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ABSTRACT
THE ROLE OF TELEVISION IN
THE DIFFUSION OF EXTENSION INFORHATION

by Otis Oliver-Padilla

This study is concerned with improving the communication
methods of the Puerto Rican Agricultural Extension Service. As a
result of the social and economic evolution now occurring on the
Island, the Service must provide an increased amount of technical
assistance to a large and mobile clientele, and must therefore make
its communication methods as efficient as possible.

The study is an outgrowth of the author's experience. He is
a native of Puerto Rico who has served for 10 years as an information
specialist with the Puerto Rican Agricultural Extension Service, helping
to produce its messages in several media, but increasingly in the
medium of television. Now on leave from his position, as a candidate
for the Master of Arts degree at Michigan State University, he has
been studying television production and its relation to the general
process of communication.

To help his colleagues in Puerto Rico increase their efficiency
as persuasive communicators, he summarizes in this study some of the
findings of research concerning the principles and effects of the communi-
cation process. He also advances the hypothesis that the Puerto Rican

Extension program will benefit from an intensified use of television as

Otis Oliver-Padilla
2

a medium of communication, provided that the televised messages are
produced with due regard for the characteristics of the medium and are
governed by the research findings previously mentioned. To support
this hypothesis, he reviews some of the studies which have been con-
ducted to ascertain the effectiveness of informational and educational
television programs, particularly those produced by Extension personnel
on the mainland of the United States.

In this present dissertation it must be assumed that what has
been ascertained about these television programs and about the communi-
cation process on the mainland will be generally confirmed in Puerto
Rico, even though some modifications may be indicated as a result of
environmental differences. Later, as a candidate for a doctoral degree,
the author intends to conduct one or more similar studies within the
particular environment of Puerto Rico itself.

The present study begins by explaining the communication problems
faced by the Puerto Rican Agricultural Extension Service as a result
of the shift towards an urbanized and technological society. The Ex-
tension worker is described as a source of persuasive messages which
must receive the widest possible dissemination and acceptance by the
public which he serves.

The acceptance of these messages depends upon various psycho-
logical and sociological factors, which are treated in the next two
chapters of the study.

Since the messages originated by the Extensionist are expected
to spread well beyond those persons with whom he is in direct communi-
cation, the following chapter discusses various processes by which in-

formation is diffused throughout a social system.

Otis Oliver-Padilla
3

Next, the author explains the specific role of television in
the diffusion of Extension information, showing how audience composition,
preferences, and viewing habits help to determine the impact of the
medium as an educational device.

Narrowing down to the problems of television production in
Puerto Rico, he then reviews some of the factors considered during his
production of a series on gardening for the Puerto Rican Agricultural
Extension Service.

Despite the apparent success of this series, further studies
must be conducted to determine the effectiveness of television as a
means of communication for Puerto Rican Extension personnel. The last
chapter, therefore, sets up hypotheses for such studies, at least one
of which, as previously mentioned, will be tested by the writer as a
part of his doctoral program.

An appendix summarizes significant research on the effectiveness
of instructional television.

For readers who are interested in broadening their information
beyond that presented in this dissertation, a list of reference material
has been included at the end of this work under the title, "Literature

Cited."

THE ROLE OF TELEVISION N

THE D IFF US ION OF EXTEI‘IS ION NFC'RI TAT ION

By

Otis Oliver-Padilla

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State university
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

lfiSTER OF ARTS

Department of Television-Radio

1962

W

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my appreciation and thanks to my advisors,
Dr. Colby Lewis and Dr. Malcolm S. NacLean, Jr., who guided and
assisted me throughout this study.

I also wish to thank Mr. Roberto Huyke, Puerto Rican Ex-
tension Director, Mr. Francisco Toro Calder, Associate Extension
Editor in Puerto Rico and Mr. Ralph M. Fulghum, Assistant Director
of the Division of Information Programs of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture who made available to me valuable sources of
information used as reference material in the study.

The greatest debt of gratitude is due my wife and family,
whose moral support was an essential factor in the achievement of

t his t’aSko

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACIGQGJLEDGIEIITS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ii

CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 O O O O O O O 1

The Extension Service in a Mobile Society

The Need for Efficient Communication

The S-H—C-R Model and the Communication Process
Reactions of Receivers to Persuasive Messages

II. PERSONALITY FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE RECEPTION
OF A PERSUASIVE COIE‘MTICATIOII o o o' o o o o o o o o o 9

Topic-Bound and Topic-Free Factors

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance

Belief-Disbelief Systems

Other Topic-Free Factors

Fear Arousal Studies

The Order of Presentation in Persuasive Communication
Summary

III. SOCIAL GROUPS AND PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION . . . . . . 19

Social Groups and Human Behavior

Communication and Social Systems

Kinds of Functional Groups

Research Findings Concerning Group Influence
on Communication

Dorwin Cartwright Principles

Channels of Communication

IV. CCI'E‘RTNICATION SYSTEI-IS AND THE DIFFUSION OF
INFORI‘IATIONooooooo0000000000000o27

The Two-Step Flow Hypothesis

Agricultural Information and the Diffusion Process

Rate of Adoption and the Diffusion Process

Other Factors Influencing the Adoption of New Ideas
and Practices

Conclusion

iii

CHAPTER

V.

VI.

VII.

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Page

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION AS A MEANS FOR

Is Television Regarded as a Source of Information?
Can Television Teach?

Viewing Habits and Preferences of the Extension
Television Programs Audience

Conclusion

PROBLEES IN THE PRODUCTION OF EXTENSION TELEVISION

ON PROGRAHS AS EXEMPLIFIED BY ”YOUR GARDEN” . . . . . . 46

Selection of Subject Matter

Gathering of Specific Content Information
Format and Organization of the Program
Name of the Program

Opening and Closing of the Program

The Talent

Visuals

Results Justify the Effort

3 mnmar y

SUGGESTED RESEARCH TO BE CARRIED IN PUERT RICO . . . . . 56

Television as a Source of Information for Farmers
and Housewives

Nature of the Extension Audience

Effectiveness of Extension Television

Instructional Television

Audience Appeals

Conclusion

LITEIIATUM C ITED O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 8 9

iv

APPEND IX A .

APPENDIX B .

LIST OF APPENDICES

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Puerto Rican Agricultural Extension Service is a state agency
working in cooperation with the united States Department of Agriculture.
It is a branch of the College of Agriculture of the University of Puerto
Rico. Its purpose is similar to that of the united States Cooperative
Extension Service as stated in the Smith-Level Act, which established
the service "to aid in diffusing among the people of the united States
useful and practical information on subjects related to agriculture
and home economics and to encourage the application of the same." (1)

The major function of the Extensionist is education. Like other
educators, his aim is to produce desirable changes in human behavior -
changes in knowledge, attitude, and ability which will help his clients
to benefit from new research and to adapt to the changing conditions
of society. He is therefore an agent of change.

In Puerto Rico his role as a change agent is difficult and com-
plicated. Because the Island is moving towards an industrialized economy,
its Extensionists have themselves been obliged to shift their programs
and methods to meet the changing conditions and needs of a mobile society.
Not only are they helping to effect the changes that are taking place,

but they are also affected by them.

The Extension Service in a Mobile Society
In 1934 when the Service was created, its personnel worked with a

l

2
defined rural audience. 71% of the population was located in rural areas
and depended on agriculture for a livelihood. Personal relations in the
form of visits, meetings, and demonstrations were the common methods
used by Extension agents for reaching their clientele. The lack of »'
urbanization, a high rate of illiteracy, and poor mass communication
facilities obliged them to depend mainly on oral communication, and their
range of influence was limited to the areas where they had physical access.

Their work was restricted to rural people. County agents devoted
all their time to helping farmers and 4H club boys solve farming problems.
Home demonstration agents worked exclusively with housewives and 4-H club
girls. Farm and home were treated as separate units, and the work of
agricultural county agents and home demonstration agents was not co-
ordinated. The county program was prepared on a short-term (annual)
basis and considered only immediate problems.

In 1962, 28 years later, the Service operates in a different situation.
Manufacturing now contributes 21% of the country's income as against
agriculture's 141. (2) An urbanization boom and the demands of industry
for skilled workers have helped to raise the standard of living and to
reduce illiteracy from 30% to only 14%. The population is now equally
distributed between rural and urban areas. 'There is a trend towards
more specialization in all phases of the economy, including agriculture.
The farm areas are looking towards scientific and technological improve-
Inents to help them maintain their position in the economy.

To accommodate to these changes, the Extensionists have broadened
their scope and deepened their perspective. Today, farm and home programs
are coordinated, and the family as a whole is receiving the benefits of
programs both for short- and long-range projects. No longer concerned

only with problems of increasing crop yields, the work of agents begins

3
when a farmer's seeds are planted and continues until the product is sold
in the market, meanwhile taking into account many problems besides those
of cultivation. Work with housewives has been extended to cover not only
home management practices, but also family relations and many general
problems of farm life and administration.

In addition to working with individual persons and families,
Extensionists are now involving whole communities in programs of social
action. For example, in the "Pilot Rural Development Area of Naranjito”,
the active participation of the whole community has resulted in many
achievements: a rural market has been established to help farmers with
the crucial problem of selling their produce; nine 4-H clubs have been
organized; three rural acqueducts have been constructed; three rural
electrification projects have been completed; and credit for farmers has
been made available through the Farmers Home Administration Program. (3)

Moreover, Extension services have been extended to urban areas,
where many residents are asking for assistance with home gardening, con-
sumer education, nutrition, family relations, and home management. Re-
tailers are being helped to improve their displays. Garden clubs, home
demonstration clubs, 4-H clubs, and other clubs are being organized in
the town as well as the country.

Through education and leadership training, the Extension Service
is helping people on a county-wide basis to plan and execute programs of
benefit to both farm and non-farm residents.

In the conduction of its program, the Extension Service operates

informally in line with the most important local needs and

opportunities and with respect to both short-time and long-time
matters of concern. It joins with people in helping them to:

(1) identify their needs, problems, and opportunities, (2)

study their resources, (3) become familiar with specific
methods of overcoming problems, (4) analyze solutions to their

-.__.._—..P_._.— __..

_-.

4
problems, and (S) arrive at the most promising course of
action in light of their own desires, resources, and
abilities. (1)

Thus the Extension Service provides useful orientation whereby people

may learn to help themselves for the welfare of the whole society.

The Need for Efficient Communication

To carry out this expanded program, the Service must find more
efficient ways to communicate with the people whom it serves. Personal
communication is no longer sufficient to reach the large and heterogeneous
audience that is asking for more and more technical assistance.

There is, however, a solution to this problem. Broader use can L,
be made of the press, radio, television, and other channels of mass
communication. Thereby Extension workers can multiply their effectiveness,
reaching many more people and extending their influence to areas never
reached before. No longer need a county agent spend days of travel to
carry new information in person to scattered groups of farmers. By using
the mass media, he can deliver it simultaneously to an even greater
audience, and use the time he saves for other important activities which
he would otherwise tend to neglect. .As Daniel Lerner observes, "no
modern society can function efficiently without a developed system of
mass media.” (4)

Of these media, the most promising for Extension purposes is
television, since its combination of sight, sound, and motion provides
a close equivalent to face-to-face demonstrations. In the Island there
are now ten television stations with a potential coverage of 184,000 homes.

These stations will carry educational programs provided that they have

interest and significance for their audiences and that they are well

performed and produced. Later chapters of this study will cite some of

5
the factors which result in successful television productions. Examples
will be given of programs produced by Extensionists on the United States
mainland which accomplished their purposes, not only by reason of com-
petent production, but also because they demonstrated a knowledge of
other factors in the communication process.

For it is not enough for the Extensionist to master the techniques
of the medium and construct his message to suit its conditions. He must
also construct it in terms of the persons whom he wishes to reach and
influence. He must understand their personal reactions to persuasive
communications. He must know the social organization and the systems of
values and beliefs of the groups towards which his program is directed.
He must determine which persons he can attract by his televised message
and consider how the message can be diffused by and beyond these persons
throughout the broader public which he wishes to educate.

Each of these problems will be discussed in subsequent chapters
of this study. Each of them has been subjected to systematic research
by students of the communication process. Before considering some of
the results of this research, however, it will be helpful to understand

the general nature of that process.

The S-MéC-R Mbdel and the Communication Process

The object of a communication is to transfer meaning from a sender
to a receiver. But in the process of transfer, this meaning may be a1-
tered by a number of factors. These factors have been summarized in what
are termed "communication models." A.typical model is that constructed
by Dr. David Berlo of Michigan State University. It is called the S-M-C-R

model because it analyzes the necessary ingredients for communication as a

Source, a message, a Channel, and a geceiver. (5)

6

To illustrate these factors, let us assume that a hog cholera
epidemic has struck a community and that, to combat it, the county agent
must communicate with the affected farmers. The source of the communi-
cation is the agent. The message consists of his recommendations for
controlling the disease. The channel may be personal visits, a television
program, a bulletin, or any other means deemed appropriate for reaching
and influencing the receivers, who are, of course, the farmers.

A number of interdependent factors will determine the success or
failure of the communication act. The elements or contributory ideas
of the message must be arranged in an effective order. They must be
conveyed in a code or set of symbols appropriate to the medium of
communication, (camera shots of physical movements, for example, being
required for television, whereas a bulletin conveys its meaning through
printed words). The code must also, of course, be intelligible to the
receiver; one would not use English, for instance, to reach a Spanish-
speaking community.

The intelligibility of the message will also depend upon the communi-
cation skills of both the source and the receiver. These skills are the
abilities of the source to manipulate the message in such a way that the
intended receiver can interpret it correctly without undue effort, or
of the receiver to interpret correctly any message that is directed at
him.

The act of communication is also affected by the attitudes of the
isource and the receiver towards each other. An Extensionist who wishes
{to achieve his goals should be regarded by his clientele as a reliable

I

source of information.

7

His influence will also be affected by the social cultural con-
text in which the communication occurs. The localities (established
residents) of a community have common norms, generated from similar
culture, values, and beliefs. A new county agent should expect to
undergo an initial period of interaction with the localities before they
accept him as part of their social system, only after which can effective
communication become possible and the introduction of change become
feasible.

Even so, this change may not take place unless the receiver con-
siders the information useful and the desired action beneficial to him.

Communication also depends on the knowledge which source and
receiver have about the subject being communicated. The more thoroughly
an agent knows his subject, the better can he explain it so that the
receiver will interpret it correctly; and the more previous knowledge
the receiver has had of the subject, the better can he analyze the in-
:formation, interpret it, and make an intelligent decision regarding it.

The success of communication is also influenced by the selection
of a channel. For some purposes, personal communication may prove most
effective; for others, mass media.

In devising the proper treatment for his message, then, the Ex-
tensionist should realize that communication depends on many factors;
among them are the channel he selects, and the communication skills,
attitudes, knowledge, and social cultural context of the source and the

receiver.

Reactions of Receivers to Persuasive Messages

In this chapter we have identified the essential factors in the

communication process as a source, a message, a channel, and a receiver.

8

We know that the source in which we are interested is the Puerto Rican
Agricultural Extension Service, and we know something about the type of
messages which the source is engaged in producing. In later chapters
we shall have more to say about the channel - about television as a
recommended channel for Extension messages, and about other channels
tzhrough which these messages may be as broadly diffused as possible.

In the two chapters following this one, we are going to turn
our attention to the receiver, considered first as an individual, and
next as a member of a social group. We are going to investigate various
factors which may influence a receiver's attitude and response to a
persuasive message. This is an important topic, for if a communicator
is able to predict his receiver's behavior to an intended change, he is
in a better position to select messages relevant to him, treat them in
a manner and send them through a channel which will secure his favorable
response. A knowledge of this topic may make the difference between a

successful and an unsuccessful county agent.

CHAPTER II
PERSONALITY FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE
RECEPTION OF A.PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION

Agricultural Extensionists are not always successful in their
efforts to induce change. The purpose of their message may be
commendable and its coverage may be wide. Much time and effort may
have been spent to convince people of the benefits of some recommended
action, yet the campaign fails to take effect. For example, during
the past three years, all of the agricultural agencies in Puerto Rico
have been trying their utmost to induce sugar cane farmers to extend
their acreage, to plant new, superior varieties of cane, to increase
mechanization, and to adopt other practices which will help the Island
to fill the quota assigned by the united States Department of Agriculture -
yet the farmers resist these changes and continue their exodus to other
farming operations. Why has this campaign failed? Why has the communi-
cation been ineffectual?

