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I .- _ a ' . -.r :- This is to ,rcertifg that the thesis entitled Women's Undergarments in the Twentieth Century presented by Portia Yvonne Trenholm has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for ILA. degree in Textiles 8.: Clothing 5H amifi 6% @jor professor Date May 21, 1953 ttAY ggv1999 - . fl $426»). ..E335nm 31293 10390 5208 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 ‘ NUJZOZ U33 L/ :5 JAN '0 9 20135 woman's UNDERGARMENTS IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY BY Portia Yvonne Trenholm M A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts 1953 THESIfiS 3/1’1/55 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to eXpress her sincere apprecia- tion to Miss Hazel Strahan, under whose constant super- vision and willing assistance this investigation was made. Grateful acknowledgement is also due to Miss Ethel Traphagen, founder of the Traphagen School of Fashion, for the use of her collection of rare books on Costume History. Sincere thanks is extended to Mr. George Vidal of Sears, Roebuck and Company who made available to the author, the Sears catalogues referred to in this investigation. e. o i P”- \J kn 1.5.. 5 HA W n .c- VJ TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER LIST OF TABLES I. STATEMEYT OF THE PR ELEM . . . . . II. RESEARCH EETHODS . . . . . . . III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND .. . . ... . . IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL DATA 1900-1913. . . . . . . . . Social Change . . . . . . . . . EconOmic Change . . . . . . Undergarments As a Reflection of Period . . . . . . . . . . . GLOSSARY I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1914—1918 . . . . . . . . . . Social Ch nge . . . . . . . . . Economic Change . Unforgargcnts A8 a Reflection of Period . . . . . . . . . . . . GLOSSARY II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919-1326. . . . . . . . . . . Social Cnnnie . . . . . . . . . Econo ic Chan e . . . . 1 Undergarments AS Period . ; . . GLOSSARY III . . . . . . . . 1929—1932 . . . . Econo...ic Change U11 ’ -.rgarnez‘fus As Period . . . . GLOSSARY IV . . . . . . . . 1953—1939 - - - - SOCial Change. . Economic change Undergarments As Period . . . . GLOSSARY V . . . . . . . . . 1940—1945 . . , . Social Change . Economic Change Undergarments As Period . . . . GLOSSARY VI . . . . . . . . 1946—1950 . . . . Social Change . Economic Change Undergarments As Period . . . . Q) Reflection of O O O O O I 0 O O O O O O O O C O O . O C O O 0 O O O O C O O O O C I 7‘.“ Reflection of Reflection of the . . . . . . . . the O O 0 I O O x: 109 110 110 H }._1 K»! 119 120 120 121 124 124 151 131 1 \N N \JJ (n 1% H 1—1 I——‘ H H \J"! \n \24 \.)l \I‘ Ch GLOSSARY VII . V. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... .. SUMLARY AND COHCLUSIOLS 169 170 171.L TABLE II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Per Cent of Women Engaged Clithes Budget for the Clothes Bufiflet Q [...] 0 ct h.‘ Female LIST OF TABLES in Gainful Occupa— tions, ss0—1910 . . . . . . . g . . . . . . BusineSs Girl . . . . . J Useu b, Company, Oakland, California . ... . . . . . Col ego Cirl . . . . . or the College girl Who Saws . 1es Budget College Girl Who Euys Ready—madcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gainful Workers, Fourtesn.Yea:S Old and Over, 1910 to 1950, and Total Labor Force, 1 9 “‘0 8- 11d 1 9 SO 0 O o O O O o o I o o o o o o E pl; ees or the Capwell PAGE 22 104 105 106 107 108 I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM In every historical period, ideals have been developed, which were reflected in the clothing worn during that period. Th0 general objective of this thesis was to survey and ana- lyze undergarments worn by American women in the first half of the twentieth century. Specific objectives were: to show how technological changes affected style change in women's undergarments, between 1900 and 1950, to trace the changing consumption pattern in women's undergarments, to show how costume silhouette affected the styling of undergarments, to compare the styles of undergarments worn.by two socio-econom- 10 groups, to see if women's participation,in professional activities affected fashion trends in types of undergarments, and to relate the influence of war on fashion change in under- garments. The term 'undergarments,' applicable to this investiga- tion included all concealed items of apparel and bed and lounging garments. II. RESEARCH. METHODS An analysis of social and industrial trends, Changes in consumption of clothing, and technological develOpments which have affected women's clothing, was based on readihgs from these areas. Major changes in the educational, social, and professional status and activities of women were fac- tors of pertinence to this investigation. The extent to which these changes affected the types of undergarments worn by women over this fifty year period required detailed investigation. The publications, gggg; Housekeeping and Egggg. Constituted the primary sources of information on social and professional activities as well as fashions accepted and worn by women of two socio—eoonomic groups. The main sources for prices were Eggug_and the Sgggg, Roebuck catalogues. ' 1 Literature pertinent to the fashion aspect of this investigation included Cunnington's English Women's Clothing ingthe Present Century, The Histogy of Underglgtheggby C. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, and‘Unmentionables by Holliday. References of value in tracing social and economic change were Wish's Society andgghought in Modern.hodern Ameri- g, The Big Chang; by Allen, and Give the Lady What She Wants / by Wendt and Hogan. Several theses bearing on the subject were reviewed, of which the most pertinent one was Margaret Brew's American Clothing Consumption1_1829-1909 (Doctoral dissertation, University of Chicago, 1945). The author's perspective of costume history was influ— enced by the reviewing of many rare books on that subject, from the personal collection of Miss Ethel Traphagen; this collection of literature was made available through the library of the Traphagen School of Fashion. An arbitrary division into the following seven chrono— logical periods was based on significant events affecting style change in women's apparel: 1900-1913 Pre-war Period 1914—1918 World War I 1919-1928 Prosperous Post-war Period 1929-1932 Period of Depression 93-19 9 Period of Return to a Normal Economy -l95 World War II 1946-1950 .Post-war Period In presenting the analyses for each chronological period, the established ideals and resulting events of each period were discussed first, for the purpose if building a' framework through which the resultant fashions could be viewed. Since the ideals of a period must be established before they can be reflected in the clothing of that period, this arrangement of data seemed logical. 11 For the benefit of those readers who are not familiar with the technical terms e ployed in the field of clothing, a glossary for each chronological period was placed at the end of each period's discussion. III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND The last half of the nineteenth century was a period of conflict and change in ideals, horals, an; ways of living. The full effects of the Industrial Revolution were showing themselves. It should be recalled that the primary effect of the Industrial Revolution was the change from l'h.=3.nd--at--home" production to "machine-inefactory" production. Many other changes resulted from this primary change, the most siginificant being the production of an urban civiliza- tion. 1 Another strong force which helped promote the scienti- fic develOphent in the last half of the nineteenth century was the revolutionary philosophy advanced by Charles Darwin. This philOBOphy, which necessitated critical analysis of the Bible, created considerable Speculation as to the accep- tance of orthodox religion. The far-reaching result of this philosophy was a lack of emphasis on theological controver- sies and direction of attention toward the many problems of the "machine age.“ Among the outstanding outcomes in the process of urbani- zation was the Feminist Movement, as a primary factor in the changing status of women. The main objective of the movement was the acquisition of a status for women equivalent to the status then held by men. It should be recalled that just prior.to the twentieth century, concepts of democracy and social equality were receiving much attention and that the Feminist Movement was a supporting factor in the develop- ment of a new social and political philosophy. The fight for woman suffrage was the most important single activity of the Feminist Movement. Susan B. Anthony was the organizer and leader of the suffrage movement. Other outstanding "feminists“ were Elizabeth Stanton and Lucy Stone. In 187#, an organization known as the Women's Christian Temperance Union was founded. The leader of this organiza- tion was Frances Willard, who organized effective state units which were used to fight woman suffrage, labor reforms, inter- national peaoe organizations, and moral changes. The campaign for sex purity was another facet in the struggle for equality of women. Social theorists, however, continued to affirm the double standard of morality. The feminists attacked this dual standard affecting marriage and divorce, whereas the Woman's Christian Temperance Union stressed sexual purity. The W.C.T.U. gave much publicity to assault cases and Frances Willard's supporters were always present at trials of rapists to see that they reoeived.pr0per sentence. To protect feminine morality and the modesty of the Woman prisoner, and the W.C.T.U. introduced the roles of police—woman and prison matron. "Rescue Homes" were esta- blished to take care of unmarried mothers and prostitutes. Liberalization of divorce laws was effected by the femi- nists. This liberalization was reflected in the increased rate of divorce from 27 to 86 per 100,000 p0pulation during the 39 years between 1867 and 1906. There were less than 10,000 divorces altogether in 1867, a time when divorce resul— ted in social ostracism. Churches, capecially the Ho nan Catho- 110 and the Lutheran, tried to lower the divorce rate in cities, but they could not cohbat successfully the increase in deser- tion. At that time, desertion was four was four times as coh- men as divorce. It was interesting to note that even before the twentieth century, divorce, in "high society,“ had become fashionable. In 1866 the Universal Peace Union was organized. It's main objectives were: immediate disarmament, anti-imperialism, and the abolition of military training in schools and colleges. Large numbers of feminists including Frances Willard and the W.C.T.U. joined the Universal Peace Movement. Another phase of the Feminist Movement was dress reform. The concept of more functional clothing for women had been accepted by the Feminist Movement. This issue was thought to involve Women's rights, with emphasis on the comfortable Cloth- ing worn by men as compared with the heavy skirts and tight corsets then worn by women. An idea advanced by Julia Ward Howe and Elizabeth Phelps was that restricted clothing inhibited the intellectual development of women. Julia Howe associated "constraint of the body" with "enslavement of the mind."1 the dress reform phase of the Feminist Movement did not receive much support and its effects were negligible. The gains of married women in securing preperty and legal rights was of note. By 1898, in most states, married women could own and control property, retain their earnings, and make contracts.2 A8 to the progress of the suffrage movement in the nine- ties, it was of note that even with the support of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, only four states had ‘ adopted universal suffrage by 1396. Following this, interest in the movement declined until well into the twentieth century. The most outstanding change in thought concerning the status of women was seen in the attitude toward their educap tion. In 1881, Julia Ward Howe commented on this issue: ..A 1Margaret L. Brew, ”American Clothing Consumption, 18794 1909,“ (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 1945),,p..53. all-£1- . pp. 53-54. 9 The reason why education is usually so poor among women of fashion is, that it is not needed for the life which they elect to lead. With a good figure, good clothes, and a handsome equipage with a little reading of the fashionable reviews, an above all, with the happy tact which often enables women to make a large diaplay of very small acquirements, the womgn of fashion may never feel the need of true education. By the end of the seventies, most of the state universities were open to women. During this same period, several women's colleges were founded, namely, Vassar, in 1865; Smith in 1871; Wellesley in 1875; Barnard at Columbia in 1899; and Radcliffe at Harvard in 1894. A significant fact at this time was the _ predominance of women teachers in elementary and secondary schools. ‘ The period prior to the twentieth century witnessed a notable growth in the number and circulation of magazines and newspapers. Among the new publications primarily for women were: the Ladies' Home Journal in 1883, Good Housekeeping in 1884, and the Ladies' Home Companion which became the‘Woman's Home Companion in 1895. These magazines represented a shift in literary emphasis.