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ABSTRACT
MEDICAL ETHNOBOTANY 0F SELECTED GROUPS
OF PEOPLE OF SOUTHERN MICHIGAN
By

Helen Klekman

A population of southern Michigan residents with professed
interest in plants and/or nutrition was sampled in an attempt to
determine its medicinal uses of particular plants. Written surveys
were the vehicle of data collection and were administered to groups
and individuals selected in non-random fashion. One hundred-sixty
questionnaires were analyzed for medicinal usage, frequency of use,
association of usage with various demographic controls, and attitudes
and practices in relation to medicine, both self-administered and
professional. In addition, a market survey of local natural and
health food retail outlets was performed in order to determine herbs
and spices of medicinal value available commercially.

Questionnaires were administered at group meetings of botanical,
edible weeds, organic gardening, and nutrition-oriented gatherings.
Information was also collected through distribution of forms in natural
and health food stores. Various criteria were applied to select
questionnaires for analysis, which resulted in 160 surveys available
for study.

The sampled population provided self-description in relation
to age, gender, occupation, health status, education, income, residency
(birth, current, most of life), and ethnicity. Nearly one-third of the
sample was male. Ages ranged from l8 to 86, with relatively even dis-

tribution from 21 to 70 (in ten-year intervals). Half the sample

Helen Klekman
possessed l2 years or less of education, and half had earned bachelor's
degrees or beyond. The majority was employed as profession, technical,
or related workers, or as private household workers, housewives inclu-
ded. Nearly all considered their health good, great, or excellent, and
most stated an annual income of less than $15,0001. Urban residence
was predominant currently, at birth, and for most of life. Most of the
population were of European or British derivation.

In relation to plants, 138 common names (58 families) were
reported to be used medicinally. Such medicinal uses were listed as
well as relative frequency of use. Maxima, minima, mean and standard
error of usage frequencies were calculated. Chi-square analysis showed
no significant relation between usage of wild plants, herbs, and spices
and the demographic controls. The exception was that of finding usage
of selected herbs and spices dependent upon gender (significance level
greater than 0.01).

The market survey demonstrated that nearly all the herbs and
spices reported used in a medicinal manner were currently available at
the retail level. Price range was reported as well as uses, if any, for
which the plants were marketed. An estimate of annual sales volume was
also established for the best-selling herbs.

Further analysis showed that preventive medicine (as opposed to
symptomatic) was more prevalent both in personal use of medicinal plants
and in seeking of professional aid. Nearly all of the sample believed
nutrition to have an important relation to health, and half responded
affirmatively to medicinal use of plants. Although over half reportedly
visited a doctor five or fewer times per year (averaged over the past

five years), self-treatment of minor ailments exceeded professional

Helen Klekman

treatment in nearly all cases.

MEDICAL ETHNOBOTANY 0F SELECTED GROUPS
OF PEOPLE OF SOUTHERN MICHIGAN

By

Helen Klekman

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Botany and Plant Pathology

1975

DEDICATION

To my parents, Jean and Philip Miller, whose firm
respect and gentle care of plants has set a clear
example, and to my husband, Leonard Klekman, whose
humor, love, and strength of character made this

work possible.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My sincere gratitude and appreciation go to
Dr. William B. Drew, whose advice, engouragement,
and patience were essential in the research.

Other members of my guidance committee, Drs.
John H. Beaman and Peter G. Murphy, provided helpful
suggestions and assisted in the preparation of this
manuscript.

Gratitude is also expressed to Dr. J. A. Beegle
for assistance with the form and interpretation of
the questionnaire, and to Dr. C. Cress for aid with
statistical methods. The instruction of Dr. A. J.
Rubel drew attention to the human aspects of the

interaction of Homo sapiens and the plant kingdom.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES. .................................................. v
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................. vi
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS” ................................ vii
INTRODUCTION

1. General .............................................. 1

2. Review of the literature ............................. 2

3. Definition of population and sample .................. 12
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ....................... . ................... l3
RESULTS

l. Demographic ........................................... l8

2. Medicinal usage of food plants, herbs and spices,

and wild plants ...................................... 25

3. Medicinal uses ....................................... 23

4. Market survey ........................................ 59

5. Beliefs, attitudes, practices.. ...................... 69
DISCUSSION ....................................................... 79
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .......................................... 82
BIBLIOGRAPHY.......... ...... . .................................... 85
APPENDICES

A. Questionnaire ........................................ 91

B. Definitions of medicinal uses according to Jethro

Kloss ................................................ 94
C. Phylogenetic Classification .......................... 96

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table _ Page
l Medicinal usage of plants .............................. 27
2 Wild plants: association of frequency of medicinal use
with demographic factors ............................... 29

3 Herbs and spices: association of frequency of medicinal
use with demographic factors ........................... 3o
4 Best-selling herbs ..................................... 58
5 Herbs and spices available on the retail market ........ 59
6 Herbal blends available on the retail market ........... 66
7 Medicinal usage: distribution ......................... 59
8 Views of plant medicine ................................ w 59
9 Lay health referral: distribution and frequency ....... 70
10 Wild plants collected for personal use ................. 74
ll Source of medicinal plants ............................. 73

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1 Gender ................................................. 19
2 Age distribution ....................................... 19
3 Educational distribution ............................... 20
4 Occupational distribution .............................. 22
5 Health status .......................................... 23
6 Income distribution .................................... 23
7 Residence distribution ................................. 24
8 Ethnicity .............................................. 25
9 Ethnicity: Europe ..................................... 26

10 Absolute frequency of medicinal use of food plants ..... 32
ll Absolute frequency of medicinal use of herbs and

spices ................................................. 33
12 Absolute frequency of medicinal use of wild plants ..... 34
l3 Relative frequency of medicinal use .................... 35
l4 Length of interest in natural remedies ................. 71
15 Source of acquaintance with plant medicines ............ 7]
l6 Cause of referral ...................................... 73
17 Growth of herbs for personal use ....................... 75
18 Growth of vegetables for personal use .................. 75
19 Minor ailments treated by self or doctor ............... 77

vi

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Number of columns

cub

. = Degrees of freedom
Expected value

Sum of observed values

Total number of plants (common names)
Observed value
SE = Standard error of the mean

OZDI‘TIQO
II

= Number of rows

r

x ' Number of recorded uses/common name

§'= Mean number of recorded uses/common name
2 = Chi-square

bk = Bark

fl = Flower

lv = Leaves

rt = Root

sd = Seed

FP = Forest Potawatomi
Mn = Menomini

M5 = Meskwaki

Oj = Ojibwe

vii

INTRODUCTION

1. General

Use of healing plants by man to ease pain and suffering has
been practiced and recorded for centuries. In more recent times, with
the development of technology, a battery of drugs has appeared with
which to treat a multitude of ills. Plant sources account in one form
or another for many of the medicines of the present world, including
quinine, reserpine, digitalis, and aspirin. Cultures primitive in a
material sense have been studied in relation to their plant medicines,
methods of treatment, and attitudes toward illness in hopes of further
extending the means of relieving illness and treating disease.

It has been observed that not only materially poor cultures
make use of green medicines, but also that folklore of cultures more
advanced materially often provides reference to healing uses of plants.
An objective of this study was to determine what, if any, medicinal uses
persons of a small area of the Midwest make of plants today. In addi-
tion, an indication of relative frequency of medicinal usage made of
food plants, herbs and spices, and wild plants was sought. Information
regarding availability of herbs and spices at the retail level was also
considered relevant, both for comparison with those plants used by the
population and for future economic comparisons. Further, an attempt to
obtain data revealing attitudes toward medicine, both professional and

self-administered, was made.

2
Uses, extent of usage, and attitudes were sought through the
vehicle of a written questionnaire administered to selected residents
of southern Michigan. The market survey was obtained through personal
examination of local (Lansing-East Lansing-Okemos) health and natural
food stores. Thus, it is hoped that addition to the knowledge of folk
medicine of even this restricted population may supplement in a small

way the healing strength available today to those in need.

2. Review of the literature

In an attempt to understand the history and development of
man's interaction with plants and, in particular, cultural usage of
healing plants, it is beneficial to maintain an interdisciplinary out-
look. Such fields as botany, ethnology, archeology, linguistics, musi-
cology, religion, and chemistry (Schultes, l960) as well as medical
anthropology, pharmacology, biochemistry, phytochemistry, and paleobotany
can be integrated. In regard to goals or utilization of such investi-
gations, it has been said that "while heeding the historical outlook
and reporting recent discoveries,... there may be kept in mind the
future or potential of the plant kingdom as a source of new biodynamic
compounds." (Swain, l972)

Plant uses have long been reported, with one of the first
existing records that of Sumerian ideograms dating to 4000 BC; ancient
Chinese, Indian, and Egyptian texts likewise give evidence of human
interest in and usage of the green life forms, according to Schultes
(1960). Other references of value for historical information include a
brief account of place of origin, history, and use of 3l medicinal herbs
(mainly European) with illustrations (Lehner, 1962) and a history of

Amerindian medicinal plant usage encompassing in some cases usage

3
history of the settlers (Neiner, 1972; Vogel, 1970).
Many of the following references do present a history of the
species of medicinal plants or groups of same, so that a more inclusive
list of historical references is not given here. Respectful mention

must be made, however, of de Candolle's Origins gf_Cultjvated Plants

 

and Sturtevant's Notes 93_Edible Plants (edited by Hedrick) as invalua-

 

ble references for origins, in particular.

In examining recent ethnobotanical and ethnomedical literature,
mainly of the past fifteen years, it has become apparent that several
methods of investigation have been utilized. In relation to ethnobo-
tanical research, approaches have been outlined by Schultes (l960) as
(1) survey of the literature for reports of therapeutic uses or beliefs
about plants, (2) chemical investigation of definite floras or of
chosen families or genera of plants, and (3) field study of botany
amongst primitive peoples. (He notes also the constant overlapping of
field work and bibliographies.)

Literature of an ethnobotanical nature treated in this study
deals mainly with field studies and literature surveys, often with the
two combined in a single reference. The basic form of such reports
seems to be that of focus upon a single (or several closely related)
species or upon a single usage of one or more species.

Some instances of the first approach would be(l) the use of

Ptelea trifoliata in North America by colonists and Indians and the

 

Tarahumara of Mexico as well as medicinal uses in 18th century Europe
(Bailey, l960),(2) examination of medical texts of the ancient Near
East as well as the Dead Sea Scrolls, New Testament, and various
astrological treatises with main focus upon Amanita muscaria (Allegro,

l970), and(3) a brief history of Cannabis in various cultures with

4
medicinal uses included (Drake, 1971). (The services of the Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare's National Clearinghouse for Drug
Abuse Information should not be overlooked; they provide abstracts of
published research available free upon request.)

Studies of the noted ethnobotanist, Dr. Julia F. Morton, of a
similar nature include a report of specific medicinal (and dietary) uses

of the emblic, Phyllanthus emblica L., in Asia as well as chemical ana-

 

lysis of the plant and pharmacological action of certain constituents
(Morton, l960), medicinal properties and uses of the genus Casjmiroa
(the white sapotes) of Mexico and Central America (Morton, T962), and

the prominence of the calabash, Crescentia_cujete, in the folk medicine

 

of the Nest Indies and tropical Americas as a remedy for coughs, colds,
etc. in addition to its uses in India and South Africa (Morton, 1968).

Examples of those studies dealing with a single usage of one or
more species are mentioned next. Chaney (1931) has discussed the geo-
graphic and taxonomic distribution of plant arrow poisons utiliZed in
various areas of the western hemisphere. He included also the part of
the plant utilized and the a1kaloid(s) present with associated property
or action. History of medicinal and social usage of pain~relieving
species (about 80) such as mandrake, hemp, and belladonna as well as
their structures has been summarized by De Ropp (1957). Harner (1973)
has collected a series of articles on hallucinogens and shamanism, with
a report upon the use of mushrooms for healing purposes among the Maza-
tecs of Mexico.

Schultes and Holmstedt (1968) have published the preparation and
usage of the myristicaceous snuffs by medicine men and tribesmen of the

Northwest Amazon. A summation of interdisciplinary studies of plants

5

sacred in primitive cultures, including 13 families with hallucinogenic

properties and several with species of medicinal relevance, has been
reported by Schultes (1969). Finally, Hyman and Thorne (1945) report
the use of nguta_and several other species for ritual suicide among
the Iroquois and California Indians.

Another method of botanical research involves examination of
herbaria for records of collection and distribution of medicinal species
and possible notes on their usage. Dr. Siri Von Reis Altschul has ac-
complished much in this area. Her publications include a discussion of
the advantages of utilizing herbaria for phytomedicinal data and methods
of data compilation (Von Reis, 1962), comments upon the overlap of folk
medicinal and food plants (Altschul, 1968) and details of a search of
the Harvard Herbarium--of 3700 notes of interest, 14% were possibly
related to psychopharmacology (Altschul, 1967). Of that 14%, the
following categories of interest were examined: analgesics and an-
esthetics (31%), depressants (22%), excitants and stimulants (20%),
common names of interest (17%), ritual materials (6%), narcotics (3%),
and intoxicants(l%).

Botanical research of other than strictly ethnobotanical nature
may present highly relevant findings such as Meijer's investigations of

Podophyllum peltatum for its potential as a cash crop plant. Meijer

 

presents a survey of the current status of knowledge of the medicinal
value of the mayapple. Research of chemical, pharmacological, and clini-
cal nature has revealed that several compounds present in Podophyllum
may possess anti-viral properties. Further, it has been observed in

the last thirty years that Phyllotoxin, a constituent of the resin,
exhibits anti-mitotic activity. Herbarium sources were consulted to

compile a distribution map, which was then interpreted by comparison

6
with a number of climatic parameters. The survey included location of
optimal conditions and expressed hope of stimulating further experi-
mentation with climatic requirements.

In addition to the research of ethnobotany, ethnomedicine and
medical anthropology contribute to knowledge of healing plants. Focus
upon cultural usage of medicinal plants, or inclusion of such in a
cultural or community study, may involve both anthropological and botani-
cal viewpoints; a brief review of such literature follows.

Bandoni et a1. (1972) have surveyed 56 Argentine medicinal
plants of popular use. They have included common name, habitat, use,
chemical composition, and results of phytochemical screening. Margaret
Clark (1970) has studied health in a Mexican-American community of
California where folk medicine is practiced extensively. She includes
31 curing herbs with uses, descriptions of the curandero's methods,
disease theory, and interaction of folk and modern Western medical
practices and beliefs. Holland (1963) describes herbal remedies used
by curanderos of Chiapas of southeastern Mexico, including plant names,
uses, and commentary.

