A HOUSING PROGRAM FOR DAMASCUS, SYRIA

AN EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT smnon
WITH RECOMMENDATIONS TO MEET PRESENT
AND FUTURE mans

Thesis for the Degree of M. U. P.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Thebef Taher 'Zakaria
1963

--a «ct c~9-~..“.~n

 

 

 

~Il/I/WI/lf/II/l/I/Wl/I/I/I/////I///I//I/I/////I '

WW! I

3 1293 10402 1971

 

LIBRARY

- Michigan State
University

OVERDUE FINES:
25¢ per day per item

RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS:

.. h
T :14 H;\»s‘:~p 3‘

[I‘KX ML? ;

?(“'d,r‘. 3"“‘ m' PIace in bOOk return to remove
‘K'I’L-wza 1"

charge from circulation records

 

 

 

 

 

L‘
1: :1 t

1‘1 tr“ ‘1

ABSTRACT

A HOUSING PROGRAM FOR DAMASCUS, SYRIA

By Thabet Taher Zakaria

One of the most important problems facing many countries of the
world is the shortage of healthful housing. Housing problems have
originated from deeply rooted factors interrelated with the whole
structure of communities. Despite its heritage and ancient origins,
Syria is facing a serious number of housing problems and deficiencies
in its urban development. This same situation is found to be serious
in most nations of the world, especially those with an ancient history
and an underdeveloped economy. In contrast with relatively new cities
of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, ancient cities have lagged
behind others in their urbanization. Most of the functions of ancient
cities are obsolete today, as they were designed to serve certain re-
quirements relevant to the needs and desires of unique peoples of a
time long past. Accepting the premise that cities exist to satisfy
human needs, there must be continual readjustment in physical patterns
and facilities to the dynamics of social characteristics. Thus, the
physical form of a city, which includes land uses, a circulation system,
and other private and public facilities, has to be functioning effec-
tively all the time in order to meet the requirements of people connected
with their advances in technology. In old cities like Damascus, the
adjustment to the new concepts of urban development and advances in
technology requires a double effort since a major part of the old cul-
ture has to be changed to conform.with new ways of life and new needs

1

I. ‘il’tcp

"‘1

l

Thabet Taher Zakaria

that, in turn, require a different physical patterns making up the city.
The achievement of balance between the new and the old is not only dif-
ficult, but also costly in terms of adjusting and reconditionsing the
physical structure.

This thesis study presents the housing problems of Damascus in a
comprehensive framework and it attempts to evaluate the causes and roots
of these problems so that feasible and adequate recommendations can be
developed. In order to achieve the ultimate goal of housing in the city,
a systematic analysis of each segment related to housing development
has to be understood and evaluated. Stress is given to the applied
features of the concepts and theories of housing in conjunction with
applied theories of urban development rather than emphasizing the con—
ceptual and theoretical nature of housing. The methodology utilized
spells out the initial definition of housing problems, analyzes and
synthesizes the findings, and drafts general solutions. Provisions
for very specific decision-making procedures regarding alternate solu-
tions for housing problems is not attempted since the scope of the
study is merely to develOp a housing program encompassing the basic and
significant features of housing and other relevant functions of urban
development.

The significant historical, geographical, and survival aspects of
Damascus are examined, including the major and some detailed social
and economic features of the Damascene; the major legal and adminis-
trative provisions of housing and other related regulations of urban
development are traced; and the quantitative and qualitative measures
of the housing stock of the city and its environs are tabulated and

evaluated.

.. l‘Qi.‘ )IC

Thabet Taher Zakaria

The housing quality in the City ranges in extreme contrast from
the luxurious villas to slums unfit for human habitation. Damascus,
also, is in severe need of additional housing; it is estimated that a
minimum of 7,800 dwelling units should be added annually in the follow—
ing 11 years.

This thesis includes a series of recommendations, that could be
offered to various persons involved in the housing industry, whether
private or public, such as:

— Provision of a census of housing, and new legislative and admin-
istrative laws to guide the use and reuse of land;

— Preparation, adaption, and carrying out of a comprehensive master
plan for the City and its environs;

- Establishment of many private non-profit housing organizations;

— Establishment of a national housing bank to grant loans at low
interest rates;

— Provision of mass production in housing materials;

. - Encouragement of housing designers to stress the function of

housing rather than its architectural appearance alone;

— Establishment of planning and social institutions to produce enough
planners and social workers in order to educate the citizens and
help them understand what they have missed;

- Establishment of national housing research center.

A HOUSING PROGRAM FOR DAMASCUS, SYRIA

AN EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT SITUATION WITH RECOMMENDATIONS

TO MEET PRESENT AND FUTURE NEEDS

By

Thabet Taher Zakaria

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER IN URBAN PLANNING

School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture

1963

q)

a
I)

‘5

,4
\ .
.\ \

7.\‘

(.1: \

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to his
Professor Myles G. Boylan whose advice, constant supervision, and
lofty inspiration have contributed a substantial part to this study

Acknowledgment is also given to Professor Charles W. Barr,
Associate Professors: Stewart D. Marquis, Sanford S. Earness, and Carl
Goldschmidt, of Michigan State University for their review of this
thesis and for their valuable comments and suggestions.

Thanks go to all friends who helped in the collection of data

and references, especially, Nofal Kasrawy and Muhammed El—Kholy of

Damascus.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER
I O DAMASCUS BACKGROUN D O O O O O O C O C O O

Damascus Setting . . . . . . . .
Climatic Conditions . . . . . . .

Brief History . . . . . . . . . . .

Physical Patterns . . . . . . . .
Survival of the City . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .

II. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS RELATED TO HOUSING DEVELOP—

MT 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 0

Social Characteristics . . . . . . . . .

POpulation . . . . . . . .
Palestinian Refugees . . .
Size of Family . . . . . .
Marriage . . . . . . . . .
Religion . . . . . . . . .
National Groups . . . . . . . . .
Family Interrelationship . . . .

Economic Characteristics . . . . . . .
Economic Base of Damascus . . . .
Income Distribution . . . . . . .
Expenditure Distribution . . . .

Social and Economic Change . . . . . .
summary 0 O O O O O I O O O O O 0

III. LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FEATURES RELATED
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Syrian Law Regulating the Urbanization

Local Housing Laws . . . . .

Housing Permits . . . .

Subdivision Regulations
Zoning Regulation . . .

Public Housing Law . . . . . . . . . .
Eligibility . . . . . . . . . . .
Value..............
Distribution and Priorities . . .
Payment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appraisal and Analysis . . . . .

iii

TO HOUSING. .

of Cities .

Page

\OCIDU‘LUI

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)

CHAPTER Page
New Town Laws 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 53
Land Acquisition and Distribution . . . . . . . 5h
Zoning o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 55
summary . C C . O O C C O . O O O O O O O O O O O C O 57

IV. HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

The Housing Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Number of Dwelling Units . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Rate of Construction . . . . . . . . .
Housing Age and Physical Conditions . . . . . . 60
Density and Crowding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Cost of Dwelling Units . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

HOUSing Needs . O C C C C O C C O O O O O . O O O O 69
Criteria for Estimation of Housing Needs . . . 69
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Family Formations l95h—1975 . . . . . . . . . . 70
Additional Dwelling Units Required . . . . . . 71
Social and Economic Distribution of Housing

and Investment Required . . . . . . . . . . 73
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

v. REVIEW, EVALUATION, AND RECOIVIMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . 8b

Political and Legal Measures Related to the

Housing Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Review and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Social and Economic Factors as Related to Housing

Problems in Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Review and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9A

Design and Production of Housing . . . . . . . . . . 96
Review and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

The Need For Research Programs in Housing and
Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

The Urban Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10h
Housing Finance and Economic Factors . . . . . 105
The Appearance and Function of Housing . . . . 106
The Structural Aspects of Housing . . . . . . . 106
Summary of Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 107

EPILOGUE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
BIBLICERAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O l O 0 C O O O O O O O O l 1 1

iv

lb.

15.

16.

17.

18.

LIST OF TABLES

Average of Thirteen Years of Temperature and
Precipitation in Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Historical Development of Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Population of Syria: 19h0 - 1982 . . . . . . . . . .

The Population of the City of Damascus: 1935 - 1961 . . .

Pakstinian Refugees in the Damascus Region: 195A 1961 .

Size of Families in Large Syrian Cities: 1959 .

Marriages in Damascus: 1953 - 1961 . . . . . . . . . . .
Religion in Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Students of the University of Damascus . . . . . . . . . .

Average Annual Income Per Capita in Syria: 1957 196k .

Average Annual Income Per Family in Damascus: 1957 . . .
Average Annual Income Per Capita in Damascus: 1957 . . .

Monthly Expenditure Per Capita in Damascus In Syrian
Pounds, 1957 (Arranged According to Neighborhood). . .

Monthly Total Expenditure Per Capita for all Expenditures
and for Rent for All Classes of Occupation: 1957 . . .

Population, Families and Dwelling Units in Damascus:
19511’197500ooooooooooooooooooo

Total Additional Dwelling Units Needed in Damascus:
l96h-1975OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Average Annual Income of the Family and Distribution
of Needed Dwelling Units in Damasucs: 196A - 1975 . .

Cost Distribution of the Five Year Plan - Housing
SGCtOI‘: 1960 - 196).]. o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0

PAGE

15
22
23
25
26
28
29
33
3h

35
36

37

38

71

7h

75

76

LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
TABLE PAGE

19. Total Investment Needed for Housing Per Year in-
‘ mmBSCUS: 19611 " 1975 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 76

20. Public and Private Investment in Housing Industry:
196h'l975coo-cocooQQOocooooooo79

21. Summary of Housing Needs for Damascus: 196A - 1975 . . . . 80

22. Major Classes of Mortgage Lenders in the United States
in 1960 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 95

vi

PLATES

1. A Map of Syria . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .
2. A Generalized Land Use Plan of the Damascus Area
3. A Plan of Damasucs in the Eleventh Century . . .
A. Schematic Plans of Damascus in the Sixteenth and

Nineteenth Centuries . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S. The Land Use Plan of the City of New Damascus .
6. The Present Housing Quality in Damascus . . . .

LIST.OF'PLATES

vii

PAGE

11

13
56
6h

LIST OF‘PHOTOS

PHOTOS PAGE

1. A General View of the Old Sector in Damascus Sur-
rounding the Umayyad Mosque . . . . . . . . . . . . l6

2. A Scene of a Typical Old House in Damascus . . . . . . . 62

3. A Scene of a Housing Sample Occupied by Palestinian
Refugees in the Fringe Areas of Damascus . . . . . . 82

A. A General View of Two New Residential Districts in
mmscus . U Q . O . O C . C C 0 C O . O O C . O O O 93

5. A General Scene of Modern and 01d Residential Districts
in mmscus O C O . O C O C O O Q 0 O O O O C U C O 98

viii

INTRODUCTION

Shelter is commonly acknowledged as a principal need of man,
ranking equally with food and clothing. In the evolution of man's
attempt to shape his living environment, housing has been, in all
cultures, one of the most dominant components of development and re-
development. As more recent cultures of the world have become more
systematic and efficient in structuring living environment through
the process of comprehensive community and regional planning, housing
has become a major economic activity in almost every nation, consuming
a major share of all expenditures and generating a significant share
of personal and.community income, especially in those nations exper-
iencing substantial increases in population concomitant with extensive
sOcial and economic changes.

Advances in technology and business management have made possible
substantial improvements in the adequacy of housing. Central plumbing
and heating, food preservation and preparation, electricity, air condi-
tioning, etc., together with revolutionary new equipment and materials
have made possible a considerable increase in the standard of housing
in most nations; but, at the same time, have contributed significantly
to the constantly rising cost of housing. The character and adequacy
of the housing inventory of a nation has become an index of the standard
of living and the cultural level and the rate of development of a nation.

As a native of Syria, the author has become increasingly concerned
with the shortcomings of the housing situation in that country and with
the adequacy and quality of the whole environment in Syrian urban areas.

1

2

In major cities like Damascus, the number, kinds, distribution, and
quality of housing are of fundamental significance to the overall
rate of national social and eocnomic development. The author has
been most eager to examine the housing situation and needs in a rep-
resentative Syrian city in order to develop a basis of knowledge for
drafting workable programs that may, hopefully, be implemented over
the coming years.

Thus, study of Damascus housing attempts to accomplish the
following objectives:

To provide the author with a comprehensive understanding of the

housing policies, programs, accomplishments, laws, physical condi-

tions, and other related social and economic features of housing

development in his country and specifically in the city of Damascus;

To review and understand the various ways and means adopted in other
nations to develop healthful and adequate housing for their popu-

lations, and, consequently, better overall living environments; and

To utilize all possible advantages and benefits from the faculty
and.resources of the School of Urban Planning and Landscape Archi-
tecture at Michigan State University in terms of advice, guidance
experience, and data regarding an applied planning problem which

is of great interest and importance to the author.

1’

Study of housing development in Damascus while resident in the
United States is admittedly ambitious, but the desire to achieve the
above objectives provided over—riding encouragement to undertake such
work. The author had to face many difficulties in obtaining the re—

quired data for the body of this report. Data on housing for Damascus

\l

3

is not only unavailable in this country, but also basic information re-
quired for an adequate description, analysis, and evaluation of problems
has not been prepared yet in a systematically tabulated manner innSyria.
Therefore, it was necessary to collect the required data from quite a
number of statistical abstracts, books, reports, surveys and other
materials. It was also necessary to send many letters to different
governmental agencies and friends in Damascus requesting basic informa-
tion; some of this information was helpful, however, much of it was not.
Sometimes the author had to derive and tabulate percentages, numbers,
and other similar procedures which resulted in a double effort.

This thesis is intended to accomplish an adequate presentation
and description, analysis and evaluation and recommendations for the
housing development and redevelopment in Damascus. It is a comprehen-
sive framework describing in general and specific terms the present
housing situation in the City, and how housing should function in the
future. It deals with housing problems in relation to other urban
components, whether physical, social, economic, or political. The
study considers basically the general more than the particular. It
is an overall image of the total residential scene in the city of
Damascus which has a special history, particularly the social and eco-
nomic character, interesting housing characteristics, and an especially
promising prosperous future. Some of the above factors have resulted
in an urban scene with heterogeneous social and economic features, and

a special physical form of development worthy of study.

L .(I‘.

l -. )Il.

L .I. III

Ill...\.l \.v

            

       
 

_ in II ...-In. w \ c
mmunmmnnmmmu m o :1 :
IIIQ .m‘ ‘ Z
“noun". 1‘:
....wR. 1: :

            

        

       

. . . \
. I.\. ...xsrf..o..... .3..._.!u..:..c..ru\....
\ ”10.1.? . . . ”Junk \..\4 RN! L. Ms .... .. . ,

,0 s O I. II.....§|..
\J.u,...fl.mwwc... ..Uhvuiln u... v.

   

 

nut- . ..

t...... :34

fl

   

-./ .<._m<m<

0/

       

In .Nu .

      

        

 

.. _

. . ‘c o

. . .......

.. . ......RVADJn

. . .......¢.L......J\r)..
.. 1.6.1 .SI.I G

 

 

 

. 9521 B 99...:
- grade... .5 mm ...
33¢ .32.: a . . . ..

.4 83x 52: m. ........V
n><k<=<¢ m ........

. 3.5 «2.52 DU
3:5 #55 DE
53.53 gaizautz m .0 .
ozmouu mflW

................~

r.........

a;

.3... .]JJ] .................h

 

CHAPTER I
DAMASCUS BACKGROUND

Damascus.Setting

Damascus is located in the south-western part of the existing
Syrian Arab Republic1 on a large fertile plain straddling the original
channel of the Barada River. This plain of approximately 500 square
miles, known as the Damascus Oasis, is surrounded by desert lands made
up of arid plains and mountains. Damascus has expanded steadily over
the Oasis and now reaches up into the lower slopes of Mount Kasyuin,
a range of the Anti-Lebanon Mountain chain. The Oasis is nourished by
the Barada River and its many branches which has provided an abundant
water supply throughout the centuries for the large numbers of peoples
occupying Damascus and its environs. The Barada springs from the
mountains of Zabadani, about thirty miles to the west of the city and
runs through a very narrow valley until it arrives in the Damascus area.
Before it reaches the environs of the city, it branches into several
channels; additional branching within the city forms seven major chan-
nels.. These channels, significantly, are man-made, having been dug
initially by the Romans and added to by the Umayyads and others in later
periods. Flowing along the slopes of Mount Kasyiun and the Mezza Hills,
they provide a water supply and irrigation water for the city and its
surrounding oasis by simple gravity flow. The smaller streams which

lead from these channels of the Barada River served the ancient houses,

 

1Syria, or the word "Sham" meant the entire area encompassing the
existing Syria, Palestine, Lebanon, and Jordan before World War I.

S

 
 

  

IA
MIASC3
U
S

E,
i

  

       

       
    

 

 
 
 

6
O
5 .2
Ill
0 so?” i a
m E“; "’ a 3
<
J F<§$D tn’ 6
zou<g < n no
gézgmrgmz 3mm
$<;,a“ $3 r52
mz-OOKOOm 00M
zqfl-Or—km 2d<
zfr ¢°m<ga
m <5333:3 g
WEI 23:“?
“of
355035;;
I. . S
,JIEE]

 

 
  
 
 
  

  

3'5"“

“:53”. .

I ~‘ ‘
'dfitfi'

     

  
 

...r u. I
.11' .7 '-

'0'".
u'.’
v

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Y
1“. A
o. . .
o. 0 ...
'0. . ...
a... ...
no. . ...
... ...
.... ....
v... ...
no... . .
o... ..
o... ..
0°. ..
..L. .
. .J

  

  
  
  
  
  
    
 
    
 
  

  
 
      
 

     

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

7

baths, mosques, churches, and the many gardens and orchards in the city
and outside its limits to the east, south, soutwest, and northeast sides.
These numerous secondary channels form a vast network for irrigation of
the fretile soil of the Damascus Oasis which extend southward from the
concentrated urban settlement to the arid areas at the edges of the
Syrian Desert. Robin Feddin describes the Damascus entrance from the
west side saying:

Where the road from Beyrouth to Damascus strays across the
desert-like eastern slopes of the Anti-Lebanon mountains, and the
landscape is at its barest - a wilderness of stone and shale, a
sun-baked earth - a slip of water hurrying between the rocks makes
almost miraculous appearance . . . It is necessary to insist on the
Barada, since not only does it make possible the existence of the
town, but contriubtes perhaps more than anything else to its parti-
cular atmosphere.l ~

The Damascus fertile oasis, known as Ghuta, is an excellent land
for agricultural purposes and cultivation of orchards and garden markets,
vineyards, olives, most kinds of fruit and nuts, vegetables, sugar beets,
cereals, and other crops. The Ghuta has been famous through the ages
for its

Orchards of fruit trees (olives, apricots, figs, pomegranates,
pistachios, and almonds) are intermingled with fields of wheat,
barley, and maize, and groves of poplar and walnut; seen from a
vantage point (as from the northern suburb of Salihiyah, on the

slope of Mount Kasyun), the white minarets of the city rising above
the mass of verdure, leaves an ineffaceable impression.2

 

1Robin Fedden, Syria: An Historical Appreciation; Robert Hale Limited,
London 1955, p. 13.