It may be argued that it is always difficult to induce change in
rural people. As Lionberger points out, "adherence to tradition in
farming is apparent in the persistent use of antiquated farm practices
when better ones are available, and in the persistence of one type of
farming in an area where another is better suited." (6) But this makes .ic
it all the more important for an Extension communicator to carefully
analyze the persons whom he is trying to influence so that he may approach
them in a manner most likely to persuade them.

9

10

He should realize that there are certain personality factors in
his clients as individuals which influence their susceptibility or their
resistance to change. Such factors have been the subject of extensive
research by psychologists and communications experts, some of whose
findings will be reported in this chapter. In order to keep the narra-
tive as direct as possible, only the results of the research will be re-
ported. For the conditions under which it was conducted, the reader is
referred to the original sources, which are cited at the end of the

work.

Topic-Bound and Topic-Free Factors

Some of the factors to be investigated are what Hovland, Janis,
and Kelley (1953) (7) have termed "topic-bound." They are concerned,
in other words, with how people will react to a specific communication,
concerned with a specific topic, originated by a specific source,
organized in a specific way to achieve a particular purpose in a particular
situation. Others are "topic-free." These are concerned with how
susceptible a person is likely to be a: any kind of outside persuasive
influence, largely irrespective of the particular nature and circum-
stances of the change which is being urged on him. In analyzing a communi-
cation situation, it will often be useful for the Extensionist to con-
sider how his clients are likely to react, not only because of their
probable attitude towards his specific proposal, but also by reason of

their general tendency to accept or reject any form of change.

The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
If the proposed change is a fairly radical one, the Extensionist

should realize that his proposal of it will create in his clientele varying

11
degrees of discomfort, as explained in Leon Festinger's ”Theory of
Cognitive Dissonance” (1957). Whenever a person is confronted with new
cognitions, beliefs, and knowledge which are incompatible with his
present outlook, he experiences what has variously been termed "cognitive
imbalance" or "incongruity" or ”dissonance.”

The existence of dissonance, being psychologically un-

comfortable, will motivate the person to try to reduce

the dissonance (inconsistencies) and achieve consonance

(consistency).

When dissonance is present, in addition to trying to reduce

it, the person will actively avoid situations and information

which tend to increase the dissonance. (8)

Suppose, for example, that a county agent wants to introduce the
practice of artificial insemination in a dairy area, and advocates that
a particular farmer adopt this practice in order to increase the pro-
duction of his cattle by improving his herd. The proposal will cause
a state of imbalance in the farmer's mind. To rectify this imbalance,
he can move in either of two directions: He can modify his existing
beliefs in favor of the recommendation - or he can reject the recommen-
dation, and in so doing, he may avoid any contact with the county agent

or any exposure related to the new information; he may even forget his

conversation with the agent.

Belief-Disbelief Systems

When a person is confronted with a proposal which causes
psychological imbalance, the manner in which he reacts to it may be
governed by the degree of rigidity within what Milton Rokeach calls his
"belief-disbelief system.” According to Rokeach's (1960) (9) book,
The Open and Closed Mind, a person who receives new information first

screens it for compatibility with his primitive or basic beliefs. For

12
example, a housewife receives a recommendation about birth control.
If her basic beliefs oppose birth control on religious or other grounds,
she will reject the recommendation immediately. If, however, the in-
formation is not contrary to her basic beliefs, she will proceed to
evaluate it in other terms. For instance, is the source reliable?
How is the message regarded by those of higher status in her social
system? Only if the answers to such questions are favorable will she
accept the information as a ”non-primitive belief.”

The extent and manner in which new information is fitted into a
person's belief-disbelief system will depend on the degree to which this
system is open or closed. The more closed the system (the more "dogmatic"
the person), the more tendency there is to base one's beliefs on
irrelevant internal drives or on arbitrary reinforcements from external
authority, which are accepted outright without relating them to the inner
requirements of logical consistency. The more open the system, the more L/
tendency there is to test one's beliefs by logical requirements, re-
sisting irrelevant motivational or reinforcing pressures. The close-
minded person will believe without question the source which he regards
as an authority. The open-minded person will evaluate the information on
its own merits. Although depending on an authority for the information,
he will judge the authority in terms of the accuracy and consistency of
the information, and if he finds the information unreliable, he will
seek out a more reliable authority.

An awareness of these differences will help an Extension worker
to decide whether to approach an individual through an intermediate
authority figure, or whether to appeal to him directly with rational

arguments.

l3

3}

4x‘ Extension personnel deal constantly with persons who vary in the
degree to which their belief-disbelief systems are open or closed. At
the closed end of the continuum are the farmers known as non-adopters.
These are rooted to tradition and reluctant to adjust to new ideas and
practices. They accept advice only from persons whom they consider as
their leaders, usually other farmers of higher status. They are unable
to evaluate information on its own merits, depending entirely on the
persons whom they look up to as authorities. At the open extreme of the
'continuum are the innovators. They are the ones who usually seek in-
formation from research centers and often surpass the county agent in
their knowledge of new farming practices. Moving in from either extreme,
there are the non-adopters and the innovators; and between these are the
early adopters, early majority and the majority of farmers with whom the

,

Extensionist conducts the bulk of his work. ”I“

Other Topic-Free Factors

Besides Rokeach, many other investigators have asked the question,
”What are the factors in an individual's personality that predispose him
to respond to or resist persuasion, relatively independent of what the
topic is or who is doing the persuading?"

Janis and Field (1959) (10) found that persons with strong imagina-
tions and intense emotional empathy are more receptive to change than
those deficient in these qualities. Persons of higher intelligence,
they found, are more receptive to change than those of lower intelligence.;r-
And women are more easilyipersuadedfighanwmen.

Linton and Graham (1959) (11) sought to determine what basic

patterns of personality may predispose an individual's susceptibility to

influence and found some factors which are not generally taken into con-

l4
sideration by Extensionists when preparing persuasive messages. The
persons who are easily persuaded, they found, are those who guide their
behavior by the external standards of their environment. They favor
conformity, have a limited range of interest and an immature concept of
themselves. On the other hand, persons with a high resistance to change
are unaffected by the standards of their environment, do not value con-
formity, possess a mature and strong image of themselves, and enjoy a
relatively rich inner life. They tend to be independent without being
rebellious. They tend to examine themselves and their role in life to
an extent which may include self criticism. They may engage in an in-
ternal struggle to free themselves of what they perceive to be hostile,
potentially engulfing forces.

According to this research, there seems to be an underlying
tendency in people which governs their perceptions, cognitive processes,
attitudes, values, and social behav ior, predisposing them either to rely
on sources of direction within themselves or to be easily influenced by
external factors. Technically speaking, they may be either “inner
directed” or ”outer directed” in their "self vs. field orientation.”

Another factor which affects the degree to which a person can
be influenced is his degree of "self-esteem," the value which he places
on himself as a result of his past successes or failures. Investigating
this factor, Cohen (1959) (12) indicates that persons of high self-esteem
are less susceptible to influence from others, and on the contrary are
more active in attempting to exert their own influence on others. In
general, they are better able to protect themselves against unfavorable
reactions from their social group and are less likely to conform to

specific expectations which the group may communicate to them.

15
Fear Arousal Studies

So far, the studies which have been reported have been concerned
with people's general reactions to persuasive influence, without reference
to the topic or treatment of a specific message. Many other studies,
however, have been concerned with message treatment. Of these, two types
of studies have been selected to report here since they are particularly
pertinent to Extension work. One of these types is concerned with fear
arousal. If an Extensionist wants his clients to protect themselves
against a potentially harmful situation, is he wise to arouse their fear
of the situation, and if so, to what extent?

Suppose that a county agent is interested in eradicating Anthrax
disease from the dairy farms of his county. He wants farmers to vaccinate
their cattle against this disease, which in addition to killing cattle
can also be contracted by humans. He assumes that the more he arouses
the farmers' fear of the disease, the more likely they will be to follow
his recommendations. However, a study by Janis (1953) (13) suggests
that a strong appeal to fear is not always as effective as is generally
believed. Janis found that ”a high degree of descriptive elaboration
of relatively familiar threats is likely to be a cue to manipulative
intent and may, therefore, reduce the effectiveness of a communication."

Janis also found that, when a threat does succeed in arousing
emotional tension, it may fail to produce the intended change of opinion.

x) When a communication provokes a strong feeling of anxiety, the receiver
tends to avoid it by not paying attention to what is being said. He
may also try to avoid any further exposure to this information and to
forget what he has heard. Occasionally receivers may react to an un-

pleasant experience by becoming agressive towards the communicator. These

l6
findings support Festinger's theory, previously reported, that people
actively avoid situations and information which might increase the
dissonance caused by new cognitions which are incompatible with their
existing ones.

In another study, Janis and Feshbach (1953) (14) found that, as
the amount of fear-arousing material is increased above certain minimal
levels, conformity to the communicator's recommendations tends to de-
crease. The findings suggest that, when persons are exposed to competing
communications dealing with the same issue, the use of a strong threat
appeal will tend to be less successful than a minimal appeal in producing
stable and persistent attitude changes.

Under certain conditions, however, very strong threat appeals may
prove to be highly successful. For example, in situations where the
communicator has the power to administer severe punishment and the
audience has already learned not to ignore his threats, strong fear
appeals are likely to induce a high degree of conformity. When prompt
action is desired, a strong threat may instigate it, but when permanent
and stable changes in attitude and opinion are desired, a minimal threat
will be more effective.

Although these studies may be useful to the Extensionist, it should
be pointed out that they have been subject to controversy amongst communi-
cations researchers, and that more research is needed to test the same
variables and other variables under other situations and in other cultures.
The same may be said about the next factor to be discussed, although this

factor poses some interesting questions.

17

The Order of Presentation in Persuasive Communication

The persuasive effect of a communication may be altered by the
order in which its elements are presented. For example, an Extension
worker wants a farmer to change over to a new, superior variety of sugar
cane which the farmer does not yet realize he needs. What is the best
way to convince him that he needs to make the change - to propose the
change first and then explain why it is needed? Or vice versa? Cohen
(1957) (15) concludes from his research that the receiver will have a
more positive attitude towards the position advocated by the source if
the need arousal is presented before the rest of the information.

Another question of order arises when an Extensionist is advo-
cating some measure against which there are opposing arguments. He
wishes to acknowledge these arguments as well as his own, but in such a
sequence that his own will prevail. Which, then, does he present first -
the arguments pro, or con? Janis and Feierabend (1957) (16) confirmed
”The Law of Primacy," which states that the pro arguments should be pre-
sented first. But in the same year Hovland and Mandel (l7) conducted
two studies that support the contrary ”Law of Recency,” which holds that
favorable arguments should be presented last so that they are more recent
in the receiver‘s memory. More research is needed, apparently, to clarify

the matter.

Summary

During this chapter we have investigated some of the personality
factors which may influence an individual's acceptance or rejection of a
persuasive message. Some of these factors, such as those involved in the

studies of fear arousal and the order of presentation, may be involved

with the treatment of a specific communication. Others, the ”topic-free

18

factors,” predispose him to accept or resist any proposal for change.
:géThe changes proposed by the Extensionist will create a feeling of in-

congruity in his clients, to the degree that they are at variance with

his clients' accepted beliefs. To resolve this incongruity, they can

change their beliefs to conform to his recommendation, or they can hold

onto their beliefs and resist assimilating any part of the communicationIii,

Which course they take may depend upon the degree to which their belief-l

disbeliefs system is open or closed. To the extent that it is closed,

they can be changed less by reasoned arguments than by appeal through

persons whom they look to for leadership. Researchers have identified

a number of other personality factors which incline a person to be more

or less easily persuaded.

’ To the extent that a communicator is able to predict his receiver's

individual reaction to a proposed change, he will be in a better position

to select appropriate messages, give them appropriate treatment, and send

them through appropriate channels, thereby increasing the likelihood

that the receiver will react favorably to the proposal.

But a knowledge of the receiver's personal characteristics is not
enough. For human beings cannot live in isolation. Therefore, they
organize in various groups, each of which has norms or rules which regulate
the behavior of the organization and consequently of its members. To
predict an individual's reaction to a proposal for change, therefore, it

is necessary to understand the collective mental processes of the groups

to which he belongs. This is the subject of the next chapter.

CHAPTER III

SOCIAL GROUPS AND PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION

The Extension Service directs its messages not only to in-
dividuals but also to social groups. Even when its target is a single
person, it may find that the best communication path whereby to reach
him leads through a group to which he belongs. And when it is desired
to predict his reaction to a proposed change, this can often be done by
studying the characteristics of his group. For these several reasons
it is of value to Extension workers to understand what is known about
the influence exerted by social groups upon the acceptance or rejection

of a persuasive communication.

 

Social Groups and Human Behavior

According to Schramm (1954) (18), social groups fall into two major
classifications: statistical groups and functional groups. The members
of statistical groups are related by a common characteristic or cir-
cumstance such as age, sex, education, residential area, or social class.
Thus we speak of teenagers, college-educated persons, and so on. Within
such groups interaction and communication are not required. There is no
particular cohesiveness, nor are there necessarily any imposed patterns
of common behavior, which are known technically as ”norms." Yet for a
county agent who wishes to introduce new practices and ideas to a
heterogeneous clientele, it is important to recognize the existence of

such grOUps, because their members tend to react similarly to a persuasive

l9

20
message. Furthermore, when social action is required, some of these
statistical groups may diffuse into functional groups.

Functional groups are those which assemble to work together for
some purpose. As defined by Greer (1955) (19), a functional group ”is
an aggregate of people in a state of functional interdependence. That
is to say, they are interdependent upon each other, and all are dependent
on the group as a means of fulfilling certain needs.” Their members
maintain a continuous intercommunication and interaction, as a result of
which are generated certain standards of mutual behavior or "collective
norms." These norms exert a considerable pressure of conformity upon
individuals within the group, especially when the individuals are proud

to belong to it and regard separation from it as a form of punishment.

Communication and Social Systems

 

The Extensionist is concerned with functional groups for several
reasons. To begin with, a functional group is a social system, a larger
social unit than the individual and therefore one with which it is often
more convenient to work. Moreover, a functional group is a communication
system. It is through such groups that communication flows and is
diffused to the different segments of the population.

Indeed, as was stated by Berlo (1960) (5) in his book, The Process

of Communication, social systems are produced by communication. The

 

commonalities, the uniformities of behavior, the interdependence of
goals, the pressures to conform to norms, all are produced through
communication among group members. Groups are formed when communication
flows freely.

But once a social system is formed, it controls communication.

In order to maintain its cohesiveness and achieve its objectives, it

21
determines the communication of its members. It affects how, why,
among whom, and with what effects communication occurs. It limits the
range of receivers and sources for individuals within it and imposes its
norms on their treatment of messages.
This control can be seen at work in the three principal kinds of

functional groups:.reference groups, secondary groups, and primary groups.

{inds of Functional Groups

A.reference group is one with which a person identifies himself
without being an active member thereof. It is one which he takes as a
pattern for his behavior. For example, a farmer may operate his business
in the way he perceives farmers of high status in the community conducting
their operations.

Secondary groups are mainly large organizations, formally organized
to achieve a specific goal. One such group is the "Farm Bureau," which
exists for the main purpose of protecting farmers by exerting pressures
on government for legislation favorable to agriculture. Offices and roles
within the group are determined solely by the work to be done. The norms
are clearly written rules or laws, violators of which are liable to a
well defined set of sanctions. The control in such groups is maintained
through formal sanction, with clearly understood rewards and penalties
stemming from defined authority and visited upon the person as an in-
cumbent of the office he occupies, not as an individual.
3X(r As an integrating force in our society, even within the structure
of formal organizations, there exist what are considered the most important
social organizations, because of the tremendous influence they exert on

human behavior: the primary groups. Usually small and informal, primary

groups satisfy the needs of human beings for companionship, friendship,

9,,»

_\r

22
and affection. Their members have a similar culture and share the
same values and beliefs. Through continuous interaction and personal
communication, members acquire strong feelings towards their group. To
maintain cohesiveness, they generate through concensus informal rules or
group norms, which exert tremendous influence. Violations of these norms
are sanctioned according to the degree of the offense, and in extreme
situations include the complete rejection of an offender from the group.
Group leaders determine what less active members of the group can
'see or hear or do. Therefore, they are often called "gatekeepers."
Furthermore, the primary group often serves as a reinforcing agent for its
members' values and beliefs. For example, a farmer is exposed to per-
suasive information through one of the mass media and is inclined to
consider it as good and useful to him. If this initial opinion is
supported by his fellow farmers, he feels more certain about it and
accepts it as part of his general system of beliefs. His conviction
about it has been strengthened or ”reinforced."