-Prior to 1884, such publications as ggdey's Lady's BookAand Magazine. Peterson's Ladies' National Magazine, Harper's Bazaar, and hemorest's MonthlyAMagazine_ were popular. These contained mostly fashion notes and 3BreW, QB. 93., pp. 50-510 10 illustrations and fiction and poetry of little literary value. The later publications contained more material of value to- the homemaker but continued to emphasize current fashions. In spite of the number and wide circulation of these publications, it was interesting to note that even as late as 189%, the §ears. Roebuck catalogue was read for its literary value, especially by isolated farm families. Another siginificant factor characterizing the process of urbanization was the entrance of women into business and indus— try. Before the Industrial Revolution, only three kinds of business had been open to women— sewing, teaching, and house— hold service. However, with the increase in openings in busi- ness and careers for women, the number of women supporting or helping to support their families rose from 2,500,000 in 1880 to 4,500,000 in 1890. The women that were not workirg were profiting by tech— nological developments which resulted in more leisure time for them. Some of these developments worthy of note were the telephone, invented in the seventies; the electric light, patented in 1880; the Welsbaoh gas burner in 1890; washing machines turned with a crank; city—paving, better sewage—d1- sposal, and municipal water plants. 11 With the increase in leisure time for women, there appeared many clubs to which women could devote their time. In 1899, numerous local clubs united on a national basis to become the General Federation of Women's Clubs. Another outcome of increased leisure time was an incres— ing interest on the part of women in sports and athletics. In the decades following 1870, there had been in progress, a .movement for health and "bodily improvement" and eveniwomen had been encouraged to improve their physiques. Horse-back riding for women became pepular in the seventies, and followa ing this women could be found paddling canoes, playing tennis, ice skating, roller skating, and participating in archery con- tests. In the nineties, bicycling was the most pepular physi— cal activity. Also in the nineties, new hobbies began to make their appearance and women of leisure began to neglect the tradition- al needlework and concentrate on painting of decorative objects, pyrography, and crochet. Note was here made of the status of the textile and clothing industries, prior to 1900. It was during the eighteenth century that many mechanical inventions took place which improved methods of spinning and weaving textiles. This was followed by the use of steam power for textile machinery, thus enabling production by modern factory methods. 12 An invention that was to have a far-reaching effect in the twentieth century was that of the sewing machine in 1846. Between 1846 and 1880, there was noted a great increase in machine—made garments. Prior to 1880, most women's clothing was made in the home with the exception of the wealthy who either patronized custom shops or ordered their clothes from abroad.‘ It was during this period that women's ready-to-wear was being established on a factory basis. By 1880, there were 562 shops manufacturing women's clothing. Between 1880 and.1890, the number of women employed in the women's clothing industry I increased from 2,594 to 12,963. 7 It was of note that evemthough the women's garment indus- try got its start about 1840, undergarments were not manufac- tured in large quantities before 1890. 13 IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF HISTORICAL DATA 1900-1913 Social ohagge. The first fourteen years of the twentieth century witnessed many gradual changes in morals and the status of women. At the beginning of the century, the woman suffrage campaign remained a resting issue. Samuel Mervin, writing in Good Housekeeping, gave a vivid picture of the status of woman suffrage at the turn of the century: 6 After 1884, for twenty years the terms "Equal Suf- frage" and "Women's Rights“ had about the standing in public thought and in fihe press that the mother-inplaw Joke has. Hardly more. It was of note that even though the woman suffrage issue was a resting one to the general public, "extreme feminists“ were constantly campaigning, not only for woman suffrage, but also for elimination of the double moral standard, and, interest- ingly enough, for the right to deny men the privilege of smoking cigarettes and drinking liquor. . ”Samuel Merwin, “The Measure of the Militants,“ Good Housekeeping. 593448, October, 1913. 14 The loosening of economic and religious bonds, another outcome of urbanization, was cited in explaining the continued increase in divorce. By 1907, more than 75,000 divorces had been granted in the United States, alone, as contrasted with less than 10,000 divorces altogether in 1867. Due to the conp tinned insistence on a single moral standard, legislatures gradually relaxed the-requirements for establishment of adul— tery, desertion, and cruelty as grounds for divorce. Nemen were gaining more and more legal and property rights. Between 1909 and 1914, wives in three-fourths of the states were given the right to own and control their personal property. Two-thirds of the states permitted wives to retain their earnings, and in most states, wives were allowed to sue and to make contracts. This period reflected a change in attitude regarding clothing. In the late nineteenth century the accepted idea was that the body should be covered completely. By the first decade of the century, his attitude was beginning to change. Attention.was more gradually focused on the "cling— ing skirts“ of the period and underwear advertisements were making a hazardous debut. Holliday spoke of the pioneer methods used in advertising undergarments. 15 The camera was used.in such a manner as to produce a "camouflage effect.“ Lights and shadows were so used that en and women in underwear could not be plainly seen. Many outcomes of the process of urbanization helped to encourage change in moral attitudes. During this period the theatre and movies were quite prosperous. In early movies, almost any vulgarity passed. This was a reflection of the wide gap between real American life and the American drama. Some cities even.attempted to censor "immoral" movies. In Cleve- land, in 1913, censors reported that they had cut, out of the movie reels, such things as scanty costumes, details of a jail break, prize fights, and scenes devoted to crime.6 The increased pOpularity of the movies and theatre resulted in the establishment of a new urban institution— the chaperone. This was definitely a trend only in large cities because in small cities a chaperone was hardly thought of. The automobile was an influencing factor in the change of attitude during this period. It helped to destroy the ”static attitude of mind,"7 and thus clothing was no longer considered a form of moral restraint. _— ‘A __ 5Robert Holliday Unmentionables (New York: Ray Long and Richard R. Smith, 1933)““‘28fl:2“85_, pp. . 6Harvey Wish, Society andghought in Modern Americg (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 19527, p. 291. 70. Willett Cun ington, English Women's Clothing in the Present Century_(Londcn: Faber and Faber Ltd., 19527, p. 39. 16 A popular subject for discussion during this.period concerned the theorieg of Sigmund Freud. This Vienna physi- cian had proposed some new theories concerning psychologi— cal behavior and personality. His theories disregarded all the romantic tradition and standards of sentimental love and religion. By 1909 the mdeical journals in the United States contained many articles on these theories and Mr. Freud him— self lectured on the subject in many American cities. To the conservative adults of this day, the subject was highly repel- lent- but to the minds of youth, this discussion took on an excited nature. This was one sign of the coming excitement and erSdO: of a new age. ' The loosening of religious bonds, as an outcome of urba- nization, caused increased interest in social problems by religious groups, in an effort to keep up with the pace of the new urban civilization. This interest was centered in a "Social Gospel" movement which was climaxed in 1908 with its main emphasis on welfare problems. The religious groups par- ticipating in this movement were Unitarians, Episcopalians, hethodists, Baptists, and Congregationalists. In May 1908, ar the climax of the movement, the Methodist Episcopal Church issued a "Social Creed"8 in the interest of social welfare. 8Wish, 92. 311., p. 166. 17 .The principles of this creed included: elimination of fac— tory hazards to life and health, the abolition of child' labor, protection of women 1: industry, abolition of the sweat shop, the "gradual and reasonable reiuction of the hours of labor to the lowest practical point, with work for all," and the acquisition of "that degree of leisure for all which is the condition of the highest human 111e.‘I Women's club: had becone increasingly significant. The club movement had been aimed toward educational, philanthro- pic, and civic activities. One outstanding accomplishment of women's clubs was the teacning of women How to cooperate, to sink individual preferences and predjuices for the common good, to be less personal in her attitude on general questions— to agree to disagree with equanimity and good nature, to differ as to me hods 'and policy without a rupture of friendly relations. One writer, in suggesting work for women's clubs to do- Some club might do America an immense service by devoting itself to the honest study of the pros and cons of woman ‘ suffrage. The subject gets almost no diapassionate treat— ment. Each side select the facts that fit it seriously, and t1 rose of them w o are Opposed to suffrage for women won't Speak out for fear of seeming unchivalioufO Yet it is certainly a live issue, a threat, or a hope. 9 Mary E. Woolley, ”The Woiian' s Club Woma.n," Good House- kee in ,50: 559- 565, May 1910. 10 Mary Bronson Hartt, "Work for Women's Clubs to Do, " Good Housekeeping, 49: 2‘ 5—247, September, 1909. 18 At the meeting of the General Federation of Women's Clubs in 1914, a movement toward more sensible clothing for women was received with enthusiasm. There was much pro— test against the current styles of dress- eSpecially the slit skirts, tranSparent gowns, and narrow skirts— and that phase of socializing termed "imnodest dancing.” A social factor which kelped to influence the changing morale of the period was the Russian Eallet movement in 1910. This ballet gave birth to a new_simplicity in artistic eXpres- sion which was later to be reflected in fashion. During the early twentieth century, the very rapid increase in enrollment of women -tudents at colleges and co- educational universities for the twenty-year period 1890-1910, was shown in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1910. In women's colleges, the rate of increase was 348,H per cent, while in co-educational institutions the rate was even higher— 438 per cent. ‘ A very controversial issue during this p riod was the relation of college women to the marriage rate. Two important factors muct be considered.in observing this issue. First, that the individualism of women was in part the result of social circumstance and in part the consequence of their higher education. This led many college graduates to desire 19 an outlet in skilled work wnich had great significance and value. Among these educated women, a considerable number found much satisfaction upon the entrance into a profession Second, the idea was rapidly gaining acceptance in the public mind, that unmarried women should not settle back into a state of eternal dependence upon their families. The situa- tion was furthur complicated by the fact that the marriage rate was declining an ng college men, especially those from the "well—to-do middle class.” The custom of the day- that women must play a passive anl sometimes waiting role— created many problems. Another problem was that a certain group of unmarried men did show a marked desire to secure efficient homemakers as wives. It seems that the young women with whom these men socialized, h"d achieved a status of econOeic independence and success in a ososen vocation and had little interest and less skill in domestic work. During this period, there was much disturbance in the miids of authorities conerning the lack of Home Economics courses in college curricula, sapecial— 1y those of women's colleges. As for one writer's comment on this issue, The college, be it remembered, takes the girl for four years out of family life in which this kind of train~ ing would be given her. Its controllers, in their anxiety 20 to develop her brain fully as that of a man, forget the woman's life which is inexorably placed before her, and do not fit her for its inevitable work. Some consolation concerning the issue was received from coIIege women who did marry. It was a well-established fact that divorce among collehe women was rare. Also, the Figure of the Census of College Women revealed.that of 4,626 chil. dren born to women college graduates of the classes 1900A 1910, only 4.6 per-cent had died in 1915. These were low child mortality rates when compared to similar rates on a national scale. The education of women remained a highly controversial W 7 issue throughout tne period. Economic chang_, Women's activities outside the home had increased greatly by the turn of the century. The increased urbanization, the proximity to places of employment, and the need of in ustry for is or, were major factors contributing to emyloyment of women, w;ich in turn took them rapidly away from home. With the decrease in household production, there was also greater need for an increased money income. However, the increased employment of women outside the home could have been the cause rather than the result of the decrease in house— hold. pI‘Od‘dC't ion. 11Anon., "Is a College Education the Rest for Our Girls?” Ladies' Home Journal, 17:15, July 1900. 