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mm mm. PRODUCTION, TRANSPORTING
LED MARKETING 01' Q1110! mm
ORANGE 00M?!

presented by
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CURRICULUM I! 1001) DISTRIBUTION

  

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TEE DJVELOPPIEI T, PKODUC TION, TmaNSPORTING, AND? IARIETIT.G
OF U lCi-FhOZEN ORANGE CONCENTNnTE

Leonard L Lart, Jr.

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
EASTER OF ARTS

Department of General Business

Curriculum in Food Distribution

1952

THESIS

 

AC KNOJ LE DGMENT S

Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Kenneth'Wilson,
Director of the Curriculum in Food Distribution, for his
advice and assistance in the preparation of this thesis.

The author wishes to thank the individuals he has
talked with about this thesis, and the many business firms
that responded to letters requesting information on this
subject.

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TABLE OF CONTVNTS

CHAPTER PIGE
I. INTRODUCTION.............................................. 1
Purpose..............................................

Procedu'I'GOO.0...........O0.00.0000...OOIOOOOOOOOOOOOO

SOIlrceSOOO.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOO0.0.0.0....0......

\n E‘MI—J

II. SilELT OllJ'II‘LI‘JGE; IFIUUDTRYOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0....OIOOOOOOOOOOOOO...

DevelOpment and Spread of the Sweet Orange........... 5
Production Life of TreeS............................. 10
VarietieS................;........................... 11
California VarietieS................................. 12
Florida VarietieS.................................... 13
Maturity and Quality................................. 16
Harvesting........................................... l8

Smmlamf.000.0.COCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.... ..... 00.... 2

III . DEVriLOPi-LDI‘IT OF QU’ ICK-FROZEN Cid-NOE COM) hNT'rcéTh.‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Present Process, Basic Principles.................... 22
Previous Attempts At Concentration................... 23
Previous Attempts In Freezing........................ 2h
Development and Patent Rights........................ 25
Process Details...................................... 26
Resume of DeveIOpment Period..,..,................... 27
ProgreSS..... .......... .... ..... ..................... 30

IV. PRODUCrJJIOiQOOOOOO ...... 00......00.0.00...OOOIOOOOOOOOOOO... 3h

Definition of Concentrating.......................... 3h
Steps in Processing the Juice........................ 35
Sanitation........................................... hO
suality.............................................. bl
Nutritional Value.................................... N3

V. TIUJ‘NSPOBIIIr‘i—Go-ocoocoo0.000.000.0000...oooooooooooooooooooo b-O

Temperature.......................................... hé
Rail FacilitieS...................................... AB
Truck FacilitieS..................................... 52
Hail versus Truck.................................... 5h
Handling............................................. 56

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued
CrinPThlh
VI. IJL}LI:LKETII\JGOOOOOOOOOOOOCOUOIOOOOOO00....0.000.000.0000000000

Channels of Distribution.. .......
lietail saleSOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOC ..... OOOOIOOOUOOOOOOCOO

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BIfiLIOGfU‘LPHY..... oooooooooooooo 000.000.000.00 oooooooo 00.0.0.0...

LIST OF TADLES
TABLE PAGE
I. Estimated Acreage of Oranges in United States in l9hh........ 21
II. Production of Frozen Orange Juice Concentrate...,...,........ 32

III. Approximate Number of Heavily Insulated Railroad Cars Avail-
able in 19Li‘7, 19Lb’ and 1914900000....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO LL?

IV. Production of Frozen Fruits and Vegetables Compared with
Freezer Capacity of none CabinetS......................... 61

Liam or FIGbnES
FIGUrtb m G23

1. Channels of Distribution of Orange Concentrate............... 6b

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Purpose

The purpose of this thesis is to present an insight into the con-
ception of a new industry and the progress for its first years of
existence. It is not within the SCOpe of this paper to present a techni-
cal report on frozen orange concentrate. Its primary design is to
aCQuaint the reader with a background knowledge of the orange industry
first, and then to lead up to the develOpment of one of the most success-
ful packaged foods that we have known in this rapidly growing era of
frozen food processing. It is hOped that this presentation will give an
insight into the birth, production, and marketing of this new product,
which had a retail sales volume of approximately $100,000,000 only six
years after it was first produced. During this short time it has become
a "must" merchandise for almost 222,000 retail stores.

Due to the large amount of subject material brought into this thesis,
it was planned to cover the pertinent points that revealed the deve10p-
ment of a new product. However, it is also the intent of these pages
to give someone'not acguainted with the industry an insight into the
concentrate story.

This story is more than interesting; it is a dramatic combination of

many things. In 1952, this product had captured one-third of the frozen

food sales but has yet to show a consistent profit to its producers.
One of the largest producers of orange concentrate had a Sh,000,000
inventory loss in 1951. How can a product be so successful in sales
and yet not show a profit for its producers? It is a young industry
that is still paying for its cost of development and expansion. However,
its one big fault is that no one producing it has made much profit.l
There are many reasons and facts that may contribute to the cause of this

discrepancy. It is beyond the sc0pe of this paper to go into these

details except briefly in the last chapter.

Procedure

The outline of this paper as presented in the table of contents
gives the reader a general insight into the procedure followed in con-
necting the large areas of subject matter contained in a single chapter.
These individual chapters involve complete industries within themselves,
which are related to the progress that the orange concentrate industry
has made. It is the purpose of this presentation to give a "picture
view" of some of the situations encountered in the orange concentrate
industry's brief but dynamic past as of 1952.

As the outline of chapters and subject matter was pieced tOgether,
it was with the intent of trying to give the reader a "round by round"
presentation of the story. The second chapter deals primarily with

some of the historical facts about the sweet orange. It is this Specie

 

1. Anonymous. Troubles in Frozen Orange Juice. Fortune. Volume US
(March 1952), p. 102.

of oranges that is used to produce orange concentrate. Along with this
goes some of the aspects of maturity and quality, tree life and harvest-
ing, to give the reader who knows nothing about the citrus industry an
approach to its problems.

The following chapters take the form of following the steps that a
new product would naturally go through in coming into existence. This
starts with the development of the idea and the product and follows it
through the production process, transportation and its problems, and
the important phases of marketing. This is ended with some conclusions
about the industry's past record and some of the unsolved operational
problems that it still faces.

It is interesting to note that forty years ago oranges were mainly
eaten and not squeezed to produce orange juice, as it is the present
custom in some places to do so. It was discovered that the average
person ate only half an orange when it was consumed as fruit, but that
it would require two or three oranges to fill a six ounce glass. This
was in 1915, when the California Fruit Growers Exchange of Los Angeles,
California, was seeking a means of increasing citrus fruit consumption.
The promotion of oranges for juice by the Exchange had much to do with
the pOpularity of orange juice as a national beverage.2

This was just the beginning, because methods were later perfected

for canning orange juice in the latter part of the twenties. Although

 

2. Anonymous. Frozen Citrus Concentrates. Western Canner and Packer.
Volume bl (October 1950), p. 16.

heat was applied to pasturize the juice, which impaired its natural
flavor, this increased the consumption of orange juice tremendously.
Researchers continued to look for a way to perserve orange juice and
retain its natural flavor as much as possible. There were many different
experiments in trying to freeze orange juice as well as to concentrate
it. So, when quick-frozen concentrate was develOped in l9bh, it was a
combination of these two methods that retained the flavor and made it

possible to produce this product on a commercial scale.

Sources

In doing researCh for this thesis, material was gathered wherever
it could be found and was available. The writer had previously worked
in an orange concentrate plant in Florida and drew a good deal of the
information presented here from past experiences.

Other sources of information included published data that were
available from the United States Department of Agriculture, trade publi-
cations and periodicals, and personal interviews with men in the business.
Material was also received from individuals, trade periodicals, and
frozen food distributors by writing to them. This was rounded out with
state bulletins from the two principal citrus growing areas, California
and Florida. Information was also obtained from individual concentrate

firms in Florida.

CHAPTER II

SHEET ORANGE INDUSTRY

DevelOpment and Spread of the Sweet Orange
Before beginning to trace some of the interesting points in the
development of quick-frozen orange concentrate, which is a process of
preserving orange juice and its quality, it is best, by the writer's
point of view, to present a synOpsis of the history of the sweet orange
and the Spread of its deveIOpment into this country.

Citrus Sinensis, the sweet orange, is one of the several species

 

of the genus Cit£E§.' Included in the genus Citrus are sixteen species,
of which the sweet orange is the best known and most popular. It owes
its great popularity almost wholly to its suitability for eating as
fresh fruit or for serving as a dessert fruit. In recent years it has
gained another form of popularity, that of being served as fruit juice
on the breakfast table.

"In the commerce of the world, in market reports, and in general
usage, the word 'orange' when used alone usually means the sweet orange;
if any other type is intended, it should be specified. The sweet orange
is a native of China from where it has spread to other trOpical and sub-
tropical regions. Most of the varieties now cultivated, however, have
originated in those countries into which this orange was introduced and

where its commercial culture has become important."1

 

l. hebber, John H. and Leon D. Batchelor. The Citrus Industry.
University of California Press. l9h8. p. 500.

The Spread of the genus Citrus, to which the sreet orange bL‘ longs,
h s be:n very slow in its travel from one part of the world to another
part. The various Speci ms of the genus Citrus are all believed to be
native to the :Totrop nical and trepi cal regions of F sis and the Malay

Archipelago and to have Spread from thir. of the world.

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"The first ncrucr of the group to become known 0 the European
civilization was the Citron, mentioned about 300 B.C. by The0phrastus.
For hundreds of years it was the only citrus fruit known. Then came in
order, ut centuries ap art, the sour orange, he lemon, and the sweet
was not known until 313 roxjmately ll 00 h.D.,

about seventeen centuries later than the Citron

There we 3 no reference to th

(I)

sweet orange preceding the fifteenth
century, however, bv the beginning of the sixteenth century there was
evidence to Show that it hat assured commercial importance in south rn
Europe.

Citrus fruits were not known in.America at the'bhmacf‘Columbus
and his expedition in lh92. The fact that no Citrus Sfi) cies is inu‘verous

nized statement by all authorities. Columbus intro-

duced citrus into America in lh93 in a voyage to establish permanent

7

settler e nts on the island of 'aiti.
The Spr ad of citrus into the Imeri cas was next recorded in Central

fr!

America around 55h. Citrus was also introduced into Florida about 1555.

 

The exact date of the introduction is unknown. It is certain, however,
that it was brought by early Spanish explorers some time between 1513,
when Ponce de Leon first landed in Florida, and 1565, when St. Augustine,
the first colony in Florida, was established. Planting of orange trees
were also made in South Carolina before 1577. It appears from this
evidence that citrus fruits were introduced into several parts of the
southeastern United States in the latter part of the sixteenth century.

The early settlers in Florida some two centuries later found wild
citrus groves in various parts of the state, some of them many acres
in extent, which are supposed to have develoPed from seeds drOpped by
the Indians, to whom fruit had been given.

It was from these wild groves that the commercial citrus industry
is said to have started. The cession of Florida to the United States
in 1821 was about the time of the develOpment of the industry within
the state.

Considerable progress had been made until 1835, when a severe freeze
killed most of the trees to the ground. Previous to 1835, St. Augustine
produced annually from two million to two and one-half million oranges,
which were equal in bulk to about fifteen thousand barrels. They were
shipped to Charleston, baltimore, New York, and Boston, and usually
brought from one dollar to three dollars per hundred.

These early groves were situated along rivers and the fruit was

transported in barrels down the river to the markets. The advent of

the railroad into Florida around 1860 provided a means of Quick

transportation to the principal northern markets, and from this time on,
the develOpment of the industry was rapid.

It is interesting to note that early historical records indicate
that citrus fruits reached what is now the state of Arizona before
settlement had been made in California, and that Arizona is thus an
older citrus growing section than California,

Oranges were successfully grown in southern Arizona in the early
days of the eighteenth century and 1707 may be taken as the approximate
date of introduction into this region.h Citrus growing in Arizona was
limited to scattered plantings for home use and it was not until the
beginning of the twentieth century that small commercial groves began to
appear.

Oranges were introduced into California around 1769, but there are
no definite records before this time to verify this date. The first
orange grove of any size to be set out in the state was planted in 180h.S
However, the plantings in California were small and few in number until
around 18h9, when the "Gold Rush" swelled the population of the state.
This was the real birth of the commercial citrus industry in California.

In 1873, the hashington Navel orange, whose origin is believed to
have been near Bahia, Brazil, in the early part of the nineteenth century,
was introduced into California, which stimulated citrus culture there
and formed the naval orange industry that was the "backbone" of the early

industry.6

 

h. Ibid. p. 32.
5. Ibid. p. 333.
6. Ibid. p. 530.

 

In other sections of the United States where citrus is grown
commercially, the industry is of very recent origin. In certain
sections of the Gulf States, small plantings of the hardy Satsuma
oranges were made as early as 1890, but these were largely killed by
frost. In 1910, the United States Census Report gave for Texas a
total of 833,h06 citrus trees which were mainly Satsumas in the Houston
and Beaumont districts. The freeze of 1916-1917 destroyed most of the
groves, and in 1920, the census report showed only 123,951 citrus trees
in the state. However, the main.part of the industry has moved into
the Rio Grande'Valley of Texas. More than two-thirds of this present
acreage out of approximately 60,000 acres is grapefruit.