Isabel Kelly (1965) has studied the use of herbs in modern North
Mexico for major and minor illnesses as well as for maternity. She
lists herbarium specimens as well as examines ancient remedies of Mexico
and Europe. Madsen (1955) has presented a treatment of shamanism in
Mexico with brief mention of some healing herbs. The role of coca,

Erythroxylon coca, in the history, religion, and medicine of South

 

American Indians has been summarized by Martin (1970) who has included
medicinal uses among 19th century doctors of the United States and

Europe.

7
Metzger and Williams (1963) have studied the rBle of the curer

in Tenejapa (Mexico) medicine, involving skill in the use of medicinal
plants. The association of specific plant remedies with specific ill-
ness is well-known among all adults. Pennington (1965) has studied the
Tarahumar (Mexico) culture and its relation to the physical environment.
He includes a chapter on ceremonial and drug plants with 53 families of
plants utilized for medicinal purposes.

Occurrence and usage of Egyptian medicinal plants was observed
during three years among the desert Beduoin, oasis dwellers, and Nile
Fellahin (Osburn, 1965). A brief historical development of Southeast
Asian drug plant literature has been developed by Perry (1961), who also
deals with problems of language, identification, and curing usage.

Medicinal uses of plants by the Indians of the Missouri River
region are included in Gilmore (1919). H. H. Smith accomplished in the
early twentieth century a series of ethnobotanical reports upon the
Indians of Wisconsin, including medicinal plants and usage as well as
tribal history. He dealt with the Menomini (1923), Meskwaki (1928),
Wisconsin Ojibwe (1932), and the Forest Potawatomie tribes (1933).
Yarnall (1971) has compiled listings of usage by species used by Indians
of the Upper Great Lakes Region, medicinals included.

Plant medicines may be mentioned specifically or incidentally in
research of ethnomedicine or medicinal anthropology, which has been
described by Fabrega and Silver (1973) as follows. Studies of illness
and medical care in a group may utilize an (1) epidemiological approach,
designed to determine level and distribution of disease in a human com—
munity, (2) ecological approach examining the biological characteristics
of persons living in isolated groups with the intent of gaining knowledge

of how they are affected by characteristics of the ecosystem. and (3)

8

ethnomedical outlook emphasizing analysis of problems of illness and
medical care in relation to other cultural activities of the group,
with perception of illness viewed as an example of the way behavior is
structured and organized by underlying roles.

Further, according to Fabrega, ethnomedical literature reveals
several methods of analysis of illness episodes. "They may be treated
as indicating a point of stress and dysfunction in the sociocultural
unit." The illness may be examined "in terms of religious and other
supernatural ideas...expressed in symbolic actions, rituals, and prac-
tices exercising powerful influence on the behavior of the sick one and
his family." (The latter approach differs from the first in focus upon
issues of process and symbolism.) Finally, "an illness may be analyzed
as an instance of the way socio-cultural patterns shape both the expression
of disability itself and the general aspects of illness and medical care."

References focussing primarily upon anthropological concerns
are next discussed. Dr. Arthur J. Rubel (1960) has studied disease

concepts of a Texan Mexican-American community as well as some aspects of

plant medicines. Further research on current healing rites for soul
loss (susto) in Hispanic America includes use of various healing herbs
(Rubel, 1964). Another study of a Mexican-American community of Texas
with a chapter on illness behavior and attitudes which mentions herbal
remedies has also been developed by Rubel (1970).

Akerknecht (1947) has described the use of plant medicine in
primitive surgery, particularily in wound treatment, fractures, disloca-
tions, and caesarean sections. Frake (1961) has examined diagnosis of
disease among the Subanum of the Southern Philippines with herbal treat-

ments of general use among the population. Romanov (1965) has made an

9

analysis including the healing hierarchy of a Mexican-American popula—
tion in southern Texas. A study focussing upon a Mayan community's views
of illness and its organization with respect to medical treatment with
a section detailing illness terms and treatments, including use of herbs,
has been completed recently (Fabrega and Silver, 1973). Castaneda (1968)
completed research on a Yaqui 'brujo' from Sonora, Mexico, who utilized
peyote, Datura, and mushrooms for healing. Some details of plant col-
lection, preparation, and usage are also given. (Further works of Cas-
taneda deal with methods of developing and applying healing knowledge.)
Stopp (1963) has researched attitudes toward illness and disease of the
Mt. Hagen people of New Guinea. He includes a listing of species with
occurrence, use, and vernacular names.

Finally, suggestions concerning research methods and extensive
bibliographies may be found among the publications listed in this and
the following paragraphs. Ackerknecht (1945) has discussed the rele-
vance of concern for further research in ethnomedicine and ethnobotany
and specific suggested topics for field work. Various approaches used
by investigators are discussed with a main focus upon phytochemical
screening (Farnsworth, 1966). According to Raffauf (1960), the search
through the plant kingdom and herbal medicine of various cultures appears
to require limits such as (l) specifying what is sought, (2) where it may
be expected to occur, (3) how it can be identified, and (4) defining
obstacles to obtaining it (1960).

Scheindlin (1964) has given consideration to research on
particular discoveries as well as an overview of present and future plant
chemistry--screening, university research, etc. Schultes (1960) has
explored paths of research (mentioned previously) as well as the future

of plants as sources of new biodynamic compounds (1972) and research

10

objectives and methods (1963). Considerations in selecting and investi-
gating plant material for ethnobotanical study are further discussed by
Woodward and Smith (1962). Swain (1972) has edited proceedings of a
symposium stressing an interdiscliplinary outlook, with an attempt to
integrate contributions and evaluate the potential of various fields.

Smith et a1. (1966) have developed an extensive bibliography
of American archeological plant remains with some ethnobotanical
references. Dimbleby (1967) includes a chapter on plants used in ritual
and medicine, such as Saskatoon berries, coca, quinine, and curare.
Paleoethnobotanical evidence of occurrence and use of species such as

Papaver somniferum and Cannabis sativa, as well as many food plants, is

 

 

presented by Dr. Jane Renfrew (1973). Scotch (1964) has presented an
exhaustive bibliography of medical anthropology to 1963; Fabrega (1972)
has provided a review of the literature from 1963 to 1970 as well as a
lengthy bibliography.

Works dealing with concepts of disease may yield ideas of value,
such as the role of symbols in curing and a contrast of methods of South
American shamans with Western psychoanalysts (Levi-Strauss, 1967) and
the influence of culture upon symptoms (Zola, 1966). A comprehensive
treatment of DuBos (1965) includes an overview of man as a social animal,
the social limitations of applications of medical knowledge, disease as
an outcome of attempts at adaptation, preventive medicine and human
values, and disease patterns characterizing civilization. Shostak (1969)
has studied blue collar health and illness, investigating views of
health and illness, treatment, relations to ethnicity; a striking feature
of the group includes little use of preventive medicine and distrust of
standard referral systems (doctors and clinics) utilized extensively by

other social classes.

11
Patrick et al. (1960) discuss epidemiology as an analytical

science, diagnostic techniques, and identification of factors through
closed- versus open-system models. Closed systems models view each
disease as (1) having a specific cause always leading to disease, as
tuberculosis, or (2) having multiple causation always leading to disease,
including predisposing, contributory, precipitating, sufficient, etc.
factors. Such a model is useful with communicable diseases involving
microorganisms. The open-system model views a specific reaction as
the result of a variety of stimuli or a variety of reactions as the
result of specific stimulus dependent upon circumstances. Thus, health
is defined as successful adjustment to stress and disease as a failure
phase. Linked open-systems may involve stress acting upon one factor
and being transmitted to others; such factors include biochemical,
physiological, psychological, social and cultural.

Thus, consultation of the literature provided not only a sense
of historical development and the variety of medicinal practices in-
volving plants but also several models for medical ethnobotanical
research. In obtaining data from a population lacking distinct cultural
boundaries (such as would be true of isolated tribes), it was determined
that a reasonable goal could be collection of usage information. The
basic ethnobotanical pattern of listing species with associated uses
could thus be adopted. Ethnomedical studies and consultations with a
sociologist provided a mode of describing the population sample. Treat-
ments of illness and disease provided some concept of the aspect of

values and attitudes.

12

3. Definition of population and sample

The population sampled in this research consisted of residents
of southern Michigan with professed interest in plants and/or nutrition.
The sample was for the most part composed of (1) those individuals
attending meetings with a plant orientation, such as the Michigan Botani-
cal Club, (2) those shopping at a local natural or health food retail
outlet, or (3) those engaged in a form of nutritional education, such
as the Ingham County Extension home economist aides. The remainder of
the sample consisted of individuals contacted independently due to their

interest in medicinal use of plants.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

The main goal of the survey was to determine which plants are
used medicinally by selected persons of southern Michigan and to what
use each is put. It was decided that no attempt would be made to
determine what portion of the general population is utilizing for medi-
cinal purposes natural organic foods, herbs or spices, or wild plants.
Rather, the sample was chosen non-randomly, particularily aiming for
groups of people likely to have an interest in plants or nutrition or
both. It was determined that the sample size should consist of one
hundred to one hundred twenty-five persons, at least, in order to attain
high enough values to make use of R x C contingency tables meaningful.

Common names were selected for investigation (page 2 of the
questionaire, Appendix A) upon knowledge of local usage; that is, most
plants were selected due to known and supposed local medicinal usage.
Several species were included to gain an estimate of usage frequency
where such was unknown despite local occurrence of the plants. Examples
of the latter include Echium vulgare, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, San—

guinaria canadensis, and Acorus Calamus.

 

 

A secondary aim of the questionnaire was to provide information
on beliefs, attitudes, and practices relating to medicinal usage of plants.
For this purpose, it was determined that the questions be of two types:
(1) response of the nature of yes, no, or don't know, and (2) response
involving a brief listing or numberical estimate. Questions of the second

type dealt with such topics as which herbs are grown for personal use and
13

l4
estimate of times per year a doctor is consulted.

To provide a demographic description, nine controls (in the
sociological sense) were chosen. These included gender, age, occupation,
education, health status, annual income, rural/suburban/urban background
(current residence, place of birth, most of life), and ethnic background.
The last was requested with emphasis upon location of family before
arrival in Michigan rather than number of generations in this country
because it was felt that geographic information would be more pertinent
and available than temporal information.

It was determined that the questionnaire itself should require
less than half an hour to complete since it would be administered at
meetings and in local natural and health food stores; a brief form was
deemed advisable to promote completion of the survey by the maximum num-
ber of people. To estimate the actual time needed as well as the extent
to which the questions could be understood, a pre-test was administered
to four subjects. On the basis of the results, wording of several items
was adjusted to more meaningful form and deletions were made.

Groups of people to whom the questionnaire was administered fell
into three general categories: those belonging to no formally organized
group or to an incidentally interested one (hereafter referred to as
Group I), those with a plant orientation (Group II), and those with a
health/natural food or nutritional orientation (Group III).

The first group accounted for 28% of the sample; included were
those individuals without affiliation (11% of Group I) as well as a
miscellaneous collection from the Detroit area (89%) including members
of outing clubs, etc. Group II provided 44% of the total respondents
and included the Edible Weed Club of Jackson (11% of Group II), the
Tri-County Organic Club of East Lansing (21%), the Federated Organic

15

Fall Festival held in Coldwater (11%) and consisting of local organic

farm and garden clubs of the State, and the Michigan Botanical Club,

both the Red Cedar Chapter (20%) and a State meeting (37%) involving
members from all four chapters (Red Cedar, Huron Valley, Southwestern,
and Southeastern).

Group III accounted for 27% of the total respondents, including
two health food stores, the House of Nutritions of Lansing (16% of
Group III) and the General Nutrition Center of Okemos (9%). Three natu-
ral food stores were surveyed: the Small Planet Natural Grocery (11%)
and the Family of Man (9%) of East Lansing, and the Yum-Yum Food Coopera~
tive (formerly Green Earth) of Lansing (14%). Ingham County Extension
Home Economist Aides (41%) were also surveyed.

Survey forms were placed in local stores in locations deemed
prominent to the customer, such as on the counter near the cash register
or on a nearby shelf. Questionnaires administered at group meetings
were introduced either early in the meeting (so that completed forms
could be returned at the conclusion of the gathering) or near the con-
clusion (so that those interested might remain afterward.)

Completed questionnaires were eliminated from further analysis
according to the following criteria:

1. Less that six of the ten demographic items completed (page 3 of the
questionnaire, Appendix A) or not a current resident of southern
Michigan. In compiling data, if several responses were given to an
item, such as residence, both were entered. Only information as
written was utilized.

2. a.) No use of the plant listings (page 2 of the questionnaire) plus
no response to demographic items, and b.) indication by written

response on page 2 of the questionnaire of use solely as food, as

16
well as response of 'NO' to question 2 of page 1. The former permit-
ted utilization of the usage list without completion of the demographic
portion; the latter was considered as an indication that preventive
uses were not involved. (Question 2 was utilized rather than question
3 because verbal feedback suggested that the latter was not always
understood, whereas question 2 was generally considered distinctly
expressed and understandable.)

After considering the options available for statistical analysis
of a non-randon sample with discontinuous variables, it was decided that
the chi-square statistic would be appropriate in certain instances. In
particular, it could be used to test association between frequency of
usage of selected species and the demographic data; this would be done
through use of R x C contingency tables.

The herbs and spices as well as wild plants were chosen for chi-
square analysis; those in the upper 25% of usage frequency were initially
selected. Of those, a second selection occurred such that upon construc-
tion of the tables, chi-square would be computed "in a table with more
than two rows or more than two columns so that fewer than 1/5 of the
cells had expected frequencies of less than five and no cell had an
expected frequency of less than one." (Weiss, 1968, p. 265). This may
also be stated as, "if the degrees of freedom are greater than one, the
expected value in 80% of the cells must be equal to or greater than five,
and frequency counts must be independent of one another" (Runyon and
Haber, 1967, pp. 250-2).

In some cases, intervals of the demographic control being
tested were combined so that the aforementioned criteria might be met,
despite the resulting weakening of sensitivity of chi-square. Snedecor

and Cochran (1967, p. 235) suggest, "that the chi-square test is accurate

l7
enough if the smallest expectation is at least one, and that classes be
combined only to ensure this condition."

