my parents whose assistance made~everything

possible.

TABLE OF

Chapter

I.

III.

IV.

V.

INTRODUCTION. . . . . .

Introduction. . . .
Need for the Study.
Purpose of the Study'
Hypothesis. . . . . .
Definition of Terms .

Limitations of the Study

REWIEW’OF THE LITERATURE.

Laboratory Studies.

Classroom Studies . :
Psychomotor Studies .
Summary . . . . . . .

RESEARCH METHODS. . . 0

Selection of Subjects
General Procedures. .
Statistical Treatment

CONTENTS

of Data

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . .

Results 0 O O O O O O O O O 0
Discussion of the Results . .

O
O O O O O O O
0
0

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Smum.......
Conclusions . . . . .
Recommendations . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

0 O C
O O O
O O O
O O O

P
m:
h~ m

m meeewp

Chapter Page
APPENDICB
Appendix
A. Dyer Tennis Test -- 1938 Revision. . . . . . . . . . . 42
B.TestInstructions...................41+

C. Raw Data of the Control and Experimental Groups . . . . 45

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Range, Mean and Standard Deviation for hch Group. . . . 29
2. One-way Fixed Effects Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . 31
3. Significance Between Group Means . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

C-1. Raw Data for Group I—Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

C-2. Raw Ihta for Group II—Competition with Own Score. . . . 46

C-3. Raw Data for Group Illa-Competition with Classmate of
and Ability. O O O O C I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1‘?

C-lI. Raw Ihta for Group IV-u-Class Grade Based on Performance 48

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Introduction

One of the traditional definitions describing motivation is the
actions that result from the primary, homeostatic drives or secondary
drives based upon them (24). Motivation creates a homeostatic
imbalance or tension. More recently, however, added interest has
been focused around external causes and sources of motivation in
contrast to the inner drives. It now appears that motivation
restricted to biological terms is not broad enough to include the
entire range of human.motivation. Psychological and sociological
needs can effectively take the role as motivators as well as
physiological needs (36). For-example, setting a goal not only
serves as a reward for learning, but also as a motivator (33).
Harlow makes clear that ''external stimulation (other than tissue
injury) is as significant a source of behavior elicitation as
internal stimulation." He continues his thesis by saying:

"...on purely theoretical grounds external

stimulation is at least as basic and important a

source of behavior elicitation as internal stimu-

lation, and that there is no justification on

phylogenetic, ontogentic, or physiological grounds

for assuming that motives aroused by one source are

more basic or important than motives aroused by the
other" (19:25).

In light of this, educators generally agree that their biggest
challenge is to instill the desire into students to want to do what
they ought to do (#2) which is most frequently accomplished by
manipulating external motivational techniques. A well brown concept
regarding learning is that "an individual must be interested in a
particular task before effective learning can occur" (362172), A
student should be excited about the task at hand in order for
learning to take place. Therefore, it is of great importance that
the teacher be well informed and skilled in sound motivational
techniques so that he can capture the student's attention and
elicit this excitanent in the student.

Motivation is that factor which influences attention on a given
subject or object and determines the amount of time spent on a given
task (9). It is evident that motivation plays an important role in
the learning and performance of motor skills as well as in the
acadanic situation. To make an overall generalization of motivation,
it can be said that (1) fairly high levels of motivation improve
learning in most motor tasks: (2) a high level of motivation scans
to be advantageous in learning and performing tasks in which speed,
strength, and endurance are incorporated; (3) high levels of
motivation seem to interfere with learning fine muscle tasks.
coordination, balance and complex movaents.

According to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, complex tasks are performed
best when motivation or drive are relatively low, but simple tasks
need relatively high motivation. It is, therefore, evident that

motivation and performance form a complex relationship. Performance

increases only up to a point as motivation increases. From that
particular degree of performance, continual amounts of motivation
then tend to degrade further achievaaents. This is especially
apparent in complex skills. High levels of motivation and tension
produce improper techniques and thus hamper adequate learning and

performance (36 ) .

Need for the Study

Motivation and incentive conditions have a great influence on
learning and performance in numerous tasks. Those conditions and/or
techniques most extensively used are verbal instructions and
inducements of various methods and kinds (13). It is, therefore,
imperative that educators understand the kinds of motives, and know
when and how to use them when attempting to influence the learning
and performance of the child (3).

Many of the motivational techniques utilised by classroom
instructors are effectively employed while, on the other hand, some
techniques prove to produce neutral or negative results.. There are
certain techniques that motivate students of a particular age which
would not be effective for another age group. The types of
motivation used depend upon the age, personality, the task and
usually the sex of the student. Much responsibility lies upon the
teacher to practice the best techniques in motivating students. A
great deal of research yet resins as to the best techniques to

anploy in motivating students of all age groups .

Purpose of the Study
It was the purpose of this study to investigate the effectiveness

of three motivational techniques upon the performance of the Dyer
Tennis Test in order to determine which technique, or techniques aid
in the performance of a sports skill test. The techniques selected
for this study were: competition with own score, competition with
classmate of equal ability, and class grade based on performance.

Hypothesis
None of the motivational techniques utilized will prove to be

more effective than the control group.

Definition of Terms

For the purpose of this study, the general term motivation will
be defined as a state of the individual initiated from outside
factors which produce a response.

Motivational techniggoi are those factors which are externally
used to arouse and direct a person's behavior or performance. The
technicpes utilised in this study were:

Control group - no outside motivational techniqres uployed.

Competition with own score - the subjects were encouraged to

outdo each of their previous individual scores,

Competition with classmate of Equal ability - competition

between matched pairs of subjects.

Basis for grade - fifty percent of the student's grade

depended upon her performance.

Limitations of the Study;

1. Four instructors taught the classes from which students were
drawn for this study; There was, nevertheless, a similar course
outline followed by each instructor which facilitated the learning of
identical content. However, the type of motivation employed is
unique to each instructor. This, in turn, affects each student in a
different manner depending upon the student's personality.