In these states, California, Florida, and Texas, commercial pro-
duction is largely located, with smaller plantings in.Arizona, Alabama,
Louisiana, Mississippi, and Georgia. Earliest records of seasonal
volume of citrus production in the United States starts with oranges
in California and.Florida in 1902.8 However, the growth of the orange
industry in the United States can be shown approximately by the esti-
mated acreage of oranges in the United States, which was compiled in
l9hh, by age of trees in the three principal areas of production. This

table is presented at the end of this chapter.

 

7. Ibid. p. ho.

8. U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Readjustment in.Processing
and Marketing<3itrus Fruits. United States Department of.Agricu1ture,
'Washington, July 19kb, p. 8.

lO

Productive Life of Trees

From the information contained in this chart, the question is
raised, "How long is the productive life of an orange tree?m Very
little is known concerning the average productive life because only a
small percentage of the trees in the United States are old enough to
indicate their average productive life span. Only assumptions can be
made on an orange tree's productive life span. However, the end of
the productive life is assumed to be the time at which groves will
have passed the period of maximum production and declined in annual
yield to one-half of their maximum. It is further assumed this period
will be reached, on.Florida and California oranges, sometime between
seventy and ninety years after planting. Distinction must be made
between the length of time that the individual trees will live and the
average productive life of a commercial grove. It is not to be expected
that the commercial groves will be retained until the trees actually
die. It is generally assumed that groves will be maintained in pro-
duction only until such time as their average annual yield declines to
one-half of their maximum yield.

In l9hh, there were about 650,000 acres of oranges in the United
States. In most areas, the trees continue to increase in size and
bearing capacity over a long period of years. Orange trees in California
and Florida do not reach their heaviest production until about forty
years of age. In other areas, maturity is attained somewhat earlier

than in.California and Florida.

Varieties

It is interesting to note the differences in growing seasons in
the principal sweet orange commercial regions. California has a
decidedly be ter advantage than Florida in this respect. Hhereas
Florida oranges in the fresh form are only available six or seven
months out of the year, California has fresh fruit available for
twelve months of the year.

In.Ca1ifornia, where much attention has been given to standardi-
zation, two varieties, the'Washington Navel and the Valencia, are
grown almost exclusively. These varieties owing to the length of
time that they may be held on the tree in prime condition, completely
cover the season and provide fresh fruit at all times of the year.
The'Washington Navel begins to ripen in northern California in November,
and the main crop season extends to April and.Mayy The Valencia begins
to ripen in March or April, and the season extends to September or
October. All other varieities in California are to be considered of
very minor importance.

In.Florida and other sections of the United States where less
attention has been given to standardization, more varieties are grown.
The varieties of oranges in Florida fall into three general classes,
early, midseason, and late varieties. Early varieties will ripen in
late October and November and they consist mainly of Hamlin and Parson
Brown species, with Hamlin gaining in preference. The midseason
varieties are ready to pick during December, January, or February with

Pineapple being the dominant one, although some Homosassas and Jaffas

12

are still propagated. Among the late-ripening varieties, which begin
to ripen during March and are picked until early summer, the Valencia
is most widely planted but the Lue Gim Gong is planted to some extent,
particularly in the lower east-coast region“ Many varieties not
mentioned are still grown but are no longer being prOpagated. For
commercial concentrating, Pineapples, Valencia and seedling oranges are
generally used in.Florida, and Valencia and Navel oranges are used by

concentrating plants in California.

California Varieties

The Hashington Navel orange, which was first imported from Brazil
in 1870 by the United States Department of Agriculture, was sent to
Riverside, California, under the name of Bahia. This variety, however,
became more commonly known as the'Washington Navel and.Riverside Navel
and was distributed under these incorrect names.

In California, the'hashington.Navel is considered superior to all
other early or midseason varieties and is the only early sweet orange
to be extensively grown commercially. During the time from 1880 to
1890, owing to its widespread popularity in California, the'Washington
Navel was planted extensively in Florida, but proved to be too poor a
bearer in that state to be successful. This variety is very susceptible
to injury from drought during the early stages of the development of its
fruit. Florida has a dry period in.April and May, which occurs normally
every year, and which causes too excessive a loss of fruit by dropping
from the tree to permit this variety of sweet orange to be used as a

commercial producer.

13

The Valencia orange was introduced into California in 1876 by
A. B. Chapman and George H. Smith, who received an unlabeled package
of orange trees from a nursery in England. Chapman planted and grew
these trees and only one variety of this group proved to be of value.
This was the one that Chapman at first called the Rivers Late. Later,
a citrus grower from Valencia, Spain, identified the variety as one
grown in Spain. Chapman then adOpted the name Valencia Late, by which
the variety has come to be generally known.9

The basic value of the Valencia is that it is a late-ripening
variety that comes into bearing without competition from other varieties
being on the market at the same period of time. The Valencia has been
introduced into virtually all citrus sections of the world and is un-
questionably the most important late-maturing variety grown. It is more
extensively grown than any other orange in California, Florida, and

Texas, and is doubtlessly grown more widely and on a larger acreage

than any other citrus variety in the world.

Florida Varieties
Early Varieties: The Parson Brown is one of the older varieties
of early oranges produced in Florida. It originated about 1878 as a
seedling in the grove of Parson Brown atldebster, Florida. It is
recognized as one of the best early-maturing oranges and production is

heavy in Florida. It is also grown to some extent in Texas, Arizona,

 

9. Webber. 92. gig. p. 523.

in
and Louisiana.10 t has not proved successful in.Ca1ifornia, where the
‘Washington Navel matures at the same time of year. The season on
Parson Browns is mostly in October, November, December, and usually
part of January.

Another early variety in Florida is the Hamlin which is one of the
newer early varieties. It originated in a grove near Glenwood, Florida,
in 1879, but has been planted extensively only in recent years.ll It
fruited in California for the first time in 1933 and has thus not been
thoroughly tested there but it is one of the most widely planted early
oranges in Florida.

Midseason: The Pineapple is one of the most widely grown midseason
oranges. It originated as a seedling on the James B. Owens grove near
Citra, Florida.12 It was not until the 1890's that the Pineapple was
generally planted as a midseason variety. It has a rather unusual name
for an orange and was first called the Hickory orange but later on it
was changed because of its similarity of odor to that of the pineapple.
ldhile it is probably one of the best flavored oranges grown in Florida,
its chief disadvantage is the heavy production of other midseason fruit,
plus the fact that it contains twelve to twenty seeds.

The Homosassa originated as a selected seedling in the grove of

Mr. Yulee at Homosassa, Florida. Up until 1907, it was listed as one

 

10. Webber. Qp. cit. p. 507.

11. Florida Department of Agriculture. Citrus Industry of Florida.
Tallahassee, Florida, October 1951, p. 31.

12. hebber. 9p. cit. p. 51h.

15

of the three best midseason varieties and many groves still exist in
Florida. It has been planted also to a limited extent in California,
Texas, and Louisiana, but because it is too seedy, it is no longer planted
in new groves.l3

The Jaffa, a Palistine orange, was first introduced into Florida
around 1883 and spread from there to all citrus growing regions of the
United States. Many groves of this variety still exist in Florida and
there are a few in.Ca1ifornia, but the Jaffa has been largely superseded
by the Pineapple in.Florida and by the‘iashington Navel in California.

In the early history of Florida, citrus production was based largely
on extensive seedling groves, and while no considerable acreage of
seedlings has been planted for many years, the seedling groves that are
still in existence furnish a very substantial portion of the tonnage of
fruit in.Florida. A seedling orange tree is one that grows from its
own seed and is grown on its own rootstock.

Late Varieties: The Valencia was introduced into Florida around
1870 through two separate shipments; one was sent to General Sanford of
Palatka and the other to E. H. Hart of Federal Point. Later, it was
discovered that these varieties were identical with the Valencia of
California, so that the name of Valencia for this orange is now commonly
accepted.lb Seeds are usually few and seldom over six. The Valencia
crOp is usually picked from.March to July in Florida. At present, it

constitutes the main crOp of late oranges in Florida.

 

l3. hebber. 9p. cit. p. 510.

lh.‘hebber. 9p. cit. p. 525.

Maturity and euality

It is important to note that oranges do not improve appreciably in
Quality after being severed from the tree. In this respect, oranges
are different from apples and pears. If oranges are not ripe enough to
eat when they are picked, they never will be. It is, therefore, necessary
that oranges must be of a desirable eating quality at the time of harvest.
As long as the oranges hang on the trees, their composition is continual-
ly changing.15

In trying to judge the maturity and Quality of oranges, there are
several important factors to consider. One of the most common methods
of casual judgment of maturity is that of color. However, this does not
always run true to form as a criteron in judging the maturity of oranges.
A deliciously flavored fruit may have a green-colored rind, whereas, a
sour unripe one may have lost all its green color because of various
varietal characteristics, climatic conditions, or cultural practices.
The method by which maturity or the internal quality of oranges is best
determined is by correlating the physical characteristics and the chemi-
cal composition to determine when harvesting should be done. However,
in trying to determine a definite maturity test, seasonal changes in
texture, color of rind, and juice flavor must be taken into consideration.
Citrus fruits are grown to be consumed in one form or another. If they

are not "good to eat,. the fact that they pass some chemical test will

not make consumers consider them ripe.

 

15. Rose, Dean H. and Harold T. Cook and h. H. Redit. Harvesting,
Handling, and Transportation of Citrus Fruit. United States De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, BibliOgraphical Bulletin No. 13,
January 1951, p. 53.

17

This explanation of maturity does not attempt to be complete or
consider all of the complex factors that are present in a complete
maturity or Quality determination. It is important to mention that
there are specific federal regulations and state requirements to be
met before oranges can be processed into quick-frozen concentrate.

Before oranges can be shipped to market in the fresh fruit form or
processed into juice, they must meet the established legal standards of
maturity in the state where they are grown and the regulations of the
Food and Drug Administration of the Federal Security Agency. During
recent years, most citrus growing states have raised their maturity
requirements. These requirements vary from state to state. In Florida,
the present standards consist of a "percentage break" in rind color,
which means that a certain amount of the orange must have turned from
a green to an orange-yellow color. Other reguirements that have to be
met are a minimum juice volume, a minimum total soluble solids and a
graduated solids-acid ratio. In general, the higher the solids, the
lower the required ratio.

In explaining these last requirements of maturity, a definition
needs to be given for "soluble solids." For all practical purposes and
to give a more clear, but not technical definition, it is best to let
"soluble solids" be known as the total sugar content of the fruit.
Consequently, it makes possible, in rather general terms, a simple
definition of solids to acid ratio. This ratio, then, tells of the
amount of sugar or sweetness present in relation to that of acid or

flavor characteristics in the orange. If either one of these is

18

considerably out-of-balance with the other, a poor eating-quality of
fruit results.

The lowest ratio of solids to acid used in Florida for concentrat-
ing is around twelve to one. This means that for every twelve parts
of sugar or sweetness present, there is one part of acid present. The
general range is from twelve to one up to seventeen to one for fruit
to produce a good Quality concentrate.

Fruit upon arrival at the concentrate plant is checked by federal
inspectors for maturity before it is processed by the plant. This is
just the beginning of Quality control in the production of quick-frozen
orange concentrate. The aspects of quality control will be taken up

again in the chapter on processing.

Harvesting

Usually, the fruit is checked for maturity before a grove is
picked. This is especially true at the beginning of the season for any
particular variety of fruit. In picking oranges for fresh fruit
markets and those going to the cannery, there is some difference in the
methods used. However, the following paragraphs are limited to fruit
picked_for canneries.

After picking and harvesting fruit for canning plants, the large
semi-trailers are used to haul the fruit from the grove to the
cannery. A picking crew of from twelve to fifteen.men picks the fruit
from the trees with the use of ladders. These ladders range from ten
to thirty-six feet in length. Some oranges must be clipped from the

trees while others may be pulled. The picker carries a picking bag over

19

his shoulder and hanging at his side. The capacity of this bag is
about half a field box. The inside dimensions of a Florida field box
are thirty-one and a half inches in length, twelve inches in width,
and thirteen inches deep. ldhen filled, this box weighs approximately
100 to 120 pounds, depending on the fullness of the box. The average
empty weight of the box is approximately seventeen pounds. The field
box used in California is somewhat smaller and lighter in weight than
the field box used in Florida.

As the piCkers fill their boxes, they are hauled to the edge of the
grove or a nearby road where the trailer is located. The fruit is then
dumped into this large semi-trailer which hauls the fruit to the canning
plant.

Upon arrival at the canning plant, samples of the fruit are taken.
These samples are checked to see if the truck load of fruit meets the
various maturity requirements. If the fruit passes the required
maturity and quality standards it is unloaded into the storage bins of
the canning plant.

Oranges are bought on the basis of weight. In that way the entire
truck load can be weighed and the tare weight of the truck subtracted
to give the actual weight of the fruit. The price actually paid for
the fruit is on a per box basis. To arrive at this figure, ninety pounds
is used as the standard weight of a box of oranges. This method provides
a very uniform procedure on which oranges can be bought by canning

plants.