 

2Encyclopedia Britannica 1960: Damascus, vol. 7, p. 22.

Climatic Conditions

 

The climate of Damascus and the surrounding area is relatively dry
and can be classified as predominately a desert climate. The excess of
water that comes mainly from the Barada River and its branches has a great
effect upon the degree of temperature and humidity in the area. The aver-
age altitude of Damascus is 2,362 feet above sea level. The average mean
temperature ranges from h5°F in January to 82°F in August. It seldom
falls below 25°F or rises above lOO°F. Because the city lies in the
rain shadow of the mountains of Lebanon, the rainfall and snow precipi-
tation is very little. It ranges from h inches to 10 inches depending,
to a great extent, upon the fluctuation and waves of high and low pres-
sure areas which come, sometimes, from Siberia and North-eastern Europe.
The average mean monthly precipitation ranges from 0 inches in the sum-
mer to 1.7 inches in the winter. Snow is rare and only falls a few days
throughout the winter. In 1959, for example, it snowed only ten days
and in 1960 and 1961 there was no snow at all.

The following table shows that there are only four months in the
year which could be considered as rainy months, and the rest may be
classified as dry.

Table I: Average of Thirteen Years of Temperature
and Precipitation in Damascus

 

 

Months J F M A M J J A S O N D Year

 

Temperature
in Fahrenheit AS b8 5b 52 70 76 80 82 76 68 57 AB 6h
Precipitation

in Inches 1.? 1.7 0.3 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.7 o.u 1.6 1.6 8,5

 

Source: Air Ministry, Meterological Office, Tables of Temperature,
Relative Humidity and precipitation for the world, Part V Asia. London,
H. M. Stationary Office 1958. Monthly temperature derived from average
of daily maximum and minimum temperatures.

Brief History

 

Damascus is reputed to be the oldest city still in existence on
the surface of the earth, having been built or created before the
thirtieth century B.C. (3000 B.C.).1 It has had many historical per-
iods, such as the Aramaic, Greek, Roman, Arabic, Turkish, French, and
the recent period of independenceg/but the very early history of Damascus
is not well known. In the Roman period, the city had a grid-iron plan
which was like or similar to old Greek towns. The main features of the
Roman plan of the city was the "Straight Street" east to west, with
great temples, colonnades, and propylaea.

Damascus had its greatest glory and pride in the period of the
umayyads, because it was the capital of their Islmaic Caliphate for
about a hundred years, from the middle of the seventh to the middle
of the eighth centuries (661 - 750 A'D°)7/ The Umayyads Caliphate
occupied most of the countries of the Ancient World, extending from
southern France (Boitier) to the western frontiers of China, including
Espania, North Africa, Sudan, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Turkestan, Afghanestan,
Pakistan, India, and, of course, the Arabian peninsula. Robin Feddin
says:

"The coming of Islam maintained and increased the commercial and
intellectual activity of the old Roman colony and gave the town a '
special position and a special history, together with an architecture
worthy of these."2

After the period of the Umayyads, the city had been neglected

 

1Homer Hoyt, "The Function of the Ancient and Modern City", Land
Economics, August 1962, Vol. 38, No. 3, p. 2L6.

2R. Feddin, op. cit., p. 15.

10
because of the removal of the Islamic Caliphate to Baghdad by the
Abbasids.' The Abbasids aimed to destroy Damascus because it was the
capital of their enemies, the Umayyads. Unfortunately, not too much
has been left from the Umayyads culture and their magnificent archi-
tectural developments, except for the great mosque of the Umayyads which
is considered a rare masterpiece throughout the world.
The Abbasid Synasty was
a period of anarchy and unrest, which resulted in the forma-
tion of cliques and the development of guild life. The city ceased
to be a single whole, governed by public authorities responsible
for the management of the community's assets: It was split up into
autonomous districts, like diminuative, and often rival, cities,
each with its own independent organization, mosque, hommam (baths),
sugs (a bazaar), surrounding walls and gates, and own chief (sheikh)
commanding a sort of police battalion.1
During the period of Saladin and the Ayyubids in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, Damascus began to grow again and.to have its own
famous palaces, mosques, hospitals, fountains, public baths, public
a c. .
libraries, and schools. Many of them are still in existence despite
the invasion of Tamerlane's holocaust who fired and destroyed the city
in the fourteenth century. The city was very beautiful in this period
and almost an ideal place in which to live and work. "The geographer
Yaquit, of the thirteenth century visited all of the four spots reputed
as the most beautiful on earth and found Damascus to be the first among

them; he sums up by writing, 'nothing attributed by way of description

to the heavenly paradise is not found in Damascus.'"2

 

1Unesco: Syria: Problem of Preservation and Presentation of Sites
and.Monuments, p. 13.

2Geo. B. Cressey, Crossroads Land and Life in Southwest Asia, J. B.
Lippencott Co., Chicago 1960, p. hh2.

ll

DAMASCUS IN IOSOADo

 

LEGEND
N! E BARADA RIVER
E MAIN TRACKS
A E CITY WALL

E STRAIGHT STREET

0'” o 355‘.‘ ‘
M =7"“’” 133 “TABS-‘-

13:! UMAYYAD mosque

[:1 ueam LAN!)

[:1 AGRICULTURAL LAND

 

 

 

Plate 3. A Plan of'Danascus in the Eleventh Century.

I u I

‘(li L,

11‘ ’ll‘i‘rjl

II . 'III (I‘ll!

12

In the Mamluke period after_Tamerlane's invasion, Damascus did not
have sufficient motivation to grow, primarily because the Mamaluke
capital was moved to Cairo.

The Thrks occupied Damascus, as,well as Syria, in the sixteenth
century and stayed until the end of World War I (1517-1918) when the
Arabs and the English troops drove them out of all Arab states. The
Turks built some beautiful and famous palaces and mosques which are
still in existence.

After two years of independence (1918-1920), the French came to
the city. Under the French mandate, Damascus had little improvement
and growth, because it was always the center of struggle and demonstra-
tion against their rule. Most of the French governors or representa-
tives in Damascus were ruthless and adopted the policy of "rule with
an iron fist." Their first governor, General Henri Gourand, when enter-
ing the city after the Maysalun Battle in 1920, immediately went to
the tomb of Saladin1 and said "Saladin, nous somme returnee," ("Saladin,
we have returned."). During the French Mandate (1920-l9h5), the city
was always a center of trouble with violent demonstrations against the
French because the Arabs had been promised their independence after
WorlduWar I by both France and Great Britain. The Arabs fought against
the Turks during World War I with the British and the French armed
forces in order to get the promised independence; but at the same time,
France.and.Great Britain held a secret meeting.and decided to divide
Syria into two parts. The French part included the existing Syrian and

Lebanese Republics, and the British part included Palestine and Jordan.

1Saladinwas the Ayyubids hero of Damascus who, in the twelfth and
thirtheenth centuries, succeeded in repulsing the European invading
troups from the Holy Land and Syria in those wars called the Cross
Wars (Crusade).

 

‘If-I-I [ ( {I [I I1! Illi”.IIII'l-|'IIII [1 ll‘ ’ll’l‘flli J‘f“

(If I

maafiauauc. U x .32ch $8382

023 231: I . \ .
madmoz o<>><v5 .7124 .. x . paw epaoopfim BS 5 mammamo .Ho mama ofipmsonom 4 3.3.»

 

afififl x 009.009 530% 80223

.33; :8 w 5/

33$ 22: Tm \ _.
mumzz<zu 222 m x
52m 35.2 Wu 1 .
23.5.3. Enos E . .

ozwouu .4..; com. \\ com.

 

r ...lbl

. . }
Ania-IQ \“|"‘t‘l ‘

BANE. . c \
.1.“de I.“ l

 

 

 

 

 

/$.\\
J? m“.

JV « f

1A

As a result of this hostility toward the French, Damascus, in 1925,
was the center of the first aerial and ground bombardment; the second
bombardment followed in 1927 when the French completely destroyed an old
neighborhood called Midan. The third one came in 19h5, the year of in-
dependence.

From 19h5 up to the present date, Syria has been ruled by unstable
and short-term governments. Just after its independence, Syria had its
first democratic parliamentary government; as it was a new experience,
the system was weak and suffered many major problems, especially the
crisis of l9h8 in Palestine, when Syria, as well as the other Arab
states, declared war against the Zionists in Palestine. The creation
of Israel in l9h8 was the greatest danger that hurt not only Syria,
but also all the other Arab states because it is located in the heart
of their land. The fear of Zionist expansion and invasion to areas sur-
rounding Israel has required steadily strengthening the armed forces in
Syria. These military forces inevitably became involved in politics.
The first "coup d' etat" was started in 1919 by Colonel Husni Al-Zaim;
this has since continued to occur quite often up to and beyond the
formation of the first United Arab Republic established between Syria
and Egypt inFebruary 1958. In 1961, Syria broke away from the United
Arab Republic and declared its independence from it. In 1963, another
"coup d' etat" occurred in Syria and Iraq, and the three countries of
Syria, Egypt, and Iraq agreed to form another union different from
what it was in 1958. The new United Arab Republic represents a nucleus
which may include all the Arab states in the future.

Table 2 summarizes the general historical development of Damascus.

15

Table 2: Historical Development of Damascus: 3,000 B.C. - 1963 A.D.

 

 

 

Periods Dates
Caucasian and Semitic Cultures 3000 2000 B.C.
Aramaens and others 2000 1000 B.C.
Persian rule and others 1000 312 B.C.
Seleucid Empire and others 312 6h B.C.
Roman Rule 6h .C. - 330 A.D.
Byzantine Empire a 330 636 A.D.
Arab Empire under Caliphs (Mecca) 636 661 A.D.
Umayyads Caliphate (Damascus) 661 750 A.D.
Abbasids Caliphate (Baghdad) 750 1100 A.D.
Saladin, Ayyubids, and others 1100 1193 A.D.
Tamerlane, Mameluke and many others 1193 1517 A.D.
Ottoman Rule (Turkish) 1517 1918 A.D.
F1highchair?29%;:.21:1Sal .... 1920
French Mandate 1920 19h5 A.D.
Independent Syrian Government 19h5 1958 A.D.
Firstsg:::e:figr::y::pub1ic between 1958 1961 A.D.
Syrian Government (broke from UAR) 1961 1963 A.D.

Proposed New United Arab Republic

between Syria, Egypt, and Iraq 1963

 

.pomeeopcw zfiopmcmswpomwwcm ohm mega: mcHHHNZU 6cm AmMoop assoc umpcsv momumpnmfi pew mocwucm .mcmex
.Ammsmv whooupm mcmaaoem poum>oo aAocoom orb mcmumcHEopV osomoz mpmzszD map choc: «Choppma om: pcmH poxwz

‘ a UN -‘ ‘

   
  

This old sector in Damascus represents an unhealthy urban environment.

Redevelopment is critically needed.

17

Physical Patterns

 

The physical pattern of Damascus today clearly reflects the impact
of the various kinds of cultures it experienced throughout its ages; its
physical features indicate a mixture of developments that a student of
city planning could see and distinguish very easily. This pattern appears
in the very old Roman walls and arches of triumph, ancient Christian
churches and monuments, old Muslem mosques, cathedrals, shrines, palaces,
medieval patterns of mosques, libraries, schools, khans,l sugs,2 and homes;
modern neighborhoods and ultra modern houses and villas are expanding
to the northern and western sides of the old city. The new pattern of
modern European style of residential, commercial, and industrial (though
the latter is limited in quantity) makes an extreme contrast compared
to the old sections of the city. Modern buildings are near the slums
of the nineteenth century; new sh0pping facilities are along old sugs;
and narrow, congested alleys and streets in contrast to modern roads

and wide boulevards.

Survival of the City

 

Homer Hoyt relates the existence and survival of the ancient city
to the economic potential of its area in providing food, water supply,
and walls to protect it from invaders; it is also the central strong—

hold of the nation, a capital City, and a seat of religious authority.3

 

lThe Khan (market place) was a place where the travelers and merchants
came to sell their goods and live at the same time.

2A sug is a central business street.

3Homer Hoyt "The Function of the Ancient and Modern City", Land Economics,
Vol. 38, No. 3, August, 1962, pp. 2hl—2h7.

 

18

In specific terms related to the city of Damascus, P. S. Cellart
sislsaw

"Damascus owes its existence and development mainly to its geo-
graphic position, water supplies, and gardens. The different periods
of its growth which are bound up with its political history, industries
and trade, are reflected in the layout of the various sections of the
town, in the architecture of its houses, monuments, andstreets."1

As mentioned before, the major factors of growth and survival
of Damascus may have a strong relationship to the social, economic,
physical, and political activities of the City. These factors may be
summed up in the following points which are of great interest and
significance:

1. It is located in an area which has fertile soils and a suffi—
cient water supply for domestic consumption and for irrigation
of agricultural crops. It is also near mountains, a source of
stone, in the past for building walls to protect itself from in-
vasion, and to facilitate the building of its houses, temples,
churches, mosques, and other structures.

2. It has been a center and a terminal point of communication of
people and goods in all directions, from Iraq to Lebanon, and
from Asia Minor to the Arabian peninsula. The physical form of
the city indicates very clearly the effect of transportation in
its south-north and east-west direction of growth.

3. Being a great center for political and governmental activities,

it has served as a capital city for conquering nations, expanding

 

1P. S. Callart, A. Hak, and Dillon, "Syria" Problem of Preservation and
Presentation of Sites and Monuments. Unesco 1953, p. 13. —

 

19

readily in response to pressures for growth and shrinking when
its importance declined.

A. It has been a great center for religious activities since the
Roman, Christian, and Islamic periods. It was, for centuries
the focal point for the practice and administration of particular
religious beliefs and for the instruction of practitioners. Dam-
ascus was a central pOint in particular for the Muslems of Turkey,
Iraq, Iran, Turkestan and other countries to group themselves to
leave for Mecca in the season of pilgrimage each year.

5. The city has had a good economic base, mainly from its trade,
industry, and agriculture.

6. People have liked the city and found it an interesting place
in which to live because of its climatic conditions, natural

sights, and prestige in addition to the above factors.

Summary

The Damascus setting and its other geographical features have been
the reasons behind most of its historical development through the cen-
turies. Being an old City, Damascus' physical pattern reflects the
various cultures and indicates the diversity and contact between the
old and the new. The mixture of cultrures represented in the City, such
as the Aramaenean, Roman, Byzantine, and Arabian, resulted in a very
interesting texture of physical development patterns. The survival of
the city has been due to certain factors such as its location and geo-
graphic features, its soical and political importance, and many others.

The recent history of Damascus after World War I, shows the tre-

menduous movement toward the awakening of the people of all Arab states

20
to rid themselves of colonization and imperialism. To have a United Arab
State extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea, has been the
prime goal and the most important objective behind this renaissance per-
iod.

In the following chapter, some general and detailed social and
economic factors are discussed and evaluated in order to obtain a clear
picture of their social characteristics in terms of the size of the
families and households, marriage and divorces, ethnic and religious
groups, family interrelationships, and other social determinents. Also,
an effort is made to concentrate on some critical factors contributing
to the problems of housing, such as the Palestinian refugees, migration

from rural areas to the city, and many other factors.

CHAPTER II

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS RELATED TO HOUSING DEVELOPMENT

Social Characteristics

 

Damascenes, like all the other inhabitants of Middle-Eastern cities,
are a combinatidn of the characteristics of many different groups, relig-
ions, occupations, backgrounds, and social and economic classes. In
this chapter, it is not intended to discuss and evaluate all the social
and economic problems of Damascenes; but to trace the major character-
istics of population, family structure, income, and the social status
of the Damascene family, so as to have a clear picture or image of the
people and their economic activities, that affect and contribute to

housing programs.

Population

 

Despite its rich heritage and ancient origins, Syria, today is a
relatively underdevelOped nation. Population growth since 19h0 has
been quite small. Table 3 indicates the actual growth with estimates
of future expected growth as prepared by various governmental agencies.

As indicated, the average percentage of increase from 1950 to 1961
was around 3.9 percent per year, except some years which had a sudden
natural increase in population growth. However, this population is
distributed unevenly with major concentrations in six urban centers
and arable areas. “The average density is relatively low compared to
other countries in the Middle East; it was, for example, about 27 per-
sons per square kilometer in 1961.

21

22

Table 3: The Population of Syria: l9b0 — 1982

 

Number of Persons Increasel

 

Year Increase per Year1
Cumulative Totals Number of Persons (Percent)

1910 2,597,000 -- --
19h5 2,926,000 329,000 --
1950 3,215,000 289,000 --
1951 3,329,235 11b,235 3.5
1952 3,h33,626 101,391 3.2
1953 3,655,903 222,277 6.5
1951 3,806,973 151,070 1.1
1955 3,91h,625 107,652 2.8
1956 h,025,165 110,510 2.8
1957 1,11u,980 119,815 3.0
1958 h,h20,587 275,607 6.6
1959 8,656,688 236,101 5.3
1960 1,839,237 182,5b9 3.9
1961 b.972,316 133,079 2.8
196A 5,h50,000 b78,000 3.3
1968 6,058,000 608,000 2.9
1972 6,95t,000 896,000 3.7
1976 7,983,000 1,029,000 3.6
1982 9,h86,000 1,503,000 t.7

 

lDerived by the author.

Sources: Statistical Abstract, UAR. Syria Region 1958 and 1961.
UAR Year Book,Al96O: Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs:
Five Year Plan 1960 - 196b, Damascua 1959.

 

 

23
In comparison to national population growth, the City of Damascus
trebled in population between 1935 and 1961 while the Nation's popula-
tion approximately doubled; and the urbanized area represents about 37
percent of the total urbanized area in the country. The gross density
in the Damascus metropolitan area was about 52 persons per square kilo-
meter in 1961, compared to 1,182 persons per square kilometer in the

city and its environs.