2. Inherent in this type of study dealing with human behavior
are the numerous physiological and psychological factors'which.may
vary from.day'to day and from teacher to pupil. In addition, it is
realized that self-esteem and desired goals are are constituents of
the human personality which affect the testing situation. Such
intangible variables are unique to the individual and cannot be
controlled.

3. Three of the four tennis classes were tested inside because
of inclement weather conditions. The weather for the class tested
outside was a sunny, spring day,

#. It is recognized that the effectiveness of the experimenter
and her attitude toward the testing procedures may have influenced

the achievement and performance of the students.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Many types of motivational techniques have been uployed in the
laboratory as well as the classrom, but for the physical education
teacher who is genuinely interested in methods of effective teaching,
those studies done in the actual classroom situation would be more
beneficial to him. However, laboratory studies must not be minimised
for their value is of equal importance in the study of motivation.
The review of literature is divided into the following categories:

Laboratory studies

Classroom studies
Psychomotor studies

Laboratory Studies
Fairclough (11) tested the hypothesis that motivating a movement
response in one part of the body should transfer to speed up movaaent
in another part. Forty male college students were tested as to their
speed on a hand movenent test and a foot movement test, 20 of whom
were controls and 20 who received sound or shock as a motivator. It

was found that motivated improvement can transfer from one part of

the body (hand) to another (foot) to cause improvement of speed in it.

There was a significant motivated improveaent in hand reaction time
which produced a significant transfer of the motivation effect which

resulted in improved speed on the foot retest. The movement time

 

.5. s

also showed a significant improvanent from hand to foot, but reaction
time resulted in a larger transfer than movement time. It was
noticed that the only time transfer occurred was when the test was
performed under motivated conditions .

The findings of Henry (21) are‘similar when he concluded that
motivation produced by electric shock has a desirable influence in
speeding up the reaction and movment time. He states: "this speed-
up is transferable, at least within limits, from one type of reaction
or movanent to another and from one stimulus mode to another. "

Munro (32) aspired to test the length of retention of this
increased speed transferred from a motivated simpler response. He
tested 60 male college students on the ball snatch movement, then
they pressed a treadle receiving an electric shock with a slow
response. The treadle press speeded up their reaction time which was
transferred to another ball snatch movanent test. It was found that
by using a control group that received no electric shock that the
majority of improvement was the result of the electric shock
motivation. Six groups of ten men each were tested than retested at
intervals of one, three, five, seven, nine and eleven weeks. This
was to test the amount of time until retrogression to initial speed
of movement appeared. It was found that a period of seven weeks
was required for the increased speed transferred from a motivated
response to retrogress to initial movement speed.

In a study with 12-14 year old boys, Hipple (23) found no
significant differences in reaction, and movement times or muscular

tension between Whites and Negroes while unmotivated. However, when

motivated by a loud sound, the experimental group showed significant
improvement in reaction and movement times and muscular tension within
the White subjects. The Negro experimental subjects improved with
motivation but the change was not a significant one.

A study was done by Ryan (39) where shock plus three additional
motivational conditions were utilized. He found no difference in
performance as a result of the various conditions. He tested 80 male
subjects on grip strength measured by a hand dynamometer with the use
of (1) verbal encouragement, (2) simple instruction, (3) feedback and
(O) shock as motivators. In addition, he also investigated the effect
of the motivational conditions at varying levels of performance. As
previously, he found no difference in performance between these groups.
Ryan concluded that subjects in physical performance tests appear to
be highly motivated and show an interest in their outcomes. Never-
theless, the question still ranains as to what the outcomes would
have been if no motivational techniques were used at 111. Also the
question is raised as to why there were no differenc-s observed in
physical capacity tests under high motivation and low motivation when
it is known that this does not appear to hold for performance of
learned skills.

The findings of Fishel (12) on a test for muscular strength were
similar to those of Ryan when he concluded that physical.performance
tests tend to motivate the subjects without additional outside facto
necessary. Each subject in the study was tested cn;his maximal
strength then put into a control and experimental group to be

retested under the influence of motivation. Both groups received

verbal encouragement while the experimental group was also told they
were being tested with those standards of NASA. Ego-involvement,
therefore, was introduced and served as a motivator. He found no
difference between the control and experimental groups thus concluding
that the nature of the task was motivating in itself.

Johnson (26) categorized junior high school boys into pre-
pubescent, pubescent, and post-pubescent groups and tested than on
the bicycle ergometer. One trial was non-motivated and another trial
was motivated by encouragement and urging by the experimenter. The
amount of effect of the test was observed in terms of work output and
cardiovascular rate. Differences in work output were found between
the groups but not between the motivated and non-motivated trials.
Motivation decreased the rate of cardiovascular recovery and
frequently caused nausea. These situations were not evident in the
non-motivated trial.

Ulrich and Burke (49) also studied motivation as it affects
physical performance and found that motivational techniques indicating
success were more beneficial to the mechanical efficiency of the
body than when no motivators or motivators indicating failure were
auployed. They tested college men and women on the bicycle ergometer
under encouraging and discouraging reports of failure on work output.
It was also included in their finding that men and women react
similarily to motivational stressors .

Various motivational situations were applied to ten groups of
college males on an exhaustive exercise using the elbow flexion

erograph. Nelson (31+) employed such motivators as: verbal

10

encouraganent, competition, ego-involvement, observer's presence,
competition with Russians, air force space program and others. All
the subjects were given a pre-exercise strength test then‘were
administered the actual test. No significant differences were found
between these two trials in any group. The groups which showed the
lowest means were: (1) normal instruction, (2) instructor interest,
and (3) verbal encouragement. The highest motivating situations were:
(1) ego-involvment, (2) air force space program, and (3) individual
competition. Nelson concluded that no one situation was more
significant than another in either group. Murray (33) points out,
however, that human subjects perform better on a task when they
become ego-involved in it.