20

Summary

This chapter was written to give a limited introduction into some
of the basic facts of the sweet orange industry in this country and
mainly in the states of California and Florida. These two areas are
the principal orange growing regions in this country, as far as com-
mercial production is concerned. It also was the purpose of this
chapter to show the principal varieties of sweet oranges that are grown
commercially in these main regions and to bring forth a brief historical
background of their introduction into this country. This was followed
up with a definition or the basis for defining the maturity and Quality
of oranges. This one aspect is very important to understanding the
Quick-frozen concentrate method for processing orange juice. As this
process preserves the Quality of the fruit juice in a form as nearly as
possible to that of fresh fruit, nothing is done to add or detract from
its Quality. This means that only good quality fruit should be
preserved if the consumer is to like and continue to buy the product.
Finally, a brief description was given on the harvesting operations of

oranges.

TABLE I

ESTIMATED ACREAGE OF CHANGES IN UNITED ST

TBS IN 19th
(by age of trees and by states)

n
It

’1
.L0

 

 

 

 

 

Age of Trees Period
in l9hh, 'When California Florida Texas Total

Planted
Years Acres Acres Acres Acres
o-n 19bo-hh 5,950 88,619 1n,hso 69,019
5-9 1935-39 12,300 09,136 3,106 6b,5b2
10-18 1930-38 35,350 52,637 6,909 8h,696
15-19 1925-29 80,200 61,199 13,732 115,131
20-20 1920-20 20,700 57,586 2,591 8h,077
25—29 1915-19 36,000 38,928 771 75,695
30-3h 1910-18 13,000 16,757 30 29,787
35-39 1905-09 7,200 11,000 30 18,230
uo-uh 1900—08 6,500 7,293 15 13,808
05-09 1895-99 17,200 3,080 20,280
50-58 1890-9h 13,800 3,000 16,h00
55-59 1885-89 12,700 3,000 15,700
60-68 1880-8h 7,000 2,250 9,250
65 and older 1875-79 lh,§00 lh,SOO
Total 266,000 388,281 81,63u 631,875

 

16. Source: U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Readjustment in
Processing and MarketingISitrus Fruits. United States Department
of Agriculture,‘fiashington, July 19h6, p. 160.

ChAPTER III
DEVELOPMLNT OF QUICK-FhOZEN ORANGE CONCENTRATE

Present Process, Basic Principals

The process used for the commercial manufacture of frozen citrus
concentrate was developed in l9bh. It is based primarily on three
Operations. The first of these is the removal of water from the juice
by evaporation under vacuum at low temperatures. This is done so that
the natural flavor of the juice is not impaired or given an off-flavor
by the application of heat. The second step is the blending of the
concentrate juice with a quantity of fresh juice which is called "cut-
back." This is done to give the finished product sufficient fresh
fruit aroma and flavor. The third and final step in processing is the
Quick-freezing of the concentrated juice.l This is a very brief summary
of the present commercial process of manufacturing orange concentrate.

There were many factors and concurrent situations which led to the
discovery of quick-frozen orange concentrate that could be produced on
a large commercial scale. This new product made such an impact in the
food field with its rapid growth that it is considered to be one of the

most successful packaged foods. However, the basic principles behind

 

l. Kenzel, F. H., C. D. Atkins and Edwin L. Moore. Frozen Concentrated
Orange Juice--Past, Present and Future. Reprinted from the Proceed-
ing of the Florida State Horticultural Society, Tampa, Florida,
November l9h9. p. 3.

23

this process are by no means new and recent discoveries. In the past,
orange juice has been processed and preserved by freezing single-
strength juice, concentrating by the removal of water, canning of
pasturized juice, and by dehydrating into powder. The combination of
several of these methods with the addition of one new feature, "cut-

back" juice proved to be the key to the problem.

Previous Attempts At Concentration

The first patent for concentrating juices by dehydration was applied
for in 1899 by.August Gurber, a German chemist, and was granted in 1903.
Budo Monti of Italy also obtained a number of patents between 1902 and
1908 for a similar process, but these processes never reached commercial
use.2

Experiments in removing water from orange juice by boiling have
been under way for the past twenty years. here had been a manufactur-
able concentrate before l9hh, but it had certain disadvantages. This
method provided for the concentration of the juice, although hot
pasturization of the product is necessary. The product is now known in
the industry as a "hotpack" concentrate. It did not need to be kept
under refrigeration, but its taste was affected by pasturization. heat
can not be applied to orange juice without changing the flavor. However,
it did not find much retail acceptance, and its chief consumers were

the British during the critical food shortage period in World Mar II.

 

2. Abbott, Bill. Development of Frozen Citrus Concentrates. Tampa,
Morning Tribune, April 1950, p. h.

2h

Another partially successful effort to concentrate orange juice was
conducted by Dr. Arthur L. Stahl around l9h2 at the University Of Florida.
The process he tried to perfect was a method Of concentrating the juice
by half-freezing it and expelling the water with a centrifuge. He worked
out many of the defects and brought this process from the laboratory tO
the pilot-plant stage. This process had too many unsolved problems to
be produced on a commercial scale, however. From these experiments
conducted by Dr. Stahl, there was a revival Of interest in finding a
better process of preserving orange juice. It was also through these
experiments that the idea was finally developed of freezing a concentrated

3

juice.

Previous Attempts In Freezing

Previous efforts had been made to freeze orange juice during the
latter part of the twenties and the early thirties. California was the
first to offer a commercial pack of single-strength frozen orange juice
in 1928. The firm that first produced this product was the Golden
Health Products Company of Long Beach, California. The death Of its
owner a year later caused the company to suspend Operations.

Two Florida organizations were next in the single-strength frozen
juice field. hey were the National Dairy Company, whose period of
operation was in 1929-30 and Borden Farms in 1930-31. Both organizations

suspended Operations after one season. Their product was packaged in

 

3. Conner, John. The Industry That Laid A Golden hgg. Collier's.
Volume 126 (August 12, 1950), p. 27.

25

a paper container.b The main disadvantage Of this type Of product was
that it did not thaw-out Quickly into a usable form. This was one Of
the principal disadvantages Of frozen single-strength orange juice,
along with the necessity of keeping it frozen in an era when refriger-
ation equipment of this nature was not in common use. It did have a
limited acceptance and was still being produced in small quantities by
California concerns in l9h5.

These are some Of the first commercial efforts to preserve orange
juice by the two basic methods, the process Of concentrating and the
process of freezing single-strength juice. Neither of these methods
were very acceptable for large scale production for various reasons.
Achieving a satisfactory method of preserving the taste as well as the
product and adapting the results to mass production has always been a
big problem. All Of the methods, previous to the discovery of the
quick-frozen orange concentrate, have met with one Of these stumbling
blocks that limited the success, if successful at all, to a very small

commercial production.

DevelOpment and Patent flights
It was from this background that the simple, but effective, idea
of producing frozen concentrated orange juice was develOped. There
are many peOple who claim the honor of developing this process. However,

the man who gets Official credit for the idea that created a new

 

h. Anonymous. Frozen Citrus Concentrates. hestern.Canner and Packer.
Volume hl (October 1950), p. 17.

industry is Dr. L. G. MacDowell, the director Of research for the
Florida Citrus Commission. Co—workers and develOpers of the process
were C. D. Atkins and Edwin L. Moore, who were on loan to the federal
government for concentrate research at this time and were working with
the Department Of Agriculture at the United States Citrus Products
Station in winter Haven, Florida.5

This process was discovered in April, l9hh, and is covered by
United States Patent Number 2,b53,109, which was granted in l9h8 to
MacDowell, Moore, and Atkins. The patent for the process was assigned
to the United States Of America, to be controlled and represented by
the Secretary Of Agriculture.6 No royalties have ever been paid for
the rights Of this basic process that all major concentrate manufacturers

are now using to process oranges into frozen concentrate.

Process Details

The main thought and idea behind this patented process is the
adding of "cut-back" juice, the addition of fresh juice, to the con-
centrated juice product. Then, instead Of pasturizing the juice by
the application Of heat, the procedure was changed to quick-freezing
the product to zero degrees Fahrenheit. The addition of "cut-back"
juice restores the taste Of the fresh juice flavor that is lost to some
extent in the evaporation process. It also allows the easy re-intro-

duction Of pulpy juice cells from the pulpy content Of the orange and

 

S. Conner, John. 9p. git. p. 27.

6.‘Uenzel, F. h., C. D. Atkins and Edwin L. Moore. 9p. cit. p. 2.

27

makes possible a better quality control Of the consistency and taste

Of the finished product. TO add this "cut-back" juice (natural strength
juice) to the concentrated juice without diluting it to a lower level

Of concentration than desired, the concentrated juice must be over con-
centrated to allow for this "cut-back" juice to bring it down to the
required level of consistency. This subject will be treated in a more

complete manner in the next chapter.

Resume of DevelOpment Period

During the l9h3-hh season, research on a method to concentrate
orange juice was in progress by the Florida Citrus Commission in
Lakeland, and in COOperation with the United States Department Of
Agriculture's Citrus Products Station in'Iinter Haven. Using equipment
and methods planned by L. G. MacDowell, director of research for the
Florida Citrus Commission, and J. L. Heid, then director Of the Citrus
Products Station, MacDowell, Moore, and Atkins concentrated orange
juice without modifying the taste. This was done with the addition of
"cut-back," or unconcentrated, juice.7 This product, when reconstituted,
added with the required amount Of water, could not be distinguished by
most tasters from the freshly squeezed juice.

This was the gO-ahead signal for several companies to produce
this new product on a commercial basis. In l9hh-h5, these firms were

in the process of setting up equipment and running pilot tests that

 

7. Reid, J. L. and C. G. Beisel. Improved Citrus Concentrates Depend
on Advanced Techniques. Food Industries. Volume 20 (April l9h8),
pp. 76-81-0

 

28

could give valuable information for the establishment Of full scale
Operations. There were several organizations in Florida doing this
about the same time with different types of equipment. There is some
conflicting information pertaining to the actual beginning of commercial
production of orange concentrates and several first—to—dO-so claims.
This presentation will try to present an over-all picture Of the
situation,.but only as accurately as certain conflicting references will
permit.

Juice Industries, who market their product with the Snow-CrOp
brand name and are located in Dunedin, Florida, was producing a "hotpack"
concentrate during horld'War II and experimenting with low-vacuum equip-
ment. In l9h5, they produced a cold and refrigerated, but pasturized,
product that had been "cut-back" with unconcentrated juice, which is
more of a processed concentrate and not identical tO the present quick-
frozen concentrate. A thousand cases were test—marketed with great
success in‘Washington, D. 0., Philadelphia, and New York. A severe test
was given the product by the People's Drug Company in'Washington, who
were sold two carloads. They served this concentrated product to their
customers as fresh orange juice. In a twoaweek trial period there was
only one customer who complained and was promptly given his dime back.8

This was the first market attempt to sell a frozen concentrated orange

juice product.

 

8. Conner, John. Op. cit. p. 20.
Anonymous. Troubles in Frozen Orange Juice. Fortune. Volume hS

(March 1950), pp. 102-105.

29

Shortly after Juice Industries placed its product on the market,
its plant was destroyed by fire. No one else was producing a frozen
concentrate at this time. Vacuum Foods, now known as Minute Maid, was
using low-temperature equipment to produce an orange concentrate powder
at Plymouth, Florida. They thought an orange concentrate powder was
the solution to the problem and were trying to develOp it. The type Of
equipment they were using was developed by the National Research
Corporation in Boston during the war. This form Of low-temperature
equipment had previously been successful in drying out penicillin, blood
plasma, and streptomycin into powder form. In 19A3, National Research
was asked to develOp an orange powder for use in Army hospitals, which
was not very successful from a retail sales point of view, especially
after the war. These were the circumstances which led them into the
frozen concentrate picture in l9b5.9

As it happened, one Of the stages in concentrating orange powder
involved the manufacture Of liquid concentrate. To meet Operation
expenses, Minute Maid Offered to freeze orange concentrate for marketing
under the Snow CrOp label. Juice Industries, Snow Crop, without plant
facilities because Of their recent fire, agreed to this arrangement.
Together these two pioneer concentrators packed only 226,000 gallons of
concentrate during the l9h5-h6 season. About half of this total was
produced by Vacuum Foods, Minute Maid, and sold by Snow CrOp on an insti-

tutional basis, as there were few retail sales that season.

 

9. Ibid.

 

10. Ibid.

30

Snow CrOp was sold tO Clinton Foods in the early part of l9h7 and
Minute Maid started to sell the concentrate it produced under its own
brand name of Minute Maid. There were many small companies that began
producing orange concentrate about this time and this brought many new
brands on the market. One Of the most outstanding companies was the
Florida Citrus Canners Cooperative in Lake dales, which received the
l9h9 Food Industries' Award for technological achievement in food
processing. This award was for producing a high-quality orange con-
centrate. This rapid development Of production capacity was so fast
that Florida had nineteen plants in 1951.

California did not produce orange concentrate until l9h8. They
were in the process of converting plants and equipment in l9h7 but did
not produce a commercial pack until l9h8. California's concentrate
industry has not expanded as fast as Florida firms have for several
reasons. One Of the primary differences is that Florida oranges are
better suited for concentrating because of the larger sizes Of fruit and
the higher solids content of the fruit. Most Of California's concentrate
plants are located near Los Angeles and had increased to eight plants in

1950.11

Progress
In its rapid development, frozen orange concentrate has shattered

records as fast as it has made them. This is evidenced by its record

 

H
H
C
O
U)
(P

ern Canner and Packer. Op. cit. p. 21.