Table A: The Population of the City of Damascus: 1935 - 1961

 

 

No. of
Persons No. of No. of No. of
(Cumulative Births Deaths In—Migr.
Total)

1935 163,912 - - - _ _

No. of Increase
Persons1 Per Year
Net Increase (Percent)

Year

 

1951 395,121 15,231 1,589 - - _

1955 108,771 16,667 1,159 1,112 13,650 3.1
1956 123,832 18,559 1,651 1,150 15,058 3.6
1957 139,795 19,097 1,750 1,616 15,963 3.7
1958 515,603 18,117 1,813 1,231 11,808 3.3
1959 175,399 19,265 1,350 5,881 20,796 1.5
1960 191,398 21,112 1,821 3,592 15,999 3.3

1961 507,503 22,879 1,581

 

1
Derived by the author.
Source: Statistical Abstract of Syria, 1958 and 1961 and UAR Yearbook,

1960.
The percentage of net increase in the Damascus population from
1951 to 1961 ranged from 3.3 percent to 1.5 percent with an average
mean of 3.6 percent of the total population which is about the same

average rate as the Nation as a whole. It is important to mention

21
that the figures of "In-Migration" do not include the Palestinian refu-
bees who came to Damascus in 1918. Data on the refugees is always
recorded separately from the native Syrians as they are considered
guest brethern who were forced to leave their Palestine homeland dur-
ing the war between the Arab States and the Zionists. The major por—
tion of increase was due to natural increase; the in-migration component
of increase was almost negligible ranging from 0.25 to 1.2 percent;
but the trends may be towards a higher percentage of in-migrants because
of the following reasons:

a. The Opportunities for remunerative employment in industrial and
commercial establishments for rural villagers in the Damascus
region and also in other urban regions, combined with the need
for skilled and non-skilled workers in the many kinds of em-
ployment;

b. The increase and enlargement of the central government offices
and the need for white collar employees;

c. The availability of many public technical schools and the Uni-
versity of Damascus;

d. The lack of mobility contrasted with the U.S.A. and Europe
which renders it impossible for outlying suburban dwellers
to commute to their work;

e. Damascus maintains a modern cultural atmosphere for the highly
educated classes, and also possesses the traditional social

climate attractive to the many other social and income groups.

25

Palestinian Refugees

 

As a result of the Zionist — Arab war, vast numbers of Palestinian
Arabs were displaced from their homes, occupations, and country in 1918.
About 75 percent of the total number taking refuge in Syria live in
Damascus, either in the City, or in the surrounding villages within the
metropolitan area. Their impact upon Damascus has been quite serious,
not only aggravating the problem of housing, but also on the entire
range of social and economic activities. Unemployment problems were
created by inundating the city with workers willing to work at lower
wages and salaries than the Damascenes. Rents for houses and apartments
jumped to very high rates, especially in the middle and lower class
levels. The following table shows that the increase of refugees was

greater than that of Damascenes for the same periods.

Table 5: Palestinian Refugees in the Damascus Region: 1951 - 1961.

 

 

 

y... (ckliiiiirifii‘in 1323332232; ”52:? P“
(Percent)
1951 68,320 - -
1955 71,182 3,162 1.6
1956 75,133 3,951 5.5
1957 79,136 3,703 1.9
1958 82,135 3,799 ' 1.8
1959 87,135 1,393 5.3
1960 91,175 1,117 1.8
1961 95,192 1,017 1.1

 

1Derived by the author.
Source: Statistical Abstract, UAR. Syrian Region 1960 and 1961.

26

Size of Family

The mean size of a Damascene family1 was 5.0 persons in 1957, which
is large compared to the 3.5 persons average for American families.
Family size in Damascus has been decreasing because of the advances in
education and rapid social changes which inevitably develop an inverse
relationship. The size of the Damascene family does not differ greatly
in comparison with those of other Middle-Eastern urban centers. Un-
fortunately, there are no data concerning the size of Damascene families
at the present time; however, it is common to find a considerable num-
ber of families which have five to six children. There is a direct re-
lationship between the size of Damascene families, poverty, and social
customs. In 1957, for example, there were 90,000 families in the City
of which 57 percent were considered to be of the low income class.
Approximately 65 percent of these low income families consisted of more
than five persons. The size of the typical Syrian family in the City
is largely due to the social and economic characteristics of the Dama-
scenes. A majority of Damascene families not only include father,
mother and children, as it is known in the West, but also frequently

include grandparents, and married sons with their dependents.

Table 6: Size of Families in Large Syrian Cities: 1959.

 

 

 

Family Size More than
N0. of Persons 2‘3 h_6 7-8 9 9
Percentage of
Total Population 17.0 36.0 25.0 9.2 11.7

 

_

£30urce: Ministmy of Municipal and Rural Affairs: The Five Year Plan,
Damascus 1959.

g

LLThe percentage of dwelling units with 1 person was estimated as 1.1
13ercent of the total dwelling units.

27
These data show that 15.9 percent of the total families contained
more than 7 persons in the family. The size of the average Damascene
family, however, has been tending to decrease annually, because of the
increase of housing stock and other social trends, as it will be dis-
cussed in Chapter IV. However, the median size of Damascene families

was 6.1 persons in 1959 compared to 3.3 persons in the United States in
1955 . 1

Marriage

Most of the Damascenes prefer to marry as early as possible, espec-
ially among the middle and low income classes, and generally among most
of the less educated persons. Men prefer to marry girls who are 5 years,
or even more, younger than themselves. However, Syrian law, now, fixes
minimum marriage ages as 18 for men and 17 for women.

Mamy of the residents of the 01d neighborhoods, and even in a few
of the new sections in the city still prefer to marry relatives of the
same family. As a result of this habit, there are many families which
have the same last name living in particular sections of the city, es-
pecially in old sections, forming a large family group descended from
one forefather.

Muslems, according to the Koranic Law, may marry more than one wo-
man, but only under restrictive circumstances and conditions, e.g., when
there is no other logical alternative to solve the family problem except
by marriage. These restrictions have caused this custom to decline and

it is very rarely used today.

_l

lU.S. Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports "Household and
Family Characteristics", Series P-20 No. 67, 1956.

28

Table 7: Marriages in Damascus: 1953 - 1961

 

 

 

Year Marriages Eggr§:::l
(Percent)
1953 1,791 -
1951 5,137 7.1
1955 5,736 11.6
1956 5,531 -3.5
1957 5,503 -O.5
1958 6,159 11.9
1961 5,627 -9.1

 

Source: Statistical Abstract, UAR. .Syria
1958 and 1961.

 

It is evident, that formation of new families is,a critical prob—
lem which contributes to the housing needs. It is estimated that about
8,600 new families would be formed in 1961; of which 95 percent, or
8,170 new couples will be in need of dwelling units, assuming that only

5 percent may live with their parents, since this custom is declining,

Religion

There are three major religious groups in Damascus namely, Muslems,
Christians, and Hebrews. Islam (Muslems) is the predominant religion in
Syria, comprising about 86 percent of the total population. In 1935,
for example, about 81.5 percent of the total population was Muslem, and
in 1958 the percentage was 86.5.

Most of the Damascene Christians live in a special quarter called
Kassa and Bab-Touma which are located in the east side of the city. The

Jews live in another section located in the southern side called Haret

29
Al-Yahoud. Since the Syrian independence in 1915, there has been a
great tendency among both Muslems and Christians to live in the same
neighborhood, especially in new housing developments in the western

and northern sections of the city.

Table 8: Religion in Damascus

 

 

 

Year Total Population Muslems Christians Hebrews
1935 193,912 163,912 20,000 10,000
1958 151,603 392,603 50,000 12,000

 

Source: J. Tower, Oasis of Damascus, and Statistical Abstract
UAR. Syria 1958.

 

 

National,Groups

 

Syria, like most other nations, is populated by peoples of many
national strains. Damascus has many residents of nationalities original
to other countries. The expression of original national characteristics
vary in strength; but in Damascus the Kurds (of Moslem religion) and the
Armenians (of Christian religion) are the two most cbnspicuous national
groups. Most of these peoples came toinamascus just before and after
the period of Turkish rule. National cohesiveness of these groups is
expressed through their tendency to group themselves in particular sec-
tions of the city. The Kurds live in the northern section of the City
while the Armenians live in the eastern part. The majority of the Kurds
and Armenians of Damascus have integrated with the Arabs, and have almost
forgotten their origin. There is another national group called Sharkas
who came from Caucasia; their number is quite small and their religion
is Islam. In the planning of future housing there would be no important

Consideration for this factor.

 

30

Family Interrelationships

 

The majority of Damascene families are still oriental in the sense
of family ties and traditional behavior. The first striking character—
istic is the strong ties between the members of the family, and the
strong respect for parents by children. The father is usually the strong
leader and master of his family. After the father, the mother, or the
oldest son becomes responsible for the family; this responsibility in-
cludes many activities such as: Education of sons and daughters, feed-
ing and lodging them until they marry, advising them; and in extreme
cases telling them what they should study, or what type of work they
should do. In some old neighborhoods and among the illiterate people,
the leader, or the master of the family has great influence upon the
marriage of his sons and daughters, sometimes forcing them to marry
particular persons. The housewife spends most of the time at home,
looking after her family. Few married women work outside the home;
this takes into account such occupations and professions as teachers,
nurses, and secretaries. Marroe Berger describes the relationship be-
tween the husband and wife saying:

The relationship between man and.wife, especially in public, is
somewhat more formal than in the West. The division of functions
between them is more precise and less often ignored. The Arab hus—
band has fewer tasks in the home itself. In public, the wife must
maintain about the same respectful distance from the head of the
family as the children are expected to maintain.1

The Damascene family forms a single cohesive unit, 000perating and
sharing the output which comes from the work of the father, mother, and

children; this phenomenon of behavior sometimes creates frustration and

conflict between the children and the parents because most of the sons

 

lM. Berger, The Arab World Today, Doubleday and Company, Inc., Garden
City, New York, 1962, pp. 132-133.

31
and daughters have realized that they should gradually depend upon
themselves before they embark upon the outside world.

Family interrelationships are very significant to housing develop-
ment and needs. It may result in two factors with respect to planning
for future housing in Damascus. One is that the size of a dwelling unit
should be larger than existing, and, secondly, the number of dwelling

units should be less than the number of families.

Economic Characteristics

 

f .
J\ Economic Base of Damascus

 

This study d0es not attempt to analyze the whole range of economic
characteristics of the pe0ple and of the City in specific terms; but it
does attempt to evaluate the major functions and characteristics of the
Damascene economic structure and how it influences housing needs. In
general terms, the major portion of the Damascus economic base depends
upon trade. Industry contributes a minor portion, though it is increas-
ing at a very rapid rate. The lack of current statistical data renders
it difficult to break down the employees in each category of the labor
force. However, trade and commercial activities include all types of
commercial establishments, whether wholesale or retail. Almost all
stores in Damascus are still in operation as small individual establish-
ments, except for a small number of retailing companies ("chain stores").
Shopping centers have not been established in Damascus yet. The old
"sugs" are still in operation, especially the famous Sug Al-Hamedeya
which consists of rows of shops which sell almost anything for which
the customer might ask. In the last fifteen years, wholesale establish-

ments and business offices have moved from the old sections to the newer

32

developments seeking wider streets and larger lots at lower costs.

Damascus is a major center of national and international trade.
Most of the eXport and import agents in Syria are usually from Damascus
although they frequently live in other Syrian cities, expecially in
Latekia which is the port city of Syria. The principal industries of
the city and its environs are limited in number and include the fol-
lowing products and processes:

- Textile industries such as spinning and weaving, knitted garments,
underwear, socks and stockings, textile dyeing, printing and
finishing;

- Vegetable and fruit canning and preserving;

- Sugar refining (one plant only);

- Soap;

- Cement (one plant);

- Glass (one plant);

- Tanning and leather dressing;

- Shoes and boots industry

- Matches;

- Tobacco; and

Grain milling.

According to the estimate of official departments the number of in-
dustrial workers in 1960 was about 39,000 while about 100,000 were engaged
in trade and services.

Damascus is the location for additional activities which create
special demands for housing and which contribute considerably to the

overall housing problems. The following are particular examples:

8..

C.

33
The University of Damascus, which has been increasing at a tre—
mendous rate in the last ten years. The University does not
provide residence facilities or dormitories to lodge its stu-
dents. The following table indicates that about a 1,300 per-
cent increase in number of students occurred between 1915 -

1916 and 1960 - 1961.

Table 9: Students of the University of Damascus

 

 

Year N°°E§fj§§§ents 1.3151833.
1915-16 1:058 '
1952-53 2,598 1,510
1957-58 7.892 5:291
1959—60 10,220 2,328
1960-61 13,785 3,555

1Derived by the author.

Sources: gag Year Book 1960
. .R. ., e Economic Development of Syria,
John Hopkins Press, Baltimore 1951.

Statistical Abstract of 1961, Syria.

As the capital of Syria, Damascus houses the central govern—
ment, which has a great effect upon the city, because almost
all of the employees of the central government live in the
city itself. Another important factor related to this posi-
tion is the necessity of providing respectable residences for
the foreign diplomatic missions to Syria, whether ambassadors
or consulates.

The Damascus International Fair which has been held annually

since 1951, during the month of September, is another factor.

31

It has been estimated that over 1.5 million persons visit the

fair annually. The visitors are not only Damascenes, but also
come from other countries, especially the surrounding Arab states.
The Fair has had a great impact, not only on the economic ac-
tivities of Damascenes, but also upon its social and cultural

atmosphere.

Income Distribution

 

Table 10 indicates the average income in Syria from 1957 to 1960.
It was estimated in 1959 by the national five year planners that the

national income would increase at 1.5 percent annually until 1961.

Table 10: Average Annual Income Per Capita in Syria: 1957 - 1961
81 = 3.60 Syrian Pounds (L.S.)

 

 

 

Year Income Increase in L.S. Percent
Increase
1957 L.S. 612 (33170) .. - '
1958 L.S. 510 ($150) -721 -ll.7
1959 L.S. 612 ($170) 72 +13.3
1960 L.S. 655 (1.182) 13 + 7.0
1961 L.S. 803 ($226) 1182 +22.5

 

1This drop in income was due to the shortage of rain in that year.
Syria is, predominantly, an agricultural country dependent, to a
great deal, upon dry farming, producing mainly cereals and cotton.
2Estimated: The Five Year Plan 1960 — 1961.

Source: UAR Year Book, Syrian Region 1960.

 

In general terms, the major portion of the Damascene population
falls within middle and lower income classes; about 60 percent of the

total p0pulation of the City is currently classified as low income.

..\I’Iu|\..ll|

35
In Damascus, there has been no precise income study, except in
1957 when the Technical Depaetment of the municipality did an income
survey which indicated that the average income in Damascus was higher
than that of the country as a whole. (See Table 11). It indicated
also that about 12 percent of the total families could not afford to
buy a house without outside aid either in the form of government sub-

sidies or personal individual assistance.

Table 11: Average Annual Income Per Family in Damascus: 1957

 

 

 

$1 = 3.6 L.S.

Income Bracket Percent of Number
Total Population of Families

Below L.S. 900 ($250) 10 9,000

L.S. 900-3,000 (1250—835) 18 13,200

L.S. 3,000-5,000 (t835-1,390) 30 27,000

L.S. 5,000-10,000 ($1,390—2,780) 10 9,000

Over 10,000 ($2,780) 2 1,800

Total 100 90,000

 

Source: Municipality of Damascus, 1957.

Assuming that the average size of the family was approximately 5
persons in 1957, from Table 11 the following table can be derived which
indicates the average income per capita in that year. The average in-
come per capita in Damascus for 1957 as derived, was approximately
$220 or about L.S. 800 per year, which is too low for providing ade-

quate level for the necessities of life.

36

Table 12: Average Annual Income Per Capita in Damascus: 1957.
$1 = 3.6 L.S.

 

 

Income Bracket Percent of Number
Total Population of Persons

 

Below L.S. 180 (150) 10 11,000
L.S. 180—600 (150—170) 18 211,000
L.S. 600-1,000 (1170-280) 30 132,000
L.S. 1,000-2,000 (8280—560) 10 11,000
Over 2,000 (1560) 2 8,800

Total 100 139,800

 

Expenditure Distribution

In 1957, the Syrian Bureau of the Census conducted a survey to de-
termine the monthly expenditures of the Damascene families.1 The re-
sults of this study presented useful indices for each major and minor
item needed and consumed by different samples of the Damascenes in
terms of their social and economic status, their occupations, and
their particular neighborhood whether in old or modern sections. The
monthly expenditure per capita for all goods and services ranged from
L.S. 56.29 to L.S. 180.18 in the old and new neighborhoods respectively.
In terms of class of occupation, on the other hand, it ranged from L.S.
60.30 to L.S. 163.31 for those employed in transportation and agricul-
ture respectively. (See Tables 13 and 11.)

The eXpenditure on rent ranged from L.S. 7.88, or 13 percent of
total expenditures, in old neighborhoods to L.S. 11.8% or about 23

percent in sound, new residential deve10pment. In terms of occupations,

 

1Bureau of the Census, A Study of the Family Expenditure in the City
of Damascus, Damascus 1957.