Page two of the questionnaire provided usage frequencies of the
various species, from which maximum, minimum, and mean usage per species
were computed as well as standard error of the mean and per cent of
sample lying within one, two, and three standard errors of the mean.

The market survey was accomplished by visiting the seven area
retail outlets and requesting permission to record pricing data for the
teas or herbs available. In cases where the request met reluctance,
further discussion was offered in relation to interest of the study as
well as the author's interest in herbs in general. Queries by the
author regarding most popular (=best-selling) teas and an estimate of
volume sold per year were refused outright at two locations; otherwise,

cooperation was maintained.

RESULTS

1. Demographic

In relation to gender, males formed 35% of the sample, which
consisted of 160 individuals. Females were evenly distributed among the
three groups, while males in Group II outnumbered the males in Groups I
and III by three to one. (See Figure 1.)

Ages ranged from 18 to 86 years with the lowest frequencies from
the 20 years and under interval (2%) and 71 and over (6%). The middle
age categories, 31 to 40 years and 41 to 50 years, each contained 12%
of the sample. Twenty-one percent of the sample was contained in each
of three groups, those 21 to 30 years, 51 to 60 years, and 61 to 70 years.
(See Figure 2.)

Years of education divided the sample in half when the broad
categories of seven to 15 years of schooling (50%) and possession of a
bachelor's degree or more (51%) were considered. Examining education in
greater depth, 26% had completed seven to 12 years of education, 7% with
13 years, 6% with 14 years, and 11% with 15 years. Bachelor's degrees
accounted for 22% of the second category, master's degrees 17%, Ph.D.'s
3%, M.D.'s 2%, and L1. B.'s less than 1%. (See Figure 3.)

The 1970 Census gf_£9pulation Characteristics gf_the Population,

 

 

Michigan (Table 171, pp. 24-832 to 24-826) was consulted for occupational
classifications. Professional, technical, and kindred (related) workers
comprised the greatest portion of the population (30%) with private

household workers, including housewives, constituting 24%. Students and
18

19

cowpznweemwu mm< .N mezmwu

Amgmm>v mm<

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

om

 

% sample

cmccmw .P mesmwd

Lmucww

 

m

b

 

 

 

oP

om

om

ow

 

sample

%

9O 1
80 .
7O .
60 d
50 q
40 -

30 -
20 .

lO-w

 

20

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1...,
f-_"
7 7 PhD
to 13 14 15 to 3: $2 MD ES
12 15 ' LlB

 

Years of education

Figure 3. Educational distribution

21

retired individuals, neither of which were included in the census cate—
gories, each contained 12% of the total respondents. Managers and
administrators, except farm, equalled clerical and kindred workers (5%
each) with service workers, except private household, slightly more
numerous at 6%. Craftsmen and kindred workers constituted 3% of the
sample, with three groups each possessing 1%: sales workers, laborers,
farmers and farm managers. Operatives, except transport, made up less
than 1% of the sample. Creative responses, such as "human” or ”person”
were 2% of the sample. (See Figure 4.)

The majority (48%) of the respondents considered their health
status averaged for the past five years as good, 27% excellent, and 14%
great. Eight percent considered their health fair, while only 1% identi-
fied their health as poor. (See Figure 5.)

Approximate yearly income was nearly equal for the lower three
categories: $0 to 5000 (23%), $5001 to 10,000 (20%), and $10,001 to
15, 000 (22%). The interval of $15,001 to 20,000 contained 16% and
$20,001 and above held 9%. (See Figure 6.)

Current residence was nearly equal for urban (37%) and suburban
(32%) respondents, with only 17% considering themselves rural residents.
Residence at birth showed most individuals in the urban category (49%)
with rural following (30%) and suburban least (13%). Considering residence
for most of life, urban again was most frequent (47$) followed by rural
(33%) and suburban (26%). (See Figure 7.)

Regarding ethnicity, as in other measurements in this paper,
some respondents answered in more than one category, which accounts for
percentages exceeding 100, whereas some did not fully answer, which would

account for percentages of less than 100. One percent considered them-
selves Native American, less than 1% of Cuban descent, 8% of Canadian

35

30

25

22

I Human, etc.

Students

 

Retired

 

Private household
workers

 

Service workers except

 

private household

Farmers and farm
mana-ers

 

Operatives except
trans-ort

 

Craftsmen and kindred

 

Sales workers

 

Managers and administra-

. Clerical and kindred

Professional, technical,
kindred

% sample

Occupation

Occupational distribution

Figure 4.

   
 

23

 

$20,001

and above
$15 001
to $20,000

 

     

 

$10 001
to $15,000

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A. c: c: c>
m N r—
% sample
Excellent
I Great
[T Good
Fair
Poor
I l l I I l
O O O O O 0
LO Q' m N 1'—

sample

Annual income

Status

Income distribution

Figure 6.

Figure 5. Health status

24

cowuznwcpmvc wocwuwmmm

mucwflwmmm

.n mczmwu

 

 

 

mew, Lo Smog

spewm

pcmggau

 

 

 

Rural
Subs

Urban

Rural

Sub~
urban
Urban

 

 

 

 

 

 

1| n n
a .a 6
ml bb .0
U U“! r-
R SU U

I,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

op

om

om
oe

om

% sample

25
derivation. Those with ancestors from the British Isles accounted for
42% of the sample, with European ancestry common to 71%. Further break-

down of the latter gave the following results (see Figures 8 and 9):

Western Europe (France) ..................... 9%
Central Europe (Austria, Czechoslovakia,

Germany, Hungary, Switzerland) ........... 38%
Scandinavia (Norway, Denmark, Sweden) ........ 10%
Balkans (Bulgaria, Greece, Yugoslavia) ...... I<l%
Low Countries (Luxembourg, Belgium,

Netherlands) .............................. 6%
Eastern Europe (Poland, Russia) ............... 9%
Italy ......................................... 2%

2. Medicinal usage of food plants, herbs and spices, and wild plants
Simple analysis of usage frequencies obtained from page 2 of

the questionnaires was performed. The groups of plants (as listed above)

were examined for maximum and minimum usage per common name per group.

Mean was calculated according to Snedecor and Cochran (1967, p. 39) as

follows:

sum of observations = sum of usage
number of observations number of plants

 

 

Mean = Y =
The standard error of the mean, synonymous with the standard deviation,

provided an estimation of the error involved in the mean and was deter-

mined as follows:

7
Standard error = SE = 2(x - B
N Jfilv

 

 

where x = number of recorded usages per common name
i’= mean number of recorded usages per common name
N = total number of common names

Usage frequencies and medicinal uses were obtained for 138
plants (vernacular names) with 2456 instances of use recorded. Usage

frequencies showed an approximate ratio of 3:2:1 for food plants: herbs

26

   
 
   
   

 

Italy

 

Eastern
Europe

 

Low

Balkans

Countries

 

Scand

inavia

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I 1 1 l
O O O O O
q- m N r—
% sample
Native
American
Cuba
[ Europe
‘ British
Isles
1 Canada
I | g I f I T '7
O O O O O O O O D
00 l\ to L0 <1“ 00 N I—

% sample

Regions of Europe

Ethnic derivation

Europe

Ethnicity:

Figure 9.

Ethnicity

Figure 8.

27

and spices: wild plants. Maximum number of species with uses reported
ranged from 79 (food plants) to 32 (wild plants) with an approximate
ratio of 8:4:3 for food: herbs and spices: wild plants. Ratio of mean
number of uses per species was 6:3:2, respectively.

The standard errors of the mean were 16.1 (food plants), 10.1
(herbs and spices), and 4.9 (wild plants). One hundred per cent of each
of the three plant categories fell within three standard errors of the

mean.

Table l. Medicinal usage of plants

 

Food Herbs & Wild

Plants Spices Plants Total
Number of spp. ##42 54 42 #138
Usage frequency:
Maximum/species 79 43 32
Minimum/species l 1 1
Total usage 1307 756 393 2456
Mean/species 31 14 9
Standard error 16.1 10.1 4.9
Percent of use:
Mean :_1 SE 73.8 72.2 42.9
Mean :_2 SE 97.6 96.3 95.2
Mean :_3 SE 100.0 100.0 100.0

Independence of usage of species versus demographic data was
tested via the chi-square statistic determined through use of R x C con-
tingency tables (Snedecor & Cochran, 1967, pp. 250-51). Expected values

were calculated as follows:

EU = ——in‘°;..'.‘"
where hi. = sum of observed values of the ith row
n.j = sum of observed values of the jth column
n. = sum of all row values or sum of all column values

expected value for cell of ith row and jth column

28

Then chi-square was calculated according to Snedecor:

75 2 = 2 (01-3- - E13)“

Elj

 

where Oij = observed value of cell of the ith row and jth column
Degrees of freedom were determined according to the following:
d.f. = (r-l)(c-l)

number of rows

where r

c number of columns
Results are shown in Tables 2 and 3.

It was determined through use of the chi—square association test
that there were no significant associations between usage of the selected
species of wild plants and age, gender, education, health, income, resi-
dence (birth, current, most of life), or ethnicity. (Species selected
for testing were those within the upper 25% of reported frequency of use.)
The same demographic controls were tested for independence of usage of

selected herbs and spices; only in the case of gender was there any

dependence (significance level better than 0.01).

3. Medicinal uses

Fifty-seven families are represented in the results of usage
frequency of the species listed on page two of the questionnaire. The
uses are given as written by the respondents, so that seeming redundancies
such as "used for coughs, cough, and sore throat, colds..." are uses
recorded by several respondents or, possibly, several uses from one
individual. An attempt was made to group uses by (1) active ingredient
as perceived by the user, such as calcium or iron, (2) curative role,
such as sedative or cleanser, (3) symptom or organ being treated, such

as indigestion or stomach, and (4) preventive use. Responses of the

29

pcmucoaoucw mmwomam mo mamw: "unmovmmcmwm yo: copumwuommm

zucmacmge umuowaxm mo m=Fm> zap o» mac umpmcwswpw

+8

Pogpcou upgamgmoswu gmpaowpswa one we

 

 

m z z z m z z m z m
z z z z m z z m z w
z z z z z z z z z z
z z z z z z z z z z
z z z z z z z z z z
u z z z m z m m z z
z z z z z z z z z z
z z z z m z z z z z
z z z m m z z z z u
u z z z z z z z z +m
z z z z z z z z z #2
.W. wucmcwmmmh n e n r e.
d H .m m .m M M.
.1 p. h” It .a +c n» at n
n .T .t nu a. a n a e
h ..1 MI E H C I p G
t ..l ..l r u u
.t R” n. .0 c
r. u r: c
0 no nu
t
s
O
M”

mcouuom uwgamgmoemu gum;

mm: Pmcwuwums we xucmaomgm Co cowumwoommm

rz

 

mzmqucp Esommngm>
m>—=e wasp:
mpecpuvemo Enumxmgep
Esuwnpm mmgmmmmmm
mwmcmcmcmu mzoaasmm
Lonme.mwupcepa
mwsmpmu mumnmz

dam a
m>wumm mwnmccmu

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

cape am .mcmwc mowmmewm
EsmF0$wFFwE mmppwso<

 

”mp=a_a u_wz

.N mFQMH

30

po.on mo mucmuwmwcmwm Co Fm>mp
Pocpcou uwcamgmoEmu
cmpzuwucma mcp Co pcmucmamvcw mmwumam we mamm: mucmummmcmwm no: cowumeOmmm

+m
«.z

 

apmcwaweeo canpmch

 

mwpecwuweco eL>Pmm

 

Esgmwc Lumnm

 

Eamwcm mppmcmmewa

 

Ezcwpmmocuma Esgmu

 

mcmgmucm muwumngz
eumquw mgpcmz

 

 

muwgwmwn ospcwz
mwmcmumcmu mwpmmguxm

 

 

 

z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z m z
z z z z z z z z +m #2
..WS mucmvrmwmh n e n r e
Muldulllhllouw .mw W .m..%_ MW
5. F..n st 8 +0 C .t. n
n .1 +0 n n. .a n” a e
A” r. e H” C 11 “P nu
t .11 r u u
.t no r Au C

U CL C

PC nu

Most of l

mgouumm owgamcmoEmu gum: mm:

chwuwcws mo xucmacmsw mo :owuewUOmmm

mewaE=uoLn mwcmcppzmw

 

mappxnnoxgmu mwcmmzm

 

m2_mno= mesagpc<

 

 

mLm> mop<

 

EzuooUwsp anppa

”mmo_am a wage:

.m mpnmh

31
nature "used as food" were included as medicinal uses only if the
respondent indicated a belief in preventive nature of diet or of that
particular species; otherwise, that use was termed non-medicinal. (Pre-
ventive medicines include those plants used to prevent illness, while
symptomatics include those utilized in treatment of the illness or
problem once it has occurred.)

The response "re. Kloss" indicates that one respondent specified
her use of the particular plant by reference to an herbal used locally,
Bagk_tg_§ggn_by Jethro Kloss (1970). Consultation of Kloss provided
the uses indicated in parentheses. (Reference may be made to Appendix
B for definitions of such uses.)

An indication of the relative frequency of use per species is
provided by the percentage following the binomial and common name (see
also Figures 10-13). Where several species are listed together, as is
the case with cinnamon, or where several genera have the same common
name, as with sarsaparilla, the percentage represents the use of plants
per common name. The percentage includes only medicinal (both preventive
and symptomatic) uses and was calculated from the number of respondents
indicating use of each species and the sample total (160) as follows:

% = number of users / species
sample total

 

Transposing the common names of species from the questionnaires
to the scientific binomials was accomplished through the use of several

sources. Potter's Guide (Wren, 1956) was first consulted for a name

 

associated with a given medicinal usage. In the case of medicinals absent

from Potter's Guide or of species more commonly noted for use as edibles,

 

both wild and cultivated, the Dictionary of Economic Plants (Uphof, 1959)

was consulted. The Manual of_Vascu1ar Plants 9f_Northeastern United

 

32

35.03 voom LE 3: 353qu ..3 35:8: 3382

mpcmpa cool

.o_ mesmwu

 

Frequency of use

33

mmuwam use mason mo mm: Pmchwcoe Go xocwacmgm «papomn<

mmuwam can mace:

.: 6.53...

 

F

N

Usage frequency

34

mpcm a
F upwz Co mm: pmcwu~ums mo Aucwacmee waspomn<

mpcepa osz

.NP mgzmwm

 

Usage frequency

35

60.-

40“

20..