31

given in Table Two that shows where production was not only doubled but
tripled in a year's time.

Considering the fact that frozen concentrate is not produced the
year round in either California or Florida, these are tremendous pro-
duction gains. Florida produces the major part of its concentrate from
December to June. This includes most of the mid-season and late
varieties of fruit. California packs frozen concentrate only during
the Valencia season, which extends from April through October. Now in
the midst of the seventh season of production, 1951-52, concentrators
are talking of producing h3,000,000 gallons of which 35,000,000 will
come from Florida. 0n the basis of present national production capacity
of more than 3C0,000 gallons of orange concentrate in a day of twenty-
four hours, the total Florida output for the 19h5-b6 season could have
been produced in a matter of hours. At the same time California will
expect to produce around 8,000,000 gallons for the 1951-52 season. This
is a considerable gain for California too, considering that they first
produced frozen orange concentrate in the summer of 19L8 and that the
pack reached 3,h90,000 gallons in the 19b9-SO season.l2

liith all of this tremendous production, it was only in July of 1950
that the sale of frozen concentrate caught up with canned orange juice

sales. Since that time they have been ahead of canned juice in sales.

In August of 1951, orange juice concentrate went beyond the sales of

 

12. Anonymous. Frozen Food Factbook. New York: National Wholesaler
Frozen Food Distributors, Inc., 1952, p. bl.

TABLE II

PRODUCTION OF FROZEN ORANGE JUICE CONCENTRATE
(in gallons) 13

32

 

 

 

Florida California-Arizona To tal
19hS-h6 225,68h ----- 225,68u
l9h6-h7 559,309 ----- 559,309
19h7-h8 1,935,868 h37,376 2,373,2uh
19u8-h9 10,232,831 . 1,963,035 12,195,866
19h9-50 21,6u7,000 3,L90,000 25,137,000
1950-51 30,757,656 5,161,327 ' 35,918,983

 

13. Source: fnonymous. Frozen Food Factbook. New York: National
Wholesale - Frozen Food Distributors, Inc., 1952, p. 33.

 

33

fresh oranges for the first time. Yet the consumer markets appear to
be far from the saturation point, for in no month has orange concentrate
been purchased by more than 22 percent of the householders, according to

the Nationallflholesale Food Distributer's figures in the 1952 Frozen Food
1h

Factbook.

 

1h. Ibid. p. 33.

CHAPTER IV
PdODUCTION

Definition of Concentrating

Concentrating orange juice simply means that part of the water
content of the orange juice is removed. If one puts a pan of orange
juice over a fire and boils it, the water would become hot enough to
evaporate off, and in a short period of time, he would have a sticky,
gummy concentrate base of orange juice. This is essentially what
takes place in the "hotpack" method of producing a processed concentrate.

In the production of quick-frozen orange concentrate, the juice is
subjected to heat, but it never gets hotter than room temperature.
This temperature range is from fifty to seventy-five degrees Fahrenheit.
The principle of the low-temperature-high vacuum process is easy to
understand. 'hhen orange juice is boiled at sea level, it must be
heated to 212 degrees Fahrenheit in order to evaporate the water from
it, but if the atmospheric pressure is reduced, it will boil at a much
lower temperature. To give an example of this: If you have ever
driven your car to the top of a mountain, you may have found that the
radiator was boiling by the time you reached the top. This phenomenon
is caused by the thinner atmospheric pressure at the top of the mountain.
At the top of a mountain lh,000 feet high, water will boil at 187

degrees Fahrenheit. If you could manage to take orange juice up to

35

105,000 feet you would only need fifty-five degrees of heat to cause
the water to evaporate. This is essentially what takes place inside
the evaporator units. A vacuum is present that will allow the water
to evaporate off at temperatures between fifty to seventy-five degrees
Fahrenheit. Since this is no warmer than the average temperature in
the areas where oranges are grown, no damage is caused by this small
application of heat. Approximately 90 percent of the water is removed
by this process.

There is an industry term that is used to denote the amount of
concentration. This term is "Brix." It can be defined as the amount
or percent of sugar or solids present. This is not a strict definition
of the term, but it will do for an illustration here. ‘When the term
"forty-two degrees Brix" is used, it means that h2 percent of the juice
is solids. This term will be used later on to describe the actual

evaporation and processing of the juice.

Steps in Processing the Juice

Before taking up the actual steps that the oranges go through to
be processed into frozea orange concentrate, it might be best to present
a few facts about concentrating.

The family size container for orange concentrate is a six-ounce
can, which holds the juice from eight to ten average size oranges. This
amount of concentrate, upon being reconstituted with water, yields a
pint and a half of juice. Just recently, a twelve-ounce can has been

placed on the market for consumers with larger families. It takes the

36

equivalent of a standard one and three-fifths bushel box of fresh
oranges to produce one gallon of concentrate. Quart containers and the
slightly smaller twenty-seven ounce cans are popular with the insti-
tutional trade.1

The beginning step in the concentrate plant is when the fruit is
brought and placed in the bins. In the outline of harvesting procedure
in Chapter II, this was mentioned. The fruit was checked for Quality
and maturity and bought on a weight basis of ninety pounds of fruit as
the average weight per box. Representative samples of the fruit are
automatically taken and tested for "Brix," acid, and juice yield. This
is a very important step, because it furnishes the knowledge necessary
to begin the blending and Quality control program that is so necessary
in producing good quality orange concentrate.

The fruit is dribbled out onto a conveyor belt from the bins as it
is needed. All of the cut and damaged oranges are removed by graders.
This is a small but important task, because in this continuous process,
the fruit juice is not pasturized. The bacteria content that is present
in the fruit and is allowed to accumulate in the processing equipment
gets into the juice and remains there. Consequently, sanitation is a
very important and closely supervised operation. The fruit is then sent
through a brush-and—Spray washer that uses a detergent solution for

cleaning. After passing through this washer the fruit is again graded

 

1. Anonymous. Special Report. Florida Citrus Commission. Lakeland,
Florida. January 8, 1951, p. 2.

37

and the "culls" and rejects are removed. Then the fruit passes under
a chlorine Spray that sterilizes the outer surface of the orange.

The next step is that of extracting the juice from the orange.
There are several different methods and types of equipment to do this
job. Usually the oranges are machine-sorted for size and diverted into
extractors that handle each particular size of oranges. The juice flows
in stainless steel troughs to the finishers, which are the next step.

The finishers strain the juice and remove the seed and pieces of
orange peel and other foreign matter that are present in the juice. Two
finishers are generally used, the first one has 0.027 inch holes in the
screen and handles approximately 80 to 90 percent of the juice. The
second finisher, with a one-eighth inch screen, handles approximately
10 to 20 percent of the juice. This finisher supplies the pulpy juice,
which contains pulp and juice sacs, and is held in a cold wall tank at
a temperature of thirty-four degrees Fahrenheit. The juice held in this
tank is called "cutback" juice and will be used later to blend in with
the concentrate juice. The flavor of the natural juice is retained by
adding this "cutback" juice to the concentrate.

Pulp-free juice from the first finisher is pumped into a balance
tank that feeds into a vacuum deaerator. This removes the air from the
juice and cools the juice to around forty degrees Fahrenheit. It is
from this tank that the evaporators are supplied a continuous flow of

juice. Usually the deaerator tank has a large enough capacity when full

 

2. Anonymous. Frozen Concentrated Citrus Juices. Food Industries.
Volume 21 (July l9h9), p. 66-68.

to keep the evaporators in operation for thirty to forty-five minutes.
This is done so that the extracting equipment may be stopped and cleaned
at stated intervals.

From this holding tank, the juice goes into the evaporators, where
the water is evaporated off and condensed back into water. This is an
extremely fast process where the soluble solids content is raised to
sixty degrees "Brix" within four minutes.3 These evaporator units are
rated by the amount of water vapor they can withdraw in an hour. The
largest evaporator in Florida is capable of removing 08,000 pounds of
water vapor an hour. Equipment of this capacity should produce between
eight and nine million gallons of concentrate during a season of
operation.

In a plant with 20,000 pound evaporators, it requires around 3,000
to 3,500 gallons of juice an hour to keep it operating at top speed.
This would require approximately 700 boxes of oranges an hour or between
1h,000 to 10,000 boxes in a twenty-four hour Operating period. Con-
centrate plants run twenty-four hours a day during the fruit season.

The percent of solids is about sixty degrees "Brix" when the con-
centrate comes from the evaporator units and has been subjected to
temperatures of fifty to seventy degrees Fahrenheit, depending upon
the rate of flow and the vacuum maintained in the evaporator units.

From the evaporator, the concentrate juice is pumped to the blending

 

3. Reid, J. L. and C. G. Beisel. Improved Citrus Concentrates Depends
on.Advanced Techniques. Food Industries. Volume 20 (April 19h8),
p. 81.

 

39

room. here the juice is held in cold wall tanks at approximately
twenty-six degrees Fahrenheit. The "cutback", (unconcentrated juice)
is then mixed in with this concentrated juice until the desired amount
of consistency is obtained. This figure is hl.5 to h2.5 degrees "Brix"
for orange juice.

The blended juice is then pumped through volators which slush-
freeze the juice to seventeen degrees for vacuum filling into cans.
The filled cans are then sent into an air-blast tunnel on a conveyor
belt where they are quick-frozen. The temperature of this tunnel is
between minus thirty to minus forty degrees Fahrenheit. A continuous
belt carries the cans through the tunnel. It will take approximately
twenty to thirty minutes to reduce the Center temperature of a six-ounce
can to zero degr'es. From his tunnel the cans are packed in cases,
forty-eight six-ounce cans to a case, and are placed in refrigerated
storage rooms. These cases are stored on wooden pallets in a storage
room that maintains a temperature of minus ten degrees Fahrenheit.

There is a difference in the way that Florida and California
concentrates are blended. In the Florida orange concentrate, nothing
is added to the juice; it is just a processed product. However, in
the case of some California concentrates, sugar is added to the juice
because of the low solids content of California oranges. When sugar
is added to the concentrate, it takes approximately one less box of
fruit to get the same amount of concentrate yield as a concentrate
that has no sugar added. In other words, three boxes of fruit plus the

addition of sugar, equal the same amount of concentrate yield that is

ho

received from four boxes Of fruit when processed into concentrate.
Some Of the larger firms now pack and market only Florida orange con-
centrate ecause of the low percent Of solids Obtained in California

fruit.

Sanitation

Since most concentrate plants Operate on a twenty-four hour basis,
sanitation is a constant problem. The equipment, that is exposed to
room temperature and not under a vacuum or refrigeration, is cleaned
often. The actual frequency Of this will vary in different plants.
Some clean their extractors, finishers, every four to six hours. This
is because the eQuipment is Open and subjected to room temperatures.
These cleanup periods are scheduled at stated hours during an Operating
day. After each cleanup period, samples of juice are taken from each
individual piece Of eQuipment. This sample is then tested for bacteria
count which indicates how well the equipment was cleaned.

Samples are also taken from all parts Of the plant to see how high
the bacteria count is in the processing eduipment. These samples are
then checked in a laboratory. Along with these sanitation tests taken
on the eguipment, checks are made on the finished product. Cans of
concentrate are spot-checked to reveal the amount Of bacteria present
in the finished product. This juice is by no means unfit for human
consumption. ‘Mhat this count Of bacteria shows is the amount of micro-
organisms present in the juice. This does not mean the juice is prepared

in an unsanitary manner. The average housewife would have just as high

a bacteria count from the oranges she squeezes in her own home. Some of
these organisms are harmless, others cause an acid taste in the juice,
and others cause spoilage of the juice.

There is at the present time a relatively small amount Of information
available regarding the microorganisms present in citrus‘juices. In the
canned single-strength juices, there is no danger Of spoilage because the
product is pasturized. however, the recent develOpment of unpasturized,
frozen orange concentrate has created a need for this type Of information.
It has been determined to a limited extent that bacteria, rather than
yeasts, are the predominating organisms present. It has also been found
that these bacteria are rapidly killed at the temperature which frozen
orange concentrate is stored.5

When the bacteria count reaches a specified number, the plant is
completely shut-down and all the eguipment is given a very thorough
cleaning. This type of cleanup usually occurs once a week. Eith these
strict sanitation regulations and plant cleanups, the production standard

for frozen orange concentrate is held at a high level.

Quality
The quality control program of any concentrate plant is designed
as insurance that a good product is continuously being produced. that
are some Of these checkpoints in securing an excellent preserved quality
in orange concentrate? First of all, mature fruit must be used by the

plant. here is one Of the most important checkpoints, that Of checking

 

S. Faville, L. a., E. C. hill, and E. C. Parish. Survival Of Micro-
organisms in Concentrated Orange Juice. Food Technology. Volume 5,
Number 1, 1951, p. 3h.

h2

the maturity Of incoming fruit. Another very important quality control
step is that of blending the concentrate juice with the "cutback" juice.
Sanitation, previously mentioned, is another Quality checkpoint that
must be continuously supervised by the laboratory technicians. In the
extraction of juice from oranges, the peel oil content of the juice

must be below .03 percent to avoid a bitter taste in the juice. The
vitamin C content of the juice must be maintained above forty milligrams
per one hundred grams Of juice if the nutritional.value of the concentrate
is to be maintained. These are some of the major considerations that
must be kept under close Observation and control if the finished product
is to be accepted by the consumer as a good quality Of preserved orange
juice. These problems do not appear to be very great, but on a large
scale production line, these quality control measures are magnified into
situations that are major production problems.