 

37

cofipoom mfizmm och

.mmHHm> paw mmcwoflwun cumooauupad mo moum am mucomouaou
.ucmamofio>oo Hmwpcoowmou daemon mumuoaaopcoo mpaomouuop monm omonmmm och
.mcompfiocoo mammsoc weapon pcomouaou mwnzamm pew mmzowmm

.mmcwoawvn 3mm Mo wmoum how m pow uaouxo

 

 

 

 

mpoocuoncmmoc Ugo pcomouaop mESOHnnmm Ucm .cxmonm “amp“: axumemc mUoocuonanoc oonzp pwumm one “mopoz

mmma amdummemm Amdmcou opp mo smousm ”mowdom
cm.ma No.4 ma.m aa.a 6:.m am.a Ho.m ma.a m6.a so.m Na.ma mo.m aa.a mm.am mammmmmmz
w:.0wfi m:.mm m@.m mfi.w ww.m H~.m mm.© mw.m mm.~ mm.m ww.H4 pm.HN ao.a wm.w: mozmm
mH.mw m~.m mm.m mm.~ wo.m ©m.m mm.m Om.m pm.a Om.m mm.o~ m©.HH m4.m mw.~m pmonmwm
mm.am om.m mo.m ON.H ®@.m mm.H mm.m NN.H m©.H Nw.w MN.MH mm.m ON.N mu.mm manhqmw
mm.ma ao.m mw.m aH.H Ow.H oa.m ma.a 6a.a mm.a Hm.m ma.oH ma.m ma.a a~.am Manatmm
Om.m© wH.m mm.m m©.H m@.m 4w.m mm.m ©m.~ 00.0 4H.m 4®.® mm.® ©0.N ®H.NN madohunmm

oa.6m 00.N am.m am.H aa.m ma.H NN.H 66.0 54.H aw.m ww.a ma.o 6N.H mm.am amaea
668 exascm
mm.bm um.m ~>.H mH.H am.w mm.H mm.H mm.H HO.H 4w.m mH.HH 0H.m HH.H :>.am ado“:

mpcoa .ppoa 0 .axm moow>uom mmocm 09:» wow» so . 0 .mW0 oo
Hmpow mp0£p010msad nmcmub cpflm m Hmcompom omsom umaaad lacuna IHHHpD p m pp Ho mxmamo U m
.m.q ©.m 1 Ha AUoocuonanoz on mcwouooo< oomcmup<v
mmma “weapon ammuzm CH muommamo CH mpmamo pom onSpHUcoaxm xqcpcoz "ma magma

38
It was found that expenditures ranged from 16.1 to 28.0 percent of total
eXpenditures by workers in personal services and construction respective-
ly, and from 17.1 to 22.8 percent by industrial and agricultural workers
respectively.

Table 11: Monthly Total Expenditures Per Capita for all Expenditures
and for Rent for all Classes of Occupation: 1957 -81 = 3.6 L.S.

 

 

 

 

Class of Total Expenditure Expenditure for Rent
Occupation in L.S. Percent of Total
In L.S. Expenditure
Agricultural 163.31 37.17 22.8
Industrial 65.81 11.17 17.1
Governmental 92.85 15.15 16.3
Financial 116.30 20.50 17.5
Services 83.10 16.62 20.0
Personal Services 72.12 11.66 16.1
Transport 60.30 12.12 20.6
Builders 85.38 23.99 28.0
Commercial 72.70 11.08 19.3
Others 110.01 27.72 25.2

 

Source: Bureau of the Census, Damascus, 1957.

Three major points should be mentioned here: The first one is
that the agricultural people Spent the highest figure, because most
of them were landowners in the Damascus region or in other places, but
living in the city. The second point iS that the builders, whose in-
come is low, Spent 28.0 percent of their total expenditure on rent

'which might be explained by the fact that the builders preferred to

39

live in decent houses despite the low rate expenditure for this class.
The third point, which is the most important, is that the average total
expenditure per capita was higher than the income of the majority of
the Damascene families. The average size of the Damascene family was

5 persons and the mean monthly expenditures for all goods and services
was L.S. 72.30. Therefore, the average expenditure per family, per
year was 72.3 x 5 x 12 = L.S. 1,338 ($1,200), while the average annual
income per family in the same year was L.S. 1,000 (81,100). This fact

may indicate that a considerable number of families were in debt.

Social and Economic Change

 

Like active people of some underdeveloped countries, the Damascenes
have shown, to a great extent, positive social and economic changes.
In Specific terms, there has been a change in the level and type of
education, status of women, communication, social organization, and
social structure. These changes have occurred mainly because of new
educational programs. For example, economic changes have developed
through great emphasis on industrialization by private corporations
and the National Government, because it has been realized that, with-
out industry, the city and also the country will fail to develop eco-
nomically. Emphasis on social welfare programs has been increasing in
the last decade for the purpose of improving the economic welfare of
the majority of people, especially the lower income group. New national
laws have provided social security, limits on the number of work hours,
and the minimum wages for different kinds of workers and employees.

Land reform laws have stated the maximum acreage that the individual

10
may own. This new socialistic regime has intended to introduce a better
and modern concept of bureaucratic structure, to nationalize basic indus-
try and business, to emphasize equal social opportunities and freedom
of thought, and to encourage those political parties that support the
socialistic programs and policies.

The impact of these new directions and also the influence of
Western culture have closed appreciably the gap between the upper and
lower classes. Communication has made it possible for the Damascenes
to know and adapt many of the social activities of the Western World.
The family relationships of strong ties are loosening. Most of the
oriental habits and customs are declining; for instance, the majority
of the Muslem.women until recently covered their faces with the veil.
In 1950, George Haddad commented on this habit by saying:

"Veil that covers completely the whole figure is still carried
either by a particularly conserVative class of people, or by the ignor—
ant masses in the cities; among the educated middle and upper class, it
is either totally removed, or else symbolically represented by a scarf
to protect the hair or by a thin veil on the face or the hair."1

The new educational system, whether private or public, has pro-
vided a great impact upon the way of life and thinking and upon the
behavior of the people in general; also, the rapid development of
radio, television, movies, press, and other mass communication media
have, and are creating a different generation with a changed way of

life.

 

13. Haddad, Fifty Years of Modern Syria and Lebanon, Beirut, Lebanon,
1950. pp. 197-198.

11
Summary

Damascus is a major urban center in Syria, which represents about
'37 percent of the total urbanized area of the countty. The population
of Damascus has been increasing at a considerable rate in the last
twenty years. Many reasons have made it possible for the City to ex-
pand and develop; such as, the greater opportunities for jobs, the avail—
ability of technical Shcools, the University of Damascus, the central
government, and.the availability of a cultural atmosphere for those
who seek fine arts, sciences, and the like. In addition to these fac-
tors substantial natural population increase of the Damascenes and the
problem of Palestinian refugees are major factors which have caused
Shortages of housing.

The size of a Damascene family is very large. About 15.9 percent
of the total families consisted of more than 7 persons families in
1959. There is no distinction between the number of families and the
number of households since about 99 percent of the Damascene house-
holds are families. It is very important to note that there is com-
monly no conscious distinction between individuals with reSpect to
their origin, religion, and other social determinants as it is found in
other cities.

Although they are declining, strong ties and respect between the
members of the Damascene family are still significant, indicating that
the traditional Islamic culture is the predominant.

Damascus has been famous through the ages for the fine products
of industries and trade. Today, the economic base of the city depends
primarily upon national and international trade and secondarily, upon

industry, although the latter is expanding at a considerable rate at the

12
present time. The income of the average Damascene family is higher
than those of Syria as a whole; but average family expenditures are
also rising. Positive social and eocnomic changes are taking place
which are achieving an improved social and economic structure. The
National Government has been responsible for the major portion of
achievements in better community structure.

Social and economic characteristics of any group of people can
only work within the framework of the laws and the administrative struc-
ture of government. As the logical concommitant to the discussion of
this section, the legal and administrative features of government in
Syria and Damascus, as they affect housing development and redevelop-

ment, should now be examined.

CHAPTER III
LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FEATURES RELATED TO HOUSING

General

Syria is divided administratively into 12 provinces, which are
called Muhafazas, according to geogrpahical, economic, and social con-
siderations. This pattern of subdivision represents, to a great ex—
tent, the concept of theoretical regions. Each province (Muhafaza) is
divided into many counties (Quada); in turn, each county is divided
into quite a number of townships (Nahia); the township (Nahia) con-
tains many villages under its administration. The village is consid-
ered the smallest unit in the structure of administration.

The largest city of the province is the seat of central and local
governments in the (Muhafaza), and the same concept holds true in re-
lation to counties (Quada) and townships (Nahia). Each city or village
has its own local council or commission which has, in actuality, limited
legislative and administrative power and authority. Chief administra—
tive officers of all the various kinds of administrative subdivisions
are appointed by the minister of interior. With few exceptions, the
chief administrative officer of a village is responsible to the chief
administrative officer of a township, (Nahia) he in turn being respons-
ible to the chief administrative officer of a county (Quada); the latter
is then responsible to the chief administrative officer of the province
(Muhafaza), who is responsible to the Minister of the Interior.

The City of Damascus has a special consideration in the structure

13

11
of the administrative function of government because it is the capital
of the country. It has two chief administrative officers (Muhafezs);
the first one is in charge of the city and the other administers the
province of Damascus.

The chief administrative officer (Muhafez) of the City of Damascus
has considerable authority, as all the municipal affairs must be approved
by him, though he lost some of this power after the formulation of the
Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, as some of the municipal af-

fairs must be either approved by or referred to the Minister.
Syrian Law Regulating the Urbanization of Cities

The first modern law of regulation of the urbanization of Syrian.
cities was passed in 1933 by the president of the Syrian Republic after
the approval of Parliament, as a substitute for the old Ottoman build-
ing law established in 1880. By 1961, this law of 1933 has been amended
18 times. The major objectives of this law are to improve and to mod-
ernize regulation of urban growth and redevelopment of Syrian cities,
so as to achieve more satisfactory social and physical environments.

The main provisions of the 1933 law are as follows:1
1. Urban deve10pment and redeve10pment do not depend upon the wealth

of municipalities, because there is no need for monies to pay promptly

for the acquisition of any land or property of the project concerned.

For instance, any Syrian municipality can legally subdivide any va—

cant land or redevelop any slum section without obligation to remun—

erate the owners, first, before any action of planning or redevelopment,

 

1Mamdouh El-Zerekly, "Towards United Arab Law for the Urbanization of
Cities, Villages, and Rural Areas," A paper presented at the eighth
conference of the Arab engineers in Cairo, U.A.R. May, 1963.

15

except in a few cases covered by other laws. This action must,
however, be approved by the Minister of Municipal and Rural Affairs.
Thus, land for public use such as streets, parks, schools, mosques,
churches --- etc., may be theoretically and legally, taken free for
any new subdivision or redevelopment project.

2. This law of 1933 seems to be extremely socialistic in its provisions,
goals, and objectives. Article 1, for example, states that:
"All properties inside the limits of the delineated area, whether
deve10ped or not, shall be considered as one ownership belonging
to the original owners. Each owner Shall have his Share according
to what had been estimated for his property in terms of monies."1

3. Municipalities shall be responsible, according to this law, for
the provision of planning and design for any section, and also
for the master plans of their areas, especially in the occurrence
of disasters, so as to allow the owners to redevelop their prop-

erty promptly.2

Local Housing Laws

 

There are no national housing laws in Syria except for public
housing. The City of Damascus, like all Syrian cities, has building
regulations, which combine what is known as zoning regulations, sub-
division regulations, and housing codes together in one general regula-
tion. The following sections are the component parts of this general

regulation.

 

1Administrative Law Number 387, Damascus 1957.

2Syrian Law Regulating the Urbanization of Cities, January 1933.

16

Housing Permits

 

Building permits are granted, or given by the chief administrative
officer (Muhafez) after passing through the usual governmental routing,
(or red tape), especially through the Technical Department. Article (3)
of the building regulations specified the prerequisites for offering
building permits, which must be considered before issuing or giving a
permit but after paying the permit fee,.and all other municipal taxes
or fees, if any, on the lot. These regulations require:1

a. Assurance of clear title by the appellant;

b. Assurance of "application of yards;"

0. Assurance of engineering standards and Specifications of the

structure proposed;

d. Assurance that the health and convenience requirements will

be met; and
e. The physical form and the visual appearance of the structure

must be acceptable.

Subdivision Regulation

 

Article 61 of the building regulations requires that any project
of construction or expansion of a group of housing or a subdivision
shall be approved by the chief administrative officer (Muhafez) of the
city. This article specifies the procedures of application and require-
ments for such a project as follows:

a. A general plat plan of Scale, at least, 1:5000 showing the re-

lationship between the new streets and the existing public roads;

 

1The Building Regulation of the City of Damascus, as amended, Municipal
Order No. 97, Feb. 18, 1918.

 

b.

C.

17

A plan Showing the land which will be benefitted from the new
streets,l also showing property lines, monuments, names of the
owners, level of land and contour lines, and existing buildings
and vacant land; this plan shall be to 1:500 scale showing
street Sites, depths, widths, and property lines, yards, util—
ity services and their connection with the mains; and

Longitudinal and cross—sectional maps for the streets.

The philosophy of approval of new subdivisions is based upon the

general welfare, health, functional circualtion, visual quality or

physical

appearance, safety, and conformance with the master plan and

other urban codes of the city.

 

ZoningrRegulation

Under the title "yards" of the building regulations, the city is
divided into 9 zones whose boundaries have been Specified by other munic—
ipal orders. These zones are:

Zone A, Residential, designated for building palaces;

Zone B, Residential, designated for first class dwelling units;

Zone

Zone

Zone

Zone

Zone

Zone

Zone

C, Residential, designated for second class dwelling units;

D, Residential, designated for third class dwelling units;

E, Residential, designated for old neighborhoods, and laboring
class sections;

F, Commercial, designated for commercial buildings;

G, Industrial, designated for industries, not harmful to health;
H, Industrial, designated for industries harmful to health; and

I, Orchards and market gardens (agricultural zone)2

 

1This is a veny important section, because it is related to the "better-
ment tax" of the city.

2Ibid, Article 69.

18

Each of the above zones has certain characteristics and require-
ments as will be appraised and analyzed in the next chapter. However,
it seems, at first glance, that these zones are basically intended to
emphasize scenic and architectural control of the structure of the
building rahter than to consider multiple features of the environment.
The second significant point is that there is no requirement for de-
tailed studies of the uses, especially for the commercial and indus-
trial zones. For instance, Article 75 of the said regulations states
that1: "This zone shall be designated for commercial buildings, with
permission for light industrial establishment using not more than 10
horse power on condition that this power shall be generated by electrical
engine, and it shall not be harmful, or cause of nuisance to neighbors
or to be an obstruction to traffic, or to be poor in design and contri-
bute unsightly appearance." In such a regulation, there is no explana-
tion of the nature and use of the commercial activities and their clas—
sifications. The same holds true in regulation of industrial zones
which are regulated in very broad terms; there are many ways in which
these terms may be explained.

The third point, in such zoning regulations, is the clear economic
segregation which causes social conflict and frustration, and may re-

sult in an unbalanced community.

Public Housing Law

 

The public housing concept came into existence in 1953 when the
central government began to build dwelling units for low and middle

income groups. Not very many public dwelling units were built until

 

1Ibid., Article 75, section 1.

19
1959 when the Syrian municipalities began a great movement in this

field as a result of the encouragement of the National Government.

Eligibility

 

Article 3 Specifies the eligibility of a person to own a house, or,
in most cases an apartment, in a public housing project:1
a. To have United Arab Republic citizenship, or to be considered
a citizen according to governmental law;
‘ b. The applicant must have registered his name in the municipality
corporate limits, at least, two years previously;
c. The applicant's annual income shall not exceed six thousand
Syrian Pounds, L.S. 6,000 (81,660); and
d. The applicant shall not be an owner of any dwelling unit,
neither his wife nor his children and family who are legally

considered to be looked after by him.

Value

 

The municipality rates the value of dwelling units of a given pro-
ject in terms of their value in Syrian Pounds. This value is calculated
or estimated according to the following factors:2

a. The construction expenses, or cost, of the actual dwelling or

apartment unit;

b. The dwelling unit shares in the expenses of the acquisition

of the land and construction of streets, curbs, Sidewalks, and
sewers. At times, the municipality can allocate a fixed price
for each lot, in such cases the fixed price is assigned to each

unit.

 

1Executive Order No. 30, as amended, Ministry of Municipal and Rural
Affairs, Damascus 1961.

2Ibid., Article 5.

 

50

c. The administrative expenses, on condition that they shall not
exceed five percent of the total cost of a dwelling unit;

d. The municipality could Spend some of its monies to reduce the
cost of the public housing, but this action shall be approved
by the Ministny of Municipal and Rural Affairs; and

e. The municipality can, and usually does, form a special commit-
tee to estimate the price of each house according to its char—
acteristics, on condition that this price shall not exceed the

sum of the above elements of estimation (a, b, c, d).

Distribution and Priorities

 

An applicant for a public housing unit is permitted to select
three different possible designs that are appropriate to his annual
income. After all applications are recorded, a special committee Shall
be formed immediately by the head (manager) of the municipality.1 The
responsibility of this committee is to classify the applications accord-
ing to the desires of the applicants. When competition or desire of a
particular dwelling unit occurs between two or more applicants of the
same general qualification and characteristics, the following priorities
are followed:2
a. The occupants, or the owners of the dwelling units to be demol-
iShed for the public housing project area;
b. The last occupants whether owner or tenant, of any demolished
dwelling unit located inside the corporate limits of the city;

c. The owners of any demolished dwelling unit, whether of complete

 

lIbid., Article 7.

2Ibid., Articles 8 and 9.

e.

f.

51
or partial demolition; the preference must be based on the
more recent demolition;
The persons who have received a municipal order, or decision,
that their homes will be demolished after one year from the
date of selling public dwelling units;
The owners of any land for housing projects; and

Low income persons.

When two or more persons of the same economic class, with the

same qualifications, which are almost identical, to whom none of the

above six priorities would apply, priority is determined by the follow-

ing criteria:1

a.

b.

C.

Who pays mo§Lin advance;

Who has a lower income; and

Who has a larger family.

The final distribution of public housing is accomplished after:2

a.

In some

ing the

The publishing of the first decision of the special committee;
any person has the right to reject, or oppose the decision

and the judgement of the committee within 15 days;

The same Special committee must study aforesaid oppositions

or claims, and send them with its recommendations to the munici-
pal commissions; and

The municipal commission approves the final distribution and

refers it to the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs.

urgent cases, public housing may be distributed without follow-

final distribution procedures as stated above in article 10, but

1Ibid., Article 9.

21618., Article 10.

52
this action must be approved by the Ministry of Municipal and Rural

Affairs.

Payment

The applicant should pay, in advance, 10 percent of the value of
the house as an assurance to the municipality that he will be still
willing and intends to buy the house.1 He must pay the remaining 90
percent of the price within a period of not more than 10 years, on con-
dition that his annual payment shall neither be more than twenty five
percent (25 percent) nor less than twenty percent (20 percent) of his

annual income.

Appraisal and Analysis

 

It is obvious, that it is intended in the above discussion to trace
and emphasize the general philosophy and concept of public housing, as
it is applied in Syrian cities; but there are two points of great import—
ance which cause social and political conflict and administrative prob-
lems:

a. The conflict between the concept of public housing which aims
primarily to help low income groups, and some restrictive and
segregative aspects of this law, such as the giving of priority
to a person who pays more. (See page 51) Therefore, in the
application of this law, the person who can pay more has a
greater chance of owning a house or an apartment in a public
housing project; and

b. The omission of the claims, rejections, or objections by indi-

viduals in some urgent cases, (as it is stated in Article 10)

 

lIbid., Article 6.