% sample

 

 

 

 

Food plants
Herbs/spices
Wild plants

 

Plant categories

Figure 13. Relative frequency of medicinal usage

States and Adjacent Canada (Gleason & Cronquist, 1963) as well as seve-
ral other volumes (Fassett, 1963; University of Illinois, 1968) were
used to confirm occurrence of local species.

For example, Potter's Guide gives Panax quinquifolium L. as
ginseng, with China as the habitat. Gleason and Cronquist (1963, p. 495)
states that the same species is found in North America. (Bailey ((1949))
records the species of Manchuria and Korea as Panax Schin-seng Nees,
Asiatic ginseng.)

Further, popularized editions likely to be available to the
sampled population answering the questionnaires were in some cases also
consulted (Gibbons 1962, 1966; Harris, 1971). Such a case would be that
of wild lettuce, listed in Potter's Guide as Lactuca virosa L., a Euro—
pean species. Consultation of Uphof and Gleason provided a number of
North American species; the University of Illinois bulletin listed

three species of Michigan occurrence. (Uphof in some instances relates

36
a medicinal usage; Gleason and University of Illinois do not.) Two of
the three, L, canadensis and L, scariola were given as edible and medi-
cinal plants in both Harris (1971) and Gibbons (1966).

Gleason and Cronquist's Mgnu§l_(l963) was then consulted a final
time to confirm nomenclature, where possible. For example, in the case
above, L, scariola, wild lettuce or prickly lettuce, would be changed to
L, Serriola, the prickly lettuce of Gleason. Familial nomenclature is
according to Uphof as well as Gleason and Cronquist (1963), with the
latter taking precedence where applicable. Alexopoulos (1962) was con-
sulted for fungal classification. Cronquist (1968) was the reference
for phylogenetic classification, as summarized in Appendix C, of the

medicinal plants included in this treatment.

DIVISION FUNGI

AGARICACEAE

Agaricus spp. - Mushroom ((1%)
Used for enzymes, vitamins, especially vitamin B; for vision;
used specifically as preventive medicine (see page 28) for its
food value and as preventive normal diet.

EUROTIACEAE

Aspergillus oryzae - Miso (fermenting agent) ((1%)
(Soybean, wheat or wheat flour, and rice or sometimes barley fer-
mented to a paste which is called miso)
Used for bad digestion.

SACCHAROMYCETACEAE

Saccharomyces rouxii - Miso (fermenting agent) ((1%)

 

See Aspergjllus above.

 

37
DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA
EQUISETACEAE

Equisetum arvense L. - Horsetail (6%)

 

Used for silica and calcium; for kidneys and as a toothbuilder.
(Non-medicinal use includes pot cleaning.)

OSMUNDACEAE

Osmunda spp. - Fern fronds ((1%)
Used for preventive purposes.

POLYPODIACEAE

Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn. - Fern fronds

 

See Osmunda above.
DIVISION MAGNOLIOPHYTA
Class Magnoliopsida
AMARANTHACEAE

Amaranthus retroflexus L. - Amaranth (3%)

 

Used as preventive food and preventive greens.
ANACARDIACEAE

Mangifera indica L. - Mango ((1%)

 

No particular use reported.

Rhus typhina L. - Staghorn sumac ((1%)

 

(Non-medicinal use for energy and thirst while hiking.)
AQUIFOLIACEAE

Ilex paraguensis St. Hi1. - Yerba mate (3%)

 

Used as a stimulant and re. Kloss (no use given); for flu; as
preventive.
ARALIACEAE

Panax qujnquefolium L. - Ginseng (10%)

 

38
Used as a stimulant, panacea, tonic, relaxant, blood purifier,
preventive, and re. Kloss (demulcent, stomachic, stimulant - see
Appendix B for definitions): for flu, colds (tablet), and all pur-
poses (tablet).
ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Asarum canadense L. - Wild ginger (3%)

 

Used for digestion, colds, and stomach.
(Non-medicinal uses include tea and seasoning.)
ASCLEPIACACEAE

Hemidesmus indicus Brown - Central American Sarsaparilla (9%)

 

Used as a spring tonic, tonic, stimulant, blood purifier and
cleanser, and re. Kloss (alterative, diuretic, demulcent, anti-
syphilitic, stimulant, antiscorbutic); as a preventive.
(Used non-medicinally for flavoring.)
BALSAMINACEAE
Impatiens biflora Walt., I, capensis_L., I, pallida Nutt. - Jewel weed
(10%)

 

Used for poison iVy, nettle stings, bites, and cleansing after
contact with poison ivy.

BERBERIDACEAE

Caulophyllum thalictroides (L.) Michx. - Blue cohosh «(1%)
Used for female troubles, specifically cervical infection.

Podophyllum peltatum L. - Mayapple (4%)

 

Used for food as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal uses include jelly and for energy and thirst while

hiking.)

39
BORAGINACEAE

Borago officinalis L. - Borage (4%)

 

Used as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal use includes taste and as a drink.)

(Echium vulgare L. - Bugloss) (0%)

 

No use reported.

Symphytum officinale L. - Comfrey (11%)

 

Used for bruises, healing bones, and re. Kloss (demulcent, astrin—
gent, styptic, and nutritive); as a preventive.
CANNABACEAE

Cannabis sativa L. - Marijuana (15%)

 

Used as a panacea, a relaxant, stimulant: for tension, nerves,
headache and tension, relaxation and recreation, for generally
relaxing properties.
(Non-medicinal uses include getting high, to alter reality, a
smoke, and healthy enjoyment.)

Humulus Lupulus L. - Hops ((1%)

 

No particular use reported.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Sambucus canadensis L. - Elderberry (13%)

 

Used as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal uses include pies, food, wine, for energy and thirst
while hiking.)

s. canadensis L. — Elder flowers (2%)

 

No particular use reported.
(Non-medicinal use includes pancakes.)
CARICACEAE

Carica papaya L. - Papaya ( 1%)

 

40
No use reported.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Stellaria media (L.) Cyrill. - Chickweed (8%)
Used as a preventive and for general health.
(Non-medicinal use includes as a vegetable and for salad.)
CHENOPODIACEAE
Spinacea oleracea L. - Spinach (24%)
Used for iron; as a laxative and preventive food.
COMPOSITAE

Achillea millefolium L. - Yarrow (14%)

 

Used as a demulcent; for colds, cramps, anemia, sore muscles,
bleeding, lungs, cuts; as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal use includes for hair.)

Anthemis nobilis L. - Chamomile (15%)
Used as a nervine, sleep remedy, sedative, relaxant; for iron and
calcium; for stomach upset, colic, sleep remedy, colds, flu, in-
somnia, nerves, pain, cramps, and re. Kloss (stimulant, bitter,
tonic, aromatic); as a preventive.
(Used non-medicinally for flavor.)

(Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. - Ox-eye daisy) (0%)

 

No use reported.

Cichorium intybus L. - Chicory (9%)

 

Used as a stimulant; preventive (both greens and beverage),
preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as a coffee substitute.)

Helianthus anuus L. - Sunflower seeds (20%)

 

Used for vitamins, especially the B complex, proteins, food value,

and minerals; for eyes; preventive and part of normal preventive

41
diet.
(011 used non—medicinally.)
H, tuberosus L. - Jerusalem artichoke ((1%)
Used as a preventive.

Lactuca canadensis L. - Wild lettuce (2%)

 

L, Serriola L. - Prickly lettuce
No specific use reported.

L, saLjva_L. var. capitata L. - Head lettuce (20%)
Used for its vitamins and food value; as juice therapy, sedative,
chlorophyl douche; as a preventive in normal diet and for general
health.

Matricaria Chamomilla L. - Chamomile

 

See Anthemis nobilis.

 

M, matricarioides (Less.) Porter — Pineapple weed or chamomile

 

See Anthemis nobilis.

 

Solidago spp. - Goldenrod (6%)
Used as a tea for preventive purposes.

Iaraxacum officinale Weber. - Dandelion (18%)

 

Used for its vitamins, especially vitamin C; as spring tonic;
preventive food, beverage and normal diet.
(Non-medicinal use includes dieting, salad, wine.)

Tanacetum vulgare L. - Tansy (4%)

 

Used to start period.
CRUCIFERAE

Brassica alba L., B, nigra Koch. - Mustard (9%)

 

Used as a heat element, stimulant, and stomach stimulant: for

coughs and chest colds; as a preventive food, particularily the

42

Brassica oleracea L. - Cabbage (23%)

 

Used for vitamins, especially vitamin C, minerals, and roughage;
as a digestive aid; for prevention in general and as a preventive
food, preventive general food, and for general health.

Capsella Bursa-pastoris Medic. - Shepherd's purse ( %)

 

Used for salads as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal use includes pepper substitute.)
CUCURBITACEAE

Cucumis sativus L. — Cucumber (20%)

 

Used for its vitamins and roughage; as a diuretic, and for kidneys;
as a preventive for food value and as preventive normal diet.
(Non-medicinal use includes facial bath.)

ERICACEAE

Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. - Bearberry ((1%)

 

(Named by respondent as "Uva-ursi".)
Used for female troubles, particularily cervical infection.

Gaultheria procumbens L. - Wintergreen (20%)

 

Used as a stimulant and re. Kloss (stimulant, antiseptic, astrin-
gent, diuretic, emmenagogue); for colds, sprains, arthritis, sore
neck muscles, headaches, rheumatism, digestion, toothache, stomach
upset, pain; preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally for tea, taste, flavor, and for energy and
thirst while hiking.)

LABIATAE

Glecoma hederacea L. - Ground ivy (2%)

 

No specific uses reported.
Hedeoma pulegioides (L.) Pers. - American pennyroyal (4%)

Used for menstrual ache, periods, uterine cramps, and re. Kloss

43
(sudorific, carminative, emmenagogue, stimulant, diaphoretic,
aromatic, sedative); as a preventive.

Hyssopus officinalj§_L. - Hyssop (3%)

 

Used for colds and general purposes; as a preventive.
Lavendula officinalis Chaix. — Lavendar (4%)
Used re. Kloss (stimulant, aromatic, fragrant), for general pur—
poses; as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal use includes flavor.)

Leonurus cardiaca L. - Motherwort (5%)

 

Used as a medicinal tea; for colds and vaginitis; as a preventive
(green drink).

Marrubium vulgare L. - Horehound ( 1%)

 

No specific use reported.

Melissa officinalis L. - Balm (6%)

 

Used for headaches; as preventive tea.
(Non-medicinal use includes flavor and drink.)

Mentha piperita L. - Peppermint (27%)

 

Used as a nervine, blood purifier, cleanser, relaxant, stimulant,
and according to Jethro Kloss (aromatic, stimulant, stomachic, car-
minative); for sore throat, stomach, healing, colds, stomach
problems, general health, stomach ache, pains, intestinal problems,
indigestion; used as a preventive when "feeling a cold or something
coming."

(Non-medicinal uses include taste and flavoring, drink, and tea.)

 

 

Mentha Pulegium L. - Pennyroyal See Hedeoma pulegioides.
Mentha spjcata L. - Spearmint (15%)

 

Used as a stomach healer and relaxant; for colds, sore throat,

kidneys, toothaches, and re. Kloss (antispasmodic, aromatic,

44
diuretic, diaphoretic, carminative); as a preventive and preventive
normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally for energy and thirst while hiking, for
taste and flavoring.)

Monarda fistulosa L. - Bergamot (3%)

 

Used for nerves; as a preventive (tea).
(Also used non-medicinally as tea.)

Nepeta cataria L. - Catnip (15%)

 

Used as a nerve tonic, relaxant, and sedative; for nerves, colds,
nervous tension, insomnia, sleep, cramps, colic, and as preventive
tea.

Ocimum basilicum L. — Basil (8%)

 

Used as a preventive and re. Kloss (stimulant, condiment, nervine,
aromatic).
(Non-medicinal use includes taste, flavor, normal diet.)

Origanum majoram L. - Marjoram (8%)

 

Used for headache, nerves; as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal use includes taste and flavoring.)

Origanum vulgare L. - Oregano (11%)

 

Used as a stimulant; for digestion and re. Kloss (aromatic, pungent,
stomachic, tonic, stimulant, emmenagogue, carminative, diaphoretic);
as a preventive part of normal diet.
(Non-medicinal use includes taste and flavoring.)

Prunella vulgaris L. - Self-heal (4%)
Used as preventive tea.

Rosnerinus officinalis L. - Rosemary (9%)
Used as a stimulant; for nerves and stomach; as preventive part

of normal diet.

45
(Used non-medicinally for taste and flavor.)

Salvia chia Fern. - Chia (0%)

 

Used for diarrhea.
Salvia officinalis L. — Sage (14%)
Used re. Kloss (sudorific, astringent, expectorant, tonic, aromatic,
antispasmodic, nervine, vermifuge); for diarrhea, headache, to
relax, for colds, nerves, rest, chills and sleep (with warm milk),
and to sooth; as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal use includes taste and flavoring, for hair.)
Satureia hortensis L. - Summer savory (4%)
Used for digestion; as a preventive.
(Non-medicinal uses include taste and flavoring.)
Scutellaria laterifolia L. - Scullcap (7%)
Used as a stimulant, nerve tonic, and re. Kloss (antispasmodic,
nervine, tonic, diuretic); for headaches, inducing sleep and to
relax; as a preventive.

Thymus vulgaris L. - Thyme (10%)

 

Used for digestion and re. Kloss (tonic, carminative, emmenagogue,
resolvent, antispasmodic, antiseptic); as preventive normal diet.
(Used non—medicinally for taste and flavoring.)

LAURACEAE

Cinnamomum Cassia (Nees) Nees ex Blume - Cassia, L, Loureirii Nees —

 

Saigon cinnamon, 9, zeylanicum Nees _ Ceylon cinnamon (13%)

 

Used for digestion, cramps, and re. Kloss (stimulant, prevents
flatulence, laxative, astringent); as a preventive food and normal
diet.

(Non-medicinal uses include taste and flavoring.)

46

Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees - Sassafras (18%)

 

Used as a cleanser, tonic, relaxant; for colds, flu, healing sto-
mach; as a preventive and preventive tea. Some use the leaves for
preventive tea.
(Used non-medicinally as tea, food, in food, for energy and thirst
while hiking, and because it tastes good.)

LEGUMINOSAE

Arachis hypogaea L. - Peanut O<l%)

 

Used as a laxative.

Glycine soja Sieb. and Zucc. - Miso ( 1%)

 

(See Aspergillus, page 36.)

 

Used for bad digestion.
Medicago sativa L. - falfa (13%)

 

Used as a body healer; as a preventive.