21 There were many factors accounting for the acceptance of women in businegs and industry. The development of the telephone and typewriter created a demand for worker requiring no great technical skill or nuscular_streng h. Many Opportunities for women office workers were the result of a rising industrial production and an increase in trade. Also, one reason for the great demand for women workers, particularly in the textile and garment trades, was the fact that women would work for lower wages than men. It should be noted that during the recurring depressions cccuring during the early part of the new century, women were increasingly forced to contribute to the family income. In 1908, of nearly a million who were working in cities, about seven hundred thousand of them lived at home in fa ilies where there were other "breadwinners.5 There was a definite increase in women engage in gainful occupations from race to 1910.12 Between 1900-and 1910, the enployment of women almost doubled from four million to eight million engaged in 313 different occupations. In addition to the increase in the prOportion of all women who were employ- ed, women have almost consistently made headway in their place 128cc TABLE I, p. 22. 22 TABLE 113 PER GENT OF'WOMEN ENGAGED IN GAINFUL OCCUPATIONS 1880-1910 Year ,‘All Occupations NonwAgricultural Pursuits 1880 16.0 1890 19.0 1900 20.6 17.3 1910 25.5 20.7 13Brew, op, cit., p. 54. 23 among all occupied persons. From 1900 to 1910, their advance was so Spectacular that it receded slightly in the following decades. Since census figures on married women did not in- clude those widowed or divorced, the great increase shown in the proportion of married women gainfully employed since the census of 1890 is of great significance. There was reported in 1890, over 515,000 married women gainfully employed, this number being between four and five per cent of all married women.14 It was interesting to note the character of the employ- ment of women. Prior to 1900, nearly 61 per cent of all employ— ed women ten years and over were engaged as servants, waitres- ses, or in similar occupations. In 1910 this percentage had fallen to a little over 18. In 1907, there were 7,399 physi- cians, 92,000 nurses and midwives, 3,000 women ministers, 463 female college professors, more than 86,000 secretaries and stenographers, 4,300 switchboard operators in the city of Chicago alone, and 120,000 women workers in the cotton fields of the East and South. luAgnes L. Peterson; "What the Wage-earning Woman Contri- butes to Family Support. Women in the Modern w0rig” (Philan delphia: The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1929): p0 77- 24 In ipito of women's wages being low, the working girl helped to increase the buying power of the lower income groups resulting in a rising standard of living. A survey made in 1907 by the Russell Sage Foundation showed that 60 per cent of women employed in industry at that time averaged less than $7.00 a week; 20 per cent got $8.00 a week and only 17 per cent received more. The remain- ing 3 per cent were listed as apprentices and were paid a maximum of $3.00 a week and often less. Men in comparable trades and industries-got only $10 to $12 a week. By 1913, the American farm woman constituted the largest class of economically useful women. This was shown by the fact that marriaze'was regarded as a burden by'the poor man in the city, but thought of as a necessity for the poor man who owned a farm. At this time, the poultry products of the nation were equal in value to the cotton crop. They exceeded the wheat crop products by four hundred thousand dollars and were worth more than the combined values of the rye, oat, barley, and potato crops. The American farm woman of 1913 was responsible for nine-tenths of the poultry products of the entire nation. I I This period witnessed a rapid growth in‘tne woman's cloth- . ing industry. By 1900, there were manufacturing establishments 25 in 32 of the 48 states, employing 83,739 workers. The vast- ness of the industry called-for a well-integrated force to protect the interests of labor. This need was fulfilled with the organization of the-International Ladies' garment Workers Union. This organization functioned primarily to help settle the many disputes which occurred between the management of the industry and labor. Many of these diSputes were climaxed by the "Great Revolt” of 1910. This was a revolt against the sweatshop and contracting systems. At the time of the revolt, wages averaged $14 to $18 a week during the busy seasons, and workers labored 14 to 16 hours each day. The revolt was teemi- nated by the adeption of a “Protocol of Peace.“ This protocol was based on the class-collaborationist theory which states that "there is sufficient community of interest between employers and employees to make permanent peace achievable and that all matters in diSpute could be peacefully adjusted through resort to impartial arbitrators. One of the important technological develgpments which occured during this period was Edison's kinetophone as a sychronization of sight and sound. This invention was a fore- cast to the develOpment of talking motion pictures. Electricity was introduced into city homes after the turn of the century. This was accompanied by the wide use of elec— 26 trical labor-saving devices. However, even as late as 1909, electric power lines were still rather concentrated in the larger cities.15 Undergarments as a reflection of the period. The ideal sil— houette of this period was best suited to the mature woman. Large hips and a very small waist were decreed by fashion, at the beginning of the period. The upright shoulders, long, sloping bust, held—in waist, and forward chest, were support- ed by the well constructed ”straight-fronted? corsets. Two factors had encouraged this silhouette. One was the corona- tion of King Edward the Seventh, with its universal plea for extravagence in clothing; the second factor‘was the "new look" based upon drawings by the artist Charles Dana Gibson, who tried to portray the ypical American beauty. Since outer garments had been quite picturesque prior to this period, and the dressmaker's techniques had reached their limits of com- plexity; a natural result was emphasis on the opportunities afforded by underclothing. Thus, Edwardian undergarments were termed "erotic" since moral restraint had to be removed before these garments could be made so 'alluring.# Other evidences 15Brew, 92. cit., p. 30. 27 of this change in moral attitude were noticed in the new use of the terms "lingerie" in place of "underclothes" and "knickers" in place of "drawers.” Toward the end of this period, when the proSpects of’ war had become more evident, the Edwardian silhouette was gradually modified to a severe tube silhouette. The actual outlines of the body gradually become more evident. At the beginning of the period, corsets were heavily boned down the front. A short corset was worn by young girls whose main problem was achieving the desired 25 inch wasp waist. Older women, requiring more support, wore longer corsets, which controlled the hips. Fbr inadequate figures, much padding and many ruffles were added to the corset and all types were decorated with laces and ribbons. The more eXpensive corsets hooked rwf :\1q \ in front and laced in back. However, \\X “V1 moderately priced corsets advertised b\\$ ~J " km in Good Housekeeping_and the gadies' \ Y Home Journal laced in front. The \ \\ smallawaisted effect was achieved by many gores which were usually cut bias and stayed with boning. 28 Around 1905, corsets began to get longer below the waist and shorter above it. Thus, "The corsetieres of Paris bring the corset nearly halfway to the knees.‘16 ' As the tubular silhouette began to become fashionable, there was reluctance on the part of many women to give up their stays and lacings. The demand for boned corsets con— tinued as late as 1910 when flexible boning took/precedeneej over stiff boning. The'1910 corset conformed to the long, narrow line of the outer garment. Cunnington described "Modern corsets with very few bones, these ending at the hips, and the basque extending almost to the knees."17 As the prospects of war increased, there was more empha- sis on comfort of foundation garments. Corsets were designed for the "natural, upright figure.“ in 1910 the first all- elastic step-in was made, and the "ventilated corsetI became popular with working women. 16 C. Willett Cunnington, English Women's Clothing in Ehe Present Century_(London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1952), p- 9. , 17 Ibid., p. 101. 29 At the beginning of the period, "bust improvers' were worn to help add fullness to the chestixThere was the "patent bust improver, placing the possession of a bust modelled on that of the famous Venus de Milo at the disposal of every lady,” and the "Neena bust improver, cup—shaped perforated metal discs, wt. % oz. the pr.'13 Corset covers were worn over corsets. Many garments worn as corset covers were referred to as "bust bodices," "bust supporters,” "corset waists," and "bust perfectors.‘ Some were boned and others laced,-to give additional breast support. They were varied in style. The necklines were either round or square and not very low in front. Most of them were sleeveless but some had sleeve caps. The "bust ruffle” had been replaced by the use of fullness across the bust in the corset cover. However, a few corsets were made to fit'skinptight. Corset covers of the earlier part of the period usually opened down the front; fastening with buttons or ribbon ties. Later corset covers did not have front openings but were slip-over styles. _ v// 130. Willett and Phillis Cunnington The Histori of Underclothes_(London: Michael Joseph, 1961), p. 215. A % 3 girdle,“ illustrated at the right. the turn of the century gave the following account of the origin of the modern bras— siere. 30 The forerunner of the brassiere was Jaeger's "buSt A woman in her youth at About the beginning of this century among certain groups of girls it was the custom to wear a small garment, cut-like a corset cover but fitted very tightly to the body, fulfilling the purpose of what is now known as a brassiere. This began, among the girls I knew, for use under bathing suits but it proved so satisfactory that they extended its uses for everyday wear. The garment had, so far as I know, no official name at that time, but-I-haIe.heard.it lightly referred.to.as a "Strait- jacket.“ Thin girls, naturally had no need for such a piece of clothing, but were instead a short panel of white material with rows of ruffles about two inches in depth. This bib—like creation was pinned under the corsig cover or tied around the body just under the arm. - ‘/ 19Holliday, 9p. cit., pp. 272-273. 31 The knickers of this period, also referred to as "knickerbockers,“ weye of two types; those with wide frilled legs, and the close—fitting "directoire“ type, sometimes referred to as "culottes."/Tie consensus of Opinion in the literature as regards which type was more pepular supports the opinion that the directoire type was worn only by the "fasnion—conscious” while those with wide frilled- legs were more generally usedm/Cunniigton describes "fine stockinette culottes with ribbon bows at the knee . . . which appealed to those why preferred to be clad in French words."20 The knickers with wide. ' "skirt—legs" were referred to as "the divided skirt.” Directoire knickers, illus— trated at the right, were often called "shirt-knickers." Around 1913, a variation in shirt—knickers appeared, attributable to the tango dance and the fashionable peg—top skirts. The characteristics of the new garment is that it is formed entirely of one length of material falling from 200. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The History of Underolothes (London: Michael Joseph, 1951 , pp. 2 -2 . 32 he waist in front to the knees and up again at the back with slits at the sides for the legs.21 ThchHEaise was not considered a fashionable under— garment during this period. However, at the beginning of the period, chemises of "Empire pattern, sloped at the waist and tied.with colored bows at the shoulders“ were available. The main competitor of the chemise was the combi- nation, which had the advantage of fitting more closely over the large hips of the earlier silhouette of the period. Because this factor was important, many chemises were-made on princess lines, with "long" skirts- actually coMbination garments, referred to as "cami—skirts.' The skirt portion was divided into two parts. Another attempt of the chemise to meet its competitor and retain its place among the undergarments of the period.was the appearance of under- vests. In 1911, gggngousekeeping_adver- tised linen undervests, "cut chemise fashion, but a trifle more fitted than chemises. The chemise and drawers generally worn near the end of the period are illustrated at the right. V’ 210. Willett Cunnington, E lish Women'§_ Clothing in the Present Century iLondon: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1932‘), p. 116. 