53
by—passes the procedure of final distribution. This process
produces inequitable determinations for some people; and does

not protect equal individual rights.

New Town Laws

 

The City of NEW DAMASCUS was the result of the ad0ption of a new
policy by the central government in 1953, which has aimed, basically,
at providing housing for low income groups. The justification of this
governmental interference was based upon the fact that the problems of
housing had reached a serious stage, whereby many social, economic, and
physical problems were created. Purely private efforts have not been
adequate or effective in handling housing needs, because they have been
directed to the ultimate and presistent goal of making profits only.
Private efforts for the most part have concentrated upon building pal-
aces and villas for the residences of high income classes, because it
has been obviously a more profitable and successful business venture
than involving themselves in building dwelling units for low income
classes. This, of course, was not the only reason for the problems of
housing, but there were many others such as, the rise of land costs to
inflated levels, especially in the immediate surrounding areas of the
city which are considered to be a green belt of orchards and gardens.
Therefore, the New City is located on a wide arid plain and on the Slopes
of the Mezza Hills, about 1 miles south—west from the old City of
Damascus. The laws of the City of New Damascus are an excellent example
of this sort of housing law.1 The following selected features of these

laws are offered as representative illustrations.

 

1This new city may be classified as a suburban bedroom community.

51

Land Acquisition and Distribution

According to Syrian Law, no private land may be taken for general
public welfare, safety, public health, prosperity, comfort or convenience,
and amenities unless such action is approved by the President of the
Republic. In 1953, a new presidential law1 was created for the acquisi-
tion of the private land in the Mezza area for the purpose of construct-
ing public housing. Since that time, quite a number of public and pri-
vate developments have been achieved. In 1959, another executive order
classified land acquired for new urban development into the following
categories:2

a. Land to be build for the residence of low income groups by the
Municipality of Damascus;3

b. Land to be sold to any person, according to the municipal laws;

c. Land to be preserved for public services;

d. Land to be sold at the price or the cost of acquisition and
provision of public services to the following persons in ac-
cordance with their priority.

1. Original owners of the land;
2. Occupants of houses demolished or to be demolished in

Damascus;

 

lPresidential Law Number 1160, 1953, Syrian Republic.

2Order No. 1066, Article 1, Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs,
Damascus, July 21, 1959.

3The whole Mezza area including the NEW CITY has been annexed to the
City of Damascus. The problem of annexation is not important in

Syria, because local politics weighs little compared to national
politics.

55
3. Professional institutes, workers unions, cooperative com-
mittees, and private agencies, which must be accepted by
the Housing Administration of Damascus, as non-profit or-
ganizations whose objectives and policies are in harmony
with the Housing Administration policy;
1. Low income groups; and
5. Others.1
The area of the City of New Damascus encompasses about 317 hectares
(857 acres) and is divided into use districts,2 of the following areas:
111 Hectares for dwelling lots;
51 Hectares for public parks (local parks); and
166 Hectares of steep land left for the purpose of forestra-
tion.
The building regulations of the New City divides the area of the city
into the following:3
a. Villa Zone (single family dwelling units);
b. Double villa Zone (double family dwelling units);
c. Attached villa Zone (row dwelling units);
d. Multiple apartment Zone (multiple dwelling units); and
e. Public services Zone (include Shcools, parks, civic center

--- etc.).

 

1There is no explanation of this word in the Law.
2Housing Administration, Municipality of Damascus, 1959.

3Building Regulation of the City of New Damascus at Mezza, Municipality
of Damascus,THousing Administration, 1960.

 

56

.828 WWW .mzommama .82 mo .38 of .Ho .53 or... 9.3 on... .m 0....de
its..-

5:3. 3th! _. , .w

. .
. 1"

32.0: 32. I
5.3.. 383 a

5.3.. 39..» 1mm. 1..

It.

 

 

 

 

 

.30; OF

 

 

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

Canal 8. .8 08 3.720

.3. V

a.

 

m30m<2<o >>mz do >._._o

57
Summary

Although it has been amended many times, the Syrian law regulating
the urbanization of cities is still an ineffective measure for the de-
ve10pment of a healthy and functional environment in addition to its
specifications which result in a veny long administrative procedure
causing delay in the urban development. The housing laws of Damascus
and Syria may be classified as backward, except for some few efficient
and effective regulations of recent date. Emphasis upon architectural,
or "visual" character of structures has always been and remains the
most effective element of these laws, as will be noted in the following
chapter. The building regulations of DamaScus also have severe limita-
tions, especially the zoning section which is so general that very little
has been explained of the zones in the city.

In general terms, the housing laws of Damascus have been a serious
deterrent which contribute adversely to the housing problem. In the
next chapter detailed housing characteristics are discussed and analyzed.
These characteristics include the principal physical and economic as-
pects of dwelling units. Quantitative and qualitative measures of the
Damascus housing stock are evaluated together with estimates of the min-

imum annual and total housing needs to 1975.

CHAPTER IV
HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS

It should be understood that the term, housing characteristics,
is a very broad and general term, as it includes many elements and com—
ponents, some of which have been already discussed under the previous
chapters, such as income and expenditure of families, size ofiamilies,
habits, customs, and other social determinants.

This chapter is intended to discuss and evaluate the physical as-
pects and conditions of housing in the City, and also to deal with the
quantitative figures of the housing stock for both the present and fu-
ture, taking into consideration the past trends in housing deve10pment.

With the absence of a housing census, it is a difficult task to
analyze housing characteristics thoroughly, but in cases like that of
Damascus, certain selected housing characteristics may be studied to
trace the major elements and critical matters of the housing problems.

Most of the data used in the following tabulations are taken from sev-

eral sources such as surveys and statistical abstracts which are not
reliably comparable and do not provide sufficiently adequate and reli—
able information on housing because the data were collected for other

purposes and functions.

The Housing Situation

 

Number of Dwelling Units

 

Before discussing the number of the dwelling units in Damascus,
it is necessary to define a dwelling unit in Damascus terms. A dwell-

ing unit is a group of rooms, or one room, occupied or intended for the

58

59
occupancy of one family. The family may be composed of a married couple
with or without children. A dwelling unit may be occupied by a family
and in addition, their relatives, such as grandparents, or a son and
his wife with or without children. Also, a dwelling unit may be occu-
pied by other groups of persons living together, or by one person living
alone. School dormitories, hotels, large pensions (boarding houses) and
other units similar to these uses are not considered to be dwelling
units.

In accordance with the above definition, there were 81,011 dwel-
ling units in Damascus in 1956, while the population was 123,832 inhab-
itants.l This figure includes all the houses within the city boundaries,
whether they were occupied by farmers, professional persons, workers,
etc. Probably about 3 - 1 percent of the total number of dwelling
units in 1956 were occupied by farmers who lived in the orchards and
market gardens within the city boundaries.

By 1960, there were 89,589 dwelling units, of which 2,186 were
built by the municipality of Damascus from appropriated funds provided

by both the central and local governments.2

Rate of Construction

 

After World War II, housing construction was progressing at a tre-
mendous rate because of the considerable increase of income and prosper—

ity of the country. The housing supply continued to increase as a result

 

1Bureau of the Census: Estimation of the National Income in Syria,
Rent Sector. U.A.R., Syrian Region, 1960.

 

 

2Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs: Public Housing_in the Syrian
Region - Face to Face with Housing Problem. Damascus, 1960.

 

60
of satisfying housing needs for young couples who have intended to dis-
card the traditional way of living with their parents. Another import-
ant factor has been the great profit realized from the housing market
by builders. Almost all dwelling units had been built by private enter-
prise until 1953 when the Central Government began to build a limited
number of public housing units in Syrian cities.

"Aside from a few houses built for civil servants, all the con-
struction has been private and it has taken place without the help of
mortgage financing institutions. In terms of value, probably over 80
percent of the new housing has been of the Western or European type
which is too costly for the vast majority of the people."1

Official statistics indicate that 11,160 dwelling units were built
from 1951 to 1960. From 1956 to 1960 about 10,186 dwelling units were
built, of which 2,186 were constructed by the Municipality of Damascus
for Damascenes.2 The average annual rate from 1956 to 1961 was about
2,250 dwelling units, or about 2.7 percent of the total number of fami-
lies, while the average annual rate of population increase was about
3.7 percent. This indicates the shortage of housing units which was

always a serious problem in the city.

Housing Age and Physical Conditions

Probably, Damascus is one of the few cities in the Middle East which
has many old dwelling units whose age is more than a hundred years. Some
of these old houses are still in good condition structurally and are

adequate for habitation. Most of these old homes were built with

 

1The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; The
Economic Development of Syria, John Hopkins Press 1955, p. 169.

2Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs, Op. Cit., and Statistical
Abstract of Syria 1961.

 

 

61
stone walls and timbered roofs. The design concept of these homes ex-
presses the way of life and the influence of Islamic culture, as illus-
trated by the following descriptions of a house interior arrangement:

a. The house should have a separate section for a Sitting room
which may be used as a guest room, and guest bedroom, or rooms
depending on the economic status of the family. This section
was always located in the front section of the house;

b. A corridor from the main door, or the major entrance of the
house leads to a large courtyard whose salient features is a
high "Iwan", or "Diwan" opposite the guest section; the "Diwan”
usually had two or more rooms on its Sides, and it was used as
a place for the activities of the wife and her visitors (usual-
ly other women and relatives from both sexes). The roof and
the walls of the "Diwan" and guest rooms are painted employing
Arabic decoration in beautiful geometric and organic forms and
Shapes;

c. A series of rooms adjacent to the courtyard used as sleeping,
dining, kitchen, storage, and bathrooms; and

d. Running water in small open channels, and fountains in the cen-
ter of the courtyard were almost essential in the house. Plant-
ing and landscaping the courtyard were also very important.

This type of house was developed to satisfy the needs and require—

ments of the residents of an earlier generation which might be related
very much to the social factors. More than a century ago, an English-
man visited Damascus and saw its houses. His impressions and descrip-
tion concerning these homes are very significant in giving a picture of

how the people lived and what kinds of houses they had. He says:

62

. whfiu HCHSM wcwumgmg

Hmaofipfiomup 0:» van maams one Go cofipmmoouo paw mucus
Imago canned one oofipoz .AEoop pmodmv Eoop mcwpbwm.<

Iii
1.2- . nu .II .II

1.1.1.1. _

Ii. . ,.
5.14
A v o .

i\.

gt 0..

 

 

.maoou one monsoon =cm3HQ= bag: m paw

umpdoo one a. cfimpcnow m 51.3 oumzpusoo comma 4
4

g the Islamic architecture and

design concept of interior of dwelling units.

One of many old houses in Damascus Showin

63
from a dull street, by a low and unpretending portal . . . the
small outer court, whence I passed into a garden, round three sides
of which the apartments ranged. A little lake of crystal water lay
enclosed by a marble bank and overshadowed by beautiful weeping
willows. Little fountains leaped and sparkled in all directions,
and shook their loosened silver in the sun. At one end of this
court, or garden, was a lofty alcove, with a ceiling covered in gold
and crimson fretwork. The walls were ornamented with arabesques,
and a wide divan ran round the three Sides of the apartment, which
opened on the garden and its fountains. Next to this alcove was a
beautiful drawing—room with marble floor and arabesque roof, and
carved niches and softened lighting falling on delicately painted
walls. In the middle of the room was an alabaster basin, into which
water fell from f0ur fantastic little fountains.1

Of course, not all the old houses of Damascus fit this description,
because most of these have been declining since the 1920's due to changes
in site conditions and local environment. Many of them were built on
narrow curved streets which does not permit the circulation of motor
vehicles.

Before World War II, the municipality of Damascus developed sound
building regulations which were adapted from European regulations, es—
pecially French codes and standards. Approximately 90 to 95 percent of
the total new housing units were built according to these regulations;
but the rest of the new housing stock was hurriedly developed and con-
structed illegally in some sectors immediately outside the city bound-
aries. Almost 100 percent of the occupants of these illegal and sub—
standard houses are classified as low to very low income groups. They
were forced to construct in this manner simply because they could not
afford to build their homes according to the standards of the City
building regulations.

In addition to the above, most of the deteriorated and dilapidated

dwelling units constructed before the building regulations are occupied

 

1R. Fedden, 92;.913': p. 21.

61

CITY OF DAMASCU S

 

./

_
1
,_

   

at..- . .
. ...»

or...

'V-.I"

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
   

       

 

NA

SCALE

KEY
14 memo MOSQUE

A

V:
.h
u
U
Q
G
W
m
H

T
N
I-
L
L
C—
C
u

 

INTERNATIONAL FAIR

CITADEL
U UNIVERSITY

B BARADA RIV£R

C MAIN CHANNELS

F

The present housing quality in Damascus.

Plate 6.

65
by the low income groups. Their houses came to them mainly through the
filtering-down process. The former owners or tenants of these units
moved to the new and modern residential sectors of the city, because
they have been able financially to live in more expensive quarters.
Low income groups unable to move from the slum areas, are still living
in ugly, unsightly, crowded quarters, unsuitable as homes for human
beings.

It was mentioned that the building regulations have been an obstacle
to the construction of housing for low income groups, although these
regulations are considered relatively minimal. To give an idea about
the details of these regulations, the following regulations of Zone A
and Zone D, and also some other housing codes are listed below.1
Zone (A)

This zone is designated for building single family palaces with the
following requirements:2

Minimum Lot Area . . . . . 1,500 square meters (16,120 sq. ft.)
Minimum Widths and depths of all yards 10 meters (32.8 ft.)3

Maximum lot coverage . . . . . . . . 20 percent
Maximum height . . . . . . . . . . . 10 meters (32.8 ft.)
Maximum garage area . . . . ... . . 5 percent of a lot area

minus the area of the
structure and its
balconies

Maximum garage height . . . . . . . 2.8 meters (9.2 ft.)

 

1See 'Zoning Regulation' Chapter III of this thesis.

2Building Regulation of the City of Damascus as Amended. Municipal
Order No. 97, 1918. Article 70.

3Except some special cases approved by the Technical Department of
Damascus (Building Department).

N {I (8|. ll|l1l JII'lf

66
Zone (D)

Designated for third class dwelling units. This zone is designated
for building housing units only:1

Minimum lot area . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 square meters (2,695 sq.ft.)

Maximum lot coverage . . . . . . . . . . . 66 percent

Maximum height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 meters (32.8 sq. ft.)

Article 172 specifies some general standards related to the mater-
ials of construction, and design aspects and applied to all dwelling
units in the city, such as:

"No lumber or dried mud blocks Shall be used, as materials for con-
struction within the city boundaries, except under severe hardship and
Similar permissible c0nditions."

"The minimum size of any room3 shall not be less than 20 square
meters and 16 square meters in Zone A and Zone D respectively, provided,
however, two rooms of 12 square meters and 9 square meters each, may be
permitted at Zone A and Zone D respectively on conditions that the dwell—
ing unit shall not be less than 5 rooms. Only one small room of the
said size (12 and 9 sq. m) may be permitted in any dwelling unit in both
zones."

"The kitchen room4 shall not be less than 12 square meters (129 sq. ft.),
and the bathroom shall not be less than 5 square meters (51 sq. ft.) in

both Zone A and Zone D."5

 

lIbid., Article 73.
2Ibid.

3Room means any room in a house such as a Sleeping room sitting room,
dining room . . . etc., except kitchen and bath rooms.

4Usually, the kitchen room is designed to be separated from the sitting
room.

5Building Regulation Op. Cit., Article 92.

. I: [I'll lltl ill" I I III III III (Illllllll- ll-Il alrll .1 ll \
__. ‘Effll‘llllll l

67

It is beyond the scope of this thesis to discuss each item of the
building regulations, but the main concern is that a report by the Tech-
nical Department of the Municipality of Damascus in 1957 indicates,
'without being baSed oniactual surveys that about 50 percent of the
housing units in Damascus were substandard. However, this percentage
may be the case if the building standards described in the preceeding
was actually applied as minimum standards for appraising the quality of

housing.

Density and Crowding

In 1961, the gross density in the Damascus region was about 5
persons per acre, and the average density in the urbanized area was
around 110 persons per acre.1 Density, in urbanized Damascus, ranged
from 15 persons per acre in new subdivisions to 200 persons per acre in
the old sectors. While this latter density is relatively less than is
found at the cores of some European cities, 200 persons per acre in
the old sectors of Damascus appears quite crowded, since few structures
exceed 2 or 3 stories in height (Horizontally overcrowded). Most of
these old sections were constructed in those dark generations before
19332. The dwelling units consist of one or two stories and, for the
most part lack any yards. They are in need of outer open spaces,
adequate streets, other community facilities. Usually, each dwelling
unit has its own patio, but streets and other neighborhood facilities
are quite obsolete. Some of these houses, especially those occupied

by the very low income group, were built with dried mud and/pr brick

 

1Bureau of the Census, Ministry of Planning: Statistical Abstracts of
Syria 1961.

 

ZSee Chapter III, Syrian Law of Urbanization of Cities.

68
with wooden roofs. The fire disasters of the city occur mostly in these
areas.
Although most of the dwelling units in the city have more than
three bedrooms, overcrowding in the house is a persistent problem be-
cause of the shortage of supply of new dwelling units on one hand, and

the large size of families on the other.

Cost of Dwelling Units

 

The average cost of a dwelling unit has risen at an inflationary
rate, probably three or four times since 1910. Today, an average
apartment of European type in an average neighborhood with two bedrooms,
sitting room, dining room, kitchen and bath room, costs about L.S.
15,000 (81,100) compared to L.S. 1,000 (81,100) in 1910. This means
that the average Skilled industrial worker or commercial worker has
to expend the equivalent of his yearly gross wage, which is about L.S.
2,500, for at least Six years, or 312 weeks, in order to be able to
purchase a house, compared to 151.2 weeks of work by the average indus-
trial worker in the United.StateS in 1955.1

Rent has also risen, especially after the independence of Syria
in 1915. The supply of housing units has never been equal to the need.
Thus,the cost of a house in the city has been constantly rising. The
range in cost is extremely significant, the extreme extending from
several hundred thousands to a few thousands of Syrian pounds depending
on the location of the house, its material of construction, its envir-

onment. . . etc.

 

1Myles qulan. "The Present Situation of Housing in the United States"
Mimeo. paper, Michigan State University, 1961.