Like other social systems, primary groups have well defined social
structures, although they are based on informal decisions of their members.
The groups have their leaders, and also they have members who accept the
decisions of the leaders as final and binding. They have "high value
members” - that is, members who place a particularly high value on the

group, are most active in it, and tend most to conform to its norms.

.§5~ For Extension communicators it is important to understand the
I“

nature and functions of primary groups, since the power to make decisions
for the community usually rests with these organizations. An Extension
educator who wishes to change or influence others through the community
leaders needs to observe carefully the patterns of interaction within and

among the small groups of the community.

23

Research Findingg Concerning Group Influence on Communication

 

The previous section has explained what a county agent should
know about the social structure of society in order to function effectively
as an introducer of change. He has become acquainted with some of the
specialized terms which must be understood in order to interpret correctly
the research that has been conducted on social groups and their influence
upon communication. The literature in this area is very extensive.

From it the author has selected a few findings of particular relevance
to Extension work.

/j When Katz and Lazarsfeld (1955) (20) investigated the influence
of primary groups on behavior and attitudes they found considerable
evidence that many ostensibly individual opinions and attitudes are
primarily social in character and are frequently the norms of the groups
to which an individual belongs or wishes to belong. They also found that
persons within a group are reluctant to change their common beliefs,
values, and sentiments except when, through concensus, the group decides
that a change is necessary. Persons who value their group membership
highly will particularly resist any communication from an outsider which
attempts to change the prevailing opinions, attitudes, and habits which
they share with other ”high value" members.

Similarly, Kelley and Volkart (1952) (21) suggest that a person
who places a high value on his membership is least influenced by communi-
cation advocating ideas or practices contrary to the group norms. In
addition, they found that the prestige and popularity of a person within
a group is positively correlated to his conformity to its norms and his

resistance to a counter-norm communication.

24
y

I

X
.

, .
.'

K
study by Kelley (1952) (22), which indicates that the less the grOup

A method for proposing change to a group can be derived from a

members perceive that a communication is antagonistic to their group
norms, the greater is the opportunity for an initial change, and con-
sequently for further change as a result of subsequent communications.
From this one can conclude that, when a drastic change is desired, it
should be proposed a little at a time. Gradual exposition of the new
practice will avoid an initially strong negative attitude towards it.
The imbalance created within the group members will be weak; consequently
they will not avoid exposure to subsequent communications; and if these
are delivered in the same gradual and subtle manner, they will in time
receive all the pertinent information. By these slow stages, one can
infer that a more intelligent use of the information will be made and
that acceptance of it will be more probable.

Asch (1951) (23) studied the effects of group pressures upon in-
dividual judgments. His findings suggest that individual members tend to
judge and perceive events in agreement with the judgments and perceptions
of the group majority; that in any group there exists a tendency to arrive
at conclusions or decisions by unanimity; and that dissident individuals
or minorities within the group tend to surrender their opinions and follow
the majority decisions.

Similar findings were obtained by Lewin and associates (1943) (24)
and Radke and Klisurich (unpublished ) (24). These suggest that, when a
group decision favors a new idea, the leaders exert enough pressure on
dissident individuals to oblige them to accept the majority decision.
Also, when some open commitment is made by the leaders of the group,

there is a tendency for the members to support it.

25

Dorwin Cartwright Principles

When Extension people attempt to introduce new practices and

ideas to the groups within their clientele, it will be helpful for them

to take into consideration the following principles enunciated by
y

“4., -"

Cartwright and discussed by Schramm in his book "The Process and Effects

of Mass Communication" (1954) (18):

1.

If a group is to be used to bring about attitude change,
it is important that the persons who are to be changed
and those who are to exert influence for change should
have a strong sense of belonging to the same group.

A group exerts more influence on attitudes, values, or
behaviors which are close to the reason for the group's
existence.

The more the group means to its members, the more in-
fluence it can exert on their attitudes, values, and
behavior.

The higher the prestige of a member in the eyes of
his fellow-members, the more the influence he can
exert in the group.

The more nearly a group can operate like a team with

all members participating in important decisions, the
more likely change is to be accomplished without serious
tension.

The nature of a group is such as to resist deviance on
the part of a minority. If an outsider tries to change
the attitudes and behavior of a few members of the
group in such a way as to make them counter to group
norms, he is likely to encounter severe resistance,
both from the individuals who value these norms they
have accepted, and from other group members who may
punish the deviants by loss of status or exclusion

from the group.

Change in any part of a group is likely to introduce
strain and imbalance in the group as a whole. The
only smooth change is accomplished by bringing the
group along together.

Channels of Communication

 

The literature which has been cited in this chapter and the

preceding one may help Extension workers to understand some d? the

26
reasons why persons and groups accept or reject new ideas and practices,
or why they differ in their rate of adopting these ideas and practices.
Knowing how the reaction to a persuasive message is influenced by per-
sonality and social characteristics, they should be able to make their
messages more relevant to their clientele and therefore more likely to
accomplish their purposes.

But before a message can accomplish its purpose, it must reach its
intended audience; and to do this, it must be directed through appropriate
channels of communication. In diffusing their programs, Extension workers
can choose between two systems of communication: personal communication
or mass communication. The next chapter will discuss important principles
related to the use of these systems, with the aim of helping the reader
to decide whether one or the other system, or both, should be used to

accomplish a particular objective.

CHAPTER IV

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS AND THE DIFFUSION OF INFORMATION

This chapter aims to provide the county agent with knowledge which
will help him to select appropriate channels for the dissemination of
agricultural information. It begins by presenting factual data about
the diffusion process, paying particular attention to the "two-step flow
hypothesis.” It then proceeds to f0cus more specifically upon the sub-
.ject of agricultural information, furnishing data about the main sources
which farmers consult for new ideas, and discussing the role played by

the different channels of communication in diffusing information to them.

The Two-Step Flow Hypothesis

When an Extensionist releases information through the mass media,
he should remember that it is likely to be extended beyond the media by
word of mouth. Frequently one person tells another what he has learned
from the media, giving the message what might be termed a secondary
exposure. ‘fiki

Such person-to-person communication is important.r¥When Katz
and Lazarsfeld (1955) (20) asked 800 women of Decatour, Illinois, what
influenced their decisions in marketing, public affairs, movie going,
and fashions, they found the determinant to be interpersonal relations
developed through oral communication. And when Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and

Gaudet (1948) (25) studied what influenced voters in the 1940 presidential

27

28
elections, they found that "personal contacts appear to have been . . .
more effective than mass media in influencing voting decisions."

When a message originates in a mass medium, therefore, its impact
may be increased through subsequent person-to-person communication.
Particularly will this be true if the message is designed originally to
impress the more influential members of the social system which the Ex-
tensionist wishes to reach - the persons who are called "influentials,”
"opinion leaders," and sometimes "gatekeepers," because they are in a
position to determine whether or not the information will be passed on
to the other members of their group.

){” According to the "two-step flow hypothesis" of Lazarsfeld, Berelson,
and Gaudet (1948) (25), ideas often flow (step one) from the mass media to
the opinion leaders, and then (step two) from them to the less active
sectors of the population.

Opinion leaders are likely to be more exposed to the mass media
than those whom they influence. Such were the findings of Katz and
Lazarsfeld (1955) (20) in their Decatour study. The influentials in
that community exceeded other members of their group in the time they
devoted to the media, and particularly to content therein which was
closely associated with their sphere of influence.

Who are these leaders and where are they located? In the Decatour
study they were found on every status level of the community, generally
among the more gregarious people of their groups. They were not on a
rung above the persons whom they influenced; rather, they exerted their
influence "horizontally" on persons of their own social-economic level,
who were, incidentally, as interested or almost as interested in the

subject-matter concerned as those who influenced them.

29

A closer look at the nature of opinion leaders was taken by
Merton (1949) (26) in his study of interpersonal influence on communi-
cation in a small Eastern community. To locate the influentials, Merton
asked residents to name the persons to whom they turned for advice when
making personal decisions. Persons who were named by four or more
residents constituted the influentials whom he used in the study.
These, he discovered, could not be classified as a single group, standing
apart from the rest of the community. They were scattered throughout
the community and were of different types. Two types which were
particularly evident he distinguished as ”local” and ”cosmopolitan.”
Local leaders were more likely to be native sons, while cosmopolitan
leaders were relative newcomers. Local leaders were concerned with
knowing a large number of townspeople, while cosmopolitan leaders were
more restrictive in their associations, tending to belong to organizations
which represented special skills and interests, such as professional
societies. Both types of leaders spent more time with the mass media
than did the average person in the community, but the local leaders
focused more on local events or on subjects of general interest, whereas
the cosmopolitan leaders were more interested in information about events
outside of the community. The local leaders seemed to exert their in-
:fluence in a variety of areas, whereas the cosmopolitan leaders seemed
to restrict their influence to fields such as national or international
politics in which they were consulted as experts.

Merton's findings also suggest the two-step flow hypothesis, as
does the study by Larsen and Hill (1954) (27) of the ways in which news
flows to various segments of the population. To summarize this hypothesis

and the literature related to it, oral and mass communication are linked

, '...~ 7.! - " “\,_~ “I"
L“ z. :34" __;'_-_ .ai

3.

k...

 

: .
. . __3 .

I

fit

 

30
in the diffusion process. Information generated in the mass media is

received by some individuals who re-transmit it personally to others
/ ,I

who would not otherwise be exposed to it. These opinion leaders, in-“axx

"~. .__

fluentials, or gatekeepers have to be taken into account in any attempt

to influence people by means of the mass media. Furthermore, the findings

suggest that people look for advice or additional information within

their own groups, which indicates that opinion leaders are distributed

through all strata of the population. These leaders are more exposed

to mass communication than are the other members of their social systems.
While this general explanation of the diffusion process should be

helpful to Extension communicators, it needs to be supplemented with

further data on the special processes by which information can be channeled

to reach an agricultural audience.

Agricultural Information and the Diffusion Process

The role of Extensionists as communicators is to expedite the
flow of information from research centers such as the Agricultural Ex-
periment Stations to farmers who may be able to use this information to
increase their yields. To do this, Extensionists should use a channel
which connects them to the greatest number of farmers who need the in-
formation. But which channel should they use - oral or mass communication?
It will be easier to decide this question if one knows as much as possible
about the diffusion process and about the theories which describe what
happens as this process unfolds.

The theory of Beal and Bohlen (1957) (28) attributes to the

diffusion process the following five stages:

31

1. Awareness: The person (farmer) first becomes aware of a
new practice. “

2. Interest: He is now receptive and may even seek information
about it.

3. Evaluation: He mentally estimates its worth to him.

4. Trial: Satisfied that it might work for him, he tries it
out.

5. ,Accepgance or adoption: This follows if the practice results
in sufficient economic rewards or other types of personal
or social satisfaction.

During each of these stages the farmer is influenced by information which
he receives from various sources. Beal and Bohlen conducted a study to
determine which of these sources were the most common and how influential
each of them were at a particular stage of the process. Their findings
suggest that the most common sources during the awareness stage were
mass media; during the interest stage, again mass media, followed by
government agencies; during the evaluation stage, neighbors and friends;
and during the trial stage, (in ranking order) neighbors, friends,
government agencies, mass media, and salesmen. (These findings are
summarized in tabular form as Appendix B of this thesis.)

Identical results were obtained in another study by Beal (1958)
(29) and in a replication of the Beal and Bohlen study by Coop, Sill,
and Brown (1958) (30), the only difference in this latter study being
that, in the interest stage, the farmers interviewed ranked face-to-
face contacts as their most important source, followed by mass communi-
cation.

In general, the research shows that, in the awareness and interest

stages, mass media appeared to be the most important sources, while in

the trial and adoption stages, the greatest influence was personal communi-

cation. This suggests that a county agent will be more successful if,

32
during the initial stages of a planned change, he makes liberal use of
mass media for the rapid spread of information, supplementing this with
personal communication. Then, when awareness and interest have been
developed, he should increase his personal communication to promote
trial and adoption, using the mass media in a supplementary role. After
adoption, he should continue to supply information both through personal
and mass media channels in order to make the change permanent, for if

he does not, the farmer will tend to revert to his original practice.

Rate of Adoption and the Diffusion Process

7g¥ég7<M.As already mentioned in a previous chapter, farmers vary in their

>\ rate of adopting new practices and ideas. Researchers have classified
them in five categories: (1) innovators, (2) early adopters, (3) early
majority, (4) majority, and (5) non-adopters. Each of these plays a
different role in the diffusion process.

Innovators are the farmers who adopt new ideas first. They are
characterized by higher education, larger farms, greater incomes, more
social status, and wider travel than the average farmer. They are
experimenters, always trying out new things. They are active and in-
fluential, not only in their community, but often beyond its boundaries.
They usually belong to formal organizations and have many informal
contacts both inside and outside their community; therefore they have
more potential sources of information than other farmers. Beal (1958)
(29) found that most of the innovators' new ideas come from government
agencies or mass media. They seek advice from other farmers, but

primarily from those who are progressive thinkers like themselves.

According to Lionberger (1960) (6) innovators perform an important

function in the diffusion process. By assuming risks that others are

33
not willing to take, they provide the local trial which is necessary
to legitimize a new idea or practice in the eyes of other farmers who
are more skeptical or more cautious.

Next come the early adopters. Compared to the late adopters,
they are usually younger and have more schooling. They participate in
formal activities of the community and in agricultural cooperatives
and government agency programs. They furnish many formal leaders
(elected officers) for the community. They are usually considered as
the "influentials” of the community and are sought out for their advice.
Beal (1958) (29) found that at the awareness and interest stages, they
were influenced primarily by mass communication; at the trial stage, by
government and commercial sources; and in the adoption process, by agency
sources and mass media. The influence of friends and neighbors was less
important to them than to the late adopters.

In the third category, known as the early majority, are those
who adopt new ideas and practices earlier than the average farmer, but
are close to average in many other.respects. They are a little above
the average social and economic status. In formal groups they are less
active than the early adopters, but more active than the late adopters.
Their leadership is usually informal rather than by elected office.

They associate mainly with members of their own community and place a
high value on the opinions of neighbors and friends. Although influenced
. g

by the norms of the groups in which they are active members; they are

usually receptive to change. Like the innovators and early adopters .
they are heavy users of the mass media. They are influential in their
social groups and are sought out for their advice. Because they are

normally the ones to receive new information and pass it on to less active

farmers, they are considered key communicators. As such, according to

34
Lionberger (1960) (6), "they are in a position to select what they
transmit, to shade it with their own interpretations, and to incorporate
either positive or negative recommendations.” In other words, they
are gatekeepers, controlling the information which reaches the less
active farmers in their social groups.

The next category, termed the majority, are older and less well
educated than farmers in the early majority. They participate less in
formal groups, belong to fewer organizations, are less active in organi-
zational work, and hold fewer positions of leadership. Although re-
ceptive to new ideas, they are too mated to their social systems to
seek new ideas actively. Most of their new information comes from
other persons, usually from the opinion leaders. They are inactive in
government programs and remain aloof from the change agencies as in-
formation sources.

The last category, the non-adopters, are the oldest and least
educated. They participate least in groups, in formal organizations,
in farm cooperatives, and in government programs. Their mental rigidity

does not allow them to accept changes in their traditions and customs.

Other Factorsplpfluencing the Adoption of New Ideas and Practices

What causes these differences in the rate of accepting new ideas
and practices? As indicated in a previous chapter, some individuals
seem.more predisposed to accept change by reason of factors in their
personalities - but there are other factors, as far as farmers are con-
cerned. These, as revealed by research, are: (l) the extent of the
farmer's education, (2) the cost of the new practice, (3) the area where

he lives, (4) the amount of his farming experience, and (5) the nature

and number of the communication channels to which he is exposed.

35

The findings of Young and Marsh (1950, 1955) (31) suggest that
the higher the education level of farmers, the greater their rate of
acceptance of new practices. The higher their economic level, the more
frequent their adoption of new practices. Farmers who live in areas
where farms are larger and are served by modern facilities such as
electricity and good roads have a higher rate of adoption than those in
isolated and more primitive communities. The findings also suggest
that the farmers with more education and higher incomes and who live in
high-adoption neighborhoods use a greater number of information sources,
among which the mass media are very popular. Similar findings were
obtained by Dickerson (1955) (32), by Baker (1955) (33) and by Anderson

(1955) (34).