33 Combinations were more pOpular at the beginning of the period. These were usually a combination of corset cover and drawers, but the Directoire knickers and the chemise were more typical- ly worn after 1909. The combination garment of more delicate fabric was referred to as the "chemilette." The Edwardian petti— ccat is illustrated at the right. It was often referred to as an underskirt, and was very flared, fluffy, and frilly. This flounced petti— coat served as a good founda— tion for the yoked and ful— ly-gored day skirt fashion— able at that time. Some- times, the border of the petticoat was "stiffened with horeshair or even steel."22 / 22c. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The History of finderclothes (London: Michael Joseph, 195I7, p. 212. 34 The evening petticost of this period was quite elabo- rate. It was identified by a pocket at the foot just above the flounce. By 1908, with the gain in fashion of the tubular ail—- nouette, the petticoat was necessarily narrow. As the full— ness of petticoats was continually medified, the typical one of 1911 was a straight tube. To retain the affectionate character of the pre—war petticoet, many had accordian pleating from the knee level. Slips were worn during this period only under trans- parent dresses. Thus, the slip was described as a "long- skirted garment that fitted the body rather snugly through the waist and bust,“ similar in appearance to the modern slip. Knit underwear was not "fashionable" during this period. Its use rather depended upon the weather. However, the liters» ture indicated considerable-use of knitted vests and drawers by the I'more practicalI or "less fashionable." The winter weight union suit, a combination of pants and vests, had long sleeves, but by 1910, this garment had a lower neck, was sleeveless, and ended above the knees. At the beginning of this period hosiery was recovering from a siege of gay-colored stripes. As long as skirts were floor length and shoes were high,_the type of hosiery worn was not a fashion issue. however, as soon as skirts became 35 shorter and shoes lower, the "fashionable hosiery” was transparent and varied in hue. Seamless hosiery became quite popular near the end of the period. This was under- standable since the circular type knit was a popular pro— duction technique. The seamless hosiery, probably the 'lower priced, was often advertised as having a fitted ankle. If the production method of shaping hosiery was used, it was probably reserved for the more-expensive hose. New construc- tion features in the manufacture of hosiery were gaining publicity at this time. Advertisements emphasized."welt taps,“ "double soles,“ and "reinforced toes.I ' The hose supporters worn during this period were of an interesting variety. There were "double strap" supporters, a combination of "safety belt" and hose supporters, the belt being worn around the waist, and "brace" and hose supporters, actually shoulder straps attached to the supporters. The modern type supporters, those that hook onto the corset, and the elastic garter type, were also commonly used. A highly advertised type early in the period, was the Foster hose supporter, which served a dual purpose. It made the abdomen perfectly flat, curved the back in at the waistline, and reduced the waist itself. Thus, it served the purpose of corset and hose supporter. 36 The Foster Hose Supporter has a belt which exerts a pressure on the sides of the waist, making it round. It is the only supporter which has a smoothly fitting pad that can be adjusted either high or low over the abdomen without lsosing its shape. It has four hose— supporting bands with new silk—looped fastene§§,2whioh hold the stocking taut and absolutely secure. Nightgowns'worn during this period were floor length with rather full skirts and fitted waists. Those worn in cold weather had long or three— quarter length sleeves while summer ones had low necks and short sleeves. Some were the "slip-over" type while others buttoned down thO waist front. Ruffled yokes and sleeve edges were prevalent trimmings along with tucked and ehbroidered sections. / c 3 Bath and lounging robes of this period had full skirts,. mostly fitted waists, though some hung loose, and had lcng sleeves. Throughout the period, there was a great demand a, 23Popula1‘ monthly, '55zNo. 337, March, 1903- 37 for Japanese kimonos for lounging purposes. This was attri— buted to the interest in the orient following the Russo— Japanese War (1904—1905). hese ki onos were quite elabo- rate and colorful and "every woman seemed to have at least one, and many had several.”24 These garments had kimono sleeves and were loose at the waistline, usually with three- quarter length sleeves. Fancy needlework had retained its popularity among the "more practical" women and the garment most frequently used to display this talent was the bed—jacket. Crocheted, knitted, and embroidered bed-jackets were plentiful throughout the period. They closely resembled th modern bedpjacket and were often substituted for dressing—sacques. Dressing sacques, or short jackets with three—quarter leng h sleeves, were widely used during.the period. They were real necessities. Due to the elaborate hair arrangements, the dress was usually slipped On before the hair was arranged so that the sacque served the purpose of protecting the dress from superfluous hair and make-up. he fabrics used for undergarments during this period were many and varied. Fine nainsook, batiste, and "washing" 7 ,. ' 24M. D.C. and Elizabeth G. Crawford, The Historyp; Lingerie in Pictures (New'York: Fairchild_Publications, finco rporated, 1952), p. 75. 38 silk were the popular delicate fabrics while longcloth, cambric, and muslin were pepular for heir durability. It should be recalled that it was during the first decade of the twentieth century that undergarments became very "elaborate and fussy." Thus, the wide range of trim— mings used on undergarments during this period was under- standable. These included: hand embroidery, haderia work, Valenciennes, Cluny, Irish crochet, and torchon lace, as well as tucks, beading and entre deux, fine buttonhole stitching, monograms, and machine-embroidered edgings and insertions. . Corsets could be found in a range of fabrics, the most popular of which were French.coutil and mercerized'batiste. Other fabrics used for corsets included jean, rubber sateen, and figured, mercerized broche. Prior to 1912, "rust-proof boning" was highly advertised in corset construction but it was in 1912 that "C100k~8pring steel covered with hard.rub— bar or celluloid," was first used in corset construction. Brocade was used for the more eXpensive corsets. The popular fabric for the "bust bodice" was coutil. "Corset waists" were to be faund in sateen. In the Sears, Roebuck fall catalogue for 1900, there was advertised a "bust form" which seemed to serve the same purpose as modern day "falsies." This was constructed of "tempered braided 39 wire" covered with lawn. The "bust perfector” was to be found in jean and satin for winter; and net for summer. Corset covers were made of thinsilk, nainsook, muslin, and cambric. There were also knitted corset covers, usually of cotton Egyptian yarn. Irawers and.knickers were of delicate as well as dura— ble fabrics..Knickers were more frequently of woven materi- als. It was of note that the flannel and alpaca knickers .had detachable nainsook linings. Drawers were more frequent- ly found in such fabrics as muslin, cambrie, India longcloth, lawn, nainsook, "washing" silk, and satin. The chemise and the undervest, which were frequently worn next to the skin, were found in only washable fabrics . such as muslin, cambric, linen, lawn, and batiste, with the exception of silk undervests. I It should be recalled that the slip was worn during this period only under summer dresses. It was usually of a transparent fabric. Combinations were of nainsook, wool, flannelette, and silk. The range of fabrics for petticoats was greater than the range of fabrics for any other undergarment worn during this period. This range included: cambrio, lawn, batiste, .cotton sateen or "heatherbloom," moirette, mercerized sateen, Rusleen cloth, crepe de Chine, glace silk, charmeuse satin, Mo "washing" silk, taffeta, triple ninon, flowered silk, all- silk satin, and knitted flannel. While silk taffeta was considered the more desira— , ble fabric from the standpoint of beauty, cotton taffeta 1 was actually chosen by the greater number of women 5 because of its.low initial cost and greater durabilityu / The silk taffetas of the early 1900's must have been ' heavily weighted, for there was continued reference to their cracking and.Splitting. Of interest was a "bridal petticoat” of white brocaded satin With scalloped flounces of white Spanish lace and ruffles of chiffon beneath. Knitted garments were of cotton, all wool, part wool, merino, and part silk. However, most union suits were of coutil or lisle. The hosiery of this period was of great variety. The "more practical" hose were of cotton and lisle while silk and cashmere hose were worn.by the "fashionable." The silk stockings of 1909, sometimes called "boot silk" stockings, were constructed "in relation to the clothing worn. The silk extended only part way up the leg, the knitting being continued with cotton yarn."26 Hose supporters were mostly of coutil. ‘T I) 25BI", 9-20 2%., pp. 251-2520 I'd) 26Ilib1c1., p. 256. 41 . Nightgowns worn during this period seem to have been restricted to the "more serviceable" fabrics, namely, muslin, cambric, and flannel. Nainsook gowns were worn by the ”fashiona— ble.“ Eiderdown robes were quite p0pular. Kimonos and bedp jackets for lounging, were of a wide variety of delicate fabrics including cotton crepes, silk, sheer wools, delicate painted chiffon, and figured lawn. Dressing sacques were more fre- quently of percale, challis, crepe de Chine, and wool. -tThroughout this period, white retained its place as the most popular color for undergarments. However, undergarments of color were used, but the production of colored undergar- ments seemed to have been related to cost; the more eXpen- sive undergarments were usually to be found in colors. Pink, blue, yellow, or flesh brocade corsets were common. In some of the hobble—skirts, so popular after 1910, every seam was left Open from the hemline to the knee. These were invitations to the use of the bright colored petticoat.27 Slips matched the color of the dress with which they were worn e ? 27Annette Laverne Mayo -"A Study of Fashion in Women's Clothing From 1910 to 1943 J (unpublished Master's thesis, State University of Iowa, owa City, 19H6), p. 7. M2 The two undergarments which were found in the widest variety of colors during this period were petticoats and hosiery. Petticoats were found it black, gray, white, and pastels as well as bright stripes and plaids. Black hosiery with.white feet, toes, and heels, were the most popular but hosiery was frequently advertised in assorted colors. Light colored hosiery was generally worn only in the summer and with evening wear. Brew mentionned the use of black shoes , I with scarlet hosiery at exclusive balls during this period.23 Robes were mostly of neutral colors but dressing sacques were frequently found in pastel Colors as well as black and gray. Due to the great variety of undergarments performing similar functions during the first decade of the twentieth century, an explanation of the ways in which they were worn seemed justified. Between 1890 and 1913, there was a noticeable decrease in the weight and amount of underwear worn at one time; Some factors to which this change seemed attributable included: more effective heating in homes and public places; possibly the increased use of an outer coat; the inappropriateness of many layers of clothing for the new "active life"; and the 263:”, 92. 921., p. 257. 1*3 higher standards of cleanliness whivh encouraged use of light weight fabrics for frequently laundered garments. This last factor also accounted for he gradual decline of extremely decorated undergarments. The "excessively tight" dress, fashionable in 1912, was also an important factor in the gradual reduction in the layers of underclothing worn. Brew gave a composite sumnary of the ways in which the various undergarments were worn. The corset was placed on top of the close-fitting union suit or vest and then were superimposed the corset cover and drawers. The chemise might have replaced the corset cover and skirt drawers . On 30p of all this was worn the petticoat or petticoats.2 The use of knit underwear seemed to have been a deter- mining factor in the Specific undergarments worn. If a knitted vest or union suit was worn under a corset, the chemise was worn in place of the corset cover. In warm weather, when union suits and even corsets were not worn, the chemise was commonly the single undergarment. When union suits were worn, "skirts“ [drawers without a crotch] were worn in preference to "drawers.I 29BI3W, O . Git., p. 224-5. in; Cunnington noted that "corsets and stockings were often worn with [Q] bathing costume." This was "fully justified when a gallery of Spectators has to be faced.