69

HousingfiNeeds

 

In estimating the housing needs for Damascus, a severe problem
appears regarding the Palestinian refugees. The refugee problem, as
mentioned in Chapter II, reflects additional quantitative considera-
tions which must be calculated. The prevailing attitude is that these
refugees are temporary residents and foreign guests who desire to re—
turn to their home land some day. However, in the estimation of hous-
ing needs, their needs must also be considered, and durable, adequate

temporary housing units must be furnished for them.

Criteria for Estimation of Housing Needs

 

The criteria used for estimating housing needs are based pri-

marily on the following:

a. Total population, number of families who are and will be oc-
cupying the dwelling units.

b. Future need is dependent upon the total needs of all families
minus the existing supply of housing units which are considered
to be of adequate quality at the present time, and therefore,
will be acceptable for habitation by 1975. This is according
to minimum standards which provide and promote a healthy and
safe environment.

c. Slum clearance, conversion, vacancies, conservation, market
Situation and many other physical, economic, and social fac-
tors are considered in the determination of housing needs
based on factual data, and also upon the author's background

and his experience.

7O

Assumptions

 

In estimating the future housing needs, the following major assump-
tions are considered:

a. No international or local wars will take place during the per—
iod assumed.

b. No major economic depression.

0. N0 severe epidemic will occur.

d. No natural disaster will occur.

e. The social trend of changing the traditional way of life will
continue.

f. Approximate technological changes will be adapted for housing

improvements.

Family_Formations 1951 - 1975
Table 15 indicates the total population, number of families and
dwelling units per year from 1951 to 1961, and projections to 1975, per

year and for five year periods.

Additional Dwelling Units Required

 

About 15,861 dwelling units were built from 1951 to 1960 by both
the Damascenes and the Palestinian refugees. Most of these new dwelling
units were soundly constructed according to modern and adequate stand-
ards of appearance and features, and should, therefore, be adequate by
the year 1975.

It is assumed that about 20 percent of the rest of the housing
stock in 1960 is substandard today, giving a total of about 17,300 of

such dwelling units which should be replaced as soon as possible.

71

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 15: Population, Families and Dwelling Units in Damascus: 1951-
1975.
Year Total Total Total
Population Families Dwelling Units
Damascenes
1951 395,121 79,900‘1 76, 551
1955 108, 771: 82 ,600 m 78, 098
1956 123, 832: 85, 500,, 81 ,011 117
1957 139, 795: 90,000 jf* 83,210
1958 151, 603: 92, 900 81,768 m
1959 175, 39Q 95,800 m 86,916
1960 191, 398: 98,900: 89,590 —
1961 507, 503* 101,800 93,080 ‘1
1962 520, 600 101,500 96,100
1963 537, 500 108,500 y 100,500 2
1961 556,500 113,500 107,500
1965 578,000 120,300 111,300
1970 679,000 111,200 110,200
1975 796,000,, 173,000_, 170,000.1
Palestinian Refugees
1951 17,100 9,800 8,200 ‘1
1955 50,300 10,100 8,100
1956 52,200 10,500 8,800
1957 55,500 11,100 m 9,500 m
1958 58,100 11,600 10,000
1959 60,200 12,100 10,100
1960 62,100 12,650 10,900
1961 65, 300.1I 12 ,990..I 11,500..
1962 67,850 13, 250 12,100 “'
1963 70, 200 13,900 12,700
1961 73,100 11,500 y 13,100 2
1965 77, 000 15,100 11,100
1970 90, 500 18,100 16,600
1975 108 ,0003 22,500 21,000 3.

 

 

 

 

*Statistical Abstracts: U.A.R. Syrian Region, 1960 - 1961.

**Estimated by the Municipality of Damascus in 1957. As it is Shown,
the figure had been rounded off by the Municipal Agency.

"NwBureau of the Census, Ministry of Planning: Estimation of the
National Income of the Syrian Region - Rent Sector. U.A.R. Syrian

Region 1960.
x Projected by the author.

 

 

 

y Estimated by the author on the basis that the average size of the
family will be as follows:

72
Table 15 (cont.)

 

 

 

Year Damascenes Palestinian
1965 1.8 5.0
1970 1.7 1.9
1975 1.6 1.8

2 Two major factors have been considered in the projection of dwelling
units.
1st The economic factor which means that the number of dwelling
units will continue to lag behind the number of families.
2nd The social factor which indicates the strong relationship and
ties between the members of the family and their children
after being married.
Thus, by 1975, the number of dwelling units will be less than the
number of families.

m Derived by the author from many sources such as building permits,
percentage of Palestinian refugees living in the City, marriages,
. . . etc.

Thus, the minimum number of dwelling units needed by 1975 from
Table 15 is:

Damascenes 170,000 dwelling units
Palestinian 21,000 dwelling units
Total 191,000 dwelling units

In 1960, the total number dwelling units was:1

Damascenes 89,590 dwelling units
Palestinian 12,650 dwelling units
Total 102,210 dwelling units.

 

11960 is chosen because of the availability of data.

73

In Old sections of the city, there are a considerable number of
houses which could be converted into duplex units as most of them are
of a very large size, and could be relatively adequate for the residence
of two families. This conversion process would also be supported by the
increasing trends toward smaller Sized families, and also by it being
more economical to alter and change the available existing housing for
the needs of most families rather than construct new dwellings. How-
ever, it is reasonable to assume that only about 5 percent of the old,
existing dwelling units will be converted into duplexes, or about
1,320 dwelling units.

In regard to the rate of vacanqy, the number of dwelling units
which will be vacant may be much less than is found in other countries.
In the United States, for example, the vacancy rate is estimated to be
from 1 to 5 percent.1 For the purpose of minimizing the housing needs,
it may be reasonable to estimate that about two percent of the total
dwelling units will be vacant in Damascus by 1975. This would be approx—
imately 3,500 dwelling units.

The following table summarizes the amount of dwelling units needed
by 1975. As is shown in Table 16, a minimum of 7,800 dwelling units
must be added per year in order to provide a sufficient amount of ade—
quate and durable housing for both the Damascenes and Palestinian ref-

ugees living in Damascus.

Social and Economic Distribution of Housingyand Investment Required
Based upon family income, percentage of income groups, social

structure of the Damascenes' families, and the adopted policy of the

 

1See, for example, Glenn Beyer, Housing: A Factual Analysis, The Macmil—
lan Company: New York, 1958, p. 73.

 

{{{f‘fllllf'll ‘I|([[[.l\'lu.lllll.!{| I? ‘1' I.

7b

Table 16: Total Additional Dwelling Units Needed in Damascus: l96h-l975.

 

 

Total dwelling units needed by 1975 191,000 DUs
Existing dwelling units in 1960 102,2h0 DUS
Total dwelling units needed from 196A - 1975 88,760 DUs
Conversion l96h - 1975 h,320 DUs
New dwelling units added from 1960 - 1963 ll,5b0 DUs1
Sub-total 72,900 DUs
Slum clearance 196D - 1975 17,300 DUs2
vacancy allowance 3,500 DUs
Total needs 196D - 1975 93,700 DUS
Average needs per year 196D - 1975 7,800 DUS

 

1This figure is assumed according to an estimate of the Municipality

of Damascus which indicates that from 3,h00 to 3,800 dwelling units
have been added each year during the period of 1960 - 1963 by both
private and public sectors.

ZActually, this figure seems to be rather high compared to what was
actually estimated by the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs in
the Five Year Plan - Housing Sector 1960 - l96h. It was estimated
that about 600 dwelling units would be cleared each year. But the
figure of the Ministry was based on political and economic reality
and not on what must be done towards slums as a minimum requirement.

 

til I'll-l. .llil III {II

75

government, housing economic and social distribution and investment
may be approached by the following method to provide sufficient and
adequate housing for the people in the future.

first, as it may be feasible to assume that the income per capita
will rise steadily as it had been planned by the Ministry of Planning
and other governmental agencies in Syria. Along the same line of the
Five Year Plan 1960 - 196D, the distribution of income groups may be
changing by 1975 to the following figures:1

Table 17: Average Annual Income of the Family and Distribution of Needed
Dwelling Units in Damascus: l96h - 1975. '

 

 

Income Class Income Brackets Percent ofiTotal Number of

 

 

Households DUs per yr.

Very low Below L.S. 900 ($250) 5 390
Low ins. 900-3,000 ($250-835) 38 1,96h
Middle L.S. 3,000-5,000($835-l,390) hO 3,120
High middle L.S. 5,000-10,000

($1,390-2,780) 12 936
High Over L.S. l0,000(over $2,780) 5 390

Total 100 7,800

 

Sgggnd, the total cost of dwelling units needed may be calculated
in a way similar to the method used by the Ministry of Municipal and“
Rural Affairs. The Ministry has estimated the investment for housing
needs according to four income categories. This projection of the
Ministry was adopted in the Five Year Plan 1960 - l96h for all large
Syrian cities, including Damascus. The cost distribution of the Five

Year Plan was as follows:

 

1See Table 11 for comparison.

' tllf’ll’ll'l' [I ‘Illll‘ ..l ['Illll[ l 'l.|[ {I'll I It ii. I (ll [.1

76
Table 18: Cost Distribution of the Five Year Plan - Housing Sector:

 

 

 

1960 - 196k
Percent of Average Area Cost per
Income class Total Housing per D.U. in sq. meter

Sq. meters in L.S.
Low (Low cost housing) 10 761 65—80
Middle (Popular housing) 50 761 80-90
Middle (Good housing) 35 1121 120
High (Excellent housing) 5 1201 150

Total. 100

 

Source: Summary of'the Five Year Plan 1960 - 196D. Ministry of
Municipaliand Rural Affairs, U.A.R. Syrian Region 1959.

 

Considering the basis utilized by the Ministry of Municipal and
Rural Affairs mentioned in the Five Year Plan, it may be reasonable to
estimate the total cost required for housing construction according to
the cost of each housing category. The cost of a dwelling unit is de-
pendent, mainly upon its size, its location, and its materials of con-
struction. The table below indicates the required capital needed for

housing development each year.

Table 19: Total Investment Needed for Housing Per Year in Damascus:

 

 

 

Percent D.U.sfii Size of Cost per Total Cost
2
Income Classes of Total needed a D.U. in square per year
Households per year Sq. meters meter in thousands
L.S.
Very low 5 390 76 70 2,072
Low 38 2,96h 76 85 19,125
Middle no 3, 120 1003 1003 3 1, 200
High middle 12 936 112 120 12,5b0
High 5 390 120 150 7,005
Total 100 7,800 71,9b2

 

1Chosen as an average size of the dwelling units of each category accord-
ing to the type of dwelling unit, whether they are one or more bedroom
dwelling units.

2See Table 17 for income brackets.

3Assumed as an average cost and size of a typical dwelling unit for a
middle income family.

77
Thus, a minimum of L.S. 72 million is needed per year for housing
production to satisfy the housing needs, and the total capital per 12

years from l96h - 1975 is about L.S. 863 millions.

Third. The labor needed may be also developed according to the
estimates of the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs which states
that the labor portion of the total cost of housing development is
3h.2 percent of the total cost.1 Since the wages of labor are increas—
ing steadily, it would be realistic to assume that about 36 percent of
the total cost of housing will be required for wages in the next 12
years, or about L.S. 25.8 million. The average wage per day of a skilled
and non-skilled.worker in housing construction is approximately L.S. 10
and L.S. h.5 respectively. The number of work days per year is about
310. The number of workers needed according to the above facts and

figures is 11,300 workers per year.

Egugth. It is very important to estimate how many millions of
Syrian Pounds should be allocated for importing the major materials
needed for building construction such as steel, lumber, sanitary and
electrical equipment. The causal factor is that Syria is not self-
sufficient in the production of such materials.

The Five Year Plan - Housing Sector indicates that about 30 per—
cent of the total cost of the buildings must be reserved in foreign

currency to import steel, paints, lumber . . . distributed as follows:

Lumber 3b%
Steel 3h
Paints 5

Sanitary equipment 21
Electrical equipment 6

Total 100%

1Estimation of the National Income in the Syrian Region - Building
Sector. U.A.R. Syrian Region 1959.

 

78
Based upon the preceeding percentages, the capital needed in foreign

currency is L.S. 21.6 millions per year distributed as shown below:

 

Steel 0.3h x 21.6 = LS 7.35 millions
Lumber 0.3h x 21.6 = LS 7.35 "
Paints 0.05 x 21.6 - LS 1.07 "
Sanitary equipment 0.21 x 21.6 = LS h.55 "
Electrical equipment 0.06 x 21.6 = LS 1.28 "
Total LS 21.60 millions

fifth. The national government has adopted a policy in its Five
Year Plan 1960 - l96h to participate in the housing field in order to
provide adequate dwelling units for the low and middle income groups.
The national government participates indirectly in the housing indus-
try through the municipal governments by lending or granting funds to
municipalities. The local governments participate directly in the pro-
duction of housing units. The municipal involvement takes place in
two major ways:

a. To subdivide the land into lots and sell them to individuals
after the provision of all services such as streets, drinking
water, sewer system . . . etc.

b. To construct the building structures and sell them to individ—
uals after being provided with all public facilities and

utilities.

The function or the purpose of the local and national governments
is to grant special loans for the acquisition of land and all other
costs involved in the housing industry. There is no intention on the
part of the governments to receive any revenue or interest from public
capital as a result of their involvement in housing production. The

eligibility for individuals to purchase a lot or a dwelling unit from

79
the government has already been mentioned in Chapter III. However,
it is the policy of the national and municipal government that they
must participate in housing production as stated in the Five Year Plan.
Approximately 30 percent of the needed dwelling units for the very
low income group.
Approximately 80 percent of the needed dwelling units for the low
income group.
Approximately b0 percent of the number of dwelling units needed for
middle income group.
Based on the above percentages and, also, on the present trend of
government role in the housing field, the following table indicates
public and private investments in the housing development per year and

for the whole period l96h - 1975.

Table 20: Public and Private Investments in Housing Industry: l96h-1975

 

 

 

 

 

Type of Housing Public Investment Private Investment
Thousands of L.S., Thousands of L.S.

per year Total per year .' Total
196h-75 196h-75
Veby low income group 828.8 9,900 1,2h0 lb,850
Low income group 7,650 91,700 11,h75 137,500
Middle income group 12,h80 lh9,500 18,720 22h,500
High middle income group -- - 12,5b0 150,500
High income group -- -- 7,005 83,950
Total 20,959 251,100 50,980 611,300

 

Sixth; The previous quantitative analysis and distribution of hous—
ing needs was based primarily upon the income of families, since the
income factor is the most important component that affects the housing
development in Damascus. Consequently, it has been intended in the pro-

jection of housing needs to stress and search for any possible alternative

80

 

0m.mm

.m.q mo mcowHHHE CH ponmq %0 ampOH

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ImH.m amok mom .m.q mo mcoHHHHz cm uonmq mo momma
OOQAmmH Hapoh
OOM.HH Amumxuoz mo ponescv
amok pug woumzdoh nonmq
cme.mmm 0mm.mH oom.Hm om4.mofi 0mm.wm cmw.NH Hmeoa
ooe.Hm obo.H cam.m ode.m omN.w o~o.~ .9» ted .m.a we medaflaaz
cmlwmwmmzlampmawo Cmmmuom
00m.HHe omd.mm 00m.omH oom.:mm oom.amfi 0mm.afi Heads
cam.om moo.a oam.ma Oma.mfl ma:.HH oqm.fl .es pea .msd we medaflfia:
. cm passmeEH meme/mum
ooH.Hmm .. -- oom.mJH oo~.Hm oom.m fleece
mmm.om -- -- Om4.NH 0mg.» mmw.o .ds ted .m.d we medafiflaz
. ea geeseme>dH defined
ooammew ooonaw cem.omH ooo.qam oom.dmm ooa.qm fleece
quwfla moo.a oqm.mfi cod.Hm mma.mfi Naonm ewe» 88d
ooo.®H 04:.ma ooo.oH oeq.e cme.: “we: meafifiezo add
OmH.o ONH.o ooH.o mwo.o o~o.o s.dm add .m.4 eemmsoea ea eeeeez
71. male: meaaadzo mo emoo enemas:
.mfi.oow. no.0m m.awfi :.mwm 0.05m mm.mm HmpOH
ma.~a No.4 m4.oH m.Hm m.mm em.m ewes pea sheaves ea edeeed
. memes mcmHHmzo Mo wuu< ommpo><
-- omH NHH 00H 05 ea .e .dm ea pee: mdaflflezo
.Iihll m we muum ommum><
occa.md cmo.a and.AH 04:.am mae.mm cme.a Heads
00m.” can 0mm ONH.m nem.m can the» eed ededez
meme: meaflaeem
Rood am awe so: awn am meaaeeme fleece
mo mmmpcmopom
-- ooo.oH ee>o ooo.o~-ooo.m ooo.m-ooo.m coo.m-00m cod semen .m.d em mmaflaeme
mo mpmxomum uaoucH
mavpmz 30H mmdouo
proh nmwm comm wave“: 304 zno> msoocH mo mmdau

 

 

mwmfi u noma mdommsmm pom mumoz mawmzo: mo mensesm

"Hm mfian

81
which might minimize the number of needed dwelling units.

The area of a typical dwelling unit considered for future housing
is the minimum average size required for the structure itself, and does
not include the areas for yards, streets, local public facilities . . .
etc. i

The estimated cost of dwelling units excludes the cost of the
provision of public facilities outside the dwelling lots.

It should also be remembered that these quantitative figures are
flexible and must be reviewed and revised annually, and must not be
taken as a rigid framework applicable to the whole period of projection
(1962 — 1975).

Table 21 summarizes the total housing needs and their cost distrib-

uted among the various income groups.

Summary

The housing quality in Damascus ranges in extreme contrast from
the luxurious villas and palaces to slums unfit for human habitation.
Although the density of residential areas is relatively low, a.severe
horizontal overcrowding occurs, especially in the old sedtions and cen—
tral sectors of the city. I

The City is in severe need of additional housing. It has been
found that the number of dwelling units is much less than the number
of families. In 1962 for example, it was estimated that the amount of
dwelling units was about 8,h00 less than the number of families.

The rate of construction of dwelling units has lagged behind the
housing needs. In 1961, the total number of dwelling units built by

both public and privateTenterprises was 2,358, while the need was about

The tragedy of the-Palestinian refugees is unprecedented in history, re-

sulting, as it did, in the uprooting of a whole peOple from their homeland
in which they lived for thousands of years.

 

Only one of the may burdens of misery imposed on these

9 for Palestinian refugees.

Representative housin
people.