It is appropriate in this section on quality to point out an
advantage that orange concentrate has over fresh oranges. As was previ-
ously stated, oranges do not continue to ripen after they are picked.
Consequently, the consumer buys fresh oranges at whatever period Of
maturity they were when picked. Through the process of blending, orange
concentrate is always at its best from a maturity and quality stand-
point, whereas one fresh orange might be delicious and the next one
sour. This also gives the processed orange juice a distinct advantage
over fresh fruit because oranges can not all be picked at exactly the

right moment Of ripeness.

)43

In the processed form of orange concentrate, orange juice can be
blended so that over mature fruit can be mixed with less mature fruit.
This provides a better juice than is present in the over and less
mature fresh oranges. 'Nhat is meant by this, is that oranges with low
solids contents (around nine) can be blended with oranges of high
solids (approximately nineteen) to produce a juice that contains the
right amount of solids. Most concentrate plants want their finished
product to have a solids content of approximately twelve.

This blending process is especially useful when the seasonal change
in varieties takes place, when one variety is generally too ripe at
the end of its season and the incoming variety is not as mature as it

should be. This provides for a more efficient use of the orange crop,

as well as giving the consumer a better product.

Nutritional Value
Frozen orange concentrate is a reliable source Of vitamin C when

fruit of high nutritive quality is used in processing. Only a very
small percent of this original vitamin.C content is lost in processing
the juice.6 It has been proved by tests that approximately 98 percent
of the vitamin.C content is retained in the concentrated product.
However, this is only true on properly processed and refrigerated con-
centrate. Temperature plays a very important part in retaining the

7

nutritive value in orange concentrate.

 

6. American Medical Association. Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice. Re-
printed by Special Permission from, The Journal of the American.Medi-
cal Association by Birds-Eye Division, General Foods Corporation.

7. Roy, Wallace R. Retention of Vitamin C in Concentrated Quick-Frozen
Orange Juice. Food Industries. Volume 20 (December l9h8), p. 110.

 

There is a danger that the vitamin C content might be lost from
the juice by imprOper handling and storage in the home. This is where
consumer education is a very necessary and vital part of insuring the
quality Of the product until it is consumed. A good quality product is
Of no value to the consumer if they unknowingly destroy its nutritive
value just prior to consuming it. Ideally, the juice should be consumed
as soon as possible after reconstituting it with water to Obtain the
maximum vitamin C value. However, if the reconstituted juice is placed
in the refrigerator at forty degrees Fahrenheit, the vitamin C loss is
small.

The vitamin C content varies with different varieties Of oranges.
This is due in part to seasonal influences. Fruit that is picked in
the middle of the season for a specific variety is higher in vitamin C
content than fruit picked early or late in the season. Other factors,
including the variety Of fruit, degree of ripeness and condition Of
the soil, effect the vitamin C content.

Orange juice contains, in addition to its high amount Of vitamin
C and P, quantities Of vitamin B1, B2, niacin, pantothenic acid,
pyridoxin, biotin, inositol, folic acid, and vitamin A. It also has a
fair amount Of calcium, potash, and phosphate. From two to six ounces
Of reconstituted orange concentrate per day will fulfill all Of the

normal requirements for vitamin C in the body.

 

8. Roy, Hallace R. The Nutritional Value Of Frozen Concentrated Orange
Juice. Phamphlet from, Minute Maid Corporation, Plymouth, Florida.

p. 2.

9. Roy, a. H. Ibid. p. 2.

The production of frozen orange concentrate is a very technical
process that reguires close supervision in its many phases of production.
It gives the consumers a good Quality Of orange juice on a year round
basis. It is easy and convenient to prepare. There is no mess and
bother with sgueezing enough oranges to provide juice for the entire
family. It also provides orange juice of comparable Quality to that
Of fresh oranges in out-Of-the-way places that do not have a readily
available supply of fresh fruit. The advent and production of orange
concentrate gives orange juice a more universal appeal in that it can

be sold wherever adequate refrigeration facilities are present.

CHAPTER V
Tm. N oPOliTI If G

Because of its compactness orange concentrate does reduce shipping
cost from the sta dpoint of the amount Of weight to be shipped. The
average-sized can is six-ounces and is packed forty-eight to a case.
This case weighs approximately twenty-eight pounds. This small twenty-
eight pound case is replacing approximately two boxes of fresh fruit,

a considerable saving in weight and space. To emphasize this point, it
would take approximately sixty cars Of fresh fruit with an average Of
500 boxes per car to equal the amount Of concentrated orange juice in

six refrigerated carloads.

Temperature

Quick-frozen orange concentrate must be transported at very low
temperatures. This was an extremely difficult task not so many years
ago. For any type of equipment to be able to transport frozen orange
concentrate safely, it should be able to keep a temperature of zero
degrees Fahrenheit, which adds considerable cost to the transporting
Operation.

One concentrate firm specified that they would not ship in units that
did not have six inches Of insulation, because if the temperature Of the
shipment is allowed to increase while in transit, it seldom regains the

desired temperature when stored in the warehouse. The purpose of the

h?

cold storage warehouse is to have zero degree temperature or colder,
but not to maintain quick freezing eguipment. Also, if the temperature
increases, it would allow the nutritional value Of the concentrate to
be damaged. Therefore, it is important that the proper temperature be
maintained while the product is in transit.

Because of the long distance that Orange concentrate must be shipped,
refrigeration is a very important factor. California and Florida are
both far from some of the large central markets. Up tO this time,
truckers have taken the initiative in supplying units that would give a
satisfactory temperature during transit. hith the advent of the mechani-
cally refrigerated type of railroad car, the railroad companies have
taken a step in the right direction to insure safe temperatures for frozen
food products.

Another requirement that is necessary in these transportation units
is the use Of wall and floor racks. The purpose Of this is to keep the
cases Of concentrate Off the floor and away from the wall to allow for
the proper circulation Of the cold air. ho temperature, however low,

l Another

can protect cases stacked flat against smooth walls and floors.
requirement is that all railroad cars and semi-trailers should be pre-
cooled before loading. If proper pre-cooling is practiced there should

only be a small temperature increase when the cases of orange concentrate

are loaded into the transportation unit. All the effort that goes into

 

}“\fl. anonymous. Temperature Proplems in the Concentrate Industry.
a,” Minute Maid Corporation. Plymouth, Florida, 1950. p. S.

LB

producing a good quality concentrate will be wasted unless proper
temperatures are maintained during transit. Safe, low-cost transporta-
tion of orange concentrate is one of the major problems facing the
industry today. This problem is common to all types of frozen food

products which can be damaged by high temperatures.

Rail Facilities

At the present time, there are approximately 25,000 insulated
refrigerated cars in the United States, which the railroads claim are
suitable for handling frozen food shipments. However, this is a very
misleading statement. This figure covers cars that have only three or
four inches of insulation, which is not enough to protect frozen foods,
especially orange concentrate, from high temperatures. It has been
estimated that only one out of ten of these refrigerated cars are
insulated enough to maintain a zero temperature.2 A heavily insulated
car should have at least six inches of insulation in the roof, sides,
ends, and floor. Table III shows the number of these heavily insulated
refrigerated cars available in l9h7, l9h8, and l9h9.

This was the situation several years ago, and it was a major problem
for most frozen food firms. ‘When.the frozen food industry first began
to ship its products by rail, they soon realized that the standard refriger-
ated car with only two or three inches of insulation did not provide
adeguate protection of the product while in transit. Most companies were
induced to add more insulation to their cars, but for the majority of

shippers, the old standard refrigerated cars were all that were available.

 

2. Anonymous. Frozen.Food Factbook. New York: National Wholesale
Frozen Food Distributors, Inc., 1952, p. 71.

 

TABLE III

APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF HEAVILY INSULATED RAILROAD CARS
AVAILABLE IN 19h7, 19u8, AND 19u93

 

 

Car or Company

 

 

Initials 19h? l9h8 19u9

AHRX 25 25 25
AhT 25 22 22
BRE 30 3o 29
FOBX h9 59 75
FOB 73 72 170
133 1m. 191 um
GAhX 85 63 63
MDT 9 5 5
NRC h7 h9 ' h8
NHIX So 100 99
NR X 55 6b 614
NADX 226 226 226
PFE h13 blO not
SFRD 21414 214).; 213
VRT 361 383 383
Total 1795 1853 1956

 

3. Source: Anonymous. Frozen Food Factbook. New York: National
h‘holesale Frozen Food Distributors, Inc ., 1952, p. )4}.

 

The rapid growth of the orange concentrate and the frozen food
industry in general after horld har II was part of the reason why there
was not enough suitable equipment for low temperature transportation.
Also, besides the heavy demands placed on the railroads during this
time, there was a shortage of railway cars, which had develOped during
the critical shortage of available materials for construction purposes
during horld War II. This forced the frozen food shippers to use the
same type of car that was used for fresh perishable food products.
These lightly insulated cars with end bunkers were kept as cold as
possible with coarse ice and the addition of 30 percent salt. These
cars were not satisfactory for frozen food shipments and led to the
construction of cars with heavier insulation. Some of the new cars
were equipped with top bunkers instead of end bunkers for icing.Ll The
tOp icers are different from the end bunkers in that they have a series
of hatches on the top of the car. Most of these tOp icers are equipped
with ten overhead tanks, each tank having a capacity of 900 pounds of
crushed ice. This compares with the heavily insulated end bunker cars
which have a capacity of approximately 10,800 pounds of coarse ice.

The heavily insulated top icers are more suitable for frozen food ship-
ments than the end bunker types. However, there are not many of these
cars available for use by the frozen food industry. On the other hand,

there are about 20,000 cars of the end bunker type available for use now.5

 

h. Ibid. p. 53.

5. Larson, J. S., J. A. Nixon, and E. C. Stokes. Marketing Frozen Foods.
United States Department of Agriculture, Production and Marketing
Administration,'hashington, June l9ho, p. hS.

51

The standard refrigerated car with three and a half inches of
insulation is not as large as the heavily insulated cars and has an
average ice capacity of 10,000 pounds. This type of car, is equipped
with fans and can be used for very short hauls, providing there are no
long delays in transit.

In refrigerated cars that are iced, 30 percent salt is added. For
every one hundred pounds of ice, thirty pounds of salt are added to
keep the car as cold as possible. With the addition of 30 percent salt,
the standard refrigeration charges are increased approximately 50 per-
cent, which makes it rather expensive to ship frozen foods.6

On a transcontinental run by rail approximately 36,000 pounds of
ice and 10,800 pounds of salt are used per car at a cost of $22h.00.
This same run with a car containing two mechanical refrigeration units
used 218 gallons of fuel at a cost of $952.00.7 This statement gives
some indication of the difference in cost between ice and mechanical
refrigeration. Taking into consideration the fact that the mechanical
units cost more, this expense could be made up by reduced refrigeration
costs and time lost in switching cars to an icing station. The rail-
roads have brought out several models of mechanical refrigeration units
that have proved very successful, but as yet, there are not enough of
them to serve the frozen food industry.

At present, the railroads have two different types of mechanical

refrigerated cars. One has a Thermo King refrigeration unit which

 

6. Ibid. p. A6.
7. Frozen Food Factbook. 9p. git. p. 55.

52

Operates from a four-cylinder gasoline engine. Two of these units are
mounted in one end of the car in a compartment with the width of two
normal ice bunkers. The other type of refrigeration unit is made by
Frigidaire and is diesel-powered. This unit is contained in one end of
the car and fuel is carried in a 2h0 gallon tank underneath the car.
Both of these mechanical refrigerated cars are forty feet long and have
six inches of insulation.

These mechanical units are able to keep the desired constant
temperature that frozen orange concentrate requires while in transit.
An advantage of this type of car is that it can bring the car temperature
back to zero degrees after it has been loaded. All cars that carry
frozen food and frozen orange concentrate are pre-cooled before loading
but lose part of this coldness when they are loaded. If the railroads
can supply enough of these types of cars to frozen food shippers, they
will have taken a step towards recovering the frozen food traffic which

they have been steadily losing to trucking companies.

Truck Facilities
In the early days of frozen food shipments, trucks were used only
for short hauls. The first trucks only had from two to four inches of
insulation and were refrigerated by barrels of wet ice and salt.

Gradually, trucks with six inches of insulation were put into operation.

 

8. Redit, W. H., H. D. Johnson, J. D. Hall, R. Cubbedge and J. Kaufman.
Transportation of Frozen Citrus Concentrate By Railroad and Motor-
truck From Florida to Northern.harkets. United States Department of
Agriculture, Hashington, Agricultural Information Bulletin No. 82,
p. 3.