“30 Concerning the amount of underwear considered."basis" .irlthe wardrobe, there has been much speculation. Brew srtated that "by 1907 the knit-underwear industry alone was lacroducing sufficient to furnish the American people, on the aawrerage per person basis, 3.306 shirts and drawers, plus C)..323 combination.suits. This would have meant the equiva- J.<31rt of two sets a year.”1 The June 1907 issue of the Ladies' World suggested tl‘la‘b ' V - four sets of underwear will provide a comfortable outfit, and, if necessary, one can manage satisfactorily with three. This will incluie nightdress drawers, corset cover, chemise, short under—petticoat and long outer petticoat. he list may be varied, omitting, for instance, the chemise if the corset cover and short under—pettiu coat are provided, or uniting the corset cover with either the under—petticoat or the drawers in one of the prin— cess models for these combination garments. In 1912, Carolyn Radnor-Lewis, writing for Good.House— E§£§i£§lfl£§b suggested.a supply of underclothes for the school- girl. \ W" E? 300. Willett Cunnington, English Women’s glotfiiflg_in the .lsgsgsent Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 19527, pp. 75—7 C‘x 31Brew, 92, 913,, pp. 471—472. LL5 r1 ihe supply of underclotnes Should include four to six union suits; the same number of muslin combinations; three nightdresses; plenty of stockings— a dozen will not be too many, for the schoolgirl has little time to darn— three or four white petticoats; at least two dark silk or jersey petticoats; a pair or two of black woven tights; plenty of handkerchiefs, and two pairs of corsets, one for everyday, and the other for evening and "dress- up occassions. Prices of women's undergarments were moderate. Wendt spoke of the "elegant wardrobe" of 1907, reported in the (3;;icago Tribune to cost $100. Undergarwents included in this ‘rrzardrobe were: silk petticoat, $3.95; white shirt, $1.95; “irwvo corsets, $2.00; three pairs of stochings, $1.00; and "underthings," $320.32 Sears, Roebuck and Company advertised corsets ranging 1?:Irc3m 25¢ to $10.00. Three—fifths of these corsets cost less 133:151n $1.00 and a popular price range for corsets during his I)“53:riod was the $1_$3 range. The more costlier corsets ranged 2E.ZI.‘c>m ten to fifty dollars. Brocade corsets were frequently EBJil‘vertised from $35.00 to $50.00. In ggpd.Housekeeping in lrfE9<38, there was mentionned a French shop in a large American C: 5L1by which displayed its "highest priced corset" at $360.00. Prices of corset covers, as advertised in the Sears, Roebuck catalogues, ranged from £3¢ to .ip'lfl‘S'. Nine—tenths of iSlices advertised were less than 50¢. \ “;T l 32Lloyd Wendt and Herman Kogan, Give the Lady What She, \lants (Chicago: Rand he Nelly and Co::;pany, 1952),.pp. 278—2? 9 /. 1L6 Emawers and knickers ranged in price from 18¢ to $1.65. Three-fourths of those advertised in the Sears, Roebuck catalogues were less than 75¢. Chemises and undervests were priced at a low of 8¢ and .a high of 98¢, the cost increasing with the delicacy of the fabric. .. Combinations could be bought for as little as 98¢. The 11:1ghest priced combination noted cost $1.29. A cambric petticoat could be bought for as little as 2559¢u Hewever, petticoats had a wide price range with a noted 23.jngh of $40.00. The pOpular priced ones ranged from $1.00 to $3.00. I Knitted undergarments were relatively low-priced. A 3L.jLssle union suit could be bought for 40¢. However, Sears, I{C‘Jebuck and Company advertised coutil union suits as high 53-53 $2.50. Vests ranged from 14¢ to $2.25. Hosiery could be bought for as little as 10¢ and as much as $75.00. Cotton hose generally cost less than 25¢. L isle hose were priced from 25¢ to 50¢ and silk hose ranged from 75¢ to $1.25. Brew concluded that the popular range for silk and :L-j.sle hosiery was the $1-$l.25 range.33 33Brew, 92: cit., p. 259. 47 Sears, Roebuck and Coupany advertised coutil double strap hoes supporters from 8¢ to $1.25. Safety belt hose supporters were priced at 22¢ and elastic garters were 10¢. high gowns, also, showed a wide range of prices. Those (of the more durable fabrics were priced from 35¢ to $2.00. 1“:e typical price was $1.00. However, a gown of a delicate jfadmdc cost as much as $18.50. . . Robes and negligees were priced from $3.98 to $49.98, aazld dressing sacques‘from 98¢ to $1.48, as advertised.by Sears, Roebuck and Co..:pany. i Underwear was frequently bought in sets. Bridal sets We re very popular and stamped sets to be e:.~:broidered were VV’fiLciely purchased. In a Sears, Roebuck catalogue published- 5—1iL 1905, there were advertised "trousseau outfits" including 5‘ '“own, unierskirt, drawers, and corset cover, in cambric H) 0 '5‘ $5.98 and in nainsook for $8.05. In noting fanily budgets, suggested and actual, noted jtlil "women's magazines" published during the first decade c>313' the twentieth century, the percentare of the yearly if Eiirnily income allowed for clothing averaged from one-tenth ‘t3<:> one-twentieth of the total annual income.34 \ M 5‘/34 See issues of Good Housekeeping for January 1907, I) . 69; May 1907, p. 509; and March 1909, p. 308. #8 As regards underclothing in the clothing budget, Brew noted budgets prepared during this period, which permitted an estimate of the amounts of an eXpenditures for under- wear among people with low incones. Neill's estimate for the woman of hassachusetts was two flannelette petticoats, two drawers, plus an additional expenditure of 70¢ for winter undershirts. Chapin allowed but one petticoat with an additional eXpenditure of 50% for summer underwear and $1.00 for winter underwear. 5 Brew also mentionned sous articles which appeared in zziaigazines about 1909 concerning the "cost of living." UPZHuese articles helped in estimating budget allowances for Supplement ing the undwr‘vear wardrobe. A woman who clothed a fatily of four on $70.00 a year listed her yearl additions (most of which were probably made at home as one dark underskirt, one white muslin undershirt three gauze shirts, two vests, two cotton union suits (with two patched ones onihand), silk ruffled drawers, and corset covers. Another woman living in the country, while Specifying none of her undergarments except a dark petticoat and a muslin petticoat, stated that her "summer underwear was made chiefly from bleached flour-sacks." A contributor to Har er's Bagaar_who had a monthly clothes allowance of $5.00 (plus some extra at Christmas) stated: "In Karch I use the allowance for underwear, buying three pieces of longcloth for $1.25 a piece, making four nightgowns, five pairs of drawers, five corset covers, and two skirts." (The rest of the money she used for edging and insertion.) Ida Hamilton listed in the wardrobe she 35Brew, 92. 93.1., p. LL73. 49 planned for a woman, who was to Spend less than $50.00 a year for all clothing: 2 woolen union suits $5.00 2 flannel underskirts 1.25 1 black sateen underskirt (for Winter) 1.00 4 pairs of cotton drawers , . 1.60 gauze undervests 1.00 3 corset covers .75 '1 corset 1.00 2 white undershirts (for summer) 2.00 These were to be purchased over a period of four years with an annual expenditure of about $5.60, $1.00 of which was to be used for a corset a year. To have on hand five or six pair§6of drawers was apparently, not an uncommon practice. - In the May 1906 issue of the Ladies' World, an article ‘EKIDxDeared which gave suggestions for remodelling old.petti- Coats. One reason for the appearance of this article was the negative reaction given to the then current fashion by tile budget of the average woman in 1906. The prevailing fashion that insists on a petticoat to match each COStume, and of equal pretensions to style so that its harmonious blending may delight the critical eye when the dress skirt is daintily uplifted over muddy streets, is plunging all beruffled feminity into woeful eXpenditure, simply because the perplexing edict is met with the purse and not with the brain. Diversity in petticoats is more than one of fashion's essentials, for it is merely conforming to hygenic prin» ciples and the unwritten laws of cleanliness as to perso- nal linen; but beyond some half-dozen selections in all, embracing the Cambric ones of the summer-time and the taffeta or practical sateen or moreen for winter's rigo- rous demands, the average woman cannot afford to acquire more, and one silk skirt generally has to suffice for "best“ wear, no matter what the coloring of the gown it accompanies. 35Brew, pp, g;3,, pp. #73—474. 50 GLOSSARY I batiste— soft, sheer fabric of plain weave. beading and entre deux- lace like edging made of loOps. laias- in fabric, a diagonal line running at angle of #5 degrees to selvage of fabric. / o o broche- fabric woven with raised figure. 0 ambric- fine, closely woven, white or yarn-dyed warp - . cotton fabric in plain weave with gloss on right . side. camisole- under-bodice, usually with stre‘s.ignt tOp and shoulder straps of ribbon, lace, or self—material. Challis- light—weight, plain weave fabric without gloss. (riflernise— loose garment hanging straight from shoulders, covering torso. £§L3L13n1_1ace— bobbin lace made of heavy linen thread, usually in large, open deSigns. 524:311til- firm, sturdy type of drilling made of nardptwisted yarns; usually cotton, in twill or figured.weave. aderdown- warm, light-weight knitted elastic cloth with napped surface. Elfi§zatherblocm- Specially finished cotton sateen. ish crochet- crocheted lace with shamrock and rose designs. Ii ;1_S3§gr heavy, tWilled cotton fabric. §§;r1ickers- loose breeches, usually banded below the knee. .]~£Iwn~ fine, soft, sheer fabric; usually cotton in plain weave, filled with starch or sizing. 51 lisle- a fine, hard~twisted cotton. longclothr fine, soft octton, bleached.but unfin':ned. Maderia work- embroidery of overcast eyelets on linen or cambric. .muslin— soft cotton fabric of firm, loose, plain weave. liainsook- soft, light-weight, bleached cotton in plain weave with soft, lustrous finish on one side. Iiinon— stout chiffon; in plain weave; of hard—twisted yarns with open mesh. Eegtop- wide at top and narrow at bottom. AI231s1een cloth- cotton taffeta. Es'tays- pieces of stiffening used in corsets. .QPcDIChon lace- coarse, bobbin lace of linen. Koke- fitted portion of a garment, usually over shoulder or hip, to which the rest of the garment is sewed. 52 1914.1918 Social change. The four years from 1914 to 1918 vitnessed the first World War. The struggle for woman suffrage had again come into .strong focus. As Dorothy Dix wrote in Good Housegeeping in :L9l6, “The'modern girl is a suffragist by instinct. She Cioesn't argue about equal rights for women. She simply takes 't;Leu for granted.”37 Due to the great protest against suffrage, that was still 'E> illustrated at ° ° "63 the left was wide- .ly worn in 1918 and shows the gradual trend toward conserva— tism in style during the war. 114‘", V 520. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The .3 History of Underclothes (London: Lichael Joseph, 1951) , p' 2290 64 Bloomers were worn throughout the period in Spite of 1311611: very strong competitor, the combination. hiss Lillian Drew, instructor in gymnastics in Teachers' College considers the corset—waist [corset cover], from the side buttons of which hangs a pair of bloomers, a most satisfactory type of underwear for the girl in her teens. Bloomers are largely re- placing the petticoat nowadagg . . . and they encourage freedom of outdoor exercise. ~ There were two types of combinations fashionable during til. i 8 period; the "teddy," illustrated at the r 19;;1t, which was simply a chemise with a con— W‘ 7/ 'nec ‘ting piece forming a crotch, and "cami— lk:r1:j_<3kers“ also referred to as "chemi-knick- era.” These were actually under— slips, worn over the corset. A button and a loop were at the hem , to catch the skirt together in \\ “divided skirt fashion.” The "non—fashionable" but generally Worn COmbiLTtiOD illustrative of the more con— servative styles is pictured at the left. 1he acceptance of styles created by Paul Poiret resulted in a drastic reduction in the 53Sarah Coustock "Today's Schoolgirl," ggod Housekeepg L._23L_63: 191, October, 1914. 65 ‘zerJJflbeI and elaboration of petticoats. There was no room for .ea:l.z£borate petticoats underneath the then fashionable tight gglgzjrrt. However, the short, wide outer—skirt typical of the ‘vvzarr' period brought back the use of several petticoats neces- saaagzry'to.support the outer-skirt. Underneath these petticoats was worn a new form of s 11 i rt-knickers, very full. 1 and wide, seal- lop ed and trimmed with :- i'bbon with an elastic bal-Ld at the waist to ke-L-jp them in place. With the wider skirts of 1915 and 1916, the garment _ petticoat had a brief return of its ancient glory. yoked and fitting close at the hips, it became wide at -the hem and much flounced and frilled.“The petti— coat is a truly ex- nuberant-tempestuous affair' (1916). ”Not a few are set out ‘ with a line or two of wire,‘ and there were fears of the crinoline return— ing in the midst of a world war.5 \ \/’/: 540. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, The History of x3hderclothes (London: Michael Joseph, l951), pp. 2279229. 66 With the wider skirts of 1915 "some petticoats are divided into two wide legs and covered with frill- ing.'55 The 1916 petticoat was characterized by a double panel of fabric down the front, necessitated by the use of more 1: r anSparent fabrics. Near the end of the period, the grim— ‘ ne 8 s of th: war had fostered a more conser- thEL'tzlve pettlcoat which was slightly longer 1 t ’\ . 1 . \ ti 1:13.:a;n the preV1ous ones and had a stralght— '} “ lieaLringing flounce. It is illustrated at the ‘ 2::1.gg;ht. X - 1 1i 1 In 1916, the "modern" . . . A 811 neared for evenln a: P ap- a AL[ W“ n (f_‘f wear, usually cut on the straight." It is illustrat- A t, ed at the left. / Plain hose were worn throughout the war, eSpecially by working Women. Hiwever, hosiery with contrasting embroidery and lace remained @Ei:~—~\__,wi.— the more fashionable. £11 (§$11¥lflki£ -' A romantic note was struck during the war with 'regimental-crcsted undies,' and 'what could he more delightfully sentimen— tal than his name embroidered on one's garter?'56 \% 55C. Willett and Phillis Cujnington, The History of, 'Qggerclotles (London: Michael Joseph, 1951), p. 231. 56Ib1d., p. 22h. 67 ‘During the earlier part of this period, nightgowns 1nrea:re Empire style, just-above-ankle length, and had very full flared skirts. A typi— cal garment of this type is illustrated at the right. ‘ 'How our grandp mothers would have won- dered could they have seen the underwear of the present day, so gos- samer, with low-necked nightgowns and their short sleeves, to say nothing of the soft, dainty negligee, an extravagent necessity of the hour. Some of the nightgowns are abso- lutely sleeveless . . .' Toward the end of the period, the "conservative" nightgown assumed a straight silhouette. A typical garment of this type is illustrated /’ at the left. , L \ V570. Willett Cunnington, English Women's Clothing in the ¥2E§§ent Century (London; Faber and Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 137. 68 The typical pajama style of the earlier part of —t;115is-period had an Enpire waiStline and was very full around tne hips. A garment c):f? ~this type is illuatrated at the right. Tot? ard the end of the period, the "modern" ta ilored pajamas were in wide use. Throughout the war, the interest in the Otient which had , begun at the time of the Russo~Japanese War continued to be seen, through the great demand for Japa— nese kinonae. Durmc’ 6' this period, these p0p~ ular lounging garments were characterized'by a "draped silhouette." By 1917, there was aznajor change seen in fabrics used for lingerie— the C“\"t'éi-lege from linen and ‘oatiste to silk and other soft, cling- ii‘fié§ fabrics. Cotton underwear departments in stores had com- Ey3~E3‘tely disappeared. Prior to the war, ur derwear h d been.made QT delicate linen and gossamer cottons from northern Frmce anClBelgium until the German army out off this supply‘to Pari- 69 £3 ian manufacturers. Lyons, the center of the silk indus— try, enjoyed great prosperity during the war. Thus, the IL jLiigerie manufacturers had turned to Lyons for a fabric 1;};rait would take the place of cottons and linens formerly- us ed. The designers of lingerie had been very much dis- iszzgzrbed over this necessitated change, but the crepe is C313.j_ne that they chose had.made such a satisfactory garment 1:}:L52;t silk underwear became the mark of fasnion distinction. There is a decided vogue for . . . crepe de Chine due largely to its reasonable wearing qualities. It is a little more expensive to buy in the beginning t batiste or nainsook but it outlasts other fabrics. 8 During this period, corsets were available in varied :fzaL121rics. It was around the beginning of the war that the f:j_:z:£3t machine knitted fabric for use in corset construction 'v:2_£3 produced. This marked the first time that an elastic f‘"1e - ~ ‘El£=>zric was produced which Was not made of rubber. Most cor— :seefib:s3 included some elastic inserts, but for the most part were of fabrics such as coutil, cotton brochette, batiste, eta ‘. -~ ' n ' ‘I ,. ' ,- '1 «*‘iine, nainSOOk, silk brocade, and brucne. Brassieres or "handeaus" as they were often called were . ‘ 0 w I - I 7.. I J- I D “Ekcauea of Silk brocade, Silk Jersey, "wash" satin, satin ribbon, catxrftbric, muslin, mesh, lace, and Irish crochet. \ K...— 58Helen Koues, "Fashions,” gpod ngsekeeping, 64:54—56, 3 anuary , 1917 . 70 The fashionable fabrics for the chemise were crepe de 'C31srine, voile se soie, and tulle. However, ch mises were to 't)€3' found of batiste, nainsook, and linen. The camisole was of satin, Georgette crepe, messaline, (3:1r63pe de Chine, and "lingerie cloth." Knickers in satin and mull were worn, but in 1917, silk czzrreape de Chine bloomers becane quite popular. Bloomers of Eniirthted.silk, nabutai silk, and chiffon were also quite f a shionahle . Combinations were mostly of crepe fie Chine, but around 't;}3;63 beginning of the war, mull combinations were widely worn. Petticoats were of a wide range of fabrics; the more fashionable ones were crepe de Chine, satin, silk messaline, 'tJC'ZiJQle ninon, and radium silk. Chiffon was a popular trim- ;a:i£;1g3. The less exrensive petticoats were frequently of flan— rlfail— , cotton foulard, cambric, twilled cotton, nainsook, taf- feta, and Rusleen cloth. Host of the hosiery was silk, creating a delicate back- i5rVC>1;1nd for the decorative steel Spa-112516S and heads used on n . 310x" hose and for lace insertions. Union suits were of different weights of cotton, silk, aaridl. merino. The fashionahle fabrics for-nightgowns included voile- GUS---soie, Chiffon, Georgette crepe, crepe de Chine, and fig- rlined lawn. The less eXpensive nightgowns were of cambric, ‘nainsook, and batiste. 71 The pajamas of the earlier part of this period were mostly of crepe de Chine. However, as these sleeping gar- ments became more tailored, the typical fabrics became batiste and flannelette. Robes, kimonas, and negligees were of satin, crepe de Chine, chiffon, China silk, Challis, cotton crepe, and mull. The undergarments of the earlier part of this period were lavishly trimmed with laces, ribbons, shirring, and hemstitching. ‘ he colors of undergarments have never been so varied than in this period. White was still extremely popular, but it was rapidly being abandoned in favor of ivory, sky—blue, pink, flesh, lemon, heliotrope, and'black. It was interesting to note the varied uses of different undergarments during this period. As the corset went lower brassieres and bust con— finers became generally worn.5 A The brassiere takes the place of the camisole.60 We should.note in passing that for winter the com— bination had already made its appearance the old chemise and pantaloons being completely demoded.61 _ 59M.D.C. and.Guernsey Crawford, The History of Carsets :1.n.Pictures (New York: Fairchild Publications,_Tncorporated, 3~9‘51), p. 35. . -'——* 6°C. Willett Cunnington, English Women's Clothin in the 1Eiresent Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1§52), p. 132. w 61James Lever, Taste and Fashion (New York: Dodd, Mead E:nd.Company, 1938), pp. 176:' 72 The great discrepancy of opinion regarding which under- ggarnents should be worn was of great concern to many. So very closely does it [underwear] concern us that Dr. Ralph Oakley Clock, of the Anerican Public Health Association, once said: "All that sanitarians really ask for is full control over the underwear." This is an over—modest demand, but it shows the im— portance of the questionp a question on Which doctors disagree, while manufacturers reap a harvest from their disagreement. Union suits it snogld be in winter— that point, at least is fairly agreed. 2 The thrifty attitude necessarily prevailing during the latter part of this period motivated a writer for the Ladies' Home Journal to mahe an appeal to home sewers, to make use of the underclothing on hand which was not being worn.63 Some suggestions were as follows: Nightgowns, used to make infant's dresses, children's petticoats, cheniSes and corset covers; Chemises, out of which could be made children's and infant's petticoats, baby—pillow cases, petticoat tops, <3hildren's aprons, and handkerchiefs; and knitted herments (Eflj.cotton or wool mixed) for children's underwear (shirts zarm.drawers), babies' abdominal bands, socks and stockings, CDIJildren's psttiCoats, wristlets, and mittens. ‘ “/628arah Comstock, "Today's Scioolgirl," Good Housekeep- .££g£13LI 6%:72—73, October, 1910. //63Ida Cleve Van Anken, "The Clothes we All Have on Hand," lEsuggdies' Home Journal, 35:32, October, 1918. 73 Prices of undergarments at the beginning of this period ‘were moderate. However, there was a sharp rise in prices during the war. The Bureau of Labor Statistics compiled a Cost of Living Index for the years 1914 to 1921,64 in which ‘was noted the increase in the cost of clothing. Assuming July 1914 as a base (100 = $1.00), the cost of clothing had increased to 182.? by 1918, the dollar being then worth 55¢. The price ranges to be assumed as "typical" of this period were average prices after the devaluation of the dollar. The average price for corsets during this period was $4.00. However, a corset could be bought for as little as $2.00 and as much as $50.00. The price range fer brassieres was $l.00 to $4.00, the $1.50 or $2.00 brassiere was more frequently advertised. Chemises ranged in price from less than $1.00 to $12.00. However, the more popular range was from $1.25 to $3.00. Camisoles could be bought for as little as 95¢ and as much as $6.00. Bloomers and knickers showed considerable variance in JSNIices, depending upon the style and the fabric. -. 6""Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics in ‘:=iooperation with Bureau of Avricultural Economics, "Rural amiiy Living,“ October, 191+ , p. 0-2:. 71+ T11C>se of more delicate fabrics ranged from $}.00 to $7.00 Vrhiile the more pOpular price was $2.00. Petticoats showed a wide price range. Those of cotton c3cruld be bought for as little as 29¢ but the silk ones were s11: least $5.00. The average price for petticoats was $2.00. Plain silk hose ranged in price from 95¢ to $5.95. Iicrwever, those with embroidery and the "clox" hose were iisnially around six or seven dollars. Cotton union suits were priced from 50¢ to $2.00. The Inserino and silk ones often cost as much as $6.00. The typical price for nightgowns during this period was €$EB.95. However, cambric ones could be bought for as little sass M9¢. Some of the fashionable "voile—ds-soie" gowns were fir iced as high as $11.75. An average price for fashionable lounging gowns was 5$ZL.€LED. Some of the chiffon negligecs cost as much as $30.00. At the beginning of this period, before the full imp ‘$>21Tilrnand of fashion. It was recommended that one should have "three pairs of corsets for daily use"; a Sports corset for motoring and Sports, a corset for ordinagg wear, and a fine flexi- ble brocade corset.for evening. \ . 3K 65Crawford and Guernsey, 92- Cl ., P0 35- 75 The silk stocking craze did not ueeone general until 1917 when practically every woman was earning . . . As the months passed Women of the upper classes dressed more and more plainly, even shabggly. Smart clothes were looked upon with disfavour. —— VI 660 Willett, English Women's Clothing_in the Present Century (London: Fa'oer andTiber Ltd., 1952), p. 12927 76 GLOSSAFY II ‘ C211 .iffon-isoft, delicately sheer fabric in plain weave; often used double. C=c>tton foulardp soft, fine, mercerized cotton fabric, plain or printed, on twill weave. garrepe de Chine- lustrous, finely crinkled, washable fabric; plain or printed; usually of silk. (sitinoline- fabric or hair stiffened silk or cotton, used as a foundation for support. Originally made of horsehair and linen. (Sfeorgette crepe— sheer, highly creped fabric of fine texture; plain woven of high—twist yarns. c-O ssamer— sheer, 131-111, flimsy; thin, Soft, gauze-like fabric. ha'butai— thin, soft, plain-woven, washable .. - in Japan. silk fabric made heliotrope- tint of purple—blue. h emst itcning- ornamental needlework. $2163:Iino- fine wool-of merino sheep. me sh— network, netting, or s, aces enclosed by threads. W— light—weight satin fabric. %- soft, sheer, plain woven light silk or cotton in white - and colors. .EZ£§E£;;3§;Q2n§r during eighteenth.century, closely fitted trousers fastened at calf; modern adaptation of pantalets consisting of long leg portions of sheer fabric fastened at ankle, for wear under hoop skirts or wide flaring evening dresses. 77 shirrin - three or ..1ore rows of gat1*eri..g. ELK-LL? fine, small-meshed net. V0 ile‘de soie-g plain, fine, trans-parent fabric. 723 1919-1928 Social change. This period was characterized by far—reach- iLIig;conflicts in morals, religious themes, and the many I>Iroblems of a post-war world. A fundamental change in American psychology presented itself in the form of irreSponsible attitudes and the "eat— so NH mm.m mu.m. mm.m emu as .monmammsnn m oo.oH oo.OH oo.o~ oo.ma omssm>s as .mpomnoo maaem m om.H @ om.H a om.H # eom pm .mpmmb m .Hh can. .Hh dam .ana pmH ooahnoamomlnsoeaoesn gmHu mmmszem sea mom amanpm mangoes mmHH sense 105 TABLE 111101 CLOTHES BUDGET USED BY EhPLOYEES OF THE OAPwsLL COMPANY, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA Undergarments _ Price Price per yr. To last . 