83
7,000. The cost of an average dwelling unit has risen to three or four
times what it was 20 years ago. Because of economic limitations, the
majority of the population cannot afford to own or rent a decent house,
especially in the newer residential areas.

The public and private involvement in the housing industry has been
practiced at a slower rate than it should be to satisfy minimum needs.
It has been estimated that a minimum of 7,800 dwelling units should be
added each year from 196h to 1975, and around l,hb0 dilapidated and de—
teriorated dwelling units must be cleared annually during the same per-
iod. At least L.S. 72 millions should be invested in housing development
per year from 196h to 1975 in order to provide sufficient and adequate
housing.

The next chapter will be a review and evaluation of the housing
problems of the city. It includes a general framework indicating the
total image of the housing situation in the city with respect to other
significant inseparate interrelationships of urban development. Also,

a series of recommendations are presented that, if implemented, can make
future housing functional, efficient, convenient, healthful, sufficient

and beautiful.

CHAPTER V
REVIEW, EVALUATION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This chapter is intended to be a general review and evaluation
of the most significant problems of housing in Damascus. It is intended
also to be a framework including recommended ways and means to help
solve housing problems. The methodology and philOSOphy suggested in the
proposed goals and objectives are based primarily upon the previous dis-
cussion and analysis of the housing situration in the past and present
time, and also on the trend of the political, social, economic, and
physical factors contributing to the rate of housing development.

In searching for recommended solutions, the author has investigated
the various means and methods used and adopted in other nations such as,
the United States of America, United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark, India and
many others.

Compared to other component areas of knowledge, the literature on
housing is still in an incipient stage although the necessity for hous-
ing is of utmost importance to human well4xfing. Generally speaking,
housing problems in Damascus may be classified under four categories;
namely, political, soical, economic, and physical. It must be under—
stood that the term 'housing' is just a component of a large open sys—
tem related to the above factors. This larger system is the process
generally called urban planning. The vast complexity and the critical
interrelationships between the sub-elements of the housing component,
and also between the housing element and other elements within the ur-
ban planning system are examined in order to understand the roots of

the housing situation and its needs.

811

85

Political and Legal Measures Related to the Housinngroblems

Review and Evaluation

 

The housing laws of Syria and of Damascus may be classified, except
for some individual, modern articles provided, as inadequate regulations.
Despite all the efforts to improve the provisions of these laws by suc-
cessive amendments and other modifications, urban planning and housing
laws are still in need of considerable change as they are limited in
scope, and are ineffective as measures to provide an essential health-
ful environment.

The recent policy of the National Government has shown a good ex-
ample of developing the Five Year Plan, 1960 - l96h. Among its many pro—
visions a program for meeting housing needs and providing financing re-
quired to carry it out. The routing and red tape in the housing law
procedure are very complex and have resulted in serious delay of many
residential projects. A distinct advantage of the building regulations
of Damascus is in the combining of most of the urban development laws
within one set of regulations; but these regulations have not been ef-
fective means for providing the necessary modern legal instruments for
the development of an adequate living environment. In examining the
zoning regulations, it is clear that land use districts in Damascus
were defined without much consideration for interrelationship of the
many different land uses. The emphasis on architectural aspects of
structure has been the principal criterion behind the phi1050phy of the
provisions in the building regulations. These aspects consider the
appearance of structures and emphasize the concept of ’city beautiful'.

The public housing laws are good measures for carrying out the policy

86

of the government which emphasizes the socialistic-democratic system of
government. However, these laws have some disadvantages and shortcom-
ings. One is the brief period allowed for payment in the purchase of

a dwelling unit in a public housing development. The law specifies that
90 percent of the price, or the market value, of a public development
shall be paid within 10 years. Secondly, the stated maximum annual in-
come of the applicant is too high (L.S. 6,000). Because there has been
great competition among the citizens to purchase public dwelling units,
the two lowest income groups1 have been excluded from acquisition of a
considerable share 0f the public housing. About 80 percent of the total
number of families in Damascus receive less than (L.S. 6,000) annually.

In effect, then, public housing provisions serve needs of the mid-
dle income families quite well while the low income families continue
to be inadequately housed. The creation of the Ministries of Planning
and Municipal and Rural Affairs in 1958 was a successful step towards
specialization and coordination of the whole process of urban develop-
ment which includes,of course, housing development. But the public in—
volvement in the housing field, whether it is accomplished by the national
or municipal governments, is still on a very small scale.

Although public housing production has shown some progress and im-
provement in recent years, it still is far short of the stages accomp—
lished by such other countries as the United Kingdom, Sweden, and Den-
mark. The allowable participation of the National and municipal govern-

ments is still very limited in the scope of Syrian Operations.

 

1See Table 21 for class of income group.

87

Because the investment in the housing industry is relatively non—
productive in comparison to agricultural and industrial enterprises,
housing continues to rate as a lower priority concern in the policy of
the National government. The National government has been, therefore,
emphasizing the development of natural resurces and other broader eco-
nomic features in order to raise the national standard of living. This
policy has been followed since 1959 when the National government devel-

oped the first adequate economic plan.

Recommendations

 

In a country like Syria, there is no doubt that the raising of
the national standard of living is the first priority, but housing
programs should have been given a larger share of the national budget
than it has been. Since the national and municipal governments play a
completely coordinated role for the provision of housing laws and
building regulations, they have the authority to provide the necessary
effective housing legislation. The National government must develop a
continuing comprehensive study of the economic, social, and physical as-
pects of housing so that decisions affecting housing policy will be more
adequate. A regular census of housing is a most important program which
should be administered by the Ministry of Planning with the help of its
several departments, especially the Bureau of the Census. The National
government should encourage and assist financially the establishment of
private associations as producers of dwelling units in partnership with
the National and local government. It has been noted that this means
has been most significant in the progress achieved by many European

countries.

.l.‘il|‘ I [I I [(.l I. ‘1‘ ll.

 

88

New legislative concepts should be passed to create a central
housing bank supported by the National government. This bank should
have enough capital to lend to private builders, at low interest rates,
especially to non-profit organizations. It also should encourage the
establishment of saving and loan associations, and to advocate the ex-
isting insurance companies, social welfare institutions, pension funds
in housing development. Encouragement for the development of non—profit
institutions may be accomplished by many ways and forms such as:

a. Granting of special long term loans at low—interest rates;

b. Helping them in the preparation of site development plans;

c. Reducing or eliminating the property tax in residential areas
for a specific period of time in order to increase the rate of
building; and

d. Reducing the tax on materials of construction to lessen the cost
of structures of residential buildings.

The National government should provide by some means, according to
its financial capacity, a law permitting the proposed central housing
bank to guarantee mortgages on the houses built for very low and low
income groups, in order to eliminate the investor's risk on the one hand,
and attract private funds to be invested in the low and medium cost
dwelling units on the other.

The National Government should encourage the Municipality of Dam—
ascus to study and adopt legal means to reduce speculation in land so
as to assure a relatively stable housing market. The municipal govern-
ment of Damascus should prepare, with the help of the National govern-

ment, comprehensive city and regional plans. These plans must be based

89
not only on purely physical phase or urban development as it has been
used, but must also consider and emphasize the evolving social and eco—
nomic characteristics of the whole urban area.

The achievement of a high level of housing production should be
the prime objective in the housing policy of all levels of government,
not only in Damascus, but also in other Syrian cities. This objective
should not be in conflict with, but as complementary to, other national
policies and objectives such as economic development and education.

The concept of governmental participation in the housing field
has been showing successful accomplishment in many nations° The basic
purpose of the governmental participation is to increase the number of
adequate dwelling units supplied for the population and to reduce indi—
viduals' expenditure for housing. In Sweden, for example, the govern-
ment has been successful in providing the major part of the housing
stock in the country. In the postwar period, the Swedish government
had to take into account the following major factors in its housing
policy:

’ a. The long—range housing program;

b. The need for solving the housing shortage;

Co The relative pressures of new building demands of various

cities, towns, and rural districts;

d. The relationship of residential building to other conjunctional

developments;

e. The availability of building material;

f. The availability of man power; and

9. Town planning, hygienic and other regulations.1

 

lLeonard Silk, Sweden Plans for Better Housing, Duke University Press,
Durham, N.C., l9h8, p. 7b.

 

'- ..Inl I‘ll I‘lll'i I l‘ . .lll
\ ( Ill

 

90

The Swedish government has also been playing the major role in
the housing industry. It has controlled the housing credit market
through its system of building loans and housing subsidies.

In the United States of America, which is considered to be basic-
ally a capitalistic country, the Federal government has also been play-
ing a considerable role in the housing field. The American Housing
Act of l9h9 and its amendmentstx>Uunughl96l, for example, specifies
the policy of the American national government which has been followed
since then. This policy is summarized in the following points:

a. Private enterprise shall be encouraged to serve as large a
part of the total need as it can;

b. Governmental assistance shall be utilized where feasible to
enable private enterprise to serve more of the total need;

c. Appropriate local public bodies shall be encouraged and assisted
to undertake positive programs of encouraging and assisting the
deve10pment of well-planned, integrated residential neighborhoods,
the development and redevelopment of communities, and the produc-
tion, at lower cost, of housing of sound standards of design, con—
struction, livability and size for adequate family life;

d. Governmental assistance to eliminate substandard and other in-
adequate housing through the clearance of slums and blighted areas,
to facilitate community development and redevelopment, and to pro-
vide adequate housing for urban and rural non-farm families with
income so low that they are not being decently housed in new and
existing housing, shall be extended to those localities which
estimates their own needs and demonstrate that these needs are not
being met through reliance solely upon private enterprise, and with-
out such aid;

e. Governmental assistance for decent, safe, and sanitary farm
dwelling and related facilities shall be extended where the farm
owner demonstrates that he lacks sufficient resources to provide
such housing on his own account and is unable to secure necessary
credit for such housing from other sources on terms and conditions
which he could reasonably be expected to fulfill.1

It can be argued that there is no logical objection if the Syrian
government adopts, after appropriate changes to suit the Syrian condi-

tions, the housing policies adopted in Western socialistic-democratic

 

1Housing and Home Finance Agency, Housing Act of 1989 as Amended Through
June 30, 1961, Section 2 "Declaration of National Housing Policy."
Washington, D.C.

 

91
countries such as Sweden, Denmark and the United Kingdom and the United
States. The adoption of such housing policies and programs must be based
on the social characteristics and financial capacities of the Syrian

people.

Social and Economic Factors as Related to Housing Problems in Damascus

 

Review and Evaluation

 

As noted, the level of national income in Syria is very low com-
pared to most Western nations, despite many efforts to raise it by
great emphasis on the development of new agricultural projects and many
industrial plants; the rate of increase of individual income is yet
quite low. The Syrian economy still depends primarily upon agriculture.
Unfortunately, most of the agricultural fields are still dry farms de-
pendent upon rainfall.

The government has succeeded in raising the national income by
encouraging modern mechanized farming and also by encouragement of in-
dustrial corporations to expand and operate with minimum restrictions.
The major industries have been concentrating in large urban areas, be-
cause of the availability of workers, utilities, facilities, and other
factors.

Although the average annual income of the Damascene family is
higher than that of Syrian families in other cities, it is still less
than L.S. h,500 ($1,300) per year. About 65 percent of the total pop-
ulation of Damascus cannot afford to own a house without depending on
some other funds in addition to their regular income. The expenditure
on rent, or its equivalent, has reached a high rate of 20 to 30 percent

of the total annual income of the family.

92

The problem of the Palestinian refugees has been one of the most
serious in the Damascus area. It has had a great impact upon the social
and economic status of the Damascenes. These refugees have created an
unemployment situation in addition to a sudden rise in property values
and rents of residential areas.

The size of the Damascene family and household is quite large, be-
cause of the traditional atmosphere and other social and economic de—
terminants. The problem of indoor overcrowding has become very serious.
Poverty, in addition to the strong relationships and ties between the
members of the family, has resulted in about to percent of the total
number of dwelling units having more than 7 persons per dwelling unit.
Thus, the most serious problem related to housing production is that of
economics. Increased cost of land, labor, and materials of construction
have resulted in steady rises in the cost of housing. The need for an
adequate supply of minimal quality dwelling units has been a continuous
problem despite a considerable number of new dwelling units added in the
past decade.

In 1955, the Technical Department of the Municipality of Damascus
stated the housing problems in the city as a consequence of the three
factors of land, construction, and financing. It was stated further
that the root of the housing problems had been that the supply of
dwelling units consistently failed to keep up with demand . . . let
alone need.1 This situation continues to be true at the present time.
The local government has recognized this problem, and has been trying

to increase the production of dwelling units; but it has succeeded only

 

lSaubhy Kahala, (Head of the Technical Department) "Practical Solutions
for Housing Problems in Syria," A lecture delivered at the Club of Com—
merce, Damascus, 1955.

‘ll‘ill.lv|lnll.lil[ll‘[llll|ln{{!

 

.- 7’. I I I" h‘ I‘
Damascus has shown a substantial expansion in residential deve10pment

since 1982, especially on the slopes of Mount Kasyiun and on the agricul-
tural lands in the western and northern sides of the old city.

.llln‘ ll; {i (II [I III Ill..- ‘lal‘tl.l[ [ill I (I. it. til

911

partially, although it has extensive legal powers, especially in the
national law governing Syrian urban development. The government has
tried to solve the problem of high land cost in the old city and its
boundaries by planning and subdividing the low cost, arid lands in the
outer environs of Damascus. These arid areas have been chosen for con-
struction of two large residential neighborhoods (New Towns) which will
eventually house about 75 thousand people, but approximately 12,500
persons have been housed in these areas by 1960. (See number of dwelling
units, Chapter IV)

Today, the housing industry in Damascus is financed primarily
through individuals; secondly, by private builders who procure loans
at high interest rates from commercial banks; and, thirdly, public
housing financed by funds allocated in the national and municipal an-

nual budgets.

Recommendations

 

It has been suggested earlier that the creation of a central hous-
ing bank and other private financial institutions such as loan and sav-
ing associations, non—profit organizations, etc . . would be a reason-
able solution for the financial problems. These private financial
institutions should be insured by the national government.

In the Western countries, the housing industry is financed primar—
ily by lending institutions, while in Syria it is financed mainly by
individuals. It is an accepted observation that the capital can be
best used by keeping it flowing in business interactions. In the
United States of America, for example, the housing industry is financed

primarily by private lending institutions. In 1960 the major classes

of mortgage lenders were as follows:

95

Table 22: Major Classes of Mortgage Lenders in the United States in 1960

 

 

 

 

In t'tution Amount in Percent of Total*

3 1 Billion 8 Money Loaned
Saving and Loan Associations 58.9 36.7
Life Insurance Companies 28.9 18.1
Mutual Saving Banks 2h.h 15.2
Commercial Banks 20.5 12.6
Federal Agencies 7.9 h.9
Individual and Others 20.0 12.5

Total 160.6 l00.0

 

*Derived by the author.

Source: Housing and Home Finance Agency, Housing Statistics, March
1961, Table A-h9, pp. 58-59.
As it is indicated from the above table, the lending institutions ac-
count for 83 percent of the total money loaned which means that a very
small share (12.5%) of housing finance was accomplished by individuals.
In Sweden, which has a system of government similar to Syria, the
National government plays the major role in the provision of appropriate
capital needed for housing development. The Swedish government pro-
vides first and second mortgage loans through two major kinds of finan-
cial institutions which have been founded on the initiative of the
State and are capitalized by it. The first one, the 'City Mortgage
Bank', has many branches throughout the country through which it grants
loans not only on residential deve10pment, but also on commercial build—
ing in urban areas. The bank obtains its capital for housing loans by
the sale of lands in the open market. The second is the 'Housing Credit
Institution" which issues mortgage loans principally on larger residen—

tial buildings.

96

The Swedish government has been participating, to a great extent,
in the housing industry by providing far-reaching, effective urban de-
velopment laws and also by supporting and guaranteeing appr0priate funds
for housing development. The government also can directly provide funds
for residential building.1

These examples show the wide range of direct provision of appro-
priate loans, supplementary loans, and housing subsidies for the con-
struction of dwelling units by the Swedish government. In fact, not
only governmental participation in the housing industry exists in
Sweden, but also in Denmark, West Germany, and others. The National
and municipal governments in Syria could equally well provide at least
60 percent of total housing development for lower and middle income-
groups. Considering the class of income groups of Damascus which were
discussed before, the proposed central housing bank should contribute
to the financing of approximately 83 percent of all urban residential

buildings in the city and its environs.

Design and Production of Housing

 

Review and Evaluation

 

In Chapter IV, it has been shown that the rate of construction
in residential areas has lagged behind the need for housing. It is
estimated that a minimum of 7,800 dwelling units must be constructed
annually while the average number of dwelling units actually being
built by both private and public sectors has ranged from 3,300 to h,000
per year. Most of the new dwelling units were built in the new sub-

divisions while old sections of the city which contain the most

 

1Leonard Silk, op. c_it_., pp. 811—85.

97
substandard and dilapidated houses were left without effective redevel-
opment measures. The slums in Damascus are found not only in the old
city, but also exist in some new sectors, particularly around the outer
boundaries of the city. The slums of these fringe areas have developed
as a result of many deeply-rooted problems:

—The uncontrolled settlement of the majority of the Palestinian

refugees in these areas which has resulted in severe overcrowding;

- The dwelling units in these areas were built illegally and not

according to the building regulations of the municipality; and

- The lack or the limitation of legal measures for the control of

deve10pment.

As stated earlier, the building regulations of Damascus stress
mainly the physical appearance and interior of structres rather than
recognizing other functions of urban development which comprise the
total living environment.

Like most old cities in the world, the problem of an extreme gap
and sharp contrast between the luxurious villas and palaces of the high
income groups and the ugly slums of the majority of residents has per-
sisted despite all efforts to narrow it. Although some modern mechanized
methods of building construction have been introduced, about 80 to 85
percent of new housing units are still constructed with little use of
mechanical protesses. This problem has resulted mainly in slow develop—
ment and rise in cost of dwelling units. In recent years there has been
some individual efforts to adopt mass production for some component
parts of houses, but these efforts have been limited to the production

of windows, doors, and some materials of construction, like tiles.