‘Wilkinson (53) studied the effect of three motivational
techniqueson the performance of muscle endurance by young boys. The
test was proctured on an ergograph with verbal encouragement, verbal
discouragement and level of aspiration as motivators. The boys were
divided equally into three groups then given the test once again.
Results showed that all techniques were effective but no significant
differences were found between them.

Like Wilkinson, Hartrick (20) found no one incentive to be
better than another in his study to determine the effectiveness of
three types of motivating techniques upon the perfomance of an
endurance exercise. He tested college men on a bicycle ergometer
under conditions of an audience, a money reward, and competition.with

own record. His findings did reveal, however, an increase in the

 

11

mean from the first trials to the last where motivating techniques
were added, but no one technique was more effective. He concluded
that higher levels of endurance than normal can be attained when
motivators are used.

Isometric training programs were conducted by Hansen and
Johnson and Nelson. Both studies used various motivational techniques
during the training program. Hansen (18) collected data on an initial
trial, frat each training session, and from a final test and found no
significant difference between the five motivators he used. He
concluded that no one incentive proved to be more effective than
another.

Johnson and Nelson (25) used four motivators during the
training period and found that the motivated groups showed significant
gains in strength as compared with the non-motivated group. The
authors stated that all motivated groups improved in strength,
however, they did not mention which technique, if any, was more
effective. It was evident that the level of strength attained was
dependent upon the level of motivation applied during the training
and testing period.

In studies of knowledge of results and performance in the
presence of spectators, both Berridge and Singer found interesting
results. Berridge's study (4) was undertaken in order to analyze
competition under three different conditions: (1) alone, without
knowledge of results, (2) alone, with knowledge of results, (3) in

front of others with results announced to everyone. Sixty-one

12

subjects were tested on a leg dynamometer under these conditions.

In mean scores, the third condition scored the highest, 616. 5 pounds.
The second condition had a mean of '568 pounds and condition one had
a mean of 536 pounds.

Singer (41+) found that the presence of spectators affected the
athlete and non-athlete in different ways. Each subject was given ten F“
trials on a stabilometer with and without spectators in the room. It
was found that the athletes were, in general, improving until the
arrival of the spectators (trials four, five, six) at which time they,

 

more or less, reached a plateau. On the contrary, the non-athletes ”a,
continually did better throughout the trials who sealed to be
unaffected by the spectators.

Classroom Studies

Classroom studies are characterized by the utilization of
motivational techniques and skills which could be used in testing
students of a normal physical education class. They use no special
apparatus or instrmnents which would be difficult for the teacher to
understand or employ.

Gerdes (15) studied the effects of various motivational
techniques on the performance of several physical items. He also
wanted to determine if any of the techniques employed would result in
significantly better performance. His sample included 100 college
students who were randomly assigned to five groups of 20 each. A
different motivational technique was applied to each of the five
groups. Those techniques were: verbal encouragement, team

competition, use of previous scores, retesting and the control

13

group. Gerdes concluded from his findings that motivational
techniques were effectively uployed in producing better performance.
The greatest difference occurred when the use of the best of three
scores was mployed as the motivational technique. But because the
difference was not that significant, Gerdes had to say that no method
was singularly most effective.

Strong (48) wanted to determine the effect of six motivating
factors on the perfomance of sixth grade children on physical
fitness tests. He had 434 boys and girls divided into seven groups
with the following motivating factors utilized: (1) competition with
another group, (2) competition with a classmate of nearly equal
ability, (3) competition with a classmate of markedly different
ability, (4) competition with himself, (5) level of aspiration
(6) competition with class record, and (7) the control group. Strong
collected his data on six of the seven tests of the AAHPER Youth
Fitness Test (excluding pull-ups), and the bent arm hang under
motivated and non-motivated conditions. He found that the mean gains
of the motivated groups were greater than the mean gains of the
control group. It was also found that the level of aspiration and
team competition were more effective in producing better performance
than the other motivating techniques.

A study of the effects of various motivational techniques onthe
performance of the jump and reach test was conducted by Martin (30).
She used 80 college women who were tested in four groups of 20 each.
The groups each had a different motivating factor:

14

Group I - control, no factor.
Group II - given immediate information concerning
performance.
Group III - performance in the presence of the group -
given no information as to their own
performance or that of the other groups.
Group IV’ - performance in the presence of a group -
given information as to their own
performance and that of the other groups.
The following conclusions were drawn: (1) the informed group
surpassed the uninformed group in performance, (2) the informed group
tested in the presence of others improved the most. Upon reviewing
her findings, Martin suggested that the subjects who knew they would
receive their scores, either alone or in the presence of others
performed better than those who received no scores. This indicates
that information concerning results is important to the student and
that he should know he will receive this information prior to the test.
Chevrette (7) developed a study to determine the effects of peer
observation on the performance of physical test by elementary children.
In this study, as opposed to that conducted by Martin, the subjects
'were not given information concerning their scores, nor were they
encouraged by the experimenter. The test consisted of the vertical
hang, grip strength and the shuttle run. Peer group observations
*were in the form of: (1) unobserved, (2) in front of members of the
same sex, (3) in front of members of the opposite sex, (4) in front
of a mixed group. It was found that no significant differences were
present in the performance of girls under any peer observation groups,

and likewise, the boys demonstrated no differences in the hand grip

strength and vertical hang. However, significant differences did

15

occur in the boys' shuttle run in the presence of girls as observers
either alone or in the mixed group. He then concluded that peer
observation groups do, in fact, affect the performance of fourth
grade children.

Caskey (6) experimented with three motivational techniques with
children in grades one, bro, three on the standing broad jump. Her
techniques were: (1) verbal motivation, (2) visual incentive in
regard to previous trials by lines on the mat, and (3) visual
incentive in regard to the child's height which was marked on the mat.
It was found that the visual motivational techniques were signi-
ficantly better than verbal motivation for elementary children.