Phaseolus lunatus L. - Lima bean (19%)

 

Phaseolus vulgaris L. - Kidney, bush, pole, wax, navy beans

 

Used for vitamins; for bowels; as a preventive food.

Pisum sativum L. - Pea (18%)

 

Used for vitamins, protein, and food value; as a preventive and
preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)

Trifolium pratense L. - Red clover (9%)

 

Used as a blood purifier, tonic, blood builder, demulcent, cancer
preventive; for headaches; as preventive food and beverage.

Trigonella foenum—graecum L. - Foenugreek (10%)

 

Uses re. Kloss (poultice, gargle, lubricant); for flatulence, colds,
mucous congestion of colds, cleansing, flu, and lungs; as a pre-

ventive food.

47

LINACEAE

Linum usitassimum L. - Flaxseed (12%)
Used for its bulk; as a poultice, healer, lubricant, and laxative;
for constipation, infection, sores, and internal purposes; used
re. Kloss (demulcent, pectoral, maturating, mucilaginous and
emolient).

LOBELIACEAE

Lobelia inflata L. - Lobelia (6%)

 

Used re. Kloss (relaxant, febrifuge, cleanser, pectoral, emetic,
antispasmodic, stomachic, stimulant, emmenagogue), as blood puri-
fier; for colds, elimination, asthma, flu, and to induce vomiting;
as a preventive.

LORANTHRACEAE

Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh) Nutt. - Mistletoe (1%)

 

Used with peppers and tobacco for heart palpitation.
MORACEAE
Ficus Carica L. — Fig (18%)

 

Used for its minerals, vitamins, and roughage; as a binder, laxa-

tive; for cholesterol and constipation; as a preventive and for

preventive food value.

(Non-medicinal use includes for energy and thirst while hiking.)
MYRISTICACEAE

Myristica fragrans Houtt. - Nutmeg (14%)

 

Used for digestion, cramps, and re. Kloss (expectorant, deobstruent,
sialagogue, emmenagogue, prevents flatulence); as preventive food
and normal diet.

(Non—medicinal uses include taste and flavoring.)

48
MYRTACEAE

Eugenia caryophyllus (Speng.) Sprague - Cloves (19%)

 

Used for antiseptic properties, as local antibiotic, in linament.
for cramps, toothache, digestion, and re. Kloss (no use given): as
a preventive normal diet.

(Non-medicinal use inlcudes taste and flavoring.)

Pimenta officinalis Lindl. — Allspice (5%)

 

Used for digestion.
(Non-medicinal uses include normal diet, taste and flavoring.)
OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis stricta L. - Wood sorrel (1%)

 

No specific use reported.
(Non-medicinal use for energy and thirst while hiking.)
PAPAVERACEAE

(Sanguinaria canadensis L. - Blood root) (0%)

 

Not used at all.
PEDALIACEAE

Sesamum indicum L. - Sesame seeds (14%)

 

Used for vitamins E and B as well as for vitamins in general, food
value, minerals, particularily calcium; for calcium deficiency and
calcium drink; as a preventive.

PHYTOLACCACEAE

Phytolacca americana L. — Poke (3%)

 

Used as preventive food and greens.

(Non-medicinal use includes food and vegetables.

49
PIPERACEAE

Piper nigrum L. - Black pepper (14%)

 

Used as a stimulant, blood purifier, and cleanser; for earache,
cramps; heart palpitation (with tobacco and mistletoe); as a pre-
ventive food and normal diet.
(Non-medicinal uses include taste and flavoring.)

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago major L. - Plantain

 

Used for mosquito bites, cuts and bruises, coughs, infections,
poultices; as a preventive and preventive food.
(Used non-medicinally as a vegetable.)

POLYGONACEAE

Fagopyrum esculentum L. - Buckwheat (11%)

 

Used for its vitamins, especially vitamin B, and rutin; as a pre-
ventive and for preventive normal diet and food.

Rheum Rhaponticum L. - Rhubarb (22%)

 

Used for its vitamins and food value; as spring tonic, laxative,
cathartic, to correct pH, for constipation, as blood purifier; as
a preventive, preventive normal diet and general food.

Rumex Acetosella L. - Sheep sorrel ((1%)

 

(Non-medicinal use includes for energy and thirst while hiking.)
RANUNCULACEAE

Cimifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. — Black cohosh ( 1%)

 

Used for female troubles, specifically cervical infection.

Cgptis trifolia (L.) Salisb., f. Gleason and Cronquist ( 1%)

 

(Includes 9, gfoenlandica (Oeder) Fern. of Gray's Manual) —

 

Gold thread

No specific use reported.

50

Hydrastis canadensis L. - Goldenseal (12%)

 

Used as an antibacterial, blood purifier, and in tablet form as
a demulcent; for cuts, colds, poison ivy, ringworm, throat, sinus,
sores and skin eruptions, low blood sugar, liver, lungs (tablet),
female infections, all-purpose, any sickness, and re. Kloss (laxa-
tive, tonic, cleansing of wounds, opthalmicum, antiperiodic,
aperient, diuretic, antiseptic, deobstruent).

RUTACEAE

Citrus aurantifolia Swingle. - Lime (15%)

 

Used for vitamins, expecially vitamin C; for colds,sore throat,
anxiety, and as a cough remedy (with bicarb); as a preventive and
preventive normal diet.

C, Limgn_Burman. - Lemon (49%)
Used for vitamins, especially vitamin C, and minerals; for sore
throat, arthritis, colds (with or without mixing with honey), cough,
fever, as a cleanser, and with whisky as cough syrup; as a preven-
tive, for general health, and preventive normal diet. Also as an
expectorant.
(Non-medicinal use includes lemonade.)

_C. sinensis Osbeck. - Orange (36%)
Used for vitamins, especially C and K, minerals, and food value;
for colds, flu, sore throat, and as a cleanser; as a preventive,
for general health.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Verbascum Thapsus L. - Mullein (10%)

 

Used as a demulcent, soothing balm, cleaner and lymph cleanser;
for sore throat, ears, inflammations; as a preventive tea.

(Used non~medicinally for baths.)

50a
ROSACEAE

Fragaria vesca L. — Strawberry (21%)

 

Used for its vitamins, especially vitamin C, and iron; for colds,
flu; as a preventive tea (leaves) and preventive food.
(Non-medicinal use includes facials and for energy and thirst
while hiking.)

Potentilla recta L., P, reptans L. - Five-finger (<l%)

 

Used as a stimulant.

Prunus domestica L. - Prune (34%)

 

Used for its vitamins, minerals, food value, and iron; as a laxa-
tive, for constipation, and digestive problems; as a preventive,
preventive normal diet, and general health.

Pyrus Malus L. - Apple (35%)

 

Used for vitamins, minerals, bulk, and roughage; for cleansing,
constipation, colds, clearing congestion, purging, digestion, to
keep the doctor away, to mellow, to clean teeth, for juice therapy,
for teeth, as laxative, for elimination and bowels, as a tooth-
brush; for preventive in normal diet and for general health.

E, Malg§_L. - Cider vinegar (18%)
Used for its acid; for dieting, sunburn, strep throat, indigestion,
poison ivy, obesity, bee stings, throat, arthritis, to utilize
calcium; as preventive normal diet.

Rg§g_spp. - Rose hips (3%)

Used for vitamins, especially vitamin C; as preventive (tablet).

50b
Rubus allegheniensis Porter., 5, neglectus Peck.,

 

R, occidentalis L., R, strigosus Michx. — Blackberry (14%)

 

Used for its vitamins; for stomach; as a preventive, preventive
normal diet, and preventive food value. The brandy used for cramps.

Spiraea alba Du Roi, S, Ulmaria L. - Meadowsweet (1%)

 

Used as preventive food.

51
SOLANACEAE

Capsicum frutescens L., 9, Minimum Roxb. - Red pepper (12%)

 

Used as a stimulant, tonic, and re. Kloss (pungent, stimulant,
tonic, sialagogue, alterative); for everything, general uses, multi-
purpose, circulation, heart, and heart palpitations (combined with

Nicotiana and Phoradendron); as a preventive part of normal diet.

 

(Non-medicinal use includes taste and flavoring.)

Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. - Tomato (23%)

 

Used for its vitamins, especially C, and food value; as a cleansing
diet, for poison ivy, and for general purposes; as a preventive
part of normal diet and for general health.

Nicotiana tobaccum L. - Tobacco (8%)

 

Used as a stimulant, relaxant, and re. Kloss (no use reported); for

heart palpatations (in conjunction with Capsicum and Phoradendron).

 

(Non-medicinal use includes as a smoke and a moth repellant.)
TURNERACEAE

Turnera diffusa Willd. - Damiana ((1%)

 

Used as a laxative.
ULMACEAE
Ulmus fulva Mich. - Slippery elm (13%)

 

Used as an all-around body healer; for cysts, sore throat (tablet),
sore throat, throat, colds, inflammation; as a preventive and pre-
ventive tea.

UMBELLIFERAE

Anethum graveolens L. — Dill (12%)
Used as a stimulant; for digestion and re. Kloss (stomachic, aroma-

tic, carminative, diaphoretic); as a preventive normal diet.

52
(Used non-medicinally for taste and flavor.)

Apium graveolens L. - Celery (23%)

 

Used for its vitamins, roughage, food value, and potassium; for
headaches, nerves; as a sedative, a potassium broth, sleep remedy;
as a preventive part of normal diet, and preventive for general
health.

Carum carvi L. - Caraway (11%)

 

Used for digestion, stomach ache, gas, and as tea following bladder
infections; as a preventive part of normal diet.
(Non-medicinal use for taste and flavoring.)

Carum petroselinum Benth. and Hook. — Parsley (18%)
Used for its iron; for headaches, breath, kidneys, as pick-up; as
preventive part of normal diet and for general health.
(Used non-medicinally for flavoring and food.)

Coriandrum sativum L. - Coriander (5%)

 

Used for sore throat, periods, as a mouthwash; as preventive part
or normal diet.
(Non-medicinal use includes taste and flavoring.)

Daucus carota L. - Carrot (33%)

 

Used for its vitamins, especially A, for food value, and minerals;
as digestive aid; for eyes, nerves, vision, bruises, constipation,
nursing; as a preventive and preventive part of normal diet.

9, ggrng_L. - Wild carrot (37%)
Used as a tonic; as a preventive and preventive food.

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. - Fennel (8%)

 

Used for headaches, diarrhea, stomach, sore muscles, digestion,
and re. Kloss (stomachic, carminative, pectoral, diuretic); as a

preventive food; as a tablet.

53

(Used non-medicinally as a flavoring.)

Pimpjnella anisum L. - Anise (12%)
Used as a nervine and re. Kloss (aromatic, diaphoretic, relaxant,
stimulant, tonic, carminative, stomachic); for colds, stomach,
cough, diarrhea; as cough syrup; as preventive normal diet.
(Non—medicinal use includes taste and flavoring.)

URTICACEAE

Urtica dioica L. - Nettles (7%)
Used for its iron; for anemia, as a blood builder; as a preventive,
as preventive tea and food.

VALERIANACEAE

Valeriana officinalis L. - Valerian (4%)

 

Used for heart; as a preventive.

VIOLACEAE
nglg_spp. - Violet (1%)
VITACEAE
Vitis vinifera L. - Grape (22%)

 

Used for iron, vitamins, roughage, food value; for cleansing, puri~
fication, grape sugar during a fast, cleanser for congestion, colds,

anemia; for preventive normal diet.

Class Liliopsida
ARACEAE
(Acorus Calamus L. - Calamus) (0%)

Not reported.

54
GRAMINEAE

Hordeum vulgare L. - Barley (ll%)

 

Used for vitamins; for skin; as a preventive and preventive
normal diet.
Oryza sativa L. - Rice (l6%)
Used for its vitamins, expecially B, and protein; as a preventive
and preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)
Panicum milliaceum L. - Millet (5%)
Used for digestion; as a preventive and preventive normal diet.
Saccharum officinale L. - Molasses (21%)
Used for its iron (with or without milk), vitamins, minerals, and
food value; for colds, menstruation iron, anemia, building blood,
diarrhea; as a cathartic; as preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)
Secale cereale L. - Rye (9%)
Used for its vitamins; as a preventive and preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)
Triticum vulgare Vill. - Wheat (18%)
Used for its vitamins, especially B; for general debility and as
a laxative (bran); as preventive (both whole wheat and germ), pre-
ventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)
Zga_mgy§_L. - Corn (l9%)
Used for its vitamins, especially A, roughage, and food value; as
a preventive and preventive normal diet.

(Used non-medicinally as a facial and food.)

55
IRIDACEAE
Iris florentina L. - Orris root (3%)
No particular medicinal use reported.
(Non-medicinal uses include flavor, spice, aroma, association, for
oily hair.)
LILIACEAE
Allium Cepa L. — Onion (23%)

 

Used for its vitamins and food value; for colds. sore throat, juice
therapy, poultice for pneumonia, cold syrup, chest cold, and poul-
tice; as a preventive and preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)

A, sativum L. - Garlic (23%)
Used as an antiseptic, all-purpose, antibiotic, tonic, blood-
purifier, all-around body healer, and re. Kloss (no use reported);
for colds, chest colds, flu, hypertension (tablet), infections,
blood pressure, high blood pressure (tablet), toothaches; as
preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally for taste and flavor.)

A, tricoccum Ait. - Wild leek ((1%)
(Used non-medicinally as food.)

Aloe vera var. officinalis - Aloe vera (l7%)

 

Used for cuts and burns, burns, cleansing, poison ivy, feet,
psoriases, diaper rash; as a healer and re. Kloss (cathartic,
stomachic, aromatic, emmenagogue, drastic).
(Non-medicinal uses include as hand lotion.)

Asparagus officinalis L. — Nild asparagus ((l%)

Used as a preventive.

56

Lilium superbum L. - Turk's-cap lily (41%)

 

No particular medicinal use reported.

Smilax aristolochiaefolia Mill. - Mexican sarsaparilla

 

§, ornata Hook - Asian sarsaparilla

See Hemidesmus indicus. (Both species of §mfil§x_as well as Hemi-

 

desmu§_are given the common name ”sarsaparilla". It is not known
which of these are used; the possibility exists that all are.
Thus, all are referenced.)

MUSACEAE

Musa sapientum L. - Banana (28%)

 

Used for its vitamins, potassium, iron, protein, and food value;
for digestive problems, diarrhea, stomach, and constipation; for
protein deficiency; as a preventive and preventive normal diet.
(Used non-medicinally as food.)