Conclusion

 

The literature reviewed in this chapter has shown that both
personal and mass communication are important in the diffusion of new
agricultural ideas and practices, and that each has its own special
role in this process.' Mass communication is especially influential
in the awareness and interest-arousing stages of the process, and it is
particularly appropriate for reaching the opinion leaders and the early
adopters who diffuse information by word of mouth to other members of
the community and set examples for them to follow. Although personal
communication is still a major force in securing the trial and adoption
of new recommendations, mass communication is a much more common and in-
fluential source of information for farmers than some county agents seem
to believe. Considering this, and also how much more efficient mass

communication can make the work of these agents, it merits more use by

36
the Puerto Rican Agricultural Extension Service than is being made of
it at present.
This chapter has discussed the potentialities of the mass media
in general. The next chapter will be devoted entirely to presenting
factual information about the newest mass communication channel, television,

as an effective medium for information and education.

‘ ----.—-——-r-

CHAPTER V
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TELEVISION

AS A MEANS FOR DIFFUSING FARM AND HOME INFORMATION

Is television an effective means for diffusing farm and home
information? This has been a controversial question during recent
years, both in Puerto Rico and on the mainland of the United States.

Some Extension educators resist making any extensive use of
television. They believe that farmers regard it primarily as a means
of entertainment rather than as a source of information. They argue
that television production is too expensive, that it requires special
talents, and that it demands too much time for program preparation if
its messages are to have sufficient impact to gain and maintain an
audience. Messages designed for mass audiences, they claim, may have
to be too superficial to accomplish thorough results. Because the
audience for a broadcast message is not a captive one, but must be won
against competition from other programs and pursuits, the proper re-
ceivers for the Extension worker's message may not be watching when his
broadcast is made--and if they are, they may be too distracted by other
occurrences in their homes to pay proper attention to the message and
comprehend it accurately.

Other Extension educators, however, use television more in-
tensively. Because of its triple appeal to sight and sound and motion,
they regard it as a highly effective means for disseminating Extension

37

38
information. Furthermore, they claim, it increases the reputation
of the Extension Service as an educational authority and creates better
understanding between rural and urban people.

The author of this dissertation is admittedly allied with the
advocates of television. As an information specialist of the Puerto
Rican Agricultural Extension Service, he strongly believes that, by
intensifying its use of television the Service can reach many more
people with no more effort, extending its range of influence to areas
never reached before. Especially today, when the Service has obligations
to urban as well as rural areas, he considers television to be an ex-
cellent method for informing consumers about farming and farm life,
housewives about homemaking practices, and part-time farmers and suburban
residents about desirable improvements to their homes and gardens.

This confidence in television must, however, be justified and
qualified; and the claims of the opposing point of view must be in-
vestigated, not merely in the light of personal experience, but with the

support of scientific research.

Is Television Regarded as a Source of Information?

Perhaps the most basic question to raise is this: Do the targets
for Extension messages regard television as a useful source of informa-
tion? Several research studies indicate that they do.

Bertrand and Bates (1958) (35) studied the viewing habits of
rural men and women in Louisiana, by random sampling of areas within a
30 mile radius of television stations. Of the people interviewed, three

fifths said that they regularly viewed agricultural and homemaking pro-

grams and that television was their preferred medium for farm news and

market reports. The study shows that 82% of the sample owned television

sets.

___- f,“

39

In 1953 (when the ownership of television receivers was not as
general as it is today), Axinn studied the television viewing habits of
farm operators in Delaware and found that almost 40% of them owned
television receivers. Of these, 87% were interested in a televised
farm program presented by the University of Delaware. (36)

Crile, Reist, and Tait (1955) (37) conducted a study in Lancaster
and Lebanon counties, Pennsylvania, to find out to what extent purely
rural residents were viewing the Extension television programs being
broadcast in those counties. Of those having television sets, 25% of
the men and 45% of the women had seen the programs. :A small percentage
of those without sets watched away from home.

Williams (1956) (38) studied the audience for "Across the Fence,"
a television program of the Vermont Extension Service. Of those in-
terviewed, the program had been watched by 53% of the farm households,
42% of the rural non-farm households, and 37% of the urban households.
In farm families, the number of men and women was about equal. From
the results of this survey, the Radio and Television Manufacturers
Association conservatively estimated the audience of this program to
be 50,000 people. Similar results were obtained by Sloan (1955) (39)
when he investigated the reception in Caldwel County, Texas, of "Town.
and Country," a program presented by the Agricultural Extension Service

five days a week.

Can Television Teach?
The findings just cited show that Extension television programs

can find a sufficient audience --at least under certain conditions.

What these conditions are must, of course, be investigated. One con-

dition, presumably, is that the audience should consider a program to

40
be worthwhile. It is logical to assume that an Extension program
will be considered worthwhile if its audience is able to learn some-
thing useful from it. The question arises, therefore: How effective
is television as a teaching device?

Many researchers who have raised this question have studied, not
the ordinary form of television broadcast to a random audience, but
rather instructional television, which is transmitted to a Specific
audience such as a class of students who are taking a televised course
for credit. Sometimes this course is broadcast to the students'
homes; sometimes it is transmitted through closed circuit. In either
case, as shown by Kumata (1956) (40) in his inventory of instructional
television research, television can be as effective as class room in-
struction for teaching a wide.variety of subjects. Crile (1955) (41)
and Barrow and Westley (1958) (42) cite various courses successfully
televised for credit at university and high school levels. They also
describe findings by the Training Devices Centers of the U. S. Navy
that a television program can be at least as effective in conveying
factual information as other means of instruction.

Although the Extension Service may use instructional television
for training leaders or reaching other special groups, it has so far
made much more use of television as a mass medium for reaching a widely
dispersed and heterogeneous audience. Several studies indicate that

this use also may be effective.

 

1
For additional information about the effectiveness of in-

structional television the reader is referred to Appendix A. It
contains valuable empirical data about how television can best be
utilized in advancing educational goals.

41

Wilson and Moe (1951) (43) investigated the effectiveness of
”Let's Make a Dress,” a television program series broadcast to the
metropolitan area of Washington, D.C. The results show that a high
percentage of those interviewed followed the televised demonstrations.
That these demonstrations, supplemented by a bulletin on the same sub-
ject, resulted in a real learning is evidenced by the extensive use
that the viewers made of their new knowledge during a five-week period
immediately following the programs. Seven in eight of the 229 women who
viewed one or more programs said that they had learned something new
about dressmaking from the television demonstrations.

Gauger (1953) (44), in Story County, Iowa, studied the results of
four programs called "One Hundred Bushels of Corn a Reality", presented I
by the Extension Service. The findings indicate that television is con-
sidered an effective way of reaching farmers with new ideas on soils,
fertilizers, and crop rotation. A large percentage of the farmers in-
terviewed thought the television programs were usually better than
regular meetings for getting information about farm problems.

In their previously mentioned survey in Lancaster and Lebanon
counties Crile, Reist, and Tait (1955) (45) found that more than two
thirds of both men and women considered television as a very useful
channel for receiving Extension information. 10% of the men and 5% of
the women who watched the Extension program requested additional in-
formation or made contact with the County Extension Office. Of these,
all but one had previously had contact with the office.

From their study of a series on tailoring a coat, Pollack and
Melache (1954) (46), concluded that people watch Extension programs in

order to learn. Mbst of the women interviewed said that they watched

42
the programs in order to learn how to sew and tailor. All expressed

interest in seeing another clothing series on television.

Viewing Habits and Preferences of the Extension Television Programs Audience

Television, then, is regarded by farmers as a source of informa-
tion. And television can teach. For Extension personnel, therefore, it
is a potentially useful tool. The word "potentially” is used advisedly,
for in order to fulfill its potentialities, it must be properly used.
Proper use requires that it be skillfully produced, that it present
information relevant to the needs and interests of the intended audience,
and that this information reach the audience at a time when the audience
can pay attention to it. In order to produce an effective television
program, the Extensionist needs a thorough knowledge of the viewing
habits and subject-matter preferences of his clientele.

A number of researchers have studied the viewing habits and pre-
ferences of Extension program audiences on the united States mainland.
Some of their results will be quoted as examples of the need to de-
termine these factors, with full awareness that studies conducted in
Puerto Rico might produce different results. In reporting the con-
clusions of these researchers, subject matter preferences and preferred
viewing times will be presented together, since most of the studies
have considered both of these topics and since, in some instances, they
are closely related, a certain day or time of day being preferred for
reception of a certain type of subject matter. I

In his previously mentioned survey of Caldwell County, Sloan
(1956) (39) found that farmers preferred Friday and Saturday for Ex-

tension television programs. When asked what hours were best for Ex-

tention programs, 50% of the respondents suggested the noon hours, and

43
26% the hours between five and six in the afternoon. The other 24%
mentioned morning and early afternoon. Landscaping was the subject
wanted most often by urban people, while insect control was by far the
most popular subject mentioned by rural residents.

Merrill (1955) (46), in his analysis of "Town and Country,”
telecast by the Michigan State university station, found that, although
both male farmers and female homemakers watched the program, they did
so for different sections of it. The homemaking feature, as might be
expected, was popular with homemakers but disliked by farmers, whereas
the market reports were liked by farmers but only slightly liked by
the women. For farmers, the most convenient time for viewing the
program was 12:30 to 1:00 P.M., and for rural housewives, 12:45 to
1:15 P.M. .As to production and program content, respondents suggested
that a regular master of ceremonies of professional calibre be secured
to carry the program, removing this responsibility from the county
agents, who would then be treated as guests. The respondents also
wanted their performers to be well-dressed, businesslike, enthusiastic
as well as friendly. One of the most important findings of the study
was that the most popular farm feature on the program lost the interest
of the farm men after eight minutes, and the most popular homemaking
feature lost the interest of the homemakers after five minutes.

The study suggests that separate programs should be provided for farm
men and farm women, and that, in order to maintain interest, program
segments should either be shortened or strengthened with more interest-
provoking techniques and appeals.

In his study of the mass communication habits of Delaware farmers

(previously mentioned in this chapter), Axinn (1953) (36) found that the

 

44
persons interviewed favored Sunday as their best viewing day, one half
hour as the best program length, and from noon to 2:00 P.M. as the best
time of day for Extension television programs.

Bertrand and Bates (1953) (35), studying television viewing habits
and preferences in rural Louisiana, found that men were especially in-
terested in programs dealing with farm enterprises, while women favored
programs about cooking and food preservation. Their results also imply
that it is advisable to present programs for farmers apart from those

directed to homemakers.

Conclusion

 

The research reported in this chapter has established that
television is regarded by farm people as a reliable source of information
and that they use it to improve their farm production and homemaking
skills and, consequently, their standards of living. The programs they
use, however, are those which are relevant to their needs and interests
and are scheduled at times when they can pay attention to them. There-
fore, it is important for Extension workers using the medium to know
their clients' viewing habits and subject—matter preferences. To
determine the habits and preferences of Puerto Rican Extension audiences
will require research, recommendations for which will be proposed in the
last chapter of this thesis.

In 1958 the author produced a gardening series for the Puerto
Rican Extension television audience. The results of this series were
encouraging enough to show the potentialities of television as an
Extension tool. So far, these potentialities are practically un-
exploited in Puerto Rico. More programs are needed to inform consumers

about farming and farm life, to inform farmers about new technology, to

45

inform housewives about new practices in home economics, and to inform
part-time farmers and suburban residents about various matters of house
and garden. Were the Puerto Rican county agents to focus their attention
on television and integrate it into the total county program, combining
it with bulletins, press releases, and personal contacts, their effective-
ness would be tremendously improved.

It is true, however, that they cannot produce effective television
‘ programs without some degree of special knowledge. In order to provide
them with some orientation to the basic techniques of television pro-
duction, the next chapter describes the problems faced by the producer
of ”Your Garden,” a television program series started in 1958, which
accomplished one of the main goals of the Agricultural Extension Service --
the diffusion of new practices in the field of ornamental horticulture,

and the acceptance and application of these practices by the receivers.

CHAPTER VI
PROBLEMS IN THE PRODUCTION OF EXTENSION TELEVISION

PROGRAMS AS EXEMPLIFIED BY "YOUR GARDEN"

In August, 1957, the Agricultural Extension Service was re-
quested by the government station, WIPR-TV, to produce a television
program series devoted to Extension information. The result was
,"Your Garden." Although originally planned for only thirteen weekly
programs, this series was so successful that it was extended to one
hundred and four weeks. Having been kinescoped (recorded on film)
during its original broadcasts, the series has been shown since on
other stations and is still being transmitted by one commercial
station.

Having accepted the invitation of WIPR-TV, the Extension service
assigned responsibility for producing the programs to the Radio and
Television Section of its Information Office. Six months were devoted

to planning the production before the first broadcast.

Selection of Subject Matter

The first step was to select the subject matter. To do this, a
staff meeting of the Information Office was held. Many possible subject
fields were considered and finally narrowed down to four: a farm series,
a consumers' education series, a 4-H Club series, or a gardening series.
Each of these represented an important aspect of Extension work. Which

46

47
one should be selected? Which would have the most impact? Which
would reach the largest audience?

Before deciding, a careful analysis was made of the potential
audience and its needs for information. This revealed that there were
150,000 television sets in the urban area as against 20,000 in rural
areas. 125,000 were located in the northern part of the Island where
the station signal was clear.

After weighing the pros and cons of the four alternatives, the
gardening subject was finally chosen, primarily for two reasons: (1)
Home gardening was an interest which urban and rural residents shared
in common and with which many of them had been asking for technical
assistance. (2) The Tourist Bureau was developing a campaign for the
ornamentation of the Capital and its suburbs.

The objectives of the show, then, were to assist urban and rural
residents in technical problems related to home gardening; to make the
general public conscious of the need to have clean and well ornamented
cities in the Island; and to train leaders, who in turn would be able
to train other people in home gardening practices.

Home gardening, however, was still too broad a subject to be
successfully treated in thirteen programs. To narrow down the topic,
therefore, the producer called a meeting of the subject matter specialist,
the Extension editor, and the county agents of the metropolitan area.
From this meeting came a decision to plan a pilot series of thirteen
weeks around the specific subject of lawn propagation and culture, with
program segments on grass varieties, propagation of the lawn, care of

the lawn, fertilizing, and control of weeds, insects, and diseases.

48

As the reader will have noticed, much time and effort was given
to these initial stages of production. The cue for successful Extension
programs is careful planning. Concerning this planning process, Speece,
Skelsey, and Gapen (1953) (47), television specialists of the United
States Department of Agriculture, reached the following conclusions:

Successful television programs do not just happen. They

are the result of a careful step-by-step process involving

many persons skilled in various arts and sciences.

As the producer plans his television program he must

keep two thoughts in mind: Who are the people I am

trying to reach and what do I want them to do? To

some degree, the producer can select the specific

audience he wishes to reach. Time of day is the most

important factor in determining the type of audience.

The subject-matter specialists through their contacts

with the field are aware of current problems and

projects in the field of agriculture, and the producer

will be wise to consult them for program ideas.

The subject matter, of course, should be timely, of

interest to the audience, and affect the audience in

some way. It should be challenging, something that

touches directly on the problem, and preferably fur-

nishes-the solution to that problem.
Gathering_9f Specific Content Information

In the author's experience, the second stage of planning the
production is the gathering of specific content information. This re-
quires close coordination with content specialists. To facilitate the
coordination, the specialist on ornamental horticulture for "Your Garden”
was relieved of his regular duties and attached on a full time basis to
the program. Through his efforts, contacts were established with
technicians of the Agricultural Experiment Station, who also supplied

information for the programs. This coordination paid dividends. Without

it, the information could not have been assembled on time.

49

Time in this case does not mean time for the first broadcast,
but time well in advance of this to permit arrangements with nurseries
for the supply of propagation material, to permit the preparation of
bulletins and leaflets to offer to viewers of the programs, and to permit
the writing and distribution of promotional material, which, for "Your
Garden," started the arousing of public interest in the series three
weeks before it went on the air.

As James P. Veeder (1953) (48), information specialist of the
Cornell University Extension Service, recommends:

The first step in producing a TV show is to select a

subject matter field, for example, foods, housing,

child care, landscaping, and gardening. From this

broad field, select a specific phase of that subject

as a topic for the television program.