Henley (17) also utilized verbal encouragement and disparaganent
as motivating conditions compared with other motive-inc entive
conditions. After the students were tested on the Miller Wall
Volley Test of badminton playing ability, the findings revealed that
the subjects showed improvement under the motive-incentive condition,
but no greater improvement was evident for the verbal encouragment
conditions.

Fifteen male students with low Physical Fitness Index were
interviaved and observed by Wall (50) in order to classify than as
motivated or non-motivated. Following a five-week developnental
exercise program the subjects were retested on the PFI. Findings
showed that the motivated group did not improve its mean PFI any
more significantly than the non-motivated group.

Hesse (22) designed a study to examine the effects of self and
team competition on seventh, eighth, ninth grade girls. She used the

16

standing broad jump and the 30 yard dash as performance measures.
Each subject engaged in these tests under the two competitive
situations. The findings indicated that the physical tests were not
significantly affected by self and team competition. The data did

reveal, however, that self competition served as a greater incentive

“:1
i

of achievement than team competition.
In another study utilizing competition as a motivating factor,
Start and Herbert (46) found that group competition produced stress

in some subjects which increased their hesitancy and fumbling.

 

wr-

Clawson (8), on the other hand, found team.competition produced
positive improvements in college archery classes. Nevertheless,
student set levels of aspiration was superior to team competition in
her study.

In a pin bowling class, Walters (51) compared the personal
distance ratings, the social integration and adjustment of motivated
and non-motivated women. Thirtybsix women consisted of the motivated
group and were motivated by various techniques throughout the unit.
Sixty non-motivated subjects received no special motivating techniques.
The Cowell Personal Distance Ballot was given to both groups. It was
found that both groups built friendly ties among each other, but the
motivated group showed more evident signs of this than the nondmotivated
group. It was also concluded that a better bowler was a more accepted
group member than a poor bowler.

A study by Rushall (38) was done to compare the effects of
reinforcers as motivators in a swimming situation. These reinforcers

‘were: (1) coach's attention, (2) candy, (3) money, and (4) a control

17

group which received no reinforcement. In the coach's attention group,
encouragement was given as the swimmer ended his lap. Under candy

and money condition, the subjects received one M 8: M and one cent
respectively for each lap completed. The results revealed that the
candy and money were comparable in their effect and were stronger
reinforcers than the coach's attention or the control group. Rushall
concluded that the extrinsic reinforcers were more effective than
non-extrinsic conditions. After working with children and teens in
the study, he suggested that the procedures should be different for
both groups.

Rochelle and others (37) found that the psychological effects of
softball throwing without a warm-up period were not greatly evident
when subjects were motivated by a money reward. Forty-six students
were divided into two groups and alternated warm-up and no warm-up
to eliminate any practice effects. The subjects who had no warm-up
were given the incentive of a money reward for each throw greater
than the established nom. A significant difference was found
between trials one and three when no warm-up preceded the test, but
no differences were found when warm-ups were given.

McCall (29) used personal motivational techniques and verbal
praise as motivators for attendance and completion of projects at an
arts and crafts program. The subjects, third and fourth graders,
were assigned to control and experimental groups. After two periods
a week for four weeks it was found that personal motivational
techniques were, in fact, effective in improving attendance, but
that high achievement alone sufficed to sustain high attendance,

18

disregarding the motivating techniques. It was, therefore, evident
that arts and crafts teachers should strive to improve skill level
of students which would, in turn, help to improve attendance and
interest.

Brunner (5) aspired to find out what type of men continued
physical activity'after graduation from schools and universities.
Sixty men were divided into two groups: participants and non-
participants in vigorous physical activity. Both groups were given
a check list and.questionnaire which were descriptive of personality
traits. It was found that the participants had more characteristics
of an introverted person. One objective of physical educators is to
instill within the student the desire to continue in physical
activity after school. This objective was not being met when these
subjects were in school. In their Opinion, they said that a greater
variety of activity was needed with more emphasis on enjoyment of
participation rather than competition.

Psychomotor Studies
One of the most widely used techniques in controlling and
manipulating the motivation level of individuals is special verbal
instructions or influence. Fleishman (13) reported, however, that
there is little evidence that this type of motivation is sufficient
to change the performance level in psychomotor activities. He did
a study on the basis of this assumption to compare low-ability

trainee airmen with high-ability airmen. The major finding was that

19

supplimentary motivation instructions made no difference in overall
performance of the low-ability subject. On the other hand, these
instructions did make a difference in the performance of high ability
subjects.

Whittanore (52) studied the influence of competition on a
printing task. He concluded that: (1) all subjects produced more 1"“
when competing, (2) the slower subjects profit most from competition, 1’
(3) competition enhances speed rather than quality, (4) all subjects '

do poorer when under competition as compared to non-competition,

 

( 5) the quality of work of the individual is slightly greater under 5-
non-competition than under competition, and (6) there is no
significant difference in quality of work when subjects are competing
in small groups than with one another. Whittemore finalized by
saying that competition between groups with cooperating members is
equal or better than rivalry between single persons. This is seen
in both practice and theory. This agrees with those findings of
Allport (1) who concluded that, in the case of a motor task, the
influence of a group tended to increase the quality and quantity of
work over and above that work done when subjects perfomed alone.
Contrary to the findings of Whittemore and Allport, Sims (43)
discovered that the individual-motivation (i. e. , one person competing
against one other person) was superior to group-motivation and group
motivation was slightly superior to no motivation other than that
which comes as a result of learning. These findings were verified by
college students who were administered a rate of reading and a

substitution test.

20

The purpose of a study by Ryan and Lakie (40) was to test the
hypothesis that a person desiring to avoid failure would perform
better under neutral or non-competitive situations, while a person
‘with a high motive to achieve would perform.better in a competitive
situation. Forty subjects were ranked on the need for Achievement
and the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Test. Their performance on a ring
peg test was measured under competitive and non-competitive
situations. It was found that the subjects who ranked high on the
Manifest Anxiety scale and low on need for Achievement performed
better during competition. The more anxious an individual is, the
better he does in a non-competitive situation free from pressure,
‘whereas the individual with a high desire to succeed improves his
performance during a competitive situation.