PALMAE

Phoenix dactylifera L. - Date (19%)

 

Used for its vitamins, especially vitamin A, roughage, food value,
iron; for bowels; as a preventive and preventive normal diet.
(Used non—medicinally as food.)

ZINGIBERACEAE

 

Elettaria Cardamomum (L.) Maton - Cardamom (5%)
Used as a mouthwash.
(Used non-medicinally for taste, flavor, and food.)

Zingiber officinale Rosc. - Ginger . (15%)

 

Used as a stimulant, heat element, and blood purifier; for cramps,

digestion, sleep (in hot milk); as a preventive in normal diet.

57
4. Market survey

Seven local natural/health food retail stores were surveyed to
determine which herbs and spices are currently available. It was in
most cases not possible to determine which were marketed for medicinal
purposes; most are sold simply as tea. Therefore, purpose of purchase
is not included in the results. (For example, although cinnamon and
oregano have both medicinal and culinary uses, it is not possible to
state that they are purchased for one use or the other exclusively.)

The frequency of occurrence of each herb or spice is given and
may include several brands within the same store and/or occurrence within
several stores. Prices of each package were noted, and the range of
prices listed. If a use was given on the label of the package or, in
the case of loose herbs, of the container, such was noted.

Table 4 details the most popular (i.e., the best-selling) herbs
with the number of retail outlets reporting and the estimated poundage
sold per year. (In most cases, the latter was an estimated monthly
sales figure expanded.) The several figures of estimated sales volumes
represent different stores.

It was found that of the 96 herbs, spices, and wild plants with
reported medicinal use, 71 (74%) are currently available on the retail

market (natural/health food).

58

.mo-mo momma .mecapg to ummF “Famcoo+

 

mm P +mEmuaammpm
Nu _ mppwgmqmmsmm
cop _ mmgwmmmmm
Nuum¢ m mamsmmoz
Nuume P >p xggmanmmm
om-w¢mm~-o~m~5-m¢moop m “cwstmaaaa
P mucwz
mm P a_Fanos
mnuom _ +Fpmx
P mogmwmx
F +mmb nwmmow
mF P Pmmm coupou
OF N xmwgmscmou
on m u; s zwceeou
meiommoop m >_ - saLcEOU
mmuommmsmoop m xmgmsoo
manommoop o meEOEwsu
Low» emu _ ._ mcwugonmg
mm o m cm
upom mocaoq woumsrumm awayszmo a. I

 

”new; mcwppam-amam .e «Peak

Table 5. Herbs and spices available on the retail market

 

 

Occur- Range Use or property
Herb or tea rences (Price/oz) (If given)
*Alfalfa 3 $.09~;23
" - lv 8** .33-l.60 Mildly alkaline
" - lv, fl l .24
" - lv, st 1 .09
", American l .40
*Allspice l .24
" , ground 2 25-.33
", whole 1 .44
*Aloe vera, powder 1
Althaea rt 1 l l7
Alum, wild - rt l
*Anise seed 4 2l-.39
" ", ground 1 .48
" ", whole l .46
*Balm l .33 Mild carminative
Bancha l .32
*Basil 3 .07-.34 Tea: upset stomach, stings
and insect bites, antiseptic
Bay - lv 2 .24-.30 Relieves cramps, migraines,
indigestion
Bayberry bark l .48
*Bearberry - lv 1 .l9
Bistort - rt 1 .26
Blackberry - lv l .50
Bladderwrack 2 .28
Blessed thistle 4 28-.30
" " , powder 1 .29
Blood root l .38
Blueberry - lv 7 28-l.35
Blue vervain 4 28-.38
Boneset 2 .35
Buchu - lv 5 .75
Buckthorn 4 20-.32
" rt, powder 1 .36
Burdock - rt 4 22-.30
Calamus - rt 1 .33
*Canada snakeroot 3 30-.38
*Caraway seed, whole l .63 Carminative tea
" ", ground 1 .36
*Cardamom, whole 2 82—.83 . .
*Catnip 6 .33-.45 Useful for pain Spasms, wind,

colic, relieves gas and upset
stomach,soothes infants, helps
in convulsions, mild stomachic
and good for vitamin C

*Reportedly used for medicinal purposes by the surveyed sample (pp.36-56)
**More than one brand may have been present per store

59

Table 5 (cont'd.)
catnip,’powder
Cascara sagrada - bk
Celery seed
0|-f"
Centaury herb
*Chamomile

 

Chaparral
Charcoal
*Chia seed
Chervil
*Chickweed

*Chicory - rt
" , roasted
Chives, dried
*Cinnamon, ground
" , sticks
Cinquefoil
Cleavers
*Clover, red

" , ground
*Cohosh, black
*Cohosh, blue, cut

Columbo - rt, powder
Coltsfoot

*Comfrey - lv
I. _rt
*Coriander
Cornsilk
Couchgrass
Cramp bark
Cubeb berries
Cumin, seed
Cypress sage
*Damiana - lv
" , Mexican

*Dandelion - lv
"'rt
Desert herb
*Dill seed
Dock, yellow, powder
Dogwood - bk
Dulse ~ lv
Echinacea

am—Im—v—a

..an—amdmmdosm wd—l—J—JNN—lw—de—JN—l—J

dpddwdmw

Restricted use recommended

Mild relaxant tea; good
amounts calcium and potassium,
externally for local appli—
cation and eyewash

Poultice ingredient

Good for skin complaints,eye
troubles, convalescence; aids
lung, liver, rheumatism com-
plaints

Mild carminative

Mild demulcent, good for sore
throats

Emolient; contains allantoin
Emolient

Mild aromatic, carminative

Mild laxative tea, good for
smoking

Mild carminative

Table 5 (cont'd.)
Echinacea rt, powder
*Elderberries, powder

*Elder flowers
Elecampagne - rt, cut
Eucalyptus - 1v
Eyebright

*Fennel seed,

*Flax
*Foenugreek

s Wh016
. ground
Fo Ti Tieng
Frankincense
*Garlic, dried powder
Gentian - rt

*Ginger

Ginger, Jamaican,
crushed
*Ginseng
" , powder
*Goldenrod
*Golden seal
II n - 1V
II n _ T‘t
Gotu Kola
" " , Indian
*Ground ivy
Gumbo file
Hawthorne berries,
crushed
" , powder
Heal-all
Helonias - rt
Henna, powder
Hibiscus
*Hops

, powder

COCO-th—‘Ofi -‘

m—J

m—J—lc—l—IN

ddNN—J—HLo-d—JHd—l

mpaawdm

61
36

.38l.45

.27-.37

.i4l.24
.59-1.10
.19-.78

Tea rich in vitamin C and
mineral salts, eases cramps,
quinsy, pharyngitis, laryn-
gitis; cold tea for pain
relief in burns; mild dia-
phoretic

Tea for chest complaints,
eyewash, increase of lacta-
tion; rich in mineral salts,
relieves nervous disorders;
mild carminative

Tea relieves nausea, stuffy
nose and chest colds, mild
demulcent

Purifies blood; effective for
liver complaints, dysentery,
jaundice; improves appetite,
strengthens

Colds, gas, gout, cholera,
nausea, diarrhea

Carminative, stimulant

Calms nervous system; good in
neuralgia, kidney ailments,
relieves gout, strengthens

Table 5 (cont'd.)

*Horehound
" , powder
Horsetail rush
Huckleberry - lv
*Hyssop

Irish moss
Juniper berry
Kava kava
Kelp
Kinnikinnik
Knot grass
Kola nuts
Ladyslipper - rt,
powder
Laurel — lv
*Lavendar - fl
Lemon balm
Lemon grass
" ", Mexican
Lemon verbena - lv
Licorice
ll _ rt
" - sticks
" , European - rt
Lily of the valley -
rt
Linden - lv, f1
II _ f'l
*Lobelia

Mace

Magnolia - bk
Mallow
Mandrake

" - rt

" - rt, powder
Marigold - f1
Marigold, pot
*Marjoram, sweet - lv

Marsh mallow
" " - rt, powder

pm—a-o dub—aw—aoomw—a—a Adam—Ima- comm—am

N-J—‘N

—J—l—ul—J—l

62

.42-.63

15

.2ol.34

.42
.70
.30

.25
.38

digestion, wards off anemia;
externally for skin tonic

Mild diuretic

Valuable in asthma, colds,
chest afflictions, loosens
phlegm in lungs and throat,
good in children's sore throat
Rich in I, K, S, Ca

Mildly stimulating

Demulcent, expectorant

Mild expectorant, powerful
relaxant, reduces heart pal-
pitations, good for fevers
and nervous conditions, stops
spasms of vomiting; poultice
aids sprains

Excellent for bowels and
liver, good for uterine
diseases, fever, jaundice

Tea valuable in treating ner-
vous disorders and headaches,
used cold as eyewash

Table 5(cont' d. )
Mate
*Meadowsweet

Mint - lv

 

*Mistletoe

*Motherwort, Roman
Mugwort
*Mullein

ll_‘|v
Mustard - sd

Myrrh, gum
Myrtle - 1v
Nettles

" - lv

*Nutmeg
" , ground
, whole
, Jamaican, whole
Oatstraw
Onion, dried, ground
" , minced
Orange blossom
" peel
*Oregano
*Orris - rt, whole
" ", powder
Papaya - lf
" , Indian
Paprika
*Parsley

Patchouly
Peach tree - 1v
*Pennyroyal
*Pepper, Black, corns
" , powder
Pepper, Sweet red
*Pepper, Red, whole
" , crushed
Pepper, White, corns

Noam—ha

00de

m—Ju-Ju—ldNN—J—J—l—Jm-JN—l—J

63

.12—. 45
.25;. 64
.20—.28

Astringent, tonic in diarrhea
General stimulant; good for
headache

Fine nervine, excellent for
epilepsy, convulsions, de—
lirium, nervous debility, and
heart troubles

Mild relaxant

Dumulcent

Gastric stimulant, hot water
baths to prevent cold; in
plasters to draw infections;
antiseptic

Rich source of iron

Tea good for chills, condi-
tions of blood and circulation
as well as anemia, bladder,
kidney and liver troubles,
gout; gargle for sore throats

External use only

Contains valuable mineral
salts; helps relieve anemia as
well as glandular, hepatic

and rheumatic conditions;

mild diuretic with good amounts
Fe, Mg, K, Vitamin C

Table 5 (cont‘dL)
epper, 1 e, powder
*Peppermint - 1v
" , powder
Periwinkle
Pink rose
Plantago - sd
*Plantain
Pleurisy - rt
Poppy - sd
Princess pine
Queen of the Meadow
powder
Raspberry — 1v
Rooibusch (Kaffree)
Rosebud
*Rosehips
" , powder
*Rosemary - lv
" , powder
Rue
Saffron
" , American
*Sage

St. John's Wort
Sanicle - 1v
*Sarsaparilla
"-1‘t
" , Mexican
Sassafras
Il_bk
" , powder
Savory

Saw palmetto - berries

*Scullcap

Senna
ll-lv
Shavegrass
*Shepherd's purse
*Slippery elm
" " , powder
*Spearmint - lv

Spikenard

w—lN—l—JN—Jm—me—l dN—lNNHN—J—Jm—l

mwd—‘wV—‘NV—‘h

mdmd-fimd

.58

Astringent

Mild carminative
Bitter aromatic stimulant

Mild diaphoretic

Tea for colds, coughs, stomach
conditions, to reduce fever,
help arthritis, mild stimu-
lant

Aromatic, diaphoretic

Aromatic, diaphoretic

Aphrodisiac in ancient times

Relieves fever, dr0psy, epi-
lepsy, nervous and neurotic
conditions, rich in mineral
salts

Mild astringent
Demulcent

Tonic, aids in digestive
complaints, chills, colds,
used in nervous and psycho—
somatic conditions; for
headaches and migraines

Table 5 (cont'd.)
Squaw vine

Star anise
Strawberry, wild - lv
*Summer savory

Sweet cicely

*Tansy

 

Tarragon - lv
*Thyme
" , rubbed
" , Spanish
Turmeric
" - rt
*Uva-ursi
*Valerian - rt

*Violet - lv
Walnut, black - lv
Watercress
Watermelon - sd
White oak - bk
White poplar - bk
White willow - bk

u u ’ powder
Wild cherry - bk

*Wintergreen - lv
Witch hazel
Wood betony
Woodruff, sweet
Wormwood

" , powder
*Yerba mate - lv
Yerba Santa
Yohimbe

N-a-au-iw—I

ww—J-dN-JNN

dde—de—J—J—JNw—l—J—J—l—Jp—Jw

Emmenagogue; emetic in large
doses; external linament

Tea for nervous disorders

Tea for treatment of all ner-
vous conditions and psycho-
somatic illness, frequently
used in equal parts with
scullcap

Mild demulcent

Mild alterative

66

ucmpa Pm>mgm .nogcmcpom
.nmaau .cm copmeprmz .memcma .Pwmummgo; «>p scuan

 

 

.mmvgcmn cmawcam .xpwmccoo .mmgsim>= .mmmgmm>m;m om.P1om. v Ppmx
mm. P m>wumxm4
Panto: :mmPQ gmccm
«mam canvases upwz .mmmgm coemp .ucms cmupuamw mp. N w>mo mecca
spun cosmp .chcmw .ucwsgnmam ¢m. P mzocmmz cmuwm:
Pwmummgo; .cm mmwcm .xn cosmccwu .mppwgoammcmm .zucma
uppwa .pcwsgmaamn .F$ coucmp .meEosmu .cxmama .um
Pmccmw .>F xggwangum .Lm>o_u no; .zmsumumo .m$pmm_< ep. P » vampm new:
a; :o_qu:mu .pg muwgoowp .pg apppgonmmsmm .>p
pmpow> .Fm meEoEmgu .xn magmmmmmm .mnop Lm>opu umm mN.-mo. N piosm:
cosmccwo .uscpmz xumpn .mmFQQm .maumwnw; .mw>opu on. _ umm xnam :wumcom
maumwpwn .pmma mmcogo .mm>opu .mawsomom wN. N awmmow
P; mcwpmmpcm>m
mcmp .P» cmopm .>— xccmnxoan .mpwsosmzu .pcwsgmaawa om. P u:_e coupoo
cwmcwm cosmopm .zmuam .muPLouwp,.mcmmcwc om.¢ F mcmmcww
pg muwsou__ .us
memcmcpom .>P acmemmog .>P xgcmazmgum .ug mmm>op
.>~ pcwscmaamg .vm pmccmw .F$ mesosmzo .>P axmamg Nc. N mum1ummo
mgmzopm mmmgon .mmmm .mcmzopw :mocwa em. F mcmzopd ucmmmo
mm>o~u .Pmma mmcmco ummzm .x:oumn woo: em. P coo: ucmummgu
paws .xmLmEou ow. p newE-AmcwEoo
acme .mawcmmog .m:Um_aw; .wpwsoEmsu mu. P Egmgu
m>oam mm mswm oo.~ F mcmzopu we umaoaom
Puma mmcmco .me:w>mp .mao
-mwa_; .Lmupm .maop Lm>opu cm; .mpwsosmo .mawcwmom cu. F pwzczom
>_ xggmamara .coempimmcmco .ucwsgmmnm .mzumwnw: Nc. _ mcvpmma <
“cue .mc_ac_< om.F1N_. N pewe-acpacp<
age we...
pmxcme Pwmpmg mgu co anmem>m mccmpn Fancm: .o mpnmp