53

These trucks were kept cold with dry ice on the top of the load or in
bunkers in the top of the truck. Today, trucks have mechanical refriger-
ation units that do a very efficient job of holding zero temperatures.
In many cases, trucks were able to attain lower temperatures than rail-
way cars because trucking firms could modernize their eQuipment much
faster and at less cost.9

Trucks have made considerable gains in the frozen food transporta-
tion field at the expense of the railroad. This growth can be attributed
10

to several reasons:

1. They are speedier on most hauls, particularly on short
overnight hauls between nearby cities.

2. They reduce extra handling and are able to transport to
areas where rail facilities are lacking. This is a
great advantage to receivers that do not have rail sidings.

3. Frequently, they are capable of maintaining more desirable
temperatures. The increase in the number of properly re-
frigerated trailers has been much greater than that of
railway cars. ‘

h. Generally, they are much more economical on short hauls.

5. Trailer trucks are a much more flexible means of trans-
portation. This type of Operation is indispensable in
supplying points that need less than carload shipments.

The majority of trailers that haul long distance shipments of

orange concentrate have mechanical refrigeration units. However, many

refrigerated trucks are constructed for cooler temperatures only and

are not suitable for transporting frozen commodities. The biggest

 

9. Frozen Food Factbook. QE- cit. p. 55.

10. Larson, Nixon, Stokes. ‘Qp. cit. p. 52.

5h

difficulty with the mechanical refrigerated systems in trucks is that
moving parts are subject to breakdown and repair. Recent changes in
the arrangement and construction of the refrigeration systems on trucks
have corrected this situation somewhat.

Truck transportation companies have a serious disadvantage on long
haul shipments. The lack of uniform state road-weight laws is the
cause of this handicap. These laws vary from h2,000 pounds in Kentucky,
Missouri, and Tennessee to 60,000 pounds in New Jersey for a single
axle tractor. Semi-trailers, taking into consideration the height and
length of the trailer, vary from h2,000 pounds in Kentucky to 80,000
pounds in Best Virginia.11

The trucking industry has done much to provide the prOper type of
eQuipment that is necessary in transporting frozen orange concentrate

as well as frozen foods.

Rail Versus Truck

In one particular warehouse in.Chicago the incoming shipments of
frozen orange concentrate are 13 percent by rail and 87 percent by
truck. This is not meant to be taken as an over-all average, but it
does indicate that trucks are transporting more frozen concentrate to
a central market such as Chicago.

In comparing the use of trucks and rail facilities for the ship-
ment of frozen orange concentrate, one of the first considerations would

probably be load size. A truck can haul, subject to different weight

 

ll. Frozen.Food.Factbook. 2p. cit. p. 55.

SS

regulations by individual states, from 1,000 to 1,200 cases of orange
concentrate. This compares with 2,000 to 2,500 cases for a normal
railroad car and approximately b,500 cases in the new type of refriger-
ated car. The size of the shipment could definitely be a deciding
factor. If the shipment is going to a large warehouse that can handle

a carload of orange concentrate, the railway car would probably be given
preference. However, a good many shipments are to frozen food dis-
tributors and food chains that do not have a large enough volume to
handle a carload shipment which is twice the size of a truck shipment.
This is where trucks have a decided advantage over the railroads.

Another advantage Of trucks is that they have more equipment that
provides proper temperature control available to shifpers than do the
railroads. however, the new type of railroad car can hold an edually
low temperature to that of a truck. There is a definite shortage of
mechanically refrigerated railroad cars at the present time and its use
is limited to a few shippers.

Trucks have the advantage over rail shipments in that they are
very flexible. They are not limited in their area of Operation as are
the railroads. Since many of the customers in this new frozen food
field do not have any rail facilities at their plant or warehouse,
trucks are given the job of transporting orange concentrate to these
distributors.

An advantage that railway cars have over trucks is that they are
generally loaded through a canvas tunnel that permits cold air from the

cold storage warehouse to enter the car. This lessens the possibility

of a temperature drop in the railway car as well as in the product.

In general, no protective covering of this nature is provided for trucks.
This is not the fault of the trucking firms, but of the orange con-
centrate plants, which have not provided proper loading docks for them.

Truck transportation is much faster than rail delivery. This is
eSpecially true on short hauls of 500 miles. The new type of mechani—
cally refrigerated rail cars will help to remove this large difference
in delivery time because they do not have to be switched into re-icing
stations every twenty-four hours, which is time consuming.

Some of the larger concentrate companies prefer to use rail ship-
ments to send their product to centrally located warehouses in specific
regions. In this way, they are able to ship larger shipments to the
warehouse, who then break down the shipment into smaller lots for re-
shipment to individual distributors. Minute Maid has one hundred of
these regional or centrally located warehouses that supply the needs

of the distributors in that particular area.

Handling
The cases Of frozen concentrate are stored in the cold storage room
on "floats" or pallets. These pallets are so constructed that they can
be moved around by a small fork-lift truck. These small trucks operate
from giant size batteries which work very efficiently in the low
temperatures of the cold storage room. Cases are stacked on the pallets
in an Open pattern that permits complete circulation of air around each

case. The temperature of these cold storage rooms is between minus

57

fifteen and minus ten degrees Fahrenheit for most concentrate plants.
The cases of concentrate generally remain at this point for one week,
at least, to be sure that the product does not have a chance to thaw-
out immediately after processing.

In loading both trucks and railway cars, conveyors eguipped with
rollers that allow the cases to slide along the convevor are used. In
rail shipments, these conveyors are placed inside canvas tunnels to
minimize the loss of cold air. This practice is not followed in load-
ing trucks where both rear doors are open for loading. It usually takes
approximately an hour to load a semi-trailered truck, which allows the
loss of coldness already obtained in the trailer from pre-cooling.

A tunnel between the trailer and storage room or a canvas curtain over
the doorway of the trailer would minimize the loss of temperature.

This same problem is encountered in the unloading Operations where
the cases are often unloaded at a considerable distance from the ware-
house cold room. There is a definite need for better loading and un-
loading facilities for both rail and truck shipments. Frozen food,
and especially frozen orange concentrate, needs careful handling to in—
sure the consumer of getting the quality of product that is sealed in
the package or can. The transportation industry has done a lot to
improve the quality of their refrigeration units to meet the demands of
this relatively new industry. However, much attention needs to be
directed to the loading and unloading operations, so that the efforts of
good production practices and improved transportation facilities are not

in vain.

CRAFT ER VI
IVIJLR’LET IN G

The marketing of frozen orange concentrate follows very closely
the pattern set by the frozen foods industry as a whole. Frozen food
distribution is an example of a young industry that has grown up too
fast, stumbling along as it learns to Operate in a highly competitive
field of food marketing. In a way, it grew up so fast that it had not
learned to crawl before it was walking with established methods of
marketing. This rapid transition caused many hard falls and serious
setbacks to the industry. ‘hhen one considers that the normal estab-
lished patterns Of marketing procedure were absent, it is remarkable
that the frozen food industry has shown the success it has in marketing
a new product.

Not only was the product new, but the methods of marketing were
different and untried. Most new products have their future acceptance
smoothed over with the best marketing methods available. This was not
true in the marketing of frozen orange concentrate. There were as many
problems to face in its marketing procedure as there were in its in-
ception and commercial production. This product did not fit into the
regular channels of distribution because it needed special handling and
facilities. Not only did this new product need refrigeration, but it

needed a special form of low temperature refrigeration. These facilities

59

had to be develOped and expanded at the same time that a new product
was placed before the public for consumer acceptance.

In general, one might say that the frozen food industry started
Operations in a state of over-all confusion., Production technigues
were not standardized, nor were grades. Some producers put a fine
Quality product on the market while others were continually undermining
the product's consumer acceptance with inferior packs. However, orange
concentrate made a rapid accent into the acceptable consumer products'
group deSpite these disadvantages.

Besides facing untried marketing methods and thoroughly inadeguate
transportation and warehouse facilities, few retail outlets had display
cases that could prOperly handle the product. This was one Of the
most difficult problems confronted by the industry. How could it place
orange concentrate before its potential customers in the retail outlets?
Store owners and managers were nOt going to invest a sizable sum of
money in refrigerated display equipment to sell the new untested products
of the frozen food industry. This problem was further magnified by the
fact that the few refrigerated display cabinets on the market in l9h5
were not very acceptable. New cabinets were develOped that could main-
tain the desired temperature and give the consumer a view of the product,
but not until frozen food sales were virtually bottlenecked by the lack
of this equipment.

Various food store fixture companies were quick to supply the need
for this form of diSplay cases. Much credit for frozen foods' rapid
rise in pOpularity can be given to these companies that provided a way

for it to be retailed properly.

Then came the problem of the customers themselves. The frozen
food products sold themselves on the waste they eliminated and the
Quality they preserved, but how could the would-be consumers use this
product, unless they had the required refrigeration temperature in
their own home or they made a trip to the grocery store just before
meal time? It is very easy to see what some of these seemingly un-
surmountable problems were that this new industry faced.

Table IV shows the amount of frozen food capacity that is avail-
able in the home cabinets of consumers in relation to the production of
frozen foods. The frozen food production figures given are for all
frozen fruits and vegetables packed in retail containers during the
specified years. The capacity of home freezers are figured in pounds
and are for freezers not more than five years old. These figures show
that it was not until 1950 that home freezer capacity exceeded that of
the retailed packaged form of frozen foods. This gives evidence to the
serious handicap the frozen food industry had in first merchandising
their products for home consumption.

Orange concentrate, as well as frozen foods, probably had success-
ful results earlier with the institutional trade. These users were
better equipped with more satisfactory refrigeration facilities at the
beginning to handle this new product. Also, the labor saving value of
frozen foods was more apparent to them and meant dollars and cents
savings in Operational cost. These users were not the main market ob-
jectives of the industry, but they helped provide the industry with a

secure footing until further retail sales could be obtained from millions

TABLE IV

PRODUCTION OF FROZEN FRUITS ANu VEGETABLES COMPARED‘WITH
Fasuzaa carchTr OF HOME CABINE‘Sl

61

 

 

Million
_§ounds

 

800

700

600

\n
[0
U1
w
CD

LL
500
has
h36
LOO
359

300
25h 292
169
100

62

813

 

19h? l9h8 19h9 1950 19

9

J1

 

Figure on left for each year is frozen food production.
Figure on right for each year is for home freezer capacity.

 

1..Anonymous. Frozen Food Factbook. New York: National hholesale
Frozen Food Distributors, Inc., 1952, p. 113.

 

62

of potential customers. In 1952, it was estimated that the retail
trade was only 20 percent developed, compared with 75 percent in the
institutional field. These figures apply only to the number of outlets
for frozen foods, not to the volume saturation, which is undoubtedly
less than 50 percent for frozen foods and around 20 percent for frozen
orange concentrate.2

The necessary investment in equipment for the marketing of frozen
food has been high. Frozen foods, however, have been well adapted to a
recent innovation in food merchandising. Self-service reguires packages
and containers that are adaptable to this method of Operation. Frozen
food with proper display cases has fitted into this form of merchandis-
ing with great success. Probably a great deal Of the success Of frozen
food sales in such a short period Of time can be attributed to this
technique of merchandising.

This brief introduction into some of the industry's problems of
standards, equipment, and marketing procedures shows why the lack of
organization Of the industry prevents it from making a unified effort
to operate. Many of these problems have been solved, some only

temporarily, because the industry is still growing.

Channels of Distribution
In following the channels of distribution of frozen orange con-
centrate, the warehouse of the producer is where the marketing of the

A

{2. Fitzgerald, Gerald.A. Frozen Food Distribution. Food Industries.
‘\ Volume 22 (September 1950) , pp. ass-c9.

 

product begins. All concentrate plants have their own cold storage
rooms. Some of these refrigerated warehouses are really large--one of
the largest in Florida holds three million cases of orange concentrate.
The chart that shows the lines of distribution on the following
page will be explained below. As the lines in this chart indicate,
all shipments originate from the producer's warehouse. This includes
the large industry leaders as well as small independent or cooperative
plants. Because the production of orange concentrate is so fast, some
firms that lack sufficient warehouse space move shipments of orange
concentrate in the general market direction. These shipments are stored
in cold storage warehouses, which are classified as in transit ware-
houses in the chart. This method Of Operation reduces the amount Of
operational capital needed, because only part Of the shipping charges
are paid. These shipments are classified under in transit shipping
regulations. An example of this would be, for direct shipment to Omaha,
Nebraska, the shipping charges are approximately sixty cents per case
from Florida. If 1,000 cases were shipped and placed in storage there,
the freight bill would be §o00.00. However, if the same shipment
was only sent on its first leg to market, say to Atlanta, Georgia, the
freight would be approximately ten cents per case or a total of wlO0.00,
which makes a difference-Of £500.00 in prepaid freight on this shipment.
In large industry wide operations, this can become an enormous figure.
However, some shipments are sent directly to the terminal markets or to

local destination consignees. It is only on shipments that do not have

an immediate market that are shipped in transit.

eh

Figure l.