Spence, Faber and McFann (45) dealt with studies of high and
low anxious individuals in the learning of paired associates. It
was generally found that high anxious subjects performed better than
low anxious subjects when competition was minimized. In a second
experiment, the high anxious subjects performed more poorly than the
low anxious in which competition was theoretically stronger. The
authors attributed these results to the "anticipatory and preseverative
tendencies" which are manifested in strong competing responses.

Sarason (41) found high mmtivating instructions to be more
harmful for high anxious individuals but beneficial for low anxious
individuals.

Noble (35) employed verbal motivating techniques on.a two-hand

tracking skill. Four hundred subjects worked on the test for 32

 

21

minutes. At the end of each quarter of practice 100 subjects were
selected at random for additional verbal instructions. This study
revealed no significant differences in gains from the pre— to post-
treatment between the control and experimental groups. The author
speculated these findings to be a result of the current level of
individual motivation and the lack of proper knowledge of results in
the tracking task.

In a study utilizing reward, neutral and punishment conditions
as motivators, Stevenson (47) found that verbal approval resulted in
more efficient performance on a simple motor task than when using
verbal reproof or neutral techniques with mentally retarded children.

Anderson (2) set up an experiment to test the level of aspi-
ration that children will make for themselves. Two groups were
given a cancellation test, one being a control group with no moti-
vation and another the experimental group which was motivated by
knowing their previous score. Those in the lowest rank of achieve-
ment set goals past achievement, while those in the upper rank set
goals below past achievenent. It was also evident that the experi-
mental group did significantly better than the control group,
indicating that the level of aspiration was related to "goodness"
of achievement.

Meade (31) found that motivation can distort time perceptions.
He had 120 male college students taking tests in a laboratory under

low motivated conditions as compared to high motivated conditions.

22

He concluded that when motivation is low the behavior of the subject
is not affected by cues to progress. However, when motivation is
high, progress becomes important, therefore, time perceptions are
distorted.

Katchman (27), on the other hand, found that on pro-stress
trials the high- and low-anxious individual did not differ in the
amount of time taken to complete the test. On post-stress trials the
high-anxious individuals displayed an increase in time while the low-
anxious individuals showed a decrease in time to complete the test.

Kight and Sass enrath (28) reported on high achievement
motivation and high test anxiety of students who were administered
tests by programed instruction. It was shown that students with
high achievement motivation or high test anxiety required less time
to complete the test, made fewer mistakes and scored higher on
retention tests. Generally, it was concluded that highly motivated
subjects worked much more efficiently than less-motivated subjects.

23

Smumafl
Most studies, especially those done in the laboratory and those

utilizing physical fitness tests in the classroom, revealed an
improvanent in performance of the particular task when motivating
techniques were anployed. Nevertheless, it was not a frequent
occurrence for the authors to indicate which motivating technique

was more effective. Consequently, in the majority of the conclusions,
it was found that no one motivating condition was more beneficial
than another. This was evident in studies by Ryan (39), Fishel (12),
Nelson (34), Wilkinson (53). Hartrick (20), Hansen (18), Gerdes (15).
It was concluded in many instances that subjects in physical per-
formance tests appeared to be highly motivated showing an interest in
the outcomes, and that the level of performance attained was dependent
upon the level of motivation applied during the testing period.

Those studies which used shock as a motivator: Flairclough (11),
Henry (21), Munro (32) generally agreed that shook produced greater
motivation in individuals, it influenced speed and reaction time, and
tense subjects were highly motivated.

Strong (48) found the level of aspiration and team competition
to be of most benefit in physical fitness testing of sixth grade
children. Martin (30) suggested children should be informed of their
previous scores, Chevrette (7) concluded that peer observation
influenced the performance of fourth grade boys and Caskey (6)
found that for elementary children visual motivational techniques

were most effective.

24

Of the studies using sport skill tests as measurenents of
performance, Hanley (17) showed that verbal encouragement was better
than discouragement. Rushall (38) utilized reinforcers as motivators
for swimers which produced positive results.

There was little agreement among the findings when various forms
of competition were used as a motivator. This is especially evident
in the psychcmotor studies. Whittemore ( 52) and Allport (1) contended
that competition between groups increased performance more so than
rivalry between single persons. Sims (43) defended the hypothesis
that individual motivation was superior to group motivation. The
competitive situation is also beneficial for the individual who
desires to succeed as compared with the more anxious person - Ryan,
Lakie (40) and Sarason (41). On the contrary, Spence and others (45)
found high anxious subjects performed more poorly under competition
than low amnious subjects.

Meade (31) found that motivation distorted time perceptions.
Kight and Sassenrath (28) reported that students with high achievement
completed a test sooner than less-motivated subjects, and Katchman (27)
found a difference in the amount of time required to finish a test
between high and low-anxious individuals on a post-stress trial.

The high-anxious showed an increase in time and the low-anxious a

decrease in time.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODS

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness
of three motivational techniques upon the performance of college
women on the Dyer Tennis Test in order to determine which technique,

or techniques aid in the performance of a sports skill test.

Selection of Subjects

The subjects used for this study were female undergraduate
students from four beginning tennis classes of Michigan State
University. Twenty women were randomly selected from each class and
comprised one of the four groups. Eighty students were initially
chosen, however, in the final analysis 75 were available for use in
the study. The women represented various colleges from the
university and ranged in age from 18-24 years. A different
motivating technique was given to three of the four groups with the
fourth as a control group. The motivating techniques selected for
this study were randomly assigned to the following experimental
groups: Group I -- the control, Group II - competition with own
score, Group III - competition with classmate of equal ability,

Group IV - class grade based on performance.