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Home see my HHOHomsOH Ho omHaono sHImopm "mmHeHmmmomz .Hh Hp: .Hh can .95 dam .9» pmH mpdessmmnoess mooHHm msmm om: Hme HOHHHOO Ema mom BHUQDm mamaoqo aoH> sqmaa 108 .mmmH .Hmdcsd .mmum: .HmcH500 oaom .mmH00H ..mmessusesom seem one HHH0 omoHHoo map HOH Homesm H. .HomHHHa pmhemsms "mohsom 00H .0memms HH .mHeHHm oHHmsHH .mHOHOHsH cacao Hoos .mpmob weHHHGH .mpsesnmm msHQOOHm mppoHesseHH .mopmsHHo 0Hoo HH0> Hob AmHoHonH HHHm Hsmdv HemeHoes: HHHm who: "mmHHHHHmHmmom till 00.mH till 00.mH ososHH.HHHm lull III: till 00.0H eposzaen same mac 00.0 00. 00.m 00.m .00.HH He mmHmHmmsHp amuse 00.H 00.H 00.H 00.H , Hampo pHoH N 90 H ..HH Home so: HV deHm deppoo mHHas nun: 00.0 11:: 00.0 HammHoH MHHm Ho sHpem ameev aHHm aHHm mpHas :11: 00.0 uusa 00.0 Haomw H HHHm Ho sHpem ems: aHHm HHHm Hugo 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 . H.9H some see H eeompane HHHm 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 .00.m$ emmnoh4 .9» Home son My assess .oHHob..HooweHms toosonmmmud Hmsomnmn 0p msHeaooow .seompane no mesmnmm 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.0 00.00.000Hma4 .Hmpo HHmH H .H» some .. Ros HV mHeHmmer mHmHoHsH:.pmo> Ipem HHHm 0m.:& om.: a .0m.: a 0m.: @ .vem w 0m.mw pmoo ommsebm .Hoems op maesmse 000 mpme>.fid .Om.H omsH0>< AnnabelpHoH m ..H» Home sec m .090 .OHHO> .MoomsHes Ho omHsozo sH mpm_ «mmHaHmmmomz .Ha 00H .9» 0am .HH 0cm .Ha pmH mpcessmmsmpss mmOHHm _ mOHHP qudfi. mma4filhn4mm mwsm on; HmHo HGQHHOO HEB mom emoobm mHmBOHO 109 GLOSSARY III albatross- soft, light—weight, woolen material with slightly creped surface. In plain or fancy weave; usually in light colors. Bayadere silk- silk fabric, striped crosswise in multicolor design. cashmere- soft, fine wool. dotted swisgv fine cOtton fabric with embroidered, swivel, or chemically applied dots. Filet lace- knotted Open-mesh lace with darned patterns. Mgdras- firm cotton fabric, usually striped; woven in satin, basket, or figured weaves. 110 1929-1932 Economic change. By the end of the previous period, Specula- tion in business and "artificial profits" had b come a wide- spread fad. At a time when the greatest economic need of the United States was a more equitable distribution of the wealth derived from industrial develOpments, there was a widespread tendency for the use of devices which enabled a select few to profit from these industrial develophents. One of these devices was companies merging during the period of inflated prices. With the "piling of holding com— panies one upon another," the result was that the profits of all of these companies fell into the hands of relatively few stockholders. In additiOn, banks were or5anized by these "finan— cial kings" and depositors funds were used to make investments in securities and real estate. A frequent practice was to in— flate the profits of a corporation by selling stock back and ‘ forth at continuously rising prices. The tactics of this prac- tice were to find new buyers for the higher-priced stock, the corporation profiting at the eXpense of the stockhOlder. The danger of this and similar practices was that . . . bank after bank and company after company- and their dqaositors and employees would be hard hit. The irre— Sponsible actions of men who did not stop to think that‘they were constructing a caricatuie of the capitalist system were paving the way for disaster. 06 105A11en, 9p. cit., pp. 1140-141. 111 There were several other factors which contributed to a depreSSion during this periOd. Production had risen much higher than consumer demand. Another factor was the increase in tech— nological'developments for which there was not enough trained :nanpower. Also, buying on the installment plan had become a wideSpread practice. All of the previously mentioned factors contributed to the collaSpe of the stock market on Tuesday, October 29, 1929. The Ibpression was an economic disaster of terrifying pro- portions. The Standard Statistics Index of Common Stock Prices indicated the extent of inflation. Assuming the year 1926 as a base (stock prices averaged 100), the price of stocks had in— creased to 127 in 1927, to 148 in 1929, and in September 1929, stocks of common prices averaged 216. ‘The Brookings Institution estimated that in 1929, only.2,3 per cent of American families had yearly incomes of over $10,000¢ Eight per cent had incomes Of over $5,000 and 91 per cent, incomes of less than $2,500. Sixty per cent had incomes of less than $2,000 a year, while 42 per cent had less than $1,000 a year. One of the Brookings economists stated that "at 1929 prices, a family income Of $2,000 may be regarded as sufficient to sup- ply only basic necessities."107 It was the ass mption that any 107Allen, 92, cit., pp. 143—144. 112 family with an annual income below $2,000 was at the poverty level; thus the impact of the depression is readily seen. In the year 1929, 60 per cent of American families had incomes of less than $2,000. I The depression had a tremendous impact upon education. Due to inadequate funds, private schools collaSped overnight, and public schools had to discharge teachers in large numbers. The school teams were shortened and equipment was at a minimum, over-crowded schoolrooms a prevalent phenomena. To make matters worse, the scarcity of jobs tended to make more persons, who or- dinarily would have been e ployed, remain in school "to pass their tile away.“ The impact of the depression was further seen in a report of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics.108 Assuming 1926 as a base year with an index figure of 100, wholesale prices declined from a typical 95.3 in.l929 to 65.9 in 1933. During these same four years, employment declined from 97.5 to 64.6 and payrolls from 100.5 to 44. In 1929, there were 12 million Americans unemployed. This situation marked millions of people- inwardly- for the rest of their lives . . . . The editors of Fortune wrote in 1936: nThe present—day college graduate is fatalistic . . . it will not stick its neck out. It keeps its pants buttoned, its chin up, and its mouth shut. If we take the mean average to be the truth, it is a cautious, subdued, unadventurous generation . . . 0 108A11en, op, cit., pp. 147—149. 1091100 o Cit. 113 undergarments as a reflgption of the period. The depression had encouraged fashions toward simplicity. The mind of the average American had returned‘to a state of normalcy. Vomen realized the desirability of the combination of freedom and femininity; hey had become increasingly interested in the "art of grace— ful living." This desire for femininity was "eXpressed in ful- ler, softer skirts, dipping hemlines, ruffles, frills, and other feminine touches, and a trend toward definition of the figure.110 - The narrow hipline and he natural waistline were the most outstanding characteristics of the new silhouette. Slenderness and height were emphasized. The bust had assumed a "naturally feminine curve.” Slenderness is the one necessary attribute for chic. There must be ‘no more slouching, no more leaning about. You must walk with a certain grace' wnieh is described suc- i cintly as 'tuch in your tail.f Briefly, the aim is 'to pro- Vide variety Without losing the slender outline and charm— ing ptoportions which express youth, grace and vigour.‘111 At the beginning of this period, the fashionable corsets were "Wrap-around" styles, longer over the hips than those of the previous pariod, and higher in front over the "indented waist- 1ine." V/ 1100. Willett Cunnington, English Women's Clothing in the Bresent Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 216} llngc. cit. 114 The tendency in the last few years to step into girdles and pull them up over the thighs is greatly re- sponsible for the roll of fat apparent at the waist. Many corsetieres urge women to put their corsets on oger the body to give a better distribution of fulness.1 The zipper was first used in cor- \ sets in 1929. This technological de— /////fl/ I< velopment provrded a more flex1ble and \Q§E.m—a\ smoother method for fastening corsets. It could be placed in the garment in such a way that the line silhouette was not intefered with. /y’ The "uplift" brassiere was intro- fk’” \>‘ duced in 1929. This style gave the busts a natural feminine look. It was de- signed so as to emphasize separation of the breasts. 1 Combinations continued to be worn during this period. They had a ”brassiere tOp." “Modern cami- knickers conform to the contours of the figure."113 V 112 Good Housekeeping, February 1930 P- 72. “/1130. Willett Cunnington, En 11 h Women' s Clothing in the Present Century (London: Faber am Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 101. '115 Worn With the "day" skirt of the 1930fls ‘ were knickers, then referred to as "trunks." \7 They fitted snugly at the knee and had no gathers. However, Open-leg panties, such as \\\\¢<;\\ those illustrated at the left, became popup W\ ' lar during this period. Slips had the fashionable dress—silheuette with a natural 'waist achieved through tucks, gores, or a bias out. Some slips had brassiere tOps. "It is important in this sea— son of revealing lines to have a slip that fits ’ \ (T //¥\ like the paper on the wall."114 6 At the beginning of this ' V . ( period, nightgowns were short , l I E (>' (calf length) and elaborate. ' ‘“ :J\“ ’j A typical one is illustrated at 1 2 the right. Many had tie belts, ‘ tiny puff sleeves, dropped shoul— A ders, bertha collars, and capes. [1 In 1930, the Empire style gown with a jacket was fashionable.. A_ By the end of the period, gowns __ «7; A lfltc. Willett Cunnington, English WOmen's Clothin in the Present Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd.,11952), p. 225. 116 had begun to show inspiration from evening modes. They were ankle length and_had long, flowing sleeves. They were cut on the bias, and the skirt eXpanded to great width at the hem through the use of godet pleats. Fashionable pajamas shoved several style changes. Instead of the tunic waist, the blouse was tucked in and usually sleeve- less. The trouser legs had added width so they resembled a,long skirt. The fashionable fabrics of this period were the "fragile and delicate ones.” Gossamer fabrics such as triple voile, chif— fon, and crepe turco were predominate in the higher—priced gar- ments. In the popular—priced garments, rayon aid jersey were the important fabrics, but the formerly-used varieties of cotton and other durable fabrics were still in use, eSpecially among college women. Lounging garments were of such fabrics as silk shantung, satin—backed crepe, and flat crepe. Lace trimmings were lavishly used on all the fashionable garments, the most outstanding of wnich were Valenciennes and Alencon. Other decorative touches included tiny tucks, pipings, hemstitcning, and incrustations of other fabrics. White remained a popular color. However, shades-that "dis- solve into white" were new in this period. Some of these were "shell pink,” "faint," "ivory beige,“ "palest turqoise," and "aquamarine.” These new colors added new attraction to fashiona— ble undergarments. 117 Cunnin5t0n Commented that One of the features of the year was a 5reater interest in colors; we learn that, 'Depressions, sociological and meteorological, cannot depress the woman who has just dis- covered an extremely becoming combination of colours. 'At the be 5innin5 of this pc riod, prices of under5erments were relatively hi5h, an expected phenomena durin5 a depression. The increased simplicity of styles and efficiency in production were factors considered in cases where prices appeared moderate. As the period pro5ressed, prices dropped 5radually. Corsets and girdles of this period ranged in price from $3.9 B to $7. 95 dependin5 upon the couplexity of construction. Most of the brassieres cost less than $1.00, due to the use of durable fabrics. The chenise was typically priced at $1.95 and $2.95 most of them bein5 the latter price. Bloomers, panties, and "trunks" showed a wide ran5e of prices. Panties could be bou5ht for as little as 33¢ but some of the elabo orately trimmed ones cost as much as $4. 95. One dollar was an avers a5e price for the KOSt popular styles. Combinatio;s usually cost $1.00 but there were not many on the market because of their gradual decrease in use. 9/; 115C. Willett Cunnin5ton, Egglish Women's Clothing in the_ Present Century (Lonvo on: Fe.h:er and Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 221. 118 A princess slip could be bought for as little as 89¢ but those of more delicate fabrics cost as much as $5. 5. The avera5e price was $2.00. Hosiery ranged in price from 50¢ to $2.00. Due to the in— creased purchase of rayon hosiery and the decrease in the use of silk hosiery, the popular price for hosiery was $1.00. It should be recalled that in the previous period, fasnionable silk hosiery cost at least $2.50. Nightgowns ranged in price from 89¢ to $6.50. The avera5e price was $1.50, explained by the use of durable fabrics in the pOpular-priced styles. Sleeping pajamas could be purchased for less than $1.00, but those of delicate fabrics cost at least $1.50. Some were. priced as high as $6.95. Lounging garments (including ne5ligess and loungin5 paja- mas) were very expensive throu5hout this period. They ranged from $9.75 to $19.75. The gradual decrease in prices durin5 this period was illustrated by the Trousseau Bud5ets proposed by gpod house— plgg_in 1930 and 1932. The 1930 bud5et allowed $386.15 for the entire trousseau, $65.00 of which was to Spent for lingerie, girdles, and stockings. The 1932 budget allowed only $254.45 for the entire budget, with $60.00 to Le Spent for undergar- ments. 