CHANNELS OF DISTRIBUTION FOd OhAth CONCELTRATE

 

lPacker's‘Varehouse]
V [*

 

 

 

 

 

[In Transitlfarehouse

 

 

 

Regional Sales Offices "

or I
Brokerehgent l

1' [Regional or Terminal

 

 

 

 

harehouses

1 Local Public'harehouses

 

 

 

 

A

I
l
I

 

 

 

 

[Local Distributors I

1 Private Private Local or Private
Warehouse 'Warehouse ‘harehouse

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

‘r _ + z/

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

V Institutional Packer Packer
Users Distributor Distributor
Brand Private
Retailers Brand
_. Retailers

 

 

 

 

i

 

 

 

 

V

[Consumers]

 

 

 

 

-dv—1House to House}--—--
—+—-l Locker Plants }———-

 

C.‘\
\R

Large shipments of orange concentrate are sent to regional or
terminal cold storage warehouses in big metropolitan centers. This
Space is usually obtained on a rental basis. The regional sales
representatives of the producers who have their own marketing organi-
zations are located here. If the company does not have its own sales-
men, a food broker, acting as their agent, represents them.

These terminal warehouses have a large stock of frozen concentrate.
In this way, they can receive large shipments Of concentrate from the
distant producing areas and have a ready supply for the nearby markets.
Shipments are then made to local distributors or local warehouses where
the distributor has refrigerated space. The regional sales office and
brokers act as the producer's sales Office in that region. They do not
have actual physical possession of the product. The service they perform
is more of a coordination Of ordering and selling the product to local
distributors and large food chains. There is a trend for the large food
retailers to by-pass the local distributor in purchasing orange concentrate
as well as frozen food.

The warehousing Operation in terminal markets is a rather expensive
stop. The basis for charges by most cold storage warehouses is approxi-
mately this; The first month's charges for handling and storage is
thirty-five cents per hundred weight. The second month's charges for
storage are approximately fifteen cents per hundred weight. These charges
are not proportional over the month. If the merchandise stays in the

warehouse only one day, it is still billed for a month. These facts have

led most firms to reduce their inventories as much as possible.

C\
0\

Minute Maid has a policy of storing less than a sixty day supply in
.these terminal warehouses. They have at their diSposal in this country,
one hundred such terminal warehouse facilities, which are located in
major cities. Generally, this Space is rented from warehouse companies.

These big terminal warehouses carry the necessary inventory for
local distributors and other buyers who can not afford to handle large
shipments. These warehouses provide an immediate source of supply for
buyers within their area. The reason for these large centrally located
warehouses is to stabilize the marketing of orange concentrate. Their
presence provides the necessary inventory for small buyers to draw on
and receive rapid delivery. This cuts down the inventory stock that the
local distributor and other large buyers, such as food retailers, have
to carry in their own warehouses. This is good for all concerned, because
the local distributor and other large Quantity buyers are not out to
speculate on the price of orange concentrate, which would be the case if
they were reguired to buy enough orange concentrate that would last them
for several months. These local distributors are Operating for a
business profit, not a Speculative profit in inventories. In most cases,
they would not have the capital to invest in such an operation, which
is also expensive from the standpoint of refrigerated warehouse charges.
Also, it provides for small dealers who are located near the terminal
markets and do not have local or private warehouse facilities.

Next down the line of distribution comes the local warehouse.
In many cases, direct shipments are made to local warehouses straight

from the concentrate plant. Local distributors often have rented Space

61

in these local warehouses and Operate from them. Refrigeration in
warehouses is an expensive item. It was estimated in 1950 that
500,000,000 cubic feet of gross warehouse Space had been made available
for frozen foods. This approximately indicates an investment of

3

$250,000,000 for this available warehouse space. It is no wonder that
few local frozen food distributors have their own refrigerated warehouses.
These local distributors can be specialized in their Operations.
Some have only retail customers and others Specialize in institutional
users. However, there are local distributors who perform both types of
Operations. All this depends a great deal on the Size Of the market
that is served.
Most local frozen food distributors Operate from two basic plans.
One method is used when a driver-salesman calls on the customers, takes
the orders, and delivers the merchandise at the same time. The other
method is used when an advance salesman calls and takes the order, which
is delivered at a later date by a delivery truck. This second method
was probably used more at the beginning of frozen food distribution
because Of the Shortage of refrigerated delivery trucks. However, the
trend is towards the first method of driver-salesman, which is the method
used in other food distribution fields in serving the retailers and some
institutional users.

There are certain advantages and disadvantages for both methods.

In the advanced sales method, the route mileage of the delivery truck

 

3. Ibid. P. 66.

is liable to be less than that of the driver-salesman's truck because
no stOps are made except when deliveries are to be made. However, the
delivery truck for the advance salesman might not Operate efficiently
at a full load because Of deliveries made to certain customers on
different days of the week. The driver-salesman system has the ad-
vantage Of enabling the driver to increase the size of the delivery tO
those customers who make unexpected demands. Adequate equipment must
be used in the case Of the driver-salesman. If sales and deliveries
are less than expected, the delivery truck used by the driver-salesman
must be able tO maintain a low enough temperature to insure the frozen
food from rising more than five degrees Fahrenheit when it is finally
brought back to the plant.h

Modified ice cream trucks have proven fairly successful in frozen
food distribution. There are several methods of refrigerating delivery
'trucks: dry ice, mechanical refrigeration units, and cold-hold plates.
The cold-hold plates must be efrozen each night when the truck returns
to the warehouse. This can be done by connecting the plates to the
warehouse's refrigeration lines.

Some of the larger food chains order their needs of frozen orange
concentrate directly from the packer. This is eSpecially true of private
label brands of orange concentrate. However, some packer brands are
brought directly from the packer and from the terminal warehouses in the

central market areas.

 

h. Anonymous. Ice Cream Trucks Serve In Frozen.FOOd Distribution.
Food Industries. Volume 20 (May l9h8), pp. llh-llS.

 

In the case of one large food chain, the buyers order orange con-
centrate directly from the packer and terminal warehouse and employ a
frozen food distributor to make regular deliveries for them at a fixed
cost. In this system, the retail store phones the chain's branch
headquarters, which fills out the order form and sends it to the frozen
food distributor who delivers the orders to the retail stores from the
chain's inventory of orange concentrate. The fixed price of delivery
is usually figured on a per case basis and orders and deliveries are
handled in case lots, eliminating the service of a salesman calling at
the stores and reducing selling cost.

There is some orange concentrate and frozen foods sold by locker
plants and house to house distributors. This form Of distribution is
very small for orange concentrate. Too many companies entered the home
delivery field right after World'Ear II and were competing for space in
too few home-owned freezer cabinets. The idea of home deliveries has
its merits, but because of the lack Of home freezers and the high cost
of this service in relation to the sales volume, the system did not work
”well. In fifty cities in the United States surveyed by the United States
Department Of Agriculture in l9h9, only eighteen cities had house
delivery services of any consequence. In most cases the home delivery
services were operated in conjunction with home freezer sales.5

The cost of frozen food distribution is high. The main reason for

this is the necessity of merchandising and handling the items in the

 

5. Larsen, J. 3., J. A. Mixon, and E. C. Stokes. Marketing Frozen Foods.
United States Department of Agriculture, Production and Marketing
Administration, hashington, June l9ho, p. 125.

70

frozen state. Keeping frozen food products under low temperature
refrigeration during the many months they are stored or on their way to
market is a costly process. Cheaper means of refrigeration and less re-
handling Of the shipments are necessary in the future if the cost of

frozen foods and its distribution are to be reduced.

Retail Sales
It has been estimated that 56 percent of commercial frozen foods
reach the consumer through retail outlets. The other hh percent reaches
the consumer through institutional and other outlets.j This estimation

6

was made in l9h9. Of the 56 percent going to the consumers in the
retail-size packages, the majority of it is marketed through retail food

stores. There is only a very small percentage marketed through locker

plants and house to house selling organizations.

‘5
r.

In the retail field, the bottleneck has been in the refrigerated
display cabinets that could maintain a proper level of temperature and
yet display the merchandise. Retailers have been induced to buy display
cabinets on a long term basis, rent, or even permit the local distributor
to supply him with a cabinet. There are all kinds of arrangements between
the retailers and the frozen food distributor, some who are also in the
appliance business, on the installation of frozen food display cases.

On the basis Of a nationwide sample of retail stores by the United
States Department of Agriculture in August 1950, it was estimated that

approximately two out of every five retail food stores had frozen

 

6. Ibid. p. 123.

71

concentrated orange juice in their stores. This compares with about one
out of every four for August Of 19h9. This availability Of frozen orange
concentrate is in food chains and large independent food stores that
can afford to invest in display cabinets. It has also been estimated
that frozen concentrates are more widely distributed in medium-sized and
large cities, rather than in towns of less than 10,000 pOpulation.7

In determining the type Of retail outlets where frozen orange
concentrate is sold, information has been tabulated on independents,
natidnal chains, regional chains, and other outlets. These surveys were
conducted by the National Consumer Panel of Industrial Surveys Company
for the United States Department of Agriculture, starting in l9h9.8

The definition of "national chain" includes only the three largest
national food chains in this survey. "Regional chains" denotes other
companies having four or more retail food stores under a common manage-
ment. The term "independent" is used to describe food stores of the
unaffiliated type. "Other outlets" is a grouping Of such outlets as
delicatessen, fruit stands, speciality stores, and other stores having
food departments.

TO summarize some of their findings, regional chains are the lead-

ing outlet for frozen orange concentrate. From October of 19h9 through

 

7. Johnson, D. B. {arketing Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice. The
Marketing and Transportation Situation, United States Department of
Agriculture,1¢ashington, Series hTS-Ql, December 1950, pp. 6-12.

8. U. 8. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Consumer Fruit and Juice
Purchases July-September 1951, United States Department of Agricul-
ture, hashington, December 1951, p. 12.

September of 1950, they sold just under five and a half million gallons
of concentrate. In the following period from October, 1950, through
September, 1951, they increased this figure to almost nine million
gallons.

The independent and national chains are almost edual in the amount
of orange concentrate sold. From October, 19h9, through September,
1950, the independent outlets sold approximately five million gallons
Of orange concentrate. This compares with the following year Of sales,
which was six and one-half million gallons. The national chains sold
approximately four and a half million gallons from October, l9h9, through
September, 1950. In the following year, sales had increased to approxi-
mately six and a half million gallons of orange concentrate.

Other outlets share only a very small percent of the retail market.
Their sales figures for both years were around three-fourth of a million
gallons. These increases show that sales are very high in stores that
are equipped to handle and display concentrated orange juice prOperly,
and that it is increasing with the availability of store display cabinets
and freezers in the consumers' homes.

The average percentage of frozen food sales in the retail food
stores is around h to 5 percent of total sales. This figure is only an
average figure and does not reveal those stores that are below and above

9

this figure.

 

9. Frozen Food Factbook. 92° 32:. p. 73.

9,,

The price spread from what the consumers pay for frozen orange
concentrate and the price of the oranges to the processor was between
seventeen and nineteen cents per six-ounce can for six large cities in
the first six months of 1950. These cities that were surveyed by the
United States Department of Agriculture were Boston, Chicago, Cleveland,
New York, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis. These marketing charges cover all
costs of production, wholesaling and retailing, advertising, and trans-
portation, as well as profits. &

This can be compared with canned single-strength orange juice,
whose marketing charges averaged for the same period, approximately
eleven to twelve cents for a number two can. There is twenty—four
ounces to a six-ounce can of orange concentrate when it is reconstituted,
and only ei; hteen ounces in a numoer two can which makes a slight
difference forc comparison. However, a number two can with eighteen
ounces is three-fourths of the twenty-four ounces obtained from the six-
ounce can of orange concentrate. Thus in comparing egual amounts of
each, single-strength orange juice runs twelve cents in comparison to
fourteen cents in price Spread for an equal amount of orange concentrate.
Frozen orange concentrate is still a more costly form of orange juice
than the single-strength canned juice. These higher costs are reflected
in the higher charges for transportation and refrigerated warehousing

for frozen orange concentrate.

 

lO. Parr, Kathryn Retail Cost and Price Spread for Frozen Concentrated

z and Single-Strength Orange Juice. .The Marketing and Transportation
Situation. United States Department of Agriculture, tashington,
Series hTS-9l, December 1950, pp. 13-16.

Frozen foods are here to stay, and so is frozen orange concentrate.

U3

eginning January of 1951, three important frozen foods-~strawberries,
orange concentrate, and peas were added to the regular monthly govern-
ment index of food prices, because they had become too important an
item to overlook in modern family spending. Thus a better method of
satisfying consumer wants will always succeed. Now it is up to the
industry to reduce some of the high distribution costs that keep the

retail price of frozen foods above similar items processed and preserved

by other methods.

carprsa VII
serum

The record of growth made by the processors and distributors of
frozen orange concentrate since the end of horld.har II can be matched

by few industries. when frozen concentrate was first manufactured on
a commercial scale in the 19hS-ho season, the output for that twelve
month period was 226,000 gallons, and it consumed only one-fifth of one
percent of the oranges grown in the United States. In the 19h8-h9
season, this had increased to over twelve million gallons, and if it
had been stacked in one place, it would have made a golden glacier
sixty feet wide, five feet deep, and one mile long.1
The 1950—51 production figure was almost thirty-six million gallons,
which is approximately three times the 19h8-h9 figure, only two years
before. hith production develOping this fast, much had to be done in
the marketing field to sell these enormous increases in production.
During the first years of production, marketing was limited mainly
to hotel, restaurant, and soda fountain trade. These ventures were so

successful that considerable quantities were beginning to be marketed in

the retail food stores in l9h7. The expansion of frozen orange

 

l. Pubols, Ben H. New Orange Product Rapidly tins Place in Breakfast
Menu. The Agricultural Situation, United States Department of
Agriculture, Washington, Volume 3h, No. h, April 1950, p. 10.