Topics for TV shows should be definite and concrete

rather than vague and all inclusive. Thorough treat-

ment of the topic is preferable to the "once over

lightly" way of presenting information.

Not only is the subject important, but thetnpic must "
be capable of visual presentation.

Topics must be timely. Topics are of the greatest

interest to the viewer during the particular time the

commodity is plentiful or at a logical time a job

should be done.
Format and Organization of the Program

While the content information is being collected, thought must
be given to the manner in which this information will be presented in
the programs. From this there emerges the format, a general plan or
outline which designates the major divisions of the program, the order

in which they will occur, and how much time will be alloted to each.

The final format of "Your Garden” was as follows:

50
Open ing 0 O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O 30 Sec onds

Answering audience questions (to promote
aUdience PartiCiPation) o o o o o o o o o o o o 5 minutes

Demonstration (”how to do it”) . . . . . . . . 13 minutes

Research news (summaries of research on
ornamental horticulture) . . . . . . . . . . . 5 minutes

Guest interview, or film on some outstanding
prOJeCtoooooooooooooooooooo4minutes

Closing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 seconds

As will be noted from the above, the format specifies what kind
of audience interests are to be served during the program. It estab-
lishes a variety of approaches to the subject matter so that audience
attention will be periodically refreshed. It provides a standardized
(and presumably tried and effective) form into which the material for
each successive program can be fitted without the necessity of creating
a new form every week.

The selection of a format is limited by the available budget
(which for educational programs is usually low). This limitation can
be overcome in large measure by intelligent use of the available resources,
including the facilities of research centers and commercial nurseries for
supplying technical equipment and propagation material, and the facilities
of the television station such as art work, settings, and properties.

Help in planning Extension program formats can be obtained from

the handbook, Television for You by Tomkin and Skelsey, who advise:

 

For practical purposes there are three types of programs
that Extension Service has been doing on television:

(1) The method demonstration, (2) The illustrated report,
(3) The television discussion.

There is also considerable use of these types in com-
bination, either two or all three. Your method demon-
stration will be closeup television, short, to the point,

51

and stripped of all distractions. The viewer, through

the camera lens, will be within inches of what you do,

closer sometimes to your own demonstration than you are.

This is one great advantage that the television demon-

strations have over the same demonstration at an ex-

tension meeting.

Your illustrative report offers much latitude in the

presentation of extension information by television.

It is concerned with results, conditions, and activities

in farm, home, and community life in your area. Many

illustrations you can use on the illustrated-report type

of program.will be the real thing: Actual comparisons of

plants in result demonstrations, examples of insect

damage, a sod sample of a recommended kind of grass,

extra-fine specimens of local grown fruits and vegetables,

home firefighting equipment, and many others.

The number-one ingredient of your discussion-type

program on television is a guest (or guests) who is

personable to the extent that he can hold the interest

of the viewer without demonstrations, actions, or a

large number of visual aids.
Name of the Program

The name of the program should be something that people recognize
and identify with it each time the program goes on the air. It should be
related to the content of the program or to its sponsoring agency. It
should serve as a guide to what to expect in the program which will

benefit the viewer. The name "Your Garden" was chosen because it created

the image of something beautiful and attractive.

Opening and Closing of the Program

A program opening involves a careful selection of a musical theme
and an appealing visual treatment. Since it is the first impression
that the viewer has of the program, it will, in some instances, make the
difference between attracting a large audience or not. The closing is
usually guided by the same principles. It is the viewer's last impression,
and if well motivated, will influence him to become a permanent viewer of

the series.

52
In the case of ”Your Garden,” the musical theme was selected

by the Music Director of WIPR-TV with the approval of the producer.

The Talent

 

In the planning of Extension television programs, the selection
and training of the talent is of primary importance. Although there is
no sure way of predetermining which individual will give the best per-
formance, it helps to consider subject matter knowledge, experience in
demonstrating, personality, and knowledge of the audience. After a
little experience, subject matter specialists and county agents are
capable of giving good performances and with infinitely more authority
than professional television actors. However, they should be chosen
with a view to such personality characteristics as dynamism, presence
of mind, wit, sincerity, and the ability to memorize. Their availability
for rehearsals is also important.

For "Your Garden" three persons were normally used as talent:

a subject matter specialist in charge of demonstrations and technical
information, a commentator for the research news section, and a master
of ceremonies to tie the various segments together and guide the subject
matter Specialist through his portions of the script. These persons
were recruited either from the Information Office or from the Horti-

culture and Forestry divisions.

Visuals

AA major criticism of Extension television programs is that they
are good radio but poor television. Too many producers are satisfied
to rely on a radio script, supported rather weakly by visuals as

appendages rather than as fundamental ingredients in the communication.

53
The way in which visuals are used will affect the pace of the per-
formance. Only excellent ones can serve to create attention and
interest and to clarify the audience's understanding of the subject
matter.

In ”Your Garden” most of the visualization was "live.” All the
propagation material and equipment was real. Slides, photographs, or
film strips were used only when it was not possible to bring a rare
variety to the studio or when a small object had to be enlarged. Films

were used when demonstrations were made in the field, such as spraying

weed killers or applying fertilizers.

Results Justify the Effort

The producer of an Extension television program has other concerns.
He supervises the script writing, rehearsals, staging, lighting, and
directing. He is concerned with advance promotion and with subsequent
program ratings and program evaluation. Throughout the production he
maintains harmony among the crew members and good relations with the
station officials and the general public.

Obviously, a county agent will need special training for these
tasks - and they get it. The broadcasting specialists of the Extension
Service are constantly training them in the use of radio and television.
Furthermore, when the agents first plan to use television, at least
part of the television staff moves its headquarters to their county
and helps them in all phases of production until their program is well
established and they are able to carry on alone with a minimum of
difficulty. At present, some county agents are in the United States,

receiving training in mass communication, including television.

54
That such training is worthwhile is indicated by the achievements of
"Your Garden.” According to ratings, this was the second most popular
program presented by WIPR-TV. For each of its live broadcasts, the
audience was estimated by a rating agency as 15,000 - more people than
could be reached in one year by the combined personal contacts of three
county agents. Some of these persons viewed the program in meetings,
organized throughout the Island under the leadership of home demon-
stration and county agents.

As a direct result of the series, twelve garden clubs were
organized on the Island. These clubs distributed more than 25,000
gardening publications. They conducted campaigns for the ornamentation
of plazas, public schools, and parks, and contests for the best home
garden in their municipalities. The annual report of the Extension
Service for 1959-1960 acknowledges that the home gardening project was
sustained mainly by the ”Your Garden” series, and that the ornamentation
projects conducted by home demonstration club members were increased
20% as a result of the program. The program stimulated more than 10,000
letters requesting information about gardening from people who were

using Extension services for the first time.

Summar

Television, properly applied and produced, is an excellent channel
for the diffusion of Extension information. It uses the same skills that
Extensionists employ in the everyday performance of their jobs. It is ‘f
efficient, because it makes possible the concentration in one place of

the best demonstration equipment and allows specialists to reach more

people with a single effort, covering the majority rather than a fraction

of the residents of a given area.

55

However, to make the most effective use of television, the
Puerto Rican Extension workers need more factual information, which
should be derived from a well planned and organized research program.
At the moment, programs tend to follow the patterns of those produced
on the United States mainland, and their adaptation to the Puerto
Rican situation is a matter of trial and error. For more reliable
results, factual answers are needed to such questions as the following:
What are the viewing habits of Puerto Rican viewers? What are their
subject matter preferences? What is the potential audience for Extension
television? How does the new medium compare with other channels of
communication in size of audience and in general effectiveness? These
and similar questions can be answered only by a well planned and executed
research program, which will be discussed further in the following (and

concluding) chapter.

CHAPTER'VII

SUGGESTED RESEARCH TO BE CARRIED IN PUERTO RICO

With the exception of the preceding chapter on ”Your Garden,"
this dissertation has so far been concerned with research conducted
on the mainland of the United States. This research has confirmed
the potentialities of both closed-circuit and broadcast television
as an educational medium and, in particular, as a method of Extension
teaching. The question remains, however: will television prove similarly
effective for Extensionists in Puerto Rico?

As already mentioned, many Puerto Rican extensionists are
reluctant to use the new medium. 'When confronted with findings ob-
tained in the united States, they argue that they are working under
different conditions with people of a different culture. And so far,
very little research has been conducted in Puerto Rico to prove whether
they are wrong or right.

Even those Extensionists who use television do so by trial and
error, without benefit of any systematic studies to help solve their
problems and answer their questions. What are the most effective for-
mats to use for a Puerto Rican audience? What are the best hours for
reaching this audience? What types of programs does this audience prefer--
and for that matter, is it interested in educational programs at all?

Such questions require reliable answers, answers which would help Ex-

tension educators to fulfill the needs and interests of their clientele.

56

57
Without such reliable answers, Extensionists will be wasting
and misusing a medium which reaches 184,000 out of a total of 540,000
Puerto Rican homes and is served by ten stations, two educational and
eight commercial.1 With such facilities at its disposal, it is im-
portant for the Agricultural Extension Service to systematically study

how it can use the television medium most effectively.

Television as a Source of Information for Farmers and Housewives

Actually, there are several questions which need to be explored.
In the first place, can television become an important source of in-
formation for Puerto Rican farmers and housewives?

According to research in the United states, it can. As previously
mentioned, the experiments conducted by Iowa researchers Beal and Bohlen
(1957) (28) and Beal (1958) (29) definitely demonstrated that mass media
play an important role in the diffusion process, especially during the
stages of awareness and interest; but even in the stages of evaluation,
trial, and adoption, they were mentioned as influencing factors.

Are they similarly effective in Puerto Rico? In particular, how
effective is television as a tool for Puerto Rican Extensionists? To
answer these questions, a replication of Beal and Bohlen (1957) and

Beal (1958) studies may be extremely useful.

 

1 Northern Southern Western All
Distribution of Zone Zone Zone Zones

 

television homes
is as follows:

Urban areas: 103,000 14,000 15,000 132,000
Rural Area: 39,000 4,000 9,000 52,000
Total: 142,000 18,000 24,000 184,000

0f the total, 14,000 are high income; 91,000 medium income; and 79,000
low income homes.

58

Nature of the Extension Audience

 

Another area to be explored is the composition, viewing habits
and preferences of the Puerto Rican Extension Service clientele. With a
thorough knowledge of the potential audience, their habits and preferences,
better television programs can be produced to fulfill the needs and in-
terests of the Extension clientele.

Still other types of research should be duplicated in Puerto Rico
to test whether the findings there will resemble those obtained in the
United States. As previously noted, Williams (1956) (38) found that the
Vermont Extension Service television program "Across the Fence" had been
watched by 53% of the farm households, 42% of the non-farm households,
and 37% of the urban households. A conservative estimate of the daily
audience of this program was 20,000 to 25,000 families representing
over 50,000 Vermont people.

Fessenden and Rohrer (1957) (41) found that 63 percent of the
home demonstration clubs had watched the home demonstration Agent's
television program. About 95,000 homemakers said therwatched the program.
. Other findings, the reader will recall, indicate that general
farm television programs will have the largest number of rural viewers
during the noon hours, farm breakfast hour, and the evening hours be-
tween 7:00 and 10:00 P.M.; and that homemaking programs will have the
biggest audience during the afternoon.

' In addition, research findings show that, in the United States,
Extension audiences prefer information on consumer education, gardening,
farm news and marketing.

Apparently, as the fihfings suggest, Extension television programs
in the United States appeal to both rural and urban viewers and are

capable of reaching appreciable audiences.

59

What application have such findings to the situation in Puerto
Rico? In a country where the culture and conditions are different,
will Extension television programs produce the same effects? What are
the preferences and viewing habits of the Puerto Rican Extension
clientele?

The Extension Television communicators should have data on these
important questions in order to fulfill the needs and interest of their

clientele.

Effectiveness of Extension Television

In the United States, as previously reported, research findings
show that Extension television is a1 effective method of teaching farmers
and homemakers new practices and ideas. Crile, Reist and Tait (1955)
(37), for example, found that one-fifth of the men and two-fifths of
the women in Lancaster and Lebanon Counties had used the information
presented on television by Extensionists.

As a result of the Extension agents' television programs, both
male and female viewers requested additional-information or made contact
with the Extension office.

Gauger, (1953) (44) found that television is an effective way of
reaching farmers with new ideas on problems of soils, fertilizers, and
crop rotation. The farmers interviewed said that television programs
were usually better than meetings for getting information on farming
problems. 1

Would similar results be obtained in Puerto Rico? What is the
effectiveness of television as a teaching device for Extension infor-

mation? These are questions to be answered by experimentation. Although

60

the producer of Your Garden feels that his program met with great

 

success, he did not obtain sufficient data to actually confirm his
feelings. No research was conducted to measure the real impact of
this series.

In other phases of Extension work, Extensionists are beginning
to use television for consumer and home management education. This
author considers it necessary to conduct surveys to determine the real

impact of these shows and of such programs in the Your Garden series

 

as are still on the air.
Such surveys would also test to what extent television programs
(including those which appeal to both urban and rural viewers) are

effective in the dissemination of farm and home information.

Instructional Television

 

This is another area to be investigated--the potential of in-
structional television for training community leaders, who in turn
will train other people in the different phases of Extension work.

In the United States, as has been noted, instructional television
has been the subject of a great deal of research in the past year. .A
great many studies demonstrating the effectiveness of this medium as a
training device are cited by Kumata (1956) (40), Crile (1957) (41) and
Barrow and Westley (1958) (42) in their summaries on instructional
television. A good example of the success of television as a training
device is found in the reports of the united States Naval Training
Devices Center. In these studies television compared favorably in all

phases tested with face-to-face communication.

61

Consequently this author suggests that a series of exploratory
studies be conducted to determine the potential of television as a
device for training voluntary local leaders in extension work in Puerto
Rico.

To train leaders at present, the Extension specialists have to
attend most of the training meetings held in the different counties of
Puerto Rico. Sometimes they spend the day traveling just to train three
or four leaders in the county. .Thus they are practically Extension
Agents at large. And because of their crowded itineraries, they lack
sufficient time to produce the technical material which is needed by
the county agents for a more effective work.

The author believes that by using television as a training device,
many counties can be served with a single telecast, if the program is
well coordinated. For example, every year the county agents include in
their annual programs a series of training meetings for 4-H Club leaders.
To help them organize these meetings the State Extension 4-H specialist
spends a great deal of time visiting the counties concerned. If such
activities were coordinated in such a way that various counties would
participate simultaneously, television might be an efficient device
for training these leaders. It would be necessary of course to schedule
all meetings simultaneously at the times of the telecasts, with county
agents present to lead discussions following the transmission. These
coordinated activities would save the time of the specialist, thereby
allowing him to produce a greater variety of technical material. A
first attempt to study the potential of television as a device for
training voluntary local leaders was made during the telecasting of
"Your Garden." Telecasts of this series were coordinated with the

county agents' training meetings, and the subject matter specialist

62
covered thousands of leaders in each of the teleuditions. This saving
of time allowed the Ornamental Horticulture specialist additional time
to devote to the production of technical bulletins of great usefulness

for the County Extension personnel.

Audience Appeals

 

In addition to the questions already proposed for study, there
are still others to be raised. For example, which are the best ways
for presenting educational information? What are the best appeals to
use for arousing the interest of Extension clientele in new practices
and ideas?

To help answer such questions, the author suggests replicating
in Puerto Rico the Hovland and Associates studies (1953, 1957) (7)
which investigated the order of presentation and the effect of appeals
such as fear arousal in persuasive communication. A replication of some
of these studies would help the Puerto Rican communicators become more

effective in reducing their receivers' resistance to change.

Conclusion

 

In conclusion, one parting idea may be left with readers of this
dissertation. Communication need not be based on guesswork. The communi-
cation process is subject to analysis. The resources and motives of the
source, the content and construction of the message, the advantages and
conditions of the possible channels, the needs and behavioral responses
of the intended receivers-~all of these should be ascertained as accurately
as possible and carefully evaluated before communication begins. By
doing this, the members of the Puerto Rican Agricultural Extension Service
can maximize their effectiveness as educators and as agents of change in a

mobile society.

APPENDIX.A

EFFECTIVENESS OF INSTRUCTIONAL TELEVISION

Live Television, Kinescopes, and Films

1. Warner, R. S. and Bowers, J. Z. The use of open-channel television
in postgraduate medical education. Journ. Med. Ed., 29:
27-33. October 1954.