25

26

General Procedures

The 1938 revision of the Dyer Tennis Test (10) was administered
to the subjects from each class during the regular class period at a
station removed from the other students. The test consisted of
volleying the ball above a three foot marker on the wall and behind
a five foot restraining line as many times as possible within a 30
second time period. The scores of three trials were recorded. The
complete test appears in Appendix A.

Each subject being tested had three partners: one who counted
the number of correct volleys and recorded the score on the subject's
card, one who watched that no fouls were committed at the restraining
line, and another partner who collected the balls. A box of tennis
balls was placed to the right of the subject to facilitate continual
play during the test. Each subject had a card with her name, age,
height, weight, major, and space to record the number of hits for
three trials. The total score was the sum of the three trials.

Before beginning the test, the rules and procedures were
explained. Questions were then answered. The personal information
on the cards was filled out by the subjects individually. All the
groups received the same basic instructions, one pre-trial, then
another opportunity for questions. This pro-trial was administered
in order to familiarize the subjects with the test and to provide a
comparison score for Group II. The instructions given to each group
are found in Appendix B.

The control group, Group I, was told to hit the ball on or above

the net line from the time they heard "go" until they heard "stop."

27

Group II, competition with own score, was encouraged to outdo each of
their previous individual scores. This was done after each trial by
asking the subject her score and verbally encouraging her to exceed it
on the next trial. The subjects in Group III,competition with class-
mate of equal ability, were equated by the matching of similar scores
obtained from the pro-trial on one day, matched by their score, then
administered the actual test the next class period. They were told
to compete with one another in order to exceed the score of their
partner. After every trial, it was announced what score both subjects
received. They were then verbally encouraged to outdo their partner
on the next trial. The scores of the subjects in Group IV, class
grade based on performance, were actually used as part of their term
grade. The entire class was tested for this purpose from which 20
subjects were randomly selected for use in this study. The subjects
were made well aware of the fact that their performance would affect

their term grade before the testing was initiated.

Statistical Treatment of the Data
The one-way fixed effects analysis of variance was enployed to
express a measure of the total variability attributed to one or more
of the experimental treatments. In order to determine what
differences actually did exist between the various groups, the

Scheffe t-test was then used.

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness
of three motivational techniques upon the performance of college
women on the Dyer Tennis Test in order to determine which technique,
or techniques aid in the performance of a sports skill test. Those
motivational techniques employed were: Group I - control, Group II -
competition with own score, Group III -- competition with classmate
of equal ability, Group IV - class grade based on performance.

Results

The mean, standard deviation, analysis of variance and the
Scheffe t-test were used to compare the effectiveness of the various
motivational techniques . Each experimental group produced a higher
mean than the controls. The scores of Group I, the controls, had a
range of 16-40 with a mean of 31.80, the scores of Group II ranged
from 22-47 with a mean of 35.42, Group III had a range of 16-58 with
a mean of 37.31 and the scores of Group IV ranged from 27-63 with a
mean of 45.95. The largest standard deviation of 11.01 appeared in
Group III. Table 1 presents the range, mean and standard deviation
of each group.

An F ratio of 9.82 was detected by the one-way fixed effects
analysis of variance. Since this F ratio was significant the Scheffe

28

TABLE 1.-Range, Mean and Standard Deviation for Each Group

 

 

 

& :
Group Range I s.d.
I. Control 16-40 31.80 6.07
II , Competition with own
score 22-47 35.42 7. 06
III. Competition with classmate
of eq1a1 ability 16-58 37.31 11.01
IV. Class grade based on
performance 27-63 45.95 10.28

 

30

t-test was computed by comparing the means of each of the four
groups, These t-tests produced a value of 27.33 between Groups I
and IV and 14.75 between Groups II and IV which were both significant
at the one percent level of confidence. The t-test between Groups
III and IV detected a value of 9.06 which is significant at the five
percent level. Thus it follows that the mean of Group IV differs
significantly from that of Group I. II and III, but there are no
significant differences between any of the other means. The results
of the analysis of variance and the t-tests are presented on

Tables 2 and 3.
Discussion of the Results

Hypothesis: None of the motivational techniques utilized will

prove to be more effective than the control group.

Motivational techniques proved effective in enhancing the
performance of the students and was evident by the fact that the
mean of each of the experimental groups was greater than the mean of
the control group. There was not, however, a significant difference
between Group I - controls, Group II - competition with own score,
and Group III - competition with classmate of equal ability. Results
showed that of these three techniques all aided in increasing
perfomnce but no particular one was singularly most effective.
Such findings are comparable to Gerdes (15), Ryan (39), Wilkinson (53),
Hartrick (20).

Explanations for the absence of significance in the first three

groups could be assumed to be the high level of motivation present

31

TABLE 2.-One-way Fixed Effects Analysis of Variance

 

 

 

Source SS df MS F F( . 95) F(. 99)
Between 2158.45 3 719.48 9.82 8.19 12.18
Error 5422.22 74 73.27
Total 7580.67 77

 

TABLE 3.-Significance Between Group Means

 

 

 

Group t-test Significant
I - II 1. 74 no
I - III 3.68 no
I - IV 27. 33 yes*
II - III .42 no
II - IV 14. 75 Fes'k
III - IV 9.06 yes+

 

micafi. it .31 level
+significant at .05 level

32

within the subjects at the time of testing. If a great degree of
motivation existed in the subj ects, the possibility that significant
differences might not result between any groups is a likely assumption.
French states, "an individual's pro-experimental motivation level is
a significant variable affecting the degree to which a desired level
of motivation can be aroused by instructions within the experimental
situation" (14 :236), On the other hand, it could have been possible
that some or all of the subjects did not respond to the external
forms of motivation, or that the control group was more highly
motivated than Groups II and III. Consequently, whatever motivation
was produced within the experimental groups was not detectable
during the anemia (54).