67

mm_:m .cmmcwm .muwamppm .pc cowpmvcmo umpmmos .coEmccpo
.cmmn aocmu umummog .pc xcouwcu cmpmmog .AmFLwn woummom
xn zcgmco vaz .Pwmn

mmcmgo .pcwELmaama .mmmgm cosmp .mawgmmog .Pw msumwnw:
um mmwcm .mzumwnw; .mawsmmom

pavecmaama .Pw mzomwaw:

Pb cmucwp .acwsgmaama

mums .>F mxmama .>P mwpmmpm .>_ acmegmaamm

, ucweLwanma .>p mxmaoa

chcmm .wums magma .mcopoo

wm_cm .mOHm—umws .um acmpou .pg :mwcm~m> .pcwsgmnqmn
.>_ wepmwpm .gmonaum .Lmanwpm xuop .>P Agmsmmog .mno:
causes .mwuaou .mm>opu .mcmmcwm

mmmcmamw .mwccmEmsg .mpmcgmx gummn .muwgoowp .pg mecmm
.mmmcazu .coEmccwu .ug xmpmcmg wmmcmamn .mwpxpooxam .ug
xcomn mzomuwngm; .mzowcu .cmpmog .Pmma mmcmco cwcmucmz
mwccmsmgg .mcmmcwm

mmmcmamc .pg cmmcwm .mpmccmx comma .mUNgoUwF .coEm:
-cwo .cmpmo; .pg xmpmgma wmocmamn .pg acoma mzomomagm:
mmmgm cosm_ .maumwnw; .pcwEmeqm

pg 30—Fm25mgm2 .awgmmog .mmgemmmmm

co>opu um; .3occmx .mmam .cwmucmpa

.awcumu .~$ Lmqu .>F zggmnmpxuzz .nogcmcpom .mmppuw:
.xmceeoo .cwmppae .cmc:WF .mzmama .xgmsmmoc .mwpmepm
.mgwgmmog .mmpcm .mpweosmzu .>~ zgchmepm .ucwssmmnm
.pcmELmaama .mapaxpmozm .>F xgcmnamwg .pw maomwnm:
momcoowp .pcwELmaama .mxmqma .mmpmwp<

omwcm

mem .Pw coca?” .mmmm .Pwma mmcmco .pcwsgmmam .mauazp
-muzm .mmpmmpm .xmcmsou .>F xcgmnzmgum .mmmcm cosmg
:ocwwmm :muwgme< .>F u:?ELmQama .ug mxmgccms

.pmmmcon .P* gmcym .xn mmcwmmmmm .>P wmcs «>3 .>P occom
a; mquoUWP .>F xgcmazmcpm .ummmxmpm

.wexzp .nmmzzmzoo .ummzmpman .um xmmgmacmom .>p
mzpaxpmuzm .pcozmcap .xn xcgmgu u_w3 .mucmm anew»

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mm.umN.

mo.nmq.
mm.
mm.

o¢.1mp.
om.

on.

mN.F1mm.

om.
cm.
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mm.uwN.

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~¢.

POI—Fr—NLO N

N

P

mEogmpmmom

gmmch com
wggzoayom xcwa

“cw: xcwa
cmucwp w payeemanmm

zz<a
New: axmnma

mcwcgoz 3oz

xm>swz

w—* sub :2

o* mmh =2
xcwa mcwgam :Pmpczoz
mzovmcm :wmpczoz

“me new: 4N m.oz

use: zappmz

“at: scams

mob m>wumxmg

Fdog
30.203 0 £2:

 

68

pumgpxm :mmcmgmucwz .mm>o~u .gmm:_m .>P aggmnammm
meEoEmu .mawsmmog .ucwELoaaoa

>P Acgwnzmgum .mcmwsmu .mmpmmpm

.zwgmeou .xggmnm:_n .mxmama .pcwscmwam .pcwELmaama
mac» Lm>oFu um; .Pw meEoEmgu .vm

mmmcm .Pmma mmcmco pwmzm .>_ xgcmnzmgpm .m:macm>
cosmp .cuwznwooc .mawcmmog .pcwELmaaoa .mwpmmp<
smegma .xcwsmmog .msumwaw:

mFPEoEmzu .mwpmmFm .ucwELmaama

Pwo mmcmco mesa .mmmcm

Loam .cosmccwu .gwmcwm .mm>opu .mmmcm :oEm_ .Pmma
mmcmco pmmzm .wums :mwFWNMLm cmwcm new umpmmom

mmwcm Loam msFa m>onm mm wEmm

a; ALOUWLU umpmmog .mpme :mWPFNmLm :mmcw

pews .mmpmepm .mmmcm coemg

umuma mmog .>P

xgcmnammg .mwfiwu .ucwemegm .mmmgm :oEop .mpweosmzo
mawcomos .chcmw .m$meFm .mwcu .xwmcmscmow .mmw=<
mm» mmmcwzu xomFa .3op_wE .>P msunxpmuam

pcwegwaama .mawzwmom

NN.
cw.

mm.
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vm.
em.
mo.
mp.

mp.nop.

om.

mN.
cc.
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l—l—Nf-

Acgmngmucw:
amar010ummh

mm>wm41himmpmmh

mprTQuh
ccmpm pmmcam
ccmpm mmwgczm

muwam
mmcmco saw: mmmgcsm
mmwcm Luv: mmwgczm
mmwcczm
pmwz Loganm

mswpxamum
mmw; .o mcmmm
mNmmgm mom
pawsmmom

A.u.bcouv o apnah

 

 

69
5. Beliefs, attitudes, practices
Those who use herbs, organic foods or wild plants as medicine con—
stituted 44% of the sample, while 33% responded negatively and less than
1% did not know. Forty-one per cent treated themselves (19% negative)
and 34% treated their families (14% negative). Use as medicine was
reported as “often“ by 26% (15% negative) and fsometimes" by 29% (11%

negative, less than 1% did not know). Table 7 summarizes the results.

Table 7. Medicinal usage; distribution

 

 

 

 

 

Response (% sample)
Usage
Yes No Don't know
Medicinal 44 33 <1
For self 41 19 0
For family 34 . 14 0
Often 26 15 0
Sometimes 29 11 41

 

 

 

 

Nearly all respondents (97%) felt that nutrition has an important
relation to health (1% negative, 4% did not know). Preventive medicine
was the more prevalent view with 71% responding affirmatively, 26% nega-
tively, and 5% not knowing. Viewed as symptomatic medicine, only 26%
of the sample responded affirmatively with 18% negative and 5% uncertain.

Table 8 presents the results.

Table 8. Views of plant medicine

 

1 Response (% sample)

 

View
. Yes. , 'No Don't know

 

 

 

Preventive 71 26 5
Symptomatic 26 18 5

 

 

 

70

Fifty-seven per cent did not prefer use of herbal teas or tisanes
to use of coffee or non-herbal tea; 42% answered in the affirmative, and
4% did not know.

Most respondents (see Figure 14) have been interested in natural
remedies from one or less to five years (29%). Interest in these remedies
of six to ten years duration (9%) and or more than 25 years (13%) was
nearly equal. Eleven to 15 years of interest in herbal remedies included
4% of the sample, 21 to 25 years included 2%, and 16 to 20 years less
than 1%.

Reading, family, and friends were the major sources of acquaintance
with the medicinal uses of plants, accounting for 22%, 14%, and 14%, re-
spectively, of the sampled population. Other sources included clubs,
church, and meetings (8%), classes (4%), health and natural food stores
(3%), and folk and Indian medicine (2%). Botanical gardens and doctors
were the source of learning for 1% each of the sample. (See Figure 15.)

Upon averaging the past five years, 60% reported one to five visits
to a doctor per year, 14% no visits, 9% six to 10 visits, 1% each for
11 to 15 and 70 to 100 visits, and less than 1% each for 16 to 20 and 21

to 25 visits. 'Table 9 illustrates these results.

Table 9. Lay health referral: distribution and frequency

 

 

 

 

 

 

Visits Consultant (% of sample)
per year Doctor Friend Food store Other

0 14 39 47 45
1-5 60 31 27 21
6-10 9 44 2 <1
11—15 1 <1 <1 0
16-20 1 1 1 ‘1
21-25 1 0 <1 0
26+ 1 0 0 0

 

 

 

 

71

mmcwuvume pcmFa cpwz wucmpcwmsuo< .mp mgzmwu
mmwuwsmg Pmczpm: cw ummcmucm to spasm; .cp mesa?»

 

 

 

   

   

  

 

 

 

 

 

 
  

  

 

 

 

 

mugsom
s . J c L
n m 523 w 98 m «.3
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me

 

72

Figure 16 details reported causes of referral. In some cases
respondents answered with a diagnosis and in some cases a symptom. (For
example, ulcers would constitute a diagnosis with stomach ache a symptom.)
Causes of referral were grouped according to organ or tissue system
afflicted. It can be seen generally that prevention of illness was the
most common reason given for consulting a doctor.

Those who collected and dried wild plants for their own use (51%)
slightly exceeded those who did not (45%). Plants collected as well as
uses to which they were put are listed in Table 10. Those who taught
themselves to identify wild plants constituted 49% of the sample with 2%
answering negatively. Also, 55% reported that someone else had taught
them (39% negative).

Those growing herbs for personal use were 50% of the sample; 42%
did not. Herbs grown, as well as per cent of the sample growing each,
are given in Figure 17. Chives, mint, sage and parsley were the most
frequently grown.

Most of the sample (71%) reported growing vegetables for their own
use, while 24% responded in the negative. Figure 18 represents vegetables
grown and the percentage of the sample growing each. Tomatoes were the
most frequent of home-grown vegetables.

Treatment of minor ailments with plants was reported by 43% of the
sample; a nearly equal number (39%) reported that they did not use such
methods of treatment. Ailments treated with plants are given in Figure
19, and per cent of sample seeking treatment from a doctor for the same

ailment is also given.

73

 

 

Blood

 

Urogenital

 

Sensory

 

Psycho-
logical

 

Maternity

 

  

 

 

Emergencies

 

  

Dermato-

 

  
   
 

logical

 

  
 

Skeletal

 

   

Muscular

 

Diagnosis,
advice,etc.

 

Digestive

Respiratory

 

40""'l

351—

I
0 LO Q
N I‘—

% of sample

 
  

Preventive

 

Symptom/diagnosis

Cause of referral

Figure 16.

74

Table 10. Wild plants collected for personal use

 

 

Plant Use (if given)
Alfalfa --—
Amaranth food, medicine, tea
Bergamot sedative
Berries ---
Blueberry lv tea
Boneset colds
Catnip sedative, tonic, colds, indigestion
Cheese weed kidney inflammation
Chickweed kidney inflammation
Chicory ---
Clover, red medicinal, health, tea
Dandelion greens
Dog fennel indigestion
Edible roots ---
Elderberry tea
Fiddle heads vegetable
Fungi food
Ginseng stimulant
Jewel weed poison ivy
Lambsquarters tonic
Mints stimulants
Morels food
Mullein medicine
Nettles food
Nuts food
Peach 1v tea
Pennyroyal tea
Peppermint colds, tonic, indigestion
Raspberry lv pregnancy, health
Rosehips tea
Sassafras lv vitamins
Sassafras tea, cleanser
Sumac drink
Wintergreen tea

75

   
 
   
 
   
 
   
   
   
  

lica

Beebalm
rage
raway

  

Coriander
Costmary
enne
re u
Lavendar
ova
ans

  
   
   
   
 
  

  
   
   
   
  

no
Summer savo
pea nt

   

Tarra

SE
1“ oram

  
   
    
   
   
 
  
    

 

Pe

 

rmint

Th

ge
nts
Chives

  
  

O

omo t0
Nr-f-

% of sample

Herbs

Figure 17. Growth of herbs for personal use

76

    
   

      
   
   
   
 
   
 
    
  

  

E 1a

reen onions
e

Melon
Okra

Zucchini
e ery

Fruit trees
r c e,
Ras

  

   

   
 
     
   
 
   
   
  
      
   

    
  

nac
Berries
k

Sunflowers
s

dishes
rocco
a ge
uc
ru
Corn
Green
u r
Swiss chard
ons
rrots

  

   

           
  
  

Y‘

  
  
   
  

  
 
  
   
 
   
   
 
   

 
  

115
e UCE

Tomatoes

LOO

% of sample

Vegetables

Growth of vegetables for personal use

Figure 18.

77

Somethingeri

  
 

 

  
  

:6; q. U1CEY‘
Q r—

O 04‘

D U)

I [1

  
 

Letha
Depression
st 5

rua C
urns

    
 

   
  
 

  
 
 
  

  
 
  
  

Earache
t ete s
S rains
00 c
Stiff neck
ru ses

Sore musc
u

  
    

  
  
 

  
    
 

Headache

 
 
 

Colds

  

35
30

mom 0.1.0 o
NNr—r-

4O

% of sample

Ailment

Minor ailments treated by' self or doctor

Figure 19.

78

Sources of medicinal plants (ie, collected personally, purchased
from a person or store) are quantified in Table 11. It can be seen
that nearly equal numbers personally collect both wild plants and
herbs/spices; likewise, nearly equal numbers obtain both types of
plants from a person. Nearly twice as many reported purchasing herbs
and spices from a store as they did wild plants. Furthermore, there
is a degree of correspondence between the number of respondents com-

monly growing their own vegetables and raising herbs and spices.