 

O

  

,".i . . , _ . .
..A . a? ll
. I ' I“ , - ‘ i , '- Q. '
o ‘3 ~ ‘ ‘II 'I

The contrast hetveen old an nev residential areas is fascinatin; in Dam-

ascus.
CSpZCi

Modern beautiful villas have been eyouhdinj around ideold city
ally in the northern and rectern sides.

itc1y~3roomed sites

..
‘—

L4
9
'n
H
m -
N
T 9
42 3..
0H 1‘:
, L4
1' I"!
a 2’
F‘ 3-.
F‘ {5
0rd
> 0
>
C on
14 «H
'8 U
o E
g' 4—)
| .4.)
r: J
L4
4-) ...
F' “

a mosque, stores
'riginal cliridl

r1
J

Cw
OH
WK"
- b a
‘,."w-4
USU

("3
E‘H
QM
4.)-.J
3.5
(

4-)
‘Uh
p m
AC1.
{HR}
”'0
”3C;
UPS
(U

.
'Ur-i
(9U
”Cl-Q
2'0
0.1:
$4
Dd

 

Ill lit i i

99
However, the production of elements of the structural skeleton of the
house, such as pre-cast or pre-stressed reinforced concrete beams, col-
umns, and slabs has never been accomplished. The elementary methods of
construction have contributed a great deal to the rise of housing costs

due to the rise in labor cost.

Recommendations

It is obvious that the production of sound and inexpensive housing
is dependent, to a great extent, upon the methods and materials of con-
struction. Syrian builders and engineers must understand and ad0pt new
techniques and means of rapid construction from other developed countries,
especially those of European countries. It should be remembered that
the achievement of reductions in construction costs depends,at least on
the development of standardized structural elements, adoption of some
mass production processes, the elimination of obsolete and non—function-
al materials, and the incorporation of adequate health, safety, function-
al and structural provisions in building regulations to balance the
present stress on architectural form.

The design must primarily provide efficient and functional housing
rather than stressing the architecture quality and the appearance of
the structures. This does not mean that the architectural aspects are
to be neglected. However, a dwelling need only be simple, harmonious,.
and convenient in design. The basic principles of healthful, function-
al, and convenient housing may be best stated as they were outlined by
the National Committee on the Hygiene of Housing of the American Public

Health Association. These housing principles1 should be applied in

 

1American Public Health Association: Basic Principles of Healthful
Housing. A.P.H.A., Inc. Second Edition, New York 1950.

 

 

lOO

designing dwelling units for all classes of people in any country:

8..

Co

Fundamentalphysiological needs such as:

The maintenance ofva thermal environment which will avoid undue
heat loss from the human body;

The maintenance of a thermal environment which will permit ade-
quate heat loss for the human body;

The provision of an atmosphere of reasonable chemical purity;
The provision of a daylight illumination and avoidance of undue
daylight glare;

The provision for admission of direct sunlight;

The provision of adequate artificial illumination and avoidance
of glare;

The protection against excessive noise;

The provision of adequate space for exercise and for the play
of children;

fundamental psychological needs such as:

The provision of adequate privacy for the individuals;

The provision of opportunities for normal family life;

The provision of facilities which make possible the performance
of the tasks of the household without undue physical and mental
fatigue;

The provision of facilities for maintenance of cleanliness of
the dwelling and of the person;

The provision of possibilities for esthetic satisfaction in

the home and its surroundings;

The concordance with prevailing social standards of the local
community;

Protection against contagion such as:

The provision of a water supply of safe, sanitary quality, avail-
able to the dwelling;

The protection of water supply system against pollution within
the dwelling;

The provision of toilet facilities of such a character as to
minimize the danger of transmitting disease;

The protection against sewage contamination of the interior
surfaces of the dwelling;

The avoidance of unsanitary conditions in the vicinity of the
dwelling;

The exclusion from the dwelling of vermin which may play a
part in the transmission of disease;

The provision of facilities for keeping drink and food unde-
composed;

The provision of sufficient space in sleeping rooms to minimize
the danger of contact infections;

Protection against accidents such as:

The erection of the dwelling units with such materials and
methods of construction as to minimize danger of accidents due
to collapse of any part of the structure.

The control of conditions likely to cause fires or to promote
their spread; " ’

 

 

101
The provision of adequate facilities for escape in case of fire;
The protection against danger of electrical shocks and burns;
The protection against gas poisoning;
The protection against falls and other mechanical injuries in
the home; and
The protection of the neighborhood against the hazards of auto-
mobiles.

It has been mentioned earlier in the review and evaluation of the
physical pattern of the Damascus residential areas that all the efforts
in housing production have been concentrated on new building construction
on new land immediately outside the old boundaries of the city. The re-
newal of obsolete and deteriorated areas and structures has been virtu-
ally ignored, due, perhaps to the demand for new structures by a burg-
eoning population, the lack of maturity by public officials in sensing
social needs, the influence of special interests, and of course, the
inability of government to work through the tangle of legal, economic,
and social factors involved with urban renewal. Urban renewal processes
must go hand in hand with the development of the city. The new concepts
of urban renewal activities used by other nations have been emphasizing
a comprehensive approach to deal not only with the structures of a par-
ticular area to be renewed, but with the total related environment as
well. Any program for the elimination of substandard housing should
incorporate the following points:

a. The formulation of a comprehensive renewal plan of long—range
concepts. This plan must include land use, streets, public
facilities and utilities, and financial and legal sections
which include successful ways and means of finance and control
of such blighted and slum areas;

b. The provision of adequate sanitary dwelling units for the people
who will be displaced by such urban renewal activities. These

displaced people should be given first priority to live tempor-

arily or permanently in the new residential areas developed by

102
the municipality.

c. The provision and adoption of adequate minimum standards based
on health, safety and convenience. The principles of the A.P.H.A.
cited in the foregoing for healthful housing must be taken into
consideration.

d. The establishment of an adequate agenqy within the Technical
Department of Damascus to be responsible for this task of ad-
ministration and technical study.

e. The identification and rating of the blighted areas according
to the degree of deterioration must be based on actual surveys.
This rating should be classified in accordance with the stand-
ards adopted in order to indicate the areas which should be
cleared, rehabilitated, or conserved. Action should be initi-
ated in terms of established priorities of the various areas

to be redeveloped or improved.
The Need for Research Programs in Housing and Urban Development

The inadequate consideration given to the housing and urban devel-
opment has resulted in low quality of a major part of the Damascus urban
scene, especially within the old city. The need for research in housing
and urban development is a great necessity at the present time. The
author recommends as the first priority, the creation and establishment
of a department of city and regional planning at the University of
Damascus in order to produce enough planners, not only to satisfy the
need for the City of Damascus, but also for Syrian and other Arab cities

in the Middle East. A housing research center must also be established

103
at the national level, which would be responsible for the whole range
of housing research and for conducting an experimental building station
near the City of Damascus.

Such a research center must be so organized as to allow the coordin-
ation of the various urban research activities of other centers such as
those of the ministries of public works, municipal and rural affairs,
planning,and others.

Burnham Kelly has outlined the coordination activities of a sim—
ilar central research organization in the following points:1

a. Keeping in touch with research projects under way in various
laboratories and organizations;

b. Determining trends in dwelling construction and the areas that
appear to be most in need of research and development;

c. Encouraging appropriate groups to undertake research and devel-
opment in the promising and in the neglected areas;

d. Providing or obtaining financial support for research in areas
deemed important in providing optimum shelter at minimum cost,
but of such nature that industrial and association laboratories
might not find it apprOpriate to undertake, and which other re-
search organizations might not otherwise have the funds to sup
port.

e. Giving the widest possible publicity to the results of research
of all kinds, whether or not directly supported by the agency.

The housing aspects appearing to be most in need of research in

Damascus have already been mentioned in the previous chapters. Each

 

lBurnham Kelly and Associates: Design and the Production of Houses.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York 1959, p. 2h8.

 

1011
sub-title of this thesis may be used as a heading for a comprehensive
housing study. The following major subjects are recommended as being
most in need of detailed housing study, not only for the City of Dam—
ascus, but also may be adopted for other Syrian cities. It should be

noted that these subjects are closely interrelated and must be so stud-

ied:1

The Urban Environment

 

Under this major heading, there are many subjects to be investi—

gated and analyzed, such as:

a. Regional planning and programming including land uses; natural
resource problems such as water supply and flood and pollution
control; circulation system such as highways, railroads, air-
ports, and Open spaces; human resources including population
distribution and major educational and other social places.
These regional features should be worked out at a broad level
so that an adequate framework for urban development would be
initiated.

b. Housing and city planning research which includes many subjects.
The most needed for Damascus are:

-A study of population distribution and its effect upon the
cost of governmental services and tax rates;

-A study of the land pattern and its values in relation to the
cost of improvement and buildings in residential areas;

-A study of zoning and subdivision regulations as related to

open space and use of land;

 

1Some of these subjects are taken after being modified from: Housing
Objectives and Programs, Edited by John M. Gris and James Ford, Wash-
ington, B.C., 1932, pp. 253-291.

 

I i1 i ii. i

105
—A study of housing regulations and building codes in residen—
tial areas; and
-A study of the 'New Towns' and their impact and consequences
upon the housing situation.
Blighted areas and slum clearance which include the various
methods to be used for the determination and classification
of such areas into many types for clearance and conservation,
and the study of purchase and compensation to the owners and
cost of these activities to the tax payers. The replanning of
the site and the relocation of displaced people could also be
a subject of detailed research of reconditioning.
Public utilities for houses including the ways and means for

determining the Optimum development of utilities.

Housing_Finance and Economic Factors

This major subject includes the means and sources of housing

finance, and also the housing market. The following subjects are among

the most needed for Damascus:

a.

b.

C.

A study of the annual investments and expenditures on housing
by Damascene families and the factors affecting such invest-
ments and expenditures;

A study of the cost of different types of dwelling units such
as single and double family dwelling units, and multiple family
apartments;

A comprehensive study of the methods of assessments and the

taxation on residential properties;

106

d. A study of the home ownership and the leasing problem which
is very serious in Damascus;

e. A study of governmental participation and its appropriate role
in the housing field; and

f. A study of the production of materials of construction and the
economic possibilities for construction and deve10pment of new
plants to satisfy the national need for the materials of con-

struction which are presently imported.

The Appearance and Function of Housing

 

This includes detailed architectural and engineering studies.
Among the most needed for Damascus are:

a. A study of interior and exterior design of housing including
size, arrangement, number of rooms, etc.... as related to the
need of Damascene families of all income and social groups; and

b. A study of the necessary required utilities and facilities re-
lated to the climatic and other physical conditions so that
healthful and convenient housing is produced;

c. A study investigating the more effective building groupings and
neighborhood patterns to achieve optimum livability, economies,

and maintenance.

The Structural Aspects of Housing
Under this major heading on housing research, the following
subjects would be most significant for Damascus:
a. A study investigating the possible ways and means of the pro-
duction of inexpensive, but sound materials of housing con-

struction to be used for providing dwelling units for the low

107
and middle income groups as a substitution for the expensive
materials currently used such as stone, marble, reinforced
concrete etc.

b. A study of the possibility of reconditioning, remodeling,and
modernizing the old dwelling units with relation to cost,
function, appearance, safety, and health; and

c. A study of the present methods of building construction and
the possibility of introducing less costly and more rapid

ways of housing construction.

Summary of the Recommendations
To achieve healthful, sufficient, convenient, safe, beautiful and

functional housing for the population of Damascus is the ultimate goal

and the prime Objective of housing development and redevelopment. The
following suggestions are considered to be the most appropriate ways
and means to achieve optimum goals and objectives for Damascus housing.

They are set up to be general and broad in scope and are seriously in

need for both the present and the future.

1. Provision of a census of housing which should be prepared to in-
clude not only the quantitative and qualitative features of dwelling
units, but also other significant socio-economic aspects and
characteristics of dwellers;

2. Provision of new legislative and administrative laws to guide the:
a. Use of land.

b. Reuse of land.
c. Misuse of land.

3. Enactment of special legislation to:

9.

10.

108
a. Prevent the abuse of land.
b. Reduce Speculation in land.

Encouragement of the present polidy of the national and municipal
governments to decentralize and distribute residential areas in
the arid areas around Damascus and to prevent further residential
development in the productive orchard and other agricultural areas;

Preparation, adoption, and carrying out of a comprehensive master
plan for the city and its environs which must include and show the
proposed distribution and location of housing, business, industry,
recreation, and other private and public categories of land uses;

Encouragement and establishment of many private non-profit organi-
zations such as: Cooperatives, worker unions, building societies,
etc. to participate in the housing production;

Establishment of a national housing bank to grant special long term
loans at low interest rates and guarantee mortgages on dwelling
units of low and middle income groups;

Eliminating or reducing property taxes on new residential areas
for a specific period of time, especially on those owned by low
and middle income groups;

Encouragement of the reduction of costs of dwelling units on con-
dition that these units would be of sound standards of design,
construction and livability for adequate family life;

Provision of a building experimental station near Damascus to be
responsible for the development of sound and lower cost materials

of construction;

ll.

12.

13.

1h.

15.

16.

109
Encouragement of the use of modern machinery and equipment in
housing production and urban development, and also the use of
standardized dimensions and methods of mass production;
Encouragement of the designer of housing units to stress the
function of housing rather than its architectural appearance alone.
Effective plans and programs should be provided for clearing
slum areas and for maintaining the present housing inventory in
adequate condition.
Provision and training of social workers to educate the citizens
and help them understand the housing problems so that adequate
citizen's support and participation would be achieved;
Creation of a school of urban planning and landscape architecture
at the University of Damascus; and
Creation of a national housing research center under the supervis-

ion and guidance of the Ministry of Planning.

EPILOGUE

Like few ancient, underdeveloped, but active countries, Syria has
come a long way in the past few years. This great movement began when
the Syrian people woke up after a long sleep period during the Ottoman
rule for almost four centuries (1517-1918). At the turn of the nine-
teenth century, a few scholars realized that modern ways and means must
be introduced in the country in order to follow the advanced nations.
Since development of nations takes quite a long time, Syria, today is
emerging into the twentieth century with many problems of great magni-
tude brought from the past compounded by emergent problems of the times.
Among its Herculean tasks of self-government are those of economic, self-
determination, social mobility, education, etc. An indispensable con-
comitant to development is the process of urbanism. Urbanism has con-
tinued to imply a balance between human and natural forces for achiev-
ing a dynamic and a satisfying living environment. And, certainly, hous-
ing is a most critical component of such an environment. The recent
approaches of housing programming and development emphasize the treat-
ment of housing on a comprehensive basis within the total environment
and not as an isolated item. Certainly, these approaches are in most
need for a city like Damascus whose housing problems are originated
from deeply rooted factors of diverse nature. Thus, the achievement
of housing objectives in the city of Damascus requires a great effort
including, generally, the improvement of the social, economic, and

physical features of the urban scene.

llO

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Public Health Association. Basic Principles of Healthful
Housing. A.P.H.A. Inc., Second Edition, New York, 1950.

Berger, Morroe. The Arab World Today. Doubleday and.Company, Inc.,
Garden City, New York, 1962.

Beyer, Glenn. Housin : A Factual Analysis. The Macmillan Co.,
New York, 1958.

Boylan, Myles. "The Present Situation of Housing in the United States,"
Mimeo paper, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1961.

Bureau of the Census. A Study of the FamilyiExpenditure in the Cibygof
Damascus, Damascus, 1957

. Estimation of the National Income in Syria - Rent Sector,
Damascus, 1960.

. Estimation of the National Income in Syria - Building Sector,
Damascus, 1939.

. Statistical Abstract of Syria - 1958, 1960, and 1961.

 

El-Zerekly, Mamdouh. "Towards United Arab Law for the Urbanization of
Cities, Villages, and Rural Areas," A Paper Presented at the Eighth
Conference of the Arab Engineers. Cairo, May, 1963.

Cressey, George B. Crossroads Land and Life in Southwest Asia. J. B.
Lippencott Company, Chicago, 1960.

Encyclopedia Britannica, 1960. 'Damascus'.

Fedden, Robin. Syria: An Historical Appreciation. Robert Hale Limited,
London, 1955.

Government of Syria. Syrian Law of 1933 Regulating the Urbanization
of Cities as Amended to 1961. Damascus, 1961.

Gris, John M. and Ford James, Eds. Housing Objectives and Programs.
Washington, D. C., 1932.

Haddad, George. Fifty Years of Modern Syria and Lebanon. Beirut, 1950.

Hitti, Philip K. History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine.
The Macmillan Company, London, 1951.

111

112

Housing and Home Finance Agency. Housing Act of 19h9 as Amended
Throggh June, 1961. H.H.F.A., Washington, D. C. 1961.

 

 

. Housing Statistics. March, 1961.

 

 

Hoyt, Homer. "The Function of the Ancient and Modern City," Land
Economics, Vol. 83, No. 3, August, 1962.

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. The Economic
Development of Syria. John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 195h.

 

 

Kahala, Soubhy. "Practical Solutions for the Housing Problems in Syria,"
A Lecture Delivered at the Club of Commerce, Damascus 1955.

Kasrawy, Nofal. "The Social and Economic Structure of Damascus,"
Unpublished Paper. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1961.

Kelly, Burnham and Associates. Design and the Production of Houses.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1959.

 

Meyerson, Terrett, and Wheaton. Housing,Pegple, and Cities. McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1962.

 

Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs. Summary of the Five Year
Plan (l960-196h)_HousingSector. Damascus, 1959.

 

. Public Housing in the Syrian Region - Face to Face with the
Housing Problem. Damascus, 1960.

 

. Public Housing Law, Executive Order NO. 30 as Amended Through
1960, Damascus, 1960.

 

Municipality of Damascus. The Buildigg Regulation of the City of
Damascus as Amended Through 1959. Damascus, 1959.

 

 

. The Buildigg Regulation of the City of New Damascus. Damascus,
19$.

 

Silk, Leonard. Sweden Plans for Better Housing. Duke University Press,
Durham, N. C., 19H8i

 

Tower, J. A. The Oasis of Damascus. American Press, Beirut, 1935.

Unesco. Problem of Preservation and Presentation of Sites and Monu—
ments. Syria, 1953.

United Arab Republic. The Year Book, 1960. Cairo, 1960.

. The Revolution in Eight Years. Cairo, 1960.

 

113

United Nations. Land Problems and Policies, Housing and Town and
Country Plannigg. Bulletin 7 - ST/SOA.

United States Bureau of the Census. "Current Population Reports."
Series P-20 No. 67, 1956.

Wendt, Paul F. HousinggPolicy - The Search for Solutions. University
of California Press. Berkley, 1963.

Ziadeh, Nichola. Syria and Lebanon. Frederick A. Proeger, New York.

 

v

 

MICHIGRN STQTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES

IIII|IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII|I|IIIII|II|II|I|IIII|7II||II1II|

 

312931048219