Four television clinics for postgraduate medical education
were transmitted by open-channel at weekly intervals from 7
to 8 a.m. from the Salt Lake County General Hospital over
KDYL-TV, Salt Lake City.

Visual aids for each clinic included X-rays, electrocardio-
graphic records, projected lantern slides and photographs and
gross and miscroscopic pathological specimens. Printed charts
were used for case histories, tabulations, and diagrams.

Various methods of presenting material were explored in-
cluding discussion of a variety of medical problems by a
single physician, discussion of a single problem by a group
of physicians, discussion of a field of medicine by a group
of physicians utilizing a variety of specialized audio-
visual techniques, and a group of diagnostic clinics.

The subjects included in the four clinics were: X-ray
diagnosis of calcifications in the abdomen, gastro-intestinal
hemorrhage in the elderly patient, the approach to con-
genital heart disease, and a diagnostic clinic.

Before the initiation of the television series, procedures
for the evaluation of the educational impact, physician in-
terest, and lay interest were designed. These included: A
telephone interview with each physician in the area of definite
television reception upon completion of the television series,
a questionnaire at the end of each telecast, and a telephone
survey after each telecast to determine the number of lay
viewers.

The questions for the evaluation procedures were designed
with the assistance of Dr. Gerald Neuman, clinical psychologist,
and the actual telephone interrogations were conducted by a
marketing research firm.

Telephone interviews were completed with 567 doctors out of
the potential audience of 700 practicing within a lSO-mile
radius of the medical school.

63

64

Of 342 physicians participating in the clinics, over half
were located outside Salt Lake County. This group represents
61 percent of those physicians who do not have easy access to
the postgraduate facilities of the medical school. There was
greater participation by physicians who live at a distance
from the medical school.

Physician attendance for the 8 intramural courses pre-
sented at the Salt Lake County General Hospital in 1953
totaled 334. Maximum attendance for any one course was 66,
as contrasted with a maximum figure of 221 for a television
clinic. In addition, 230 physicians were sufficiently in-
terested to view more than one of the televised educational
programs.

New facts were obtained by 74 percent of those viewing one
or more of the clinics. Sixty-one percent reported that
previously acquired knowledge had been revitalized, while 53
percent reported renewed interest in a specific field. The
rural impact of the program is exemplified by the fact that
85 percent of the physicians distant from Salt Lake City gained
new facts as contrasted with 61 percent of the practitioners
in proximity to the medical center.

Sixty-six percent of those who viewed the clinics felt that
they were the preferable form of postgraduate medical education.
The rural seminars and the courses given at the medical center
were listed as second choice by 30 percent of the physicians
interviewed. '

The content and presentation of each clinic was rated "very
good” by 80 percent or more of the doctor audience. Sixty-five
percent of the physicians preferred a discussion of a specific
subject by a panel of physicians.

Slightly less than 5 percent of all the physicians thought
that medical clinics should be limited to closed-circuit
television; television was thought to be a poor educational
medium by 3 percent of the doctors.

Less than 1 percent of the lay population watched the early
morning medical telecasts.

2. Berninger, L. M. and Watson, D. P. Impact of horticultural in-
formation on televiewers. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Quarterly Bu1.,
37:187-192, November 1954.

This study was designed to measure the impact of 2-minute
horticultural television programs on existing knowledge and
attitude levels, on recall value, and on viewers' preference.
Three productions (television recordings) were devoted to roses
and one program each to peas and the Japanese yew. Eight classes
of Michigan State College students were given a pretest, a post-
test, and a recall test.

65

The results of the tests showed that the beginning levels
of knowledge on various horticultural topics were extremely
low, while the beginning attitude levels were favorable.

Two-minute television programs were effective in aiding the
learning process. A.significantly high percentage of information
was immediately absorbed. Over a period of 3 weeks, the re-
tention of this information was excellent, with no occurrences
of significant decreases in knowledge.

An audience exposed to 6 minutes of information produced a
significant positive increase in attitude. When retested 3
weeks following exposure, no significant changes in attitude
were found.

The learning and retention of information as indicated in
this study was heightened by the reinforcement of information
through a brief but strong summary.

A high percentage of the students viewing the 2-minute
productions endorsed the use of similar television programs in
spite of the fact that the recordings were not completely pro-
fessional in character.

3. Coffin, T. E. Impact of TV vs. magazine advertising: Snorkel pen.
10 p., New York, National Broadcasting Co., n.d.

The Sheaffer Pen Company introduced its new "Snorkel" pen by
advertising it on a single half-hour television program,
"Your Show of Shows," and a single insertion of a double-page
spread in ”Life." The Snorkel pen offered an unusually clear
test of the impact of the two media, because this was a new
product, with no previous advertising history and no simul-
taneous campaigns in other national media. The cost of the
two campaigns was approximately equal.

Advertest Research made the study. They made 2,900 random
telephone interviews in the New York area. These included both
television owners and nonowners. One thousand two hundred and
fifty were made the day after the television program, 1,650
were made in the week following the appearance of the "Life”
advertisement. The "Life" interviews were split so that half
occurred about 3 days after publication, to insure recency of
exposure, and half 7 days after, to allow readership to
accumulate as much as possible before the appearance of the
next issue.

For every hundred people who read ”Life", 86 saw the tele-
vision program. If you stop there, magazines come out ahead
and television behind. ,

66

But if you go another step deeper, you find that for every
hundred people who recall seeing the advertisement in ”Life,”
159 recall it on television -- a ratio of one and a half to
one, in favor of television.

And even more important, for every hundred who remembered
the contents of the magazine advertising, 233 remembered the
television commercial; 2 to 1 in favor of television.

And most important of all -- how many sales points implanted?
For every hundred ideas recalled as a result of "Life" 330
were recalled as a result of television. Radio, 3 to l for
television.

The Merchandising Department had its Field Supervisors call
on 72 fountain pen dealers in several cities across the country,
during the week after the television program. Without re-
ferring to the program directly, they asked whether there had
been any increase in requests to see the new Snorkel pen in the
last week. Sixty-four percent reported that there had been a
noticeable increase in customer requests since the television
program. And though they were not asked about the program,

41 percent of these spontaneously mentioned it and attributed
the increase to the television advertising.

These results fit together with the consumer interviews by
Advertest, giving a well-rounded body of evidence at the con-
sumer and retail level, testifying to the effectiveness of
television advertising and to its impact ratio -- compared to
magazines -- of 3 to l.

4. Rock, T. T., Jr.; Duva, J. 3.; and Murray, J. E. A study of
learning and retention from television instruction transmitted
to army field force reservists. Special Devices Center,

Office of Naval Research, Dept. of the Navy, Technical Report -
SDC 476-02-83. 50 p., Port Washington, L. I., N. Y., 1951.

Eight l-hour lessons were telecast at weekly intervals over
10 stations to more than 3,000 Army Field Force reservists who
were assembled in 160 groups to view the programs. Tests were
given to the reservists immediately before and immediately
after each instructional session, and some questions were re-
peated later to measure retention. Questionnaires were ad-
ministered after the first and last programs to determine how
acceptable the reservists found television instruction, and
experts in military and civilian training viewed each of the
programs and wrote comments on prepared forms. This was a
joint project between Fordham University and the Special De-
vices Center. 7

Television instruction is an effective means of training
large numbers of reservists dispersed in widely separated groups.
All grades of personnel made statistically significant gains on
test scores for each of the programs.

67

Reservists not only learned from the television instruction,
but they remembered most of what they had learned when retested
4 or 6 weeks later.

Television instruction continues to be highly acceptable to
the reservists after 8 weekly sessions. Over 70 percent of
the officers stated that they preferred television instruction
to conventional classroom teaching, and indicated that the
television programs had been more instructive than the average
training films they had viewed within the past 2 years. About
60 percent of the enlisted men expressed the same preferences.

The amount of gain on test items is related to the explicit-
ness of treatment of topics on which these items are based.
Items that are explicitly covered in the television sessions
show large and significant gains. Some sketchily treated items
show gains, but many of diam show losses in percentage of correct
response after instruction indicating that trainees were con-
fused rather than instructed by vague or diffuse treatment of
topics.

The type of instructional treatment given a topic influences
the amount of learning. The various types of treatment recog-
nized in the analysis are listed below in rank order of their
effectiveness. Each of the first two types listed was more
than twice as effective in producing learning as either of the
last two types listed.

Narration with meaning-conveying film.
Drama with some form of narration.
Narration.

Narration with "atmospheric" film.
Drama.

5. United States Naval Training Device Center. Summary of instructional
television research reports. 4 p., Port Washington, N. Y., U. S.
Naval Training Device Center, n.d.

This summary of instructional television research reports
integrates the findings of the various studies made by the United
States Naval Training Device Center.

Live instructional television for the classroom

Effectiveness. -- A television program can be at least as
effective as comparable means of instruction.

Acceptance. -- Television instruction is well liked. Well
prepared programs were highly acceptable after an 8-week period
of television training.

Mass trainigg. -- Television is a feasible and effective means
for instructing widely separated groups.

68

Retention of learning. -- Most learned material was re-
tained over a 6~week period.

 

Level of instruction. -- All grades of personnel learned
from television programs.

Novelty effect. -- In 1950 trainees said that the television
instruction they received was more effective than the average
training film. This instruction was carefully prepared, skill-
fully presented and the trainees tried to learn.

gfggctive presentations. -- Items that were explicitly covered
were well learned. Sketchily treated items were not learned.

Dramatic or factual. -- Learning occurred when specific in-
formation was presented. Little learning occurred from dra-
matic or situational presentations.

Screen size. -- Twelve to twenty-inch television screens were
said to be adequate by trainees.

 

Applicability. -- A criteria check list has been developed
to determine courses of instruction which are suited for tele-
vision instruction.

Single camera. -- One television camera will fulfill most
military training needs for reliability and flexibility, two
cameras are more desirable.

Instructors. -- Qualified instructors can be trained to
teach by television in a relatively short time.

Minimum equipment television. -- Experience has indicated
that a minimum of equipment gives the greatest training per

dollar expended for televising.

Courses. -- Effective television training has been carried
out in large number of subject areas.

Films. -- Films are effective on television.

Television recordings (kinescopes). -- Film recordings of
television programs are a valuable byproduct.

Mobile television. -- A.mobile television studio and associated
equipment can be used to present and record television programs.

Film recordings of television programs
Effectiveness. -- Film recordings of television programs

(kinescopes) are very satisfactory for military training even
though picture quality may be poor.

69

Use. -- Kinescope recordings were recommended for training
instructors, duplicating lessons, disseminating new developments V.
and as a substitute for instructional films.

Color. -- Color, unless it is essential to the subject being
taught, does not increase the effectiveness of television training.

p§pecialized television applications

Training device viewing. Training devices may be televised
to a larger group than can normally see them. Thirty-one prin-
ciples for improving visibility have been discovered.

Critical factors. -- Television expense and labor can be more
easily justified when the training situation is dangerous or mass
training is essential.

Incidental television instruction

Dramatizations. -- Dramatic treatments brought about less
learning than other types of treatment.

Attitudes. -- Polls have shown a definite acceptance by
civilians of programs dealing with book reviews, social problems,
history, and the like.

6. united States Naval Training Device Center. Summary of sixty-five
instructional film research reports. 11 p., Port Washington,
N. Y., U. S. Naval Training Device Center, n. d.

This is a summary of 65 instructional film research studies
made by the Instructional Film Research Program at the Penn-
sylvania State university under the sponsorship of the Department
of the Navy and Army. Much film research has direct application
to television use.

For the curriculum planner

 

Effectiveness. -- Films are at least as effective as other
comparable means d5 instruction. Films alone can be used to
teach factual information. .

 

Motor-skills. -- Motor-skills that are at least as complex as
operating a sound motion picture projector or performing gym-
nastic skills can be taught by means d5 films alone. An in-
structor can increase his effectiveness by using film loops
to teach a skill to groups while he devotes his time to coaching
individuals. Daylight viewing of films is very effective.
Optimum viewing occurs within 12 screen widths and 30 degrees
from the center line.

70

Mental hygiene. -- In addition to being effective for teaching
skills and factual information, suitable films can be used to
improve personal adjustment.

 

Specific films. -- Specific content in films is required to
meet specific instructional objectives. Films with broad super-
ficial content aimed at a generalized audience are likely to be
less effective than films with well specified content aimed at
an audience of known characteristics.

 

Specific audience. -- Films should be prepared for a specific
audience.

 

Pugposeful use. -- Use films to teach. Films are likely to
be more effective if they are integrated into the curriculum,
and if they are related to carefully formulated instructional
objectives.

Consistent use. People learn to learn from films. When films
are used as fill-in, for entertainment, or if the content does
not appear to the trainee to be pertinent to the course being
studied, there is likely to be less learning than would otherwise
be the case.

 

Evaluation. -- Films should be evaluated using a film analysis
form.

Dramatic films. A straightforward expository or documentary
approach in films will be as effective or more effective for
teaching information than a film that incorporates dramatized
sequences especially if these are elaborately staged.

Perceived usefulness. -- Films that are perceived by students
to contain useful material will provide the greatest amount 0t
1 earn ing 0

Attitude changes. A carefully prepared film may change an
att itUdeo

Inexpensive films. -- Films can be prepared locally in a few
weeks by nonprofessional personnel for less than $100 a reel.

For the film planner and producer

Camera angle. -- Show a performance on the screen the way the
learner would see it if he were doing the job himself.

Rate of development. -- The rate of development of a film
should be slow enough to permit the learners to grasp the
material as it is shown.

Succinct treatment. -- Presenting only the bare essentials or-
rapid coverage of subject matter may be very ineffective.

 

71

Show errors. -- Learning performance skills from films will
be increased if you show common errors and how to avoid them.

 

Repetition. -- Organize a film so that important sequences or
concepts are repeated. Repetition of films, or parts within a
film, is one of the most effective means for increasing learning
to a required level.

 

Organizational outline. -- Films which treat discrete factual
material appear to be improved by the use of an organizational
outline in titles and commentary.

 

Introductions. -- Present relevant information in the intro-
duction and tell the viewer what he is expected to learn from
the film.

 

Summary. -- Summarize the important points in the film in a
clear concise manner. Summaries probably do not significantly
improve learning unless they are complete enough to serve as
a repetition and review.

Visual potentialities. -- Take advantage of the ability of the
motion picture medium to_show motion, to speed up and slow down
motion, to telescope and otherwise control timing of events and
processes, to bridge space, and to organize events and actions.
The visuals and commentary in a film should reinforce each other.

Picture-commentary_relationship. -- The commentary of a
typical informational film appears to teach more than only the
pictures of that same film when learning is measured by verbal
tests. This does not necessarily mean that the commentary has
greater inherent effectiveness than pictures; it may mean that
producers are currently relying more heavily on commentary than
on pictures or on the optimum integration of the two. With
films designed to teach performance skills, where learning is
measured by nonverbal tests, the pictures appear to carry the
main teaching burden.

Concentration of ideas. -- Ideas or concepts should be pre-
sented at a rate appropriate to the ability of the audience to
comprehend them.

Commentapy. -- The number of words (per minute of film) in
the commentary has a definite effect on learning. Care should be
taken not to ”pack” the sound track. Application of readability
formulas to improve a commentary may not do so.

Use of personal pronouns. -- Use direct forms of address
(imperative or second person) in film commentaries. Avoid the
passive voice.

Nomenclature. -- Introduction of new names or technical terms
in a film imposes an additional teaching burden on learners, and
may impede the learning of a performance skill.

72

Comparative effectiveness of training_aids. -- No differences
were found in the training effectiveness of cutaways, mockups,
and transparencies used in instructional sequences.

 

Special effects. -- Special effects used as attention getting
devices have no positive influence on learning.

 

Optical effects. -- A film in which such optical effects as
fades, wipes, and dissolves have been replaced by straight cuts,
teaches just as effectively as a film which uses these effects.

Stereosggpic films. -- In the one experiment conducted, the
addition of stereoscopic vision did not increase learning of a
motor skill performance. For teaching a complex motor skill a
three-dimensional model may be better than a two-dimensional aid.

Color. -- Experimentation has not yet demonstrated any general
overall increased learning as a result of using color in in-
structional films.

Music. -- Preliminary experimentation suggests that music
does not add to the instructional effectiveness of an informa-
tional film.