The hypothesis can, in fact, be rejected when the results of
Group IV - class grade based on performance, are included in the
discussion. As was previously mentioned, Group IV was more
significant than Groups I and II at the one percent level and more
significant than Group III at the five percent level. It appears
from this data that Group IV produced greater results than the groups
with competitive forms of motivation. The assumption can then be fl
made that for these subjects, the motivation to improve their own
status, such as a grade, has a more definite effect upon performance
than the non-rewarding, external and verbal techniques. It becomes
apparent that beginners must be motivated by some concrete method
because they have not as yet hadsufficient success to want to
improve these elves without the added, tangible inc entive.

33

Such results may be correlated with Murray (33) who observed
that peeple possess a tendency to build up and establish a positive
evaluation of thenselves. This is, without a doubt, a forcible
motive. Green and Stachnik (16) concluded that the more significant
the consequences of a particular act or performance, the more control
those consequences have upon the behavior of the individual. If
such is the case in this study, it is evident that the motivational
technique of class grade based on performance was an important and
immediate consequence for which to strive. The attainment of a "good"
grade would positively enhance pride in self. When personal pride is
to be maintained by securing a positive grade (positive according to
the standards of the individual), performance is likely to be increased.

CHAPTERV

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOWIENDATIONS

Summary

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness
of three motivational techniques upon the performance of college
women on the Dyer Tennis Test in order to determine which technique,
or techniques aid in the performance of a learned skill.

The subjects used for this study were fanale undergraduate
students from four beginning tennis classes of Michigan State
University. Twenty women were randomly selected from each class and
comprised one of the four groups. Eighty students were initially
chosen, however, in the final analysis 75 were available for use in
the study. hob group was administered the test under a particular
form of motivation. Those motivational techniques utilized were:

Group I - Control

Group II - Conpetition with own score

Group III .- Competition with classmate of equal ability
Group IV - Class grade based on performance

The groups received one pre-trial after which the actual testing
began consisting of three trials of 30 seconds each. Individual
scores were the sum of the three trials. The mean, standard deviation,
analysis of variance and the Scheffe t-test were «uployed to compare

the effectiveness of the various techniques.

35

The mean of each of the experimental grows was greater than the
mean of Group I, the controls. However, no significant difference
was detected between Group I, II or III. The analysis of variance
and the Scheffe t-test did produce, however, a significance in
Group IV. This group showed a definite effectiveness in performance
above that of Groups I, II or III at both the five and one percent
level of significance.

The results of the present study suggest that in order for
beginners in tennis to want to improve themselves, they must be
motivated by some concrete method such as grades. This method is a
tangible, status symbol which appears to have more effect upon
performance than the non-rewarding, external and verbal motivational

techniques.

Conclusions

From the results of the analysis of the data, the following

conclusions were drawn:

1 . Motivating techniques had a positive effect on performance
as was evident by the fact that the mean of each of the
emperimental groups was greater than the mean of the
control group.

2. The t-tests did not detect a significant difference between
the mean of Groups I, II or III. Therefore, it was concluded
that the motivating techniques of competitive form
(competition with own score, and competition with classmate
of equal ability) increased performance, but none was more

effective than another.

—-r'mfinTAA_e _ I

3.

36

The Scheffe t-test was able to significantly distinguish
between the performancerof Group IV'- class grade based on
performance as compared with the other groups.

College women in beginning tennis classes are likely to
increase their performance when they are motivated by'a
concrete, tangible method that enhances their own status

rather than by the non-rewarding, external and verbal

techniques.

Recommendations

Future research concerned with the effects of motivational

techniques on the performance of sport skills should be directed

along the following lines:

1.

A personality or anxiety test should be administered to the
subjects to determine the effectiveness of various
motivating techniques according to the psychological make-
up of the student.

A long range study needs to be undertaken using the same
test and motivational techniques with different grade levels
such as elementary, junior high, senior high and college
age students. This could likewise be done with various
skill levels.

Also of interest to the study of motivation would be the
diversified manner in.which the same motivation affects

males and females.

 

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9.

10.

11.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

DYER TENNIS TEST -- 1938 REVISION

 

APPENDIX A

DYER TENNIS TI'BT -- 1938 REVISION“

Organization:

Divide the group to be tested into units of four players each,
and number than from one to four. Provide each player with a score
card on which.whe writes her name. Then read the following description
of the test to the group.

"The Backboard Test consists in rallying a tennis ball against
the wall. The object of the test is to cause the ball to strike the
wall on or above the net line as many times as you can in 30 seconds.
(Pause) When I say"Go!' start the test immediately. Drop the ball
and let it hit the floor once, then put it in play against the wall.
Continue to play it to the wall until I say, 'Stop!‘ at the end of 30
seconds. There is no limit to the number of times the ball may bounce
before you hit it. Isu.may volley the ball. The ball need not touch
the floor before you.play it except at the start and when a new ball
is being put in play. You.may use any stroke or combination of strokes.
Isu.must play all balls from behind this restraining line (indicate
the line clearly). You may cross the line to retrieve balls, but any
hits made while in such a position do not count. You.may use any
number of ball. If for any reason.you.lose control of the ball in
play, do not try to retrieve it. Take another ball from this box
(indicate clearly) and put it in play as you did at the start. Each
ball striking the wall on or above the not line before the word 'Stop'
counts as a hit and scores one point. You will each be given three
trials today. The final score on the test is the sum of the scores on
the three trials. "

Demonstrate the following points:

1. Two balls in hand.

2. Start test by dropping ball, letting it hit floor at least
once, then play it.

3. Rally a few times, showing volley.

4. Cross restraining line to retrieve a ball, a low hit to
keep it in play and retreat for next shot.

5. Make a wild shot to show how taking another ball saves time.
Put this new ball in play as at the start.

#2

43

Test procedure and individual duties:

No.1 takes the test. At the signal, 'Ready?‘ she stands anywhere
behind the restraining line with her racquet and two balls prepared
to start the test at the word 'Got'

No. 2 counts the number of balls which strike the wall on or above
the not line before the word 'Stop!‘ and enters them on the score card
opposite the appropriate trial number. If any infringements are re-
ported by No. 3 these are deducted before the score for the trial is
recorded. A ball striking coincident with the word 'Stopi' does not
count. .