119 GLOSSARY IV Alencon lace- needlepoint lace with solid design on net ground. crepe turco- a heavy, washable crepe cniffon. piping— narrow, bias fold or cord used as finish on ed5es. shantung— plain, rough, :ashable fabric; in natural color, solid color, or printed desi5ns. 120 1933-1939 Social change. The depression of the former period resulted A in a nation—wide interest in wholesome living and a tendency to ehphasize the importance of Stability and security. Sym- bols of class distinction had been lost in the former period during the nation—wide search for security, and "today— it is almost a social stigma to be rich— or at least to appear so.ull6 I The typical woman of this period was pridarily con— cerned with the "art" of homemaking and her efficiency on the job. Womenfs magazines were filled with recipes and other information of interest to the hoaemaker. In many publica— tions, interior decoration was emphasized at the expense of fashion advertisements, which had gradually decreased in the older publications. Vogue and Harper's Bazaar were the only two women's m gazines which continued to emphasize fashion. The new, serious—minded wo an was constantly made aware Ft, 0 her appearance, at a tine when WOren hed more responsibili— ties outsidc the hone than ever hefore.-This the beauty clinic became a highly patronized business. 116C. Willett Cunnington, English Women's Clothinggin thg: Eresent Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 226:. 121 In this period of "serious attitudes," general problems, facing the entire public held wideSpread.interest. One of these was the problem of consumer protection concerning manu— factured articles. The Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act was passed in 1906. This was a revision of‘a law passed in 1906. The re- vision stipulated more adequate tests for drugs, more detailed definitions of adulteration and mfisbranding, and heavier penal— ties for fake labels. Literature classifying various products as to price and quality was distributed by the government, and \ many groups busied’theaselves approving various products; among these were the Good housekeeping_magazine and the American Medi— cal Association. Consumer education courses were introduced in— to college curriculums and women's clubs Spent much time study— ing this problem. §9onomic change.-When Franklin D. Roosevelt became President of the United States on Larch 4, 1933, he undertook a agave re— Sponsibility in a nation characterized by complete economic col- laSpe. By the end of the period, this great leader had a record of many accomplishments aimed toward pushing America into a normal economy. He had developed the New Deal, the major objec- tive of which was to restore the farmer's purchasing power and his economic position to that of the pre—war period (August 1909 to July 1914). This was accomplished partly by inflation, but mainly by adjusting farm production to market requirements. Y Other objectives of the New deal were the reduction of farmer's ’1'. w‘ r ' 4 a '. ' ._ .fi . .7 ... r- -. ' -, ' d-‘r‘ ~.a,-\ - debts and rehabilitation or suoiaraincl iarmers. 122 The financial program of the New Deal had three objec- tives, namely, inflation, banking reform, and better super- vision ovcr the security and commodity exchange. The Roosevelt administration firmly believed that infla~ tion and a "managed currency" were necessary for recove y from the domestic depression. Need for the banking reform was indicated by the weakness of the banking structure and illustrated by the failure of 6,000 banks in 1929. Investigation by a Senate Committee on Banking and Currency had revealed that many banks had ignored sound, commercial banking practices and were engaged in the "reckless speculation" typical of the 1920's. Outstanding legis— lation during the banking reform was the Glass Steagell Act of 1931, which se arated security affiliates of tne Federal Reserve *6 system from parent banks. The Federal Deposit insurance Corpo— ration was organized to provide insurance on deposits for bank which were members of the Federal Reserve system and for state banks which desired to participate. This act also limited the use of Federal Reserve Bank credit for purposes of Speculation; it did not allow these banks to deal with foreign securities and it declared illegal the act of private banks as underwriters and promoters of security. The powe’ of national banks was in- creased with the establishment of branch banks in states where they were legal. 123 In the government program to supervise security and comlodity exchange, there was the Sale of Securities Act of 1953 which protected investors by requiring information re- garding new securities sold in interstate commerce, to be filed with the Federal Trade Commission. This legislation received much criticism from industrialists and stockholders; it was followed by a revision under tLB title, the Securities and Exchange Co mission Act which had as its function issuing licenses for all stock exchanges, requiring registration of all securities, defining the functions of dealers and brokers, and preventing the establishment of artificial prices. The chief objective of the National Industrial Recovery Act was to provide employment and stimulate industry. Under this act, the various industries were to work out "codes of fair competition" which would limit production, increase wages, snorten hours or labor, and stabalize prices. "It was clear that the NIRA was a retreat from laissez faire and rugged in- dividualism and a step toward cOOperation and economic plan- nin‘.ll7 I) 0 Roosevelt's objective of nation-wide econonic stability was further seen in his three—fold policy toward labor, and improvement of econonic security of the wage—earner through unemployment insurance and old age pensions. l17Harold Underwood Faulkner, American Political and Social Histzry (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, Incorporated, 19355: p.70. 124 During this period, there was a cozsiderable increase in tLG number of enployed women. The largest number of women were enployed in manufacturing, the next largest in donestic and personal service, a smaller number in clerical service, and a much smaller number in stores. "The "New Woman" now worked at nineteen million gainful jobs, controlled 80 per cent of the family budget, ani owned 70 per cent of the nation‘s wealth.”118 The latter part of this period witnessed an international crisis which was later to develop into the Second World War. A Undergarpents as a reflection of the period. The possibility of another world war fostered a nation—wide'sense of insecurity. ,The soirit founi reflection in the fashions designed for sex attraction, and we can read between the lines, in the cenment of a contemporary, who was discussing the changes since the first World War: 'Sport lengthened the leg, diminished the size of hands and feet, and promoted an approach to nudity . . . The 1920's were dominated by the post—war American flapper . . . the world has grown suddenly soberer and the dominant type of woman today is more mature. The ideal woman is long—legged, narrow-hipped and broad-shouldered to the verge of masculinity . . . Wide sleeves are now used to dininish the apparent size of hips . . . the dominant ideal is still indecendence, which means childlessness. The power of the film has been the spread of type-con ciousness to classes whip; have pre- viously knowi ;’.othi2'1g of such conceptions.' 19 lldwendt, QE.‘cit., p. 3%. //ll90. Willett Cunnington, English Women's Clothing in the t:— Eresent Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 233. 125 But by 1936, It is no longer smart to be slick, sleek and sexy; it is smart to be feminine in a new calm way, showing the body as a superb piece of sculpture, with breasts a definite waistline and emphasis on tie behind . . 1 Near the end of the period, women's appearance became ,more severe, less feminine, as the threat of war increased. corsets were similar‘in construction to those of the previous period. niwever, during this period, the "all—in— one" achieved pOpularity. This was simply a corset and bras- siere combined into one garment. The pantie girdle had been introduced in 1931, but it was not widely accepted until 1934. Th "all-in-one“ foundation gar- ment is illustrated at the right. When (%7 this garment was of a woven, elastic thread fabric, it was referred to as a "belt." Princess slips and panties fashiona- ble during this period were similar to those of the previous period. However, a new detail in the slip was a low—cut back; Slips with this detail were worn mainly with evening dresses. The term "scanties" 12°C. Willett Cuhnington, Enslish Women's Clothing in the §_§sent Centurx(London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 19527, p. 243. 126 came into use during this period, to describe "slim—fitting knickers."~ They were worn under beach dresses and shorts in place of panties and the "belt." .The re—appearance of petticoats was attributed to the icostunes worn by has West in the moving picture, "She Done Him Wrong." van-.7 s Taffeta petticoats, hooked around the waist with the old fashioned nooks and eyes ruetled under Schiape— relli shirts.121 Petticoats with crinoline flounces containing two and one-eighth yards cf crinoline were worn under evening dresses with full skirts. In 1939, "Ca isoles have made a successful comeback.'122 ,_ l - I L. L.) in the latter part of the previous period <:Esiii increased in popularity throughout this The bias-cut nightgown introduced ,v ) period. It is illustrated at tne right. Sleeping pajamas worn during this period were similar to those of the pre— vious period, except that the trouser legs were more narrow. Lounging pajamas became more elabo- rate at this tine. Tunic length coats were pOpular and rich fabrics, lace; and _ ‘\ \E:> ’M /,1318rockway, gp, 923;, P- 178- 1220. Willett Cunningon, English woren's Clouhing in the Present Century (London: Faber and Faber Ltd., 1952), p. 2b}. 127 embroidery contributed to the elaborateness 5 which was later to become a clas- h t , 1 . . . Kin5, 48: 549-5 El, May, 1909. Holliday, Robert Cortes, UnmentionablesLErom Fi 5leanes to Scanties .lNew York: Ray Lon5 and Richa d R. Smith, 1933. . "Is a Colle5 e Education the Best for Our Girls?" Eggies‘ Hone Joni M81 17:15, July, 1900. Lape, Esther Everett, "What Do Women Ws-nt With the Vote, Ladies' Home Jou.rnal, 37:39, 91— 92,—9H, March, 1920. Lee, Jeanette, "The Colle5 e Woman 1: the Community, " 5555 Housek :eoin5, 59: 364—368, Sepaemoer, 1914 Logue, Sister Anne M'rie, "The Influenw of War on American Costume." Unpuolishei Master's thesis, The Drexel Insti— tute of Technolo5y, Philadelph:1a, 194& Annette L verne, "A Study of FaShion in Women's Clothing from 1910 to l9k8. ' Unpublishsd Me ster's thesis, State UniverSity of Iowa, Iowa Cit3, 1948. M ayo Mc Adoo, 'William "In~ecent/Pl.y: e.nd the Law," adies' Home J13UI'I1f.tl,’-l- 2°é8, 57—58, 00, 1M3,1925. MC Kelvey, Thel ma, Women in War Production. New York: Oxford University Press, I9M2. 177 Mc Mahon, John R., “The Jazz Path of Degradation," Ladies' Home Journal, 39:26,?1, January, 1922. Mc Manon, John R., "Unspeakable Jazz Must Go," Ladies' Home Journal, 38:115—110, December, 1921. Miller, Ruth Scott, "Masterlese Wives and Divorce," adies' Home Journal, 42:20, 119—120, January, 1925. Murray, Maria Calabrese, "The Development of French and. American Designers Affecting Costume of American Women of the Twentieth Centuryl" Unpublished Haster's thesis, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, 1949. ' Park, iaud Wood, "Why is the League of Women Voters?" Good Housekeeping; 76:205—207, March, 1923. Peel, Roy V., Statistical Abstract of the United States 1952. United States Department of Comnerce: Bureau ofithe Census. Penfield, E. Jean Nelson, "The Twentieth Amendment," Ladies' Home Journal, 33:30, 102, 105, Jenuary, 1921, Quick: geEbert, "The Wonan on the Farm," QQOd Hpasekeeping. Radnor-Lewis, Carolyn, "For the Sirl Who Is doing Away To School," good Housekeeping, 55:;62—363, SepteMber, 1912. Richardson, Anna Steese, "Your Dau~hter and Her Job," Good. Housekeeping, 78:28—29, 210-21 , April, 1924. Rinehart, Mary Roberte, "A HO;€ or a Career," Ladies' Home Journal, 38:25, 53-54, April, 1921. Selden, Charles A., "The Most-Powerful Lobby in Washington," Ladies' Home Journal, 39:5, 93-96, April, 1922. . "The Wife and Her Money," Ladies' Home Jaurnal, I" f v '\ 10:10, March, 1901. Tobin, Maurice J. and.Miller, Frieda 8., Women in Higherzlevel Positions. Washington: United States Department of Labor, Women's Bureau. 178 hes We All Have On Hand," Van Anken, Ida Cleve, "The ( 3t 32, October, 1918. . \J Ladies' Home Journal, 35 .___ I l Wendt, Lloyd and Kogan, Herman, Give the Lady What She Wants!" Chicago: Rand Mc Nelly and Company, 19L . Wish, Harvey, Society_and,1hcught in modern Anerica. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1932. Youn§, Ease, "Your Daughter's Career," good Housekeeping, \ HICHIGRN STQTE UNIV. LIBRRRIES 3129310390 llllHlllll l 52 08