Pretesting. -- Scripts, workprints, demonstrations, and final
prints can be evaluated quickly using the learning profile method
of film evaluation which requires a group of trainees to estimate
their own learning. A film analysis form should be used for
preproduction evaluation of films. Audience reactions to films
can be economically obtained using infrared photography.

Film loops. -- Short film loops which can be repeated con-
tinuously as many times as desired, appear to be a good way of
teaching different skills.

Participation. -- Learning will increase if the viewer
practices a skill while it is presented on the screen, provided
the film develops slowly enough, or provided periods of time are
allowed which permit the learner to practice without missing new
material shown on the screen.

Dramatic sequences. -- Incorporation of dramatic sequences
such as comedy, singing commercials, or elaborately staged
settings in films to teach factual information will not improve
the film.

Filmpgraphs. -- Fiomographs which incorporate still shots
rather than motion may be equally effective for some purposes
and be less eXpensive than motion pictures.

Visual recordings. -- Films may be produced to make a visual
recording of a task that may be difficult to describe with words
alone.

73

Research findings. -- Research findings should be applied
to training film production.

Inexpensive films. -- Because color, optical effects and
have little to do with increasing learning from films it is
possible to eliminate them. Films prepared in this manner can
be made inexpensively and can be produced quickly.

 

Protagonist. -- In a film intended to change attitudes it is
desirable to characterize the protagonist or commentator clearly.
It is even more important that he be a prestige figure close to
the audience's reference group. '

 

For the instructor:

 

Let the film do the instruction. -- Good films can be used as
the sole means for teaching some kinds of factual material and
performance skills. Where the instructional situation makes it
advisable, take advantage of this possibility.

 

Instruct students to learn from films. -- Tell the viewers
firmly, that they are expected to learn from the film.

Increase the amount of learning. -- Learning can be increased
by repetitive showings, pretesting, posttesting with knowledge
of results, and introducing the film and stating the purpose
and importance of the showing.

 

Use of study guides. -- Ability to learn from films improves
with practice in learning from films. Trainees will learn more
if printed study guides are used before and after film viewing.

Distraction. -- Note-taking should not be encouraged during
the average film showing because it interferes with attention
and hence learning.

 

Use film loops in the practice area. -- One showing of a film
dealing with a complex skill may be insufficient. Show a film
in the practice area so that the student can easily refer to the
film model as often as necessary. This can be accomplished by
rear projection of film loops on daylight screens in the work
area. Students should sit within 12 screen widths and within
30 degrees of the center line.

 

Use mental practice. -- Men can partially learn to do a skill
by watching a film and imagining that they are performing the
skill and by going through the skill "mentally," even though they
do not have the equipment available. Films can provide a model
for guided "mental” practice.

Length of film sessions. -- Film viewing sessions of informa-
tional material can extend to at least 1 hour without reduction ,
in training effectiveness.

 

74

Evaluate film showingg. -- Do not assume that learning has
occurred as a result of showing a film. Evaluate the effect
of a film by giving a test.

Principles. -- Explain principles of operation when it may be
necessary for a trainee to generalize his learning to a different
but related situation.

 

Classroom Compared With Television: Open Circuit

1. Shimberg, B. Effectiveness of television in teaching home nursing.
A comparison of television and classroom instruction in teaching
the Red Cross Home Nursing Course. Preliminary Report. Ed.
Testing Service, RB-54-l9, 49 p., Princeton, N. J., 1954.

The National American Red Cross requested Educational Testing
Service to evaluate the effectiveness of television in teaching
the Home Nursing Course. Three experimental groups were used:
(1) TV-only, which received all of its instruction by television
(2) TV-plus-practice, which also received instruction by tele-
vision but in addition attended weekly practice sessions, (3)
Standard Classroom Group, which was taught the regular course
without the use of television. The two television groups
were to view 13 half-hour programs twice a week in their own
homes. The classroom group was to attend seven 2-hour sessions
where they would receive lectures, demonstrations, and super-
vised practice.

Participants in the study were adult volunteers from organized
groups in Houston and Oklahoma City. About 650 students were
tested before receiving instruction and about 400 after they
had completed the course. Written tests as well as individual
performance tests were used to measure the knowledge and skill
of the student in home nursing.

Television instruction was found to be as effective as class-
room instruction in teaching facts about home nursing and in
promoting an understanding of the principles involved in care
of the sick.

Students taught by television did almost as well on the per-
formance test as those taught in the classroom, although they
spent less time receiving instruction. While the differences
in final test scores between the two television groups and the
Standard Class group were statistically reliable, this difference
was too small to be considered of practical significance.

The television groups gained more than the classroom group
in proportion to the amount of time spent receiving instruction.
The average television student spent between 5 and 6 hours in
front of the television set, while the average classroom student
spent 11 or 12 hours in class.

75

The attitude of those who viewed the television programs
regularly was overwhelmingly favorable toward this method of
instruction. Most students seem to have found the programs
interesting and worthwhile; they liked the teacher and generally
approved of the methods used in teaching the course.

Practice sessions were perceived as a desirable adjunct to
the television instruction by those who had only viewed tele-
vision. The group which had actually attended practice sessions
rated them as ”moderately helpful." It was the concensus of
students in both groups that such sessions should be held weekly
or bi-weekly.

There were indications that more people might participate
and that there might be even greater satisfaction with the course,
if consideration were given to suggestions like the following,
which came from students: (1) Present the course at a more con-
venient time, (2) compress the course into a shorter period
(i. e. 7 weeks is too long), (3) organize practice sessions so
that students get more out of them, (4) provide students with
a study guide or course outline, and (5) take into consideration
the specific home health needs and interests of the audience.

2. Allen, M. R. Quartermaster training command educational television
study. 33 p., Fort Lee, Va., Quartermaster School, Quartermaster
Training Command, 1954.

The effectiveness of a 4-hour course of instruction via tele-
vision as compared to regular classroom instruction was studied.
The participants were 107 Quartermaster ROTC students, 60 in the
control group and 47 in the experimental group, 10 studio
participants, and.42 reservists. This experiment was different
from other educational television experiments completed by the
Armed Forces in that it was conducted on a low cost basis, using
army personnel and employing no special actors or writers.

The study indicates that low cost production is possible for
the Armed Forces, that highly skilled and professional television
actors are not required, that superior classroom and field in-
structors might be well adapted, with little additional training,
for television instruction.

The effectiveness of instruction via television appeared to be
equal to that of classroom instruction (as measured by a 32-item
examination) for short orientation type courses emphasizing the
lecture-demonstration methods of instruction.

The classroom group had a slightly higher average score on the
examination than did the television group. (Raw score average,
27.7 to 26.5). The author states that this difference may be
compensated by the fact that the classroom group was higher
academically upon comparison of their university grades.

l. I" ‘l iii ( \.II!.

76

Based upon the 20-item survey questionnaire, the programs
were highly acceptable to both the ROTC students and the re-
servists of the Houston area participating.

The majority of the ROTC students taking the instruction via
television indicated: (1) That the television programs were at
least equal to, or more interesting than classroom instruction.
(2) That learning via television was as easy or easier than
classroom instruction. (3) That 1 hour should be the maximum
length of any program by television. Further acceptability of
television as a teaching method was indicated when more than
half of the students questioned concerning opportunity of having
instruction either way, preferred television to classroom in-
struction.

Reserve officers (all ranks, branches, and services were rep-
resented) were unanimous in their belief that telecourses for
reservist credits would be of great value and convenience.
Despite the nature and level of the course, and its emphasis
on the Quartermaster Corps, the great majority stated the pro-
grams were very good or superior. No one rated the programs
as "poor." Three times as many of the reservists responding
preferred television instruction to regular reserve classroom
training.

The technique of simulating a class with a selected studio
group provides more nearly the normal classroom atmosphere and
environment; it permits a greater exchange of information be-
tween instructors and students; and, it aids the classroom
instructor, who has not utilized the television method with an
audience as well as a camera, in his transition from the class-
room to the studio.

Yellow on black, extreme contrasts of gray, and off-blue-
black on buff or beige gave best results on visual aids. White
reflects too much. ‘

For nonresident instruction, open circuit, commercial, or
educational stations can reach more students for less money than
regular reserve sessions. Even if learning by television were
less effective (and this cannot be generalized depending upon
the content and nature of subject, the instructor, methods, etc.),
the overall effect of learning upon so many more people would
more than compensate the slight difference.

3. Allen, W. H. Spanish and German by television. Modern Language
Jor., 40:139-142. March 1956.

The University of Wisconsin broadcast two non-credit foreign
language courses over WHA-TV, in 1954. Telephone and personal
interviews were held with 72 percent of the 197 registrants.

The one-half hour lessons were presented once a week or 10 weeks.
German was given on Monday evenings and Spanish on Tuesday evenings.

There was an enrollment fee of $2.00. Home study manuals were
prepared to supplement the courses.

77

The registrants in the courses were rather evenly distributed
by occupation of the head of the household, being predominantly
in the professional, semi-professional-proprietor-managerial,
and in the clerical-sales occupation groups. Registration was
most readily made by high school graduates and by people in
their 30's and 40's. Women outnumbered the men in every case.

About 66 percent of the Spanish registrants and 87 percent
of the German registrants viewed over one-half of the televised
programs. The percentages of those who viewed at least three-
fourths of the programs were 30 percent for the Spanish and
about 63 percent for the German registrants. There was a high
incidence of reading of the manual. Mbre registrants read all
of the lessons in the manual than viewed all of the programs on
television.

There was a substantial additional audience for the language
courses in the homes of the registrants. In 85 percent of the
German-viewing families and in 67 percent of the Spanish-
viewing families additional family members also viewed the
programs. And in over one-fifth of the families, at least one
other family member used the home-study manual.

About 67 percent of the registrants stated that the courses
gave them the kind of instruction they wanted, but satisfaction
being somewhat higher for the German registrants. The instructor
was considered to be the most liked feature of the television
presentations. The most effective method of instruction was
the drill and vocal practice techniques. The factor most widely
criticized in both courses was the "too rapid pacing" of the
instruction.

4. Western Reserve University. Telecourses at Western Reserve Uni-
versity. .A summary report of the first three years, 1951-54.
17 p., Cleveland, Ohio, Western Reserve U., 1954.

Western Reserve University began offering regular university
courses in a combination of television with home study for credit
in 1951. The courses are telecast over WEWS, a commercial station,
from 9:00-9:30 a.m. on weekdays. Some short noncredit courses
have also been given at 9:30 a.m. on Saturday and 3:00 p.m. on
Sunday.

Students who register for credit pay the regular university
tuition, they receive a copy of the syllabus and have the
privilege of taking the final examination. A text book is re-
quired.

A high proportion of telecourse students are women. This was
expected because of the hour of presentation. Commercial sur-
veys indicate that 10,000 to 30,000 sets are tuned daily to the
program.

The Cleveland Public Library reported that the mention of a
book in a telecourse lecture immediately resulted in clearing
their shelves of that particular title.

Out of 289 students who registered for credit 209 completed,
46 withdrew, and 34 were incompleted at the time of the survey.

In 1951 a detailed comparison was made of the academic records
of the telestudents and campus students in the psychology course.
The median grade of the telecourse students was 13 points higher
than those received by the campus students. It seems apparent
that those who received credit by television home study achieved
as much as the regular students who had the benefit of classroom
contact with the instructor. The written material, a great deal
of which was required in the telecourse, was excellent. The
age range of telestudents was from 19 to more than 50 and some
had not been in school for more than 30 years.

Every house with a television aerial was visited in sample
areas of Cleveland in 1952. Of the television owners about 15
percent had listened to some of the classes and 47 percent knew
about them. The median age of the viewers was 37 years, about
82 percent had completed high school, 11 percent had completed
college. Approximately 11 percent were men.

The 1953 data were obtained by personal interview and by
telephone. About 6,000 adults viewed the program daily. This
was 1.2 percent of families with television and 20 percent of
those who viewed any program at 9 a.m. Compared with telecourse
viewers who stopped viewing, those who continued to watch had
more education, they had been out of school for a shorter time,
and they had fewer learning distractions at home. Economic
status, size of family, children at home, age,“and initial moti-
vation seemed to have little influence on how steadily a person
viewed telecourses. Telecourse students prefer courses that
are aids in everyday living.

In 1954 a sampling of credit and noncredit student reactions
to the telecourse, Principles of Sociology was taken.

The reactions of the credit and noncredit students were most
similar in judging the lectures to be at the proper level of
difficulty, in failing to get others to watch the television
courses with them, in failing to discuss the subject with others,
in finding the course aided them with personal problems and to
better understand political and social problems, in making no
suggestions for the instructor, for improving the television
course, and in proportion of emotional reactions to the tele-
courses.

5. Husband, R. W. Television versus classroom for learning general
psychology. The American Psychologist, 9:181-183, May 1954.

79

During the winter quarter of 1953 Iowa State College pre-
sented Psychology 204 under four conditions: (1) Television at
home -- watched and listened at home, read some text and came
to Ames to take same examinations as campus students; (2)
Studio class -- in studio while television presentation was
given; (3) Kinescope class -- campus students watched films of
the television talks with 20 minutes of informal discussion
afterward; (4) Two campus classes -- given same materials, but
in classrooms, for 50 minutes, in usual classroom manner.

The 30-minute television program was given over WOI-TV for
10 weeks at 2:30 p.m. on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.

Spot surveys of sets tuned in suggested that there was an
afternoon audience of at least 60,000. More than 1,000 letters
were received, all but 2 complimentary.

Fifty-six persons enrolled for credit, 54 completed the course
by passing all tests. More than 100 noncredit viewers bought
copies of the book at the college bookstore. A composite
picture of the television-for-credit student is that of a 37-
year:old housewife, with two children, not employed, and with
no college credit prior to this course.

The television classes did better in grade point averages
than three of the campus classes. The television-at-home group
had no failures and twice as many A's pro rata as the campus
students earned that quarter.

6. Evans, R. I. An examination of students' attitudes toward tele-
vision as a medium of instruction in a psychology course.
Jour. Appl. Psychol., 40 (l):32-34, February 1956.

The attitudes of 74 University of Houston students toward
television instruction enrolled in an elementary psychology
course taught partly by television and partly through on-campus
discussion groups were determined by means of a special question-
naire submitted at the time of the final examination.

Seventy percent of the students revealed an interest in taking
another course involving television instruction, 13 percent
would not do so, and 16 percent were undecided. Among the
"open-end” question responses, a feeling was revealed that
television lectures were better developed than traditional class-
room lectures, involved fewer disturbing interruptions from the
students, but lacked opportunities for class participation and
were subject to technical electronic interruptions.

The attitudes toward supplementary class discussions revealed
responses which favored them in 42 percent of the cases and felt
them of no appreciable importance to learning in addition to
television lectures in 56 percent of the cases. Two percent of
the students were "undecided” concerning their value. Among these

80

”open-end” question responses it was reflected that their im-
portance centered around advantages gained through some face-
to-face contact with the instructor for those favoring them,
and the feeling that television lectures were sufficiently
complete in themselves by those who found no need for them.

Close Circuit - Television

 

1. Carpenter, C. R. and Greenhill, L. P. Instructional television
research. Project number one: An investigation of closed-
circuit television for teaching university courses. 102 p.,
University Park, Pa. State U., 1955.

The second semester of general chemistry, general psychology,
and the psychology of marriage were the three courses of study
selected for this experiment conducted by the Pennsylvania
State University. About 830 students were used in the experi-
mental and control groups.

Chemistry 2, (second semester), lectures were given twice a
week to 450 students divided into three groups. One group was
taught in the television originating room, the second (divided
into four sub-groups) in television receiving rooms, and the
third in the originating classroom without television equipment
present. All 450 students had one recitation and two laboratory
periods of 3 hours each per week. Only the two weekly lecture
periods were directly concerned with television presentation.

General Psychology is a one-semester lecture discussion
course. Two instructors taught under each of three conditions:
Control, television-originating situation, and television-
receiving classes. The teaching plan was so designed that it
controlled for instructor differences, for class size, and to
a large extent, for differences due to time of day and order in
which the lectures were given. About 320 students were in-
volved.

Psychology of Marriage is a one-semester course. For this
study it was taught by one instructor to about 120 students, of
whom 30 were in the television-originating room, and 30 in each
of three television-receiving rooms. There was no control group.

Six objectives of the research and general conclusions based
on the findings follow:

1. To compare the relative effectiveness of,conventiona1 in-
struction with the same instruction presented over closed-
circuit television for a full academic semester.