7:3

concentrate in retail food stores is growing continuously. Also, the
availability of more suitable refrigerated display cases in retail
stores should help to increase the market expansion of orange con-
centrate. Frozen orange concentrate was the number one seller among
frozen foods in 1950.

The industry is also increasing its effort to develOp dispenser
sales to consumers in public places. They have been experimenting with
dispenser units for soda fountains, bus stations, hotel lobbies, and
theaters that will mix (reconstitute) orange concentrate just before
the point-offsale. These dispensers operate similar to the well-known
CocarCola diSpensers currently in use in drug stores. The use of these
dispensers will increase the consumption of orange juice tremendously,
if it can be sold from strategically located dispensers similar to the
ones used in the soft drink field.

The percentage of families buying frozen orange concentrate at
least once a month in 1951 was estimated at 20 percent of the population.
This approximation shows how few consumers orange concentrate reaches
from the potential food market. Even with its rapid growth in production
and marketing facilities, orange concentrate is far from saturating the
available market.

Frozen orange concentrate has its greatest acceptance and sales in

the northeastern and north central part of this country.3 This is

 

2. Anonymous. Frozen Food Factbook. New York: National wholesale
Frozen Food Distributors, Inc., 1952, p. 37.

3. Ibid. p. nu.

probably due to the greater centralization of pOpulation in this area,
whicn caused it to be developed. In 1951, approximately three-fourths
of the retail purchases were in this area. The remaining sales are
almost equally divided between the southern, mountain and southwest
area, and pacific coast states.

Orange concentrate, as a technological advancement, has definitely
incr‘ased the consumption of orange juice. It gives a better and more
uniform product to more consumers, because it removes the seasonal
influence of producing areas from the consumer market. It is available
twelve months out of the year in any place that has adequate refrigeration
facilities. This was not true with fresh oranges, because the producing
areas were far removed from the central markets.

Orange concentrate is also a Space saver. It takes less storage
room in all of its phases of production and marketing than does fresh
oranges and canned single-strength orange juice. Its best selling point
is its easy and convenient method of preparation. It has definitely
given orange juice a more universal appeal to the consumer than it has
ever had in previous years. Another of its many reasons for successful
acceptance is that it eliminates waste and preserves the quality of the
juice to its best advantage. To date, one of its greatest drawbacks is
its high cost of distribution, which is slowly being reduced with more
adequate facilities and marketing experience by the industry as a whole.

There are several factors that will determine whether or not frozen
orange concentrate producers will continue to expand and develOp the

rest of the potential market in this country. Price, Quality and

78

availability are a few of these important factors that must be given
consideration. The consumers already have indicated that they will not
pay over a certain price for orange concentrate. This fact was
demonstrated clearly in l9h9, when sales fell off considerably after
retail prices were raised. At that time, the concentrate producers
were paying high prices for oranges. This was brought about by the
competition of different types of processors and the fresh fruit market
for the available orange crep. This keen competition ran the orange
prices on the tree to above $3.50 a box in Florida before it stopped.
This was the highest average price in twenty years for Florida fruit,
and it was one of the largest crops in Florida's history at that time.
California was just beginning concentrate production at this time and
was not affected to any great extent.

'With the cost of frozen orange concentrate rising because of the
increasing prices of oranges, market sales almost stopped when a six-
ounce can sold for thirty-two to thirty-five cents. This left most
concentrators with a tremendous carry-over of warehouse inventory. They
had a product that they could not sell at cost. To move this large
volume of orange concentrate, prices were reduced and sales picked up.
Here was where the young industry learned a hard lesson. Consumers did
not buy orange concentrate in much volume over twenty—nine cents for
a six-ounce can.

In moving these large backlogs of production, the retail prices
were lowered to less than twenty cents for a six-ounce can. In some

cases, two six-ounce cans sold for thirty-five cents. These prices

79

moved out the large amount of warehouse inventories that processors
had, but at a considerable loss to the processors. This fact has
caused many processors to show a loss instead of a profit for their
first several years of operation. For example, one of the largest pro-
ducers of orange concentrate had a four million dollar inventory loss
in 1951.

At the same time, there was an increase of brands on the market.
At the present time, there are approximately seventy-five brands on
the market. 'hhen this first increase in brands moved on to the market,
Quality was sacrificed in many cases. Not only was the price too high
for the consumers, but the Quality of some brands was not up to par,
which caused further reduction in sales.

The large carry-over of inventories and reduced sales forced many
of the small producers almost out of the business because they had to
sell at such reduced prices to move their warehouse inventories.
However, the industry is now on a more firm position with higher
standards and production requirements which they did not have several
years ago.

The raw material for orange concentrate must be obtained at a
fairly level price if the industry is going to market its product at
a consistent price which the consumer will pay. Fresh oranges have
always had a great deal of fluctuation in their prices. Large changes
in the price of fresh oranges from season to season create an element
of unstability in the marketing of orange concentrate. Orange con-

centrate is stored in warehouses the year round and represents large

EO

inventories at an already deterw ined value. If the price of oranges
decreases and a new pack of orange concentrate is produced at a lower
cost, who is going to take the loss in reduced inventory values? This
is one of the big problems that is confronting the concentrate industry
today. Different organizati011s have tries to handle this in several
ways with the In ain objective of sharing part of tlis risk with the
fruit growers. These plans are reaching results with varying degrees
of success.

clved many problems in pro-

0]

The orange concentrate industry has
duction and merchandising of their product. It has been a constant
trial and error process to determine he ri ght method of Operation.
They are producing a 3ood qua Mi y product that the consumers want and
demand. Refrigeration facilities in transportation equipment, ware-
houses, and in retail food stores are much better and are available in
greater numbers today than they were several years ago.

The induscry has found out many facts about the merchandising of
orange concentrate. The fact that the majority of consumers currently
will pay no more than twenty-nine cents for a six-ounce can of orange
concentrate is evidence of one discovery. herchandis ing men for orange
concentrate are beginning to gain an understanding of the market from
past experiences and are better able to market it to the consumers..

The industry now has the tremendous job of stabilizing the price
structure of its marketing System. To do this effectively, they must
be able to ouy fresh oranges at a consistent level of prices that will

not depreciate the value of the orange concentrate stored in warehouses.

Bl

If they solve this marketing problem as they have production and trans-
portation problems in the past, they should continue to grow and expand

even further from their to sales Josition—in the frozen food industl .
F

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

 

Anonymous. Frozen Food Factbook. New York: National Iholesale Frozen"
Food Distributors, Inc., 1932, pp. 160. ~

 

hebber, John H. and Leon D. Batchelor. The Citrus Industry. Berkeley
and Los hngeles: University of California Press, l9hd, pp. 1128.

 

Periodicals

Anonymous. Troubles in Frozen Orange Juice. Fortune. Volume hS
(hareh 1952), pp. 102-105, cont., 166, 160, 169, 170, 172-175.

Anonymous. Frozen Citrus Concentrates. 'Eestern Canner and Packer.
Volume bl (October 1950), pp. 13-32.

 

Anonymous. Frozen Concentrated Citrus Juice. Food Industries.
Volume 21 (July 19u9), pp. és-sc.

 

fhnonymous. Ice Cream Trucks Serve in Frozen Food Distribution. Fooa
Industries. Volume 20 (May 19hb), pp. llh-llS.

 

Anonymous. How Latest Citrus Juice Line Operates. Food Industries.
Volume 23 (January 1951), pp. lot-107.

 

Anonymous. Award For Progress. Food Industries. Volume 21 (July l9b9),
pp. 92-95.

 

Anonymous. Frozen Orange Juice. Consumer heports. Volume 15 (July
19u9), pp. 15-18.

 

Anonymous. Orange Concentrators Face Tough Cost-Price Problems. Food
Industries. Volume 23 (February 1951), p. 107.

 

Anonymous. how One Local Chain Sells Frozen Food. Quick Frozen Foods.
Volume 12 (November 1950), pp. ho-bB.

Faville, L. 3., E. C. hill, and h. C. Parish. Survival of Micro-
organisms in.Concentrated Orange Juice. Food Technology. Volume 5,
Number 1, 1951, pp. 33-36.

35 Fitzgerald, Gerald A. Frozen Food Distribution. Food Industries.

Volume 22 (September 1950), pp. 65-69.

83

neid, J. L. Yes, Research Must Go All The hay From First Idea to Final
Market. Food Industries. Volume 20 (19ht), vol. pp. 516-519.

 

Heid, J. L. and C. G. Beisel. Improved Citrus Concentrate Depends on
Advanced Techniques. Food Industries. Volume 20 (April 19b8),
pp. 7b-81.

 

hopkins, Fred R. and C. K. Walker. Newest Citrus Juice Plant. Food
Industries. Volume 23 (January 1951), pp. 67-7L.

 

Lawler, F. K. News of the Institute. Food Technology. Volume 3
(November 19h9), pp. 7-1h.

 

Praschan, V. C. Chemical Engineering in the Frozen Food Industry.
Chemical Engineering Progress. Volume h? (June 1951), pp. 325-350.

 

hoy, hallace R. Retention of Vitamin C in Concentrated Quick-Frozen
Orange Juice. Food Industries. Volume 20 (December 19hb), pp.
110-111.

 

Hilliams, E. I. How To Get Started In Frozen Food Distribution. Quick-
Frozen Foods. Volume 8 (December 19u5), pp. 63-67.

 

Killiams, E. U. The Broker's Place In The Frozen Foods Industry. Quick-
Frozen Foods. Volume 8 (April 19bé), p. 89.

 

hilliams, E. h. Florida Concentrators Anticipate 25 Per Cent Increase in
1951. Quick Frozen Foods. Volume 13 (January 1951), pp. 35-38.

 

Bulletins

Florida Department of Agriculture. Citrus Industry of Florida. Tallahassee,
Florida, October 1951, pp. 206.

Johnson, D. B. Marketing Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice. The Market-
ing and Transportation Situation. United States Department of
Agriculture, tashington, December 1951, pp. 57.

Larsen, J. 5., J. A. Nixon, and b. C. Stokes. Marketing Frozen Foods.
United States Department of Agriculture, Production and Marketing
Administration, Washington, June 1915, pp. 175.

Parr, Kathryn. Retail Cost and Price Spread for Frozen Concentrate and
Single-Strength Orange Juice. The Marketing and Transportation Situa—
tion. United States Department of agriculture, Eashington, Series
ATS-91, December 1950, pp. 13-16.

Pubols, Ben H. New Orange Product Rapidly Wins Place on Breakfast Menu.
The Agricultural Situation, United States Department of Agricul-
ture, Hashington, Volume 3h, Number A, April 1950, pp. 10-11.

Redit, h. H., H. D. Johnson, J. D. Hull, R. Gubbedge and J. Kaufman.
Transportation of Frozen Citrus Concentrate By Railroad and Motor-
truck From Florida to Northern Markets. United States Department
of Agriculture, Washington, Agricultural Information Bulletin
Number 62, pp. 77.

Rose, Dean H., Harold T. Cook, and h. H. Redit. Harvesting, Handling,
and Transportation of Citrus Fruits. United States Department of
Agriculture, hashington, July 19h6, pp. 190.

U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Readjustment in Processing and
Marketing Citrus Fruits. United States Department of Agriculture,
Washington, July 19ho, pp. 190.

U. 8. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Growth in Output of Frozen Con-
centrate Citrus Juices. The Fruit Situation. United States
Department of Agriculture, Tashington, Bulletin TFS-95, June 1950,
pp. 17-20.

U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Consumer Fruit and Juice Pur-
chases July-September 1951. United States Department of Agriculture,
Kashington, December 1951, pp. 57.

 

Phamphlets

Abbott, Bill. DevelOpment of Frozen Citrus Concentrates. Tampa, Florida:
Tampa Morning Tribune, April 1950, pp. 23.

American.Medica1 Association. Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice. Re-
printed by Special Permission from The Journal of the American Medi-
cal Association by Birds-Eye Division, General Foods Corporation.

Anonymous. Special heport. Florida Citrus Commission, Lakeland, Florida,
January 8, 1951, pp. h.

Anonymous. Temperature Problems in.Concentrate Industry. Minute Maid
Corporation, Plymouth, Florida, 1950, pp. 11.

Roy, hallace R. The Nutritional Value of Frozen Concentrated Orange Juice.
Minute Maid Corporation, Plymouth, Florida, pp. 3.

henzel, F. h., C. D. Atkins and Edwin L. Moore. Frozen.Concentrated Orange
Juice--Past, Present and Future. Reprinted from the Proceeding of
the Florida State Horticultural Society, Tampa, Florida, November
19u9, pp. h.

  

In! 23 '56
Aug 6 '5‘

Jun 17 ’57,”

0d 35. '37
Nov 8 ’57
Nov 22 '51

Jul 2 '53
“an 8 59

I , om.
“58°“ USE

 

 

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