No. 3 watches the player in relation to the restraining line. 7
She reports to the scorer at the end of the trial the number of hits, ,
if any, made while the player was standing closer to the wall than the
restraining line.

No. # collects the balls of her group before the start of a trial
and puts them in the box. During the trial she collects and returns
to the box any balls going out of play;

Each person takes the test in rotation. After No. 1 has had her
first trial she assumes the duties of No. 2 while the latter takes the
test: No. 3 and No. G remain the same. ‘While No. 3 takes the test,
No. 4 scores the hits, No. 1 and No. 2 assume the duties of No. 3 and
No. 4 respectively. ‘When No. a takes the test, No. 3 scores hits, and
No. 1 and No.2 remain the same. After each person in the entire group
being tested has had one trial, the test is repeated in the same order
until everyone has had three trials in all.

Answer'questions. This organisation will consume about ten
minutes. Great care should be exercised in these preliminaries to
make certain that the test procedure is clearly understood. The
testing will then take place smoothly and accurately.

The examiner then assumes a position to the rear of the players
‘with the stop watch, and begins testing the No. 1's who are to take
the test at one time, usually one or two. Numbers 2, 3, and.4 of
these groups will follow, and then the No. 1 of the next two groups,
and so on until all have had one trial, after which the test is
repeated twice in the same order. In case the group does not divide
exactly into groups of four, adjust groups to suit.

 

*Dyer, Joanna Thayer. "Revision of the Backboard Test of Tennis
Ability." Research Quarterly. 9:25-31, 1938.

APPENDIX B

TEST INSTRUCTIONS

APPENDIX B

TEST INSTRUCTIONS

Today you will take the Dyer Tennis Test. You may or may not have
taken it before, so I will review the test for you.

Organization and procedures:

1.

3.

60

This test consists of rallying a tennis ball against the
wall. The object is to hit the ball on or above the line
on the wall as many times as you can in 30 seconds.

The test is started on the word "go." Drop the ball, let it
bounce once then put it in play against the wall. After you
have started, there is no limit to the number of times the
ball may bounce before you hit it. You may hit it directly
from the wall without a bounce if you like. Continue to
play until you hear the word "stop."

All balls must be played from behind the restraining line.
You may cross the line to retrieve balls, but any hits made
while in such a position do not count.

If you lose a ball or it goes out of control, do not run
after it, instead take another from the box and put it into
play as you did at the start with one bounce.

You will be given one pre-trial, then three trials which will
be recorded as your score. Each trial is 30 seconds.

Remember, you must stay behind the restraining line (any
distance) and hit the ball on or above the net line.

Any questions 7

Four of the 20 subjects were chosen at random and were instructed
in the following manner: while one of you is taking the test,
one will count and record the number of hits, one will watch for
fouls at the restraining line, and another will collect the balls
as they go behind the subject taking the test. After she is
finished rotate around until all have completed the test.

Two groups of four subjects were administered the test
simultaneously.

as

APPENDIX C

RAW DATA OF THE CONTROL AND EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

TABLE C-1 . «Raw Data for Group I --Control

 

 

 

 

Trials
Subject 1 2 3 Total
1 11 9 6 26
2 12 9 1o 31
3 12 14 12 38
1+ 11 11 12 34
5 11 1O 9 3O
6 9 1O 1O 29
7 12 11 12 35
8 13 17 9 39
9 8 12 9 29
1O 15 12 13 no
11 13 12 8 33
12 13 15 11 39
13 13 13 7 33
14 6 5 5 16
15 6 6 1O 22
16 11 11 12 34
17 9 13 12 31+
18 10 11 15 36
19 9 12 12 33
20 6 9 10 25

 

45

 

#6

TABLE C-2.-Raw Data for Group II-Competition with Own Score

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ihdals
Subject 1 2 3 Total
1 12 12 13 37
2 13 11 1O 39
3 8 5 1O 23
n 11 11 11 33
5 13 12 15 no
6 1O 9 1o 29
7 9 9 15 33
8 1n 13 9 36
9 8 7 7 22
1O 12 15 16 n3
11 12 15 13 no
12 8 8 12 28
13 13 16 1n n3
1n 13 1O 18 n1
15 15 12 18 n5
16 1O 11 9 3O
17 20 13 1n n7
18 15 1o ‘ 11 36
19 1O 1O 13 33

 

 

 

n7

TABLE C-3.-Raw Data for Group IIIqupetition with Classmate of eqml
Ability.

 

 

 

2.12.1.2.

Subject 1 2 3 Total
1 16 11 12 39
2 11 13 33
3 n 9 11 2n
n 17 20 21 58
5 9 11 12 32
6 16 17 19 52
7 11 15 12 38
8 8 11 12 31
9 4 7 5 16
1O 10 9 11 3o
11 15 9 16 no
12 11 12 1O 33
13 12 16 16 nn
1n 11 1n 20 n5
15 19 15 18 52
16 7 13 10 30

 

 

48

TABLE C-4.-Raw Data for Group IV-Class Grade Based on Performance

 

 

 

 

Subject 1 IEEEEE' 3 Total
1 i4 11 15 40
2 15 18 16 49
3 11 11 5 27
n 17 in 20 51
5 21 23 19 63
6 13 13 15 41
7 17 20 23 60
8 12 18 11 41
9 14 16 13 43

10 11 14 13 38
11 15 16 13 44
12 20 15 25 6O
13 21 16 16 53
14 19 13 19 51
15 15 16 21 52
16 17 12 18 47
17 9 10 9 28
18 19 18 20 57
19 13 13 16 42
20 13 8 11 32

 

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