Relevant finding: The overall comparative measurements did
not yield significant differences in informational learning by
students in two different courses of psychology and the lecture-
demonstrations part of general chemistry.

‘1 .I it IIIIIIIV\ ll

81

2. To study the acceptability of unmodified courses pre-
sented to students over closed-circuit television.

Relevant findings: Instructional television was acceptable
to students for the courses as taught in the context of the ex-
periment. Students' general attitudes towards televised in-
struction as compared with direct instruction were mainly
neutral or slightly negative.

3. To investigate trends in effectiveness and acceptance
during a full semester of regular instruction.

Relevant finding: No statistically significant trends in
effectiveness or acceptance were found over the course of a
full academic semester of televised instruction.

4. To study the feasibility of using ”moderate cost” closed-
circuit television for teaching selected university courses.

Relevant finding: It was found to be practical to use
vidicon closed-circuit television equipment under the conditions
of the experiment, but there are many problems of feasibility
and costs which need further study preparatory for full scale
operations.

5. To study the acceptance of instructional television by
administrators and faculty members.

Relevant findings: University administrators accept and see
promise in closed-circuit television as one means of solving
different problems related to increased student enrollment,
shortages of instructors and limitations of academic space and
facilities. Experienced instructors generally do not prefer
instructional television, as used in this experiment, to their
accustomed teaching procedures. Faculty members are willing to
accept closed-circuit television on an experimental basis.

6. To explore the possibilities of using closed-circuit
television to extend the power and influences of good and superior
instruction to large numbers of students.

Relevant finding: Practical use of two systems suggests that
the potentialities are very great for using single or multiple
systems of closed-circuit vidicon television for channeling ex-
cellent instruction from a single source or sources to very
large numbers of university students.

2. Seibert, W. F. A brief report and evaluation of closed-circuit tele-
vision instruction in mechanical engineering 360. 15 p.,
Lafayette, Ind., Purdue U., Audio-Visual Center, 1957.

During the fall of 1956 an experiment in teaching a course in
mechanisms by television was conducted at Purdue University. A

82

group of 37 students, divided into 2 classes, received con-
ventional instruction throughout the 16-week semester. A
second group of 46 students, in 2 classrooms, received the non-
laboratory portion of the instruction by television. Labora-
tory instruction for all groups was conventional. Television
students viewed a 24-inch receiver. A telephone in the class-
room was used in asking questions.

Student achievement was the same, for all practical purposes,
under televised and conventional instruction conditions.

Student attitudes toward televised instruction were mildly
negative prior to experiencing such instruction. Through ex-
posure, students were somewhat less favorably impressed by cer-
tain aspects of such instruction.

Favorable responses were most numerous on items concerned with
(a) the instructional value of television demonstrations, (b)
student comfort during televised classes, (c) classroom discipline,
and (d) general acceptance of television as an instructional
medium.

Students appeared most disturbed by the following aspects of
television instruction: (a) the interest which it can capture
and hold, (b) the inability to discuss questions with the in-
structor, (c) opportunities to take notes in class, (d) lack
of opportunity to become acquainted with the instructor, and (e)
their inclination to prepare for television class meetings.

3. Seibert, W. F. A brief report and evaluation of closed-circuit
television instruction in physics 230/240. 15 p., Lafayette,
Ind., Purdue U., Audio-Visual Center, 1957.

During the fall semester of 1956 Purdue University conducted
an experiment in teaching physics by television. One group of
50 students in 2 sections received conventional instruction
of five SO-minute periods a week during the same 8-week session
that a comparable group of 50 students received television in-
struction for three 50-minute periods a week. Both the con-
ventional and television groups received the same large group
lecture-demonstrations twice a week.

The four groups of students were identically tested for
achievement every 2 weeks.

The television instruction which was given resulted in learning
scores which were not significantly smaller, on the average, than
those earned by conventionally taught students; however, there
was some tendency for television groups to score lower than con-
ventionally taught groups. It seems likely that these differences
can be largely, if not completely, erased through increased
understanding of and experience with the television medium.

83

Students who experienced television instruction exhibited
some significantly less favorable attitudes toward it after
they had the experience. There is reason to believe that this
result may be a function of factors besides the presence of
television.

There was a strong desire on the part of the students, both
before and after experiencing television instruction, to know
their instructor better and to be able to discuss questions
with him.

4. Becker, S. L.; Dunlap, R.; and Gerber, J. C. A comparison of three
methods of teaching modern literature. 23 p., Iowa City, The
State University of Iowa, 1957.

A four-semester hour course in modern literature was taught
at the State University of Iowa by three methods, as follows:

Predominantly discussion with sections of approximately 30
students meeting 4 days a week under a single instructor.
There were 12 discussion sections in the study.

 

Lecture-discussion with sections of approximately 150 students
meeting 2 days a week for lectures and 2 days a week for dis-
cussion. On the latter days, the large groups were subdivided
into sections of approximately 20 students each. For most of
the subsections the discussion leader was not the lecturer.

There were two lecture-discussion sections in the study.

Television-discussion with 73 students meeting 2 days a week
for television mediated discussion and 2 days a week for a lecture
in a regular classroom. On the former days, the students were
divided into 3 groups, 8 or 10 along with the instructor in the
television studio with the remainder distributed between two ,
viewing rooms where they could see and hear the instructor and
discussants in the studio and could enter the discussion by means.
of overhead microphones.

In general, the Television group was least favorable to the
course, the Discussion group was most favorable. In spite of
this generally unfavorable attitude, the students who had re-
ceived part of their instruction via television tended to be more
favorable to the use of the television medium for instructional
purposes than were either of the other two groups. The Discussion
group perceived this course as requiring the most preparation;
the Television group perceived it as requiring least. Perceived
thought stimulation, and learning followed this same pattern;
Discussion students reported that they were stimulated to greater
thought while the Television students reported that they were
stimulated to the least thought. Discussion students thought
they learned more and were best able to read competently the
various literary forms and to discuss the important aspects of
each. The Television students thought they were least able in

84

these respects. The Television students sais they were most
frustrated in their desires to participate orally in the class,
the Discussion students reported the least frustration of this
sort.

Most students indicated a preference for a combination of
lectures and discussion for this course, but preferred discussion
only to lecture only. The faculty were more evenly divided be-
tween a prefernce for discussion and a combination of lectures
and discussion. They were also more negative to a ”lecture
only” course than the students were.

The instructor of the Television group and his two graduate
assistants, who acted as proctors, thought that closed circuit
television was better suited for the lecture than for the dis-
cussion part of the course.

A comparison of a sample of final examination grades from
each of the groups showed the highest mean score for the Lecture
group and the lowest for the Television group. These differences
were not statistically significant.

5. Kanner, J. H.; Runyon, R. P.; and Desiderato, 0. Television in
army training: Evaluation of television in army basic training.
George Washington U., HumRRo Tech. Rpt. 14, Washington, D.C.,
1954.

The purpose of this study was to obtain basic information on
the comparative teaching effectiveness of television and the
Army's regular basic training instruction.

The procedures employed were: (1) Selecting 14 hours of in-
struction representative of the information and skills taught
in the first 8 weeks of Army basic training; (2) preparing
parallel television instruction, duplicating the content,
sequence, and training procedures of the 14 selected regular
hours; (3) equating for instructor differences by using the
same instructor for television and regular instruction; (4)
training groups of basic trainees, matched for Area I scores,
by television and regular instruction; (5) administering achieve-
ment tests immediately after and approximately 1 month after
both television and regular instruction. About 12,000 basic
trainees were tested.

The basic comparisons between television and regular instruction
under matched conditions indicated: (a) Television instruction
was at least as effective as regular instruction; (b) television
instruction was more effective for lower-aptitude groupsl (c)
television instruction was remembered at least as well as regular
instruction.

The comparisons between kinescopes and regular instruction
under matched conditions indicated that kinescope instruction

was as effective as regular instruction.

85

When kinescopes were used for review purposes following
initial instruction: (a) Test performance for groups receiving
one kinescope review was significantly higher than scores ob-
tained immediately after initial instruction. (b) The test
scores of low-aptitude trainees receiving the one kinescope
review approached those of high-aptitude groups following
initial instruction.

These results suggest that, should conditions require the
Army to adopt a mass medium of instruction such as television,
instruction of the type used in this study could be presented
by television with the strong assurance that there would be no
loss in learning effectiveness.

6. Dowell, E. C. An experiment in training by television. 14 p.,
Keesler Air Force Base, Mississippi, 1954.

Training by closed circuit television and by conventional
methods of presentation and the feasibility of making kinephoto
recordings for use as training films in specific courses were
investigated at the Keesler Air Force Base.

The use of live television proved to be equally effective as
conventional methods of instruction. Use of the television
medium of communication was limited to the transmission of
lecture-demonstrations for viewing by students in remote class-
rooms. This evidence tends to further confirm the premise that
unlimited numbers of students can learn satisfactorily by
viewing televised programs of good instructors performing as
they normally would in the classroom. This proved to be true
for all levels of student ability. The amount of learning
that took place in the experimental block of instruction was
sufficient for both the control and the experimental students.

Under present conditions, the practical limitations are such
that the use of live television in technical training programs
cannot be justified on the basis of providing more economical
mass training.

The use of live television seems more readily adaptable to
training programs concerned primarily with attitudinal changes
and the dissemination of pure information. When skills must be
acquired on concepts applied, the training must be supplemented
with the opportunity to practice.

Certain types of training films can be made inexpensively and
expeditiously as television recordings. This technique is
particularly adaptable to recording demonstrations and present-
ations by well qualified instructors.

7. Rock, R. T., Jr.; Duva, J. S.; and Murray, J. E. The effectiveness
of television instruction in training naval air reservists.
(Rapid mass learning.) Special Devices Center, Office of Naval

86

Research, Dept. of the Navy, Technical Report - SDC 476-02-
82, 68 p., Port Washington, L. In, No Y., 195].-

Comparable groups of from 100 to 120 naval air reservists
were taught a series of training lessons by l of 3 methods:
Television, television recordings (kinescopes) projected as
motion pictures, and conventional classroom instruction.
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the programs was made by
information tests and comments by the trainees. This was a
joint project between Fordham University and the Special
Devices Center.

The data of this study shows that television is a feasible
and effective means of conveying instruction to classes at
widely separated stations.

For both officers and enlisted airmen, television instruction
was found to be more effective than teaching by local instructors
in half of the comparisons made, and it was equally effective
in teaching by local instructors in an additional one-fourth of
the comparisons.

Comments written by trainees immediately after television
sessions indicated that the television instruction was in
general very favorably received. Some details of various
programs were given specific criticisms, but there were only
a few scattered complaints that any lesson as a whole was poor
or dull. Very few of the participants in the television in-
struction sessions indicated that they believed either training
films or ordinary classroom instruction were as good or better
than television teaching.

Recordings of instructional telecasts were extremely effective
when projected as sound moving pictures. For the officer pro-
grams, the kinescope recording was equivalent in effectiveness
to the television session in 94 percent of the comparisons
made. In the programs for the enlisted airmen, the kinescope
recordings were indicated to be equivalent in effectiveness to
the television sessions in 73 percent of the comparisons made.
Kinescopes were as good as or better than teaching by local
instructors in three-quarters of the comparisons made. Gen-
eralization of this finding should, however, be limited to re-
cordings that retain the element of "freshness” or "timeliness.”
Because they were recordings of recent live programs, the
kinescopes used in this study, were, perhaps given more favorable
reception than might be accorded them at a much later date.

The principal problems that would be encountered in using
television for rapid mass training are (a) those of procurement
and training of personnel so that sound psychoeducational
techniques may be utilized in planning and producing television
lessons, (b) the procurement of physical equipment and the
personnel to maintain it, and (c) acquisition or construction of
distribution facilities.

87

8. Pasewark, W. R. The effectiveness of television as a medium of
learning typewriting. (Abs.) Diss. Absts., 17:579, 1956.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness
of television as a medium of learning beginning typewriting.

The effectiveness of students learning beginning typewriting
through television in an Experimental Section was compared with
students learning by conventional classroom methods in a Con-
ventional Section. Students in the Experimental Section were
matched by the individual pair method with similar students in
the Conventional Section on the basis of American Council on
Education Psychological Examination scores.

The Conventional and Experimental Sections followed the same
course of study for 48 lessons of 50 minutes each, all of which
were taught by the investigator. There were no instructors
regularly assigned to the Experimental Section.

The findings revealed that telestudents typed significantly
faster than conventional students on a timed writing test at
the conclusion of the course. With regard to the pattern of
learning, tele-students were generally superior to conventional
students when comparing typewriting Speed and accuracy on a
series of nine timed writing tests throughout the course. It
appears, however, that the pattern of learning for both sections
tends to be similar. Conventional students had less mean errors
than telestudents when comparing a production test consisting
of the preparation of a tabulation and a personal business _
letter at the end of the course. The difference, however, was
not statistically significant.

It was concluded that (l) Telestudents' typewriting performance
on a timed writing test at the conclusion of the course was
superior to the conventional students' performance on an
identical test, (2) telestudents' pattern of learning to type-
write tended to be similar to conventional students' pattern
of learning to typewrite, and (3) there is no significant
difference in telestudents' and conventional students' ability
to use typewriting skills to complete a production test at the
end of the course.

The findings of this study lead to the general conclusion
that television is an effective medium of learning beginning
typewriting.

LPPEEDIK B
TABLE 1

* THE ADOPTION PROCESS AND SOURCES OF INFORMATION

 

 

 

 

Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption
Knows Develops Mental Small Large scale,
about it interest, trial; scale, continued use,
gathers application experi- satisfaction
general to personal mental
informa- situation. use.
tion and Can I do it? How to
facts. do it?

1. Mass 1. Mass 1. Neighbors 1. Neigh- 1. Neighbors
media and bors and
(radio, friends. and friends.

TV, friends.
news-

papers,

maga-

zines)

2. Gov. 2. Gov. 2. Gov. 2. Gov. 2. Gov.
agencies agencies agencies agencies agencies
(exten-

sion,
vocational
agricul-

ture etc.

3. Neigh- 3. Neigh- 3. Mass 3. Mass 3. Mass
bors and bors media media media
,friends. and
friends.
4. Sales- 4. Sales- 4. Sales- 4. Sales- 4. Sales-
man man man man man
dealers deals dealers dealers dealers

 

*From Report No. 18, Iowa State College, 1957

LITERATURE C ITED

-/l. The Cooperative Extension Today: A Statement of Scope and
Responsibility, Washington, D.C.: U.S.D.A., Federal Extension
Service, April 1958,

2. Agricultural Census, 1960, Puerto Rico.
3. Hacia Una Vida Mejor: Informe Anual del Servicio de Extension
Agricola de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Rio Piedras:

Servicio de Extension Agricola, U.P.R., 1960.

4. Lerner, Daniel, The Passing of Traditional Society. Illinois:
Free Press, 1958, p. 55.

 

5. Berlo, David K., The Process of Communication. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1960.

. Lionberger, Herbert, Adoption of New Ideas and Practices. Ames,
Iowa: The Iowa State University Press, 1960, p. 99.

 

7. Hovland, Karl I., Janis, Irving L. and Kelley, Harold B., (Eds.)
Communication and Persuasion. New Haven: Yale university Press,
1953, p. 174.

8. Festinger, Leon, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Evanston:
Row, Peterson & Co., 1957.

9. Rokeach, Milton, The gpen and Closed Mind. New York: Basic
Book, Inc., 1960.

 

«10. Janis, Irving L. & Field, Peter, ”A Behavioral Assessment of
Individual Differences” in Janis, Irving L. & Hovland, Karl I.
(Eds.) Personality and Persuasibility. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1959, Vol. 2, p. 2.

‘11. Linton, Harriet & Graham, Elaine,"Personality Correlates of
/ Persuasibility” in Janis, Irving L. & Hovland, Karl I. (Eds.)
Personality and Persuasibility. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1959, Vol. 2, pp. 56-58.

12. Cohen, Arthur, "Need for Cognition and Order of Communication
as Determinants of Opinion Change,” in Hovland, Karl I., (Ed.)
The Order of Presentation in Persuasion. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1957, pp. 13-21.

13. Janis, Irving L., "Intensive Interviews in Reactions to Fear
Arousing Propaganda," in Hovland, Karl I., Janis, Irving L. and
Kelley, Harold H., Communication and Persuasion. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1953, pp. 68-79.

 

89

914.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

9O

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