Table 11. Source of medicinal plants

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Plants P31122121 * p.522. .5332
Yes No Yes . N07 *Yes No
Herbs & spices 21 36 12 20 41 10
Wild plants 29 31 12 22 22 21

 

 

 

 

*% of sample

DISCUSSION

The questionnaire was utilized as a means of providing a quanti-
tative measure of medicinal usages, of illness behavior and attitudes,
and of papulation characteristics. Inherent in the nature of
questionnaires is that only a portion of the relevant and possible
questions are asked, especially so in this study where it was antici-
pated that respondents would vary widely in age and education, as well
as in other characteristics.

Such was understood at the outset and led to nearly six months of
re-working the questionnaire. Despite the attempt, it was found that
such factors as available writing space (especially question 14) and
order of the questions (placement of questions 1 and 3, for example)
hindered feedback in some cases. The time required to complete the
questions also affected the depth of the responses: a five to twenty
minute survey did not leave much room for relating healing incidents
in all but a few cases. (Such were not requested, though a few did so
respond.)

Limited space on the second page of the questionnaire was listed by
several respondents as a detriment. Nearly all who did respond wrote
one or more usages with the particular plant so that considerable
information of the desired nature was obtained. Whether or not all
possible uses were listed in another question.

In regard to demographic information, several points arose in

relation to definition of categories. State of health (average) was
79

80
based upon the respondent's own perception, which might not have found
"great" and "excellent" distinct. There did appear to be a skew toward
toward positive ratings, though, as "poor" plus "fair" accounted for less
than 10% of the sample.

Again, it may have appeared that the residency categories, urban/
suburban/rural, were unclear; they were also self~defined by the respon-
dents. There was no written mention of problems in self-defining, al-
though the form might have given definite parameters for each. (A
sociologist was consulted on the final draft of the questionnaire, and
it was felt that such definition was not necessary.)

Although this study did accomplish establishment of a list of
species utilized medicinally and gave some indication of the extent to
which the population participates in self-treatment, actual dosage of
medicinals as well as methods of administration were rarely uncovered.

Further, some indication of healing hierarchy (Romanov, 1965) is
given by the measure of health consultations per year and of instances
of self-treatment. The implication is that although it appears that the
preference of health consultation is, in decreasing order, doctor, friend,
and natural or health food store, self-treatment exceeded professional
for minor ailments. Further investigation of the referral system might
prove fruitful.

Preventive medicine emerged as receiving more attention than
symptomatic in this sample. both in regard to personal usage of plant
medicines and to seeking of professional aid. Such is in accord with
the view that human values place importance in the individual in medicinal
matters (DuBos, 1965, Chapter XV) and that the presence of the physician

likely has a therapeutic function.

81

The greatest limitation and thus a considerable opportunity for
future work is an investigation of the role of healer. This sample is
apparently well-informed and confident of self-treatment of minor ail-
ments (as in Metzger, 1963); still, friends were sought for medical
advice. Of these friends, how many regularly give health advice and do
so as a major (pre)occupation? At least one person emerged who termed
herself a practicing herb woman; references were made to her by several
other respondents. It would seem fruitful to pursue further the role
of local lay healer(s).

Thus, despite limitations of the form and content of the inquiry,
a listing of plants currently in medicinal usage was obtained in addi-
tion to some measure of extent of usage and attitudes toward usage as
well as relation of demographic characteristics to usage of specific
plants. It is hoped that such may add in a small way to our repertoire

of healing methods.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A small sample of southern Michigan residents with purported interest
in plants, nutrition, or related concerns have been found to make
medicinal usage of plants.

Nearly half the sample responded directly to use of plants as medi-
cine and to such use upon themselves, while fewer (about one—third)
used such upon their families.

Nearly the entire sample felt that nutrition had an important relation
to health.

A major portion of the sample viewed their personal medicinal usage
of plants as preventive; those who reported visiting a doctor
periodically did so for preventive reasons more than for any other
purpose.

Most have learned of plant medicines through reading, family, or
friends. _

Over half the sample visited a doctor five or fewer times a year;
about a third consulted a natural or health food store ten or fewer
times per year; three-quarters consulted a friend ten or fewer times
per year.

Nearly three-quarters of the sample grew one or more vegetables for
their own use; half reported growing herbs, and half collecting wild
plants for personal use.

Nearly half of the sample learned to identify wild plants by them-

selves; a roughly equal number were taught.
82

83

9. Self—treatment of minor ailments exceeded professional treatment in
nearly all cases.

10. Food plants were the most commonly used for medicinal purposes by

the sample and wild plants the least; ratio of food plants to herbs

and spices to wild plants was 3:2:1.

11. Most of the herbs, spices, and wild plants of reported medicinal use

can be obtained through the natural/health food retail market; more

people purchased herbs and spices than collected them personally.

while more collected wild plants than purchased from a store or a

person.

12. No significant associations were found between demographic factors
and the most frequently (upper 25%) herbs and spices and wild plants
with the exception of gender (for herbs and spices only), which was
determined to be dependent with a level of significance better than
0.01.

Thus, in a sample with consensus of opinion of the relation of
nutrition to health as one of importance, it is not surprising that those
who made medicinal use of plants, food plants were the most frequently
used. It should be noted, however, that despite such consensus, only
half stated that they did make medicinal use of plants. Also it might be
emphasized that fewer reported such use upon their families than upon
themselves. Such suggests that personal experimentation was more
acceptable.

The prevalence of practice of preventive medicine was true for both
self-treatment and professional consultation. It is of interest that
despite the indication of health referral hierarchy as doctor-friend-

natural/health food store, more of the sample treated themselves for

84
minor ailments than consulted a professional.

In conclusion, it is suggested that the surveyed population
exhibited a notable degree of self-reliance in matters of health and
illness while maintaining considerable contact with both professional
and non-professional services. Absence of association of demographic
factors with use of plant medicines was an unexpected finding; it was
anticipated that degree of education and place of residence, at least.
would show significant relation to degree of usage. The prevalence of
preventive medicine was also not anticipated. Although there is no
objective evidence to support the statement, widespread use of plants
as preventive medicine may possibly be related to the general good

health reported in the questionnaire by the sample.

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90

APPENDIX-A

Questionnaire

The purpose of this questionnaire is to .zittenpt to learn to
what degree people now up e plants as meiicines. The main groups
of plants with which we are concerned are l) herbs and spices, 2)
wild plcnts, and 5) natural or organic fcoi lasts.

In answering the questions, where you find a blank (___)
please respond by number: YES = 1, N0 = 2, DON'J Khi. = 3. If
there is not enough room for you to write, please use the end of
this form and indicate the number of the question. -

¥+J'I-)'+-l-1L
1. Do you use herbs, organic foods, or wild plants as medicine?
___ For yourself? ___ Family?___ Often?__. Sonetimes?~__

2. Do you think that nutrition has an important relation to health?__

3. Do you think of herbs, organic foods, and wild plants as pre-
ventative medicine? As symptomatic medicine?

4. Do you prefer use of herbal teas or tisanes to use of coffee
or non-herbal tea?

5. How long have you been interested in natural remedies?
6. How did you become acquainted with rlant medicines?
7. Averaging the last five years, how many times a year do you
estimate that you:
a call upon a doctor? For what purpose?
b seek advice from friends for treating ailments?
c consult a health or nutural food store?
d) call upon some other person for advice when ill?

8. Do you ever collect and dry wild plants for your own use?
Which plants & for what use?

9. Did anyone teach you to identify wild plante?___ Did you learn
by yourself?_ _

10. Do you grow herbs for your own use? Which?
11. Do you grow food plants for your own use?___ Which?

12. Do you eVer treat yourself with plants for minor ailments?
Check any of the following that you would treat:

...athlete's foot ____cuts ”poison ivy ‘ ___stiff neck
__bruises __earache __sore muscle e __toothache
..COldS __flu _sore throat _other (please
__cough __headache :sprains .be specific)
13. Do you ever consult a doctor for any of ihe atove?_ Indicate

with a "D" in the appropriate blank those fcr which~ you would
consult a doctor.

14. Which plants would you use to treat any of the above?
15. If you don‘t use plant medicines at the present time, did you

ever? Which and for what purpose?
Why did you stop? 91

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. rsxm H wH<mw eHmomswom

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m1NH1aH . --- ..H~.uups.w ---. . _. ~o.m1~o.o . _ --- NNrNH

01w _ 1.: Nwlpm.o 1.. - Nonam.m . . --- mmupo
aipm . --- Nu.ulmm.o . ”mums - --- um.m-uo.o
oiwo . o.m g Narmimm _ Na mums o.m ua.o-wN.m
V1Ha H.o Nauww o.m mum wvem.o-ww.m o.m ww.-~s.m
.51No H.H warms .o.a Nuiwu o.a ua.m-wo.o
m1Hm ._ 0.0 , Nwwo--u . N,o.m .. Na.o o.a au.m1ww.o
also o.aAav o.mAmv Nano1NN.w o.mA .mAmv.. Na. Aav o.mAmv Na.oan.m
s1Hm . o.m MN.o--.o o. . Nw.m-~w.o o.a. Ne.mums.a
Ho-m H.N NH.m-~o -. .orm ~u1NH.o . Nolwu
H01Hs _ o.a Hm.o-Hmao .o.m _ _ Hummuwipawo . . o.m Na.01mm.o
Hales H.o as.m-as.o -o.» H0.muao.o
Helwo 0.0 Ha.-Ha.m o.» - Nwlaoq
Hanw. . .H.o a.o1a.on. o.» as.o1Hs.o
~1N015N N.o H.o-H.o.. --- ...... . .; w.o-H.m
m1HN H.N Ho.ouao.o 1.. _ Ha.muan.o o.a H©.O-H©.O
01H o.m Hm.miwm.o o.a s Noupo.o o.s ~N1NN
.01Hs o.» NH.o-Ho.o o.» . Ms.o1NH.o . o.a . _Na.m-Na.m
H .

a 1 Bonswsm
m 1 mmnmmsoos

Hmaumdmncwm Aoov nmsmm" mcnmmom no w smnmnm

L9

 

16. Check any of the following 1 you hxte usrd as medicine and
write the purpose for which 1ou us;ed it or them:

_alfalfa _~celery lcwit “*rhubarb
:apples __cider ;:litcs _*rye
__bananas __corn __m1llet _*. sesame seeds
__barley ‘__cucumber __1olasse° spin ch
__beans _~dfitv9 __mushrooms _:strawberries
__blackberries __fias onions ; sunflower seeds
__brown rice __grapes ::or ranges ::tomato
__buckwheat __green beans __peus __wheat
.__cabbaye __honey __prunes ‘flvianar, cider

carrots __lemons *_raepberries other (specify)
Indicate with a "T" those you use in tablet form.

 

17. Check say of the following herbs or s; ices that you have used
as medicine and note the purpose for which you used it or them:

__allspice nficoriander __marjoram _weage

Aloe vera __dill _’meadowsweet _*sarsaparilla
__anise _*fennel __mistletoe _wsavory, summer
__balm __flsxseed __nutmeg _scullcap
__basil __foenugreek _’crepano :spe1rmint
__borage _”Larlic orris root :tansy
__caruway __ginger __parsley __thyme
__cardamom __ginseng *pennyioyal __tobucco
__chamomile __golden seal __pepper, black __valerian
__cinnamon __hyssop __pepper, red __wintergreen
__cloves __lavendar _‘peppermint __yerba mate
__comfrey __lobelia _rosemary “other (specify)

Indicate with a "T" those you us e in tablet foxm.

18. Do you personally collect those of the above that you use as
medicine?__. Do you purchase them from a person?.__ A store?___
19. Check.any of the following wild plants thdt you have used as
medicine and write the purpose for which you used it or them:
__amaranth __dandelion _fijewel weed __p1antain
... ergamot __elderberries_*lettuce, wild __poke
'__blood root __elder fl. __mayapple “_red clover
__bugloss __five-finger __marijuana *_sassafras
__burdock _gin{er, wild __motherwort ___self-heal
__calamus _gol denrod __mullein __shenherds purse
__patnip :gold thread __mustard __slippery elm
__chickweed :ground ivy _“nettles _*wild carrot.
__chicory :horsetail _.ox-eye daisy _yarrow
“other (specify)
Indicate with a "T" those used in tablet form.
20. Do you personally collect those of the above that you use as

1

medicine? Do you purchase them from a person?__ A store?__

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PIERSOIXA L I N FOR M :1: T I 01"}

*Male or female? Age: Cccupeti-r:
*Last year of school complet : (placer cit 3()2’
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll 12 15 14 lb Er/FA ni/n‘ IhD

,Averare state of health over past fite years Lcitcle):
poor fair good greet exceEJEnt

‘Approximate yearly income (circle):

flo—Sooo / fisooi-10,coo / *13,301—15,&c: / 515,301—2c,ooo / .2o,ocs
*Current residence: urban/suburban/qua]? nearest city?

*Place of birth: urban/suburban/rural? Pear st city?

*Ethnic background: where did your fumily ccmo ircn before

living in America?

*Where have you spent most of your life: urta-/stburhan/rural
¥¥¥ii

If you have further comments or suggrotions, file 38 write

them. Also if you would be willing to :onti1;e this dis-

cussion in person, please write your flufié 331 telephone

number.

Thank you for your c00peratiaq.

93

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APPENDIX B

Definitions of medicinal uses according to Jethro Kloss

APPENDIX B

Definitions of medicinal uses according to Jethro Kloss

Alterative: producing a healthful change without perceptible evacuation

Aperient: gently laxative, without purging

Aromatic: stimulant, spicy

Astringent: causes contraction and arrests discharges

Antiperiodic: arrests morbid periodical movements

Antiscorbutic: cures or prevents scurvy

Antiseptic: opposed to putrefaction

Antispasmodic: relieves or prevents spasms

Antisyphilitic: having effect on or curing veneral diseases

Carminative: expels wind from the bowels

Cathartic: evacuating to the bowels

Demulcent: soothing, relieves inflammation

Deobstruent: removes obstructions

Diaphoretic: produces perspiration

Diuretic: increases the secretion and flow of urine

Emetic: produces vomiting

Emmenagogue: promotes menstruation

Emollient: softening and soothing to inflamed parts

Expectorant: facilitates expectoration

Febrifuge: abates and reduces fevers

Laxative: promotes bowel action

Maturating: ripens or brings boils, tumors, and ulcers to a head

Mucilaginous: soothing to inflamed parts

Nervine: acts specifically on the nervous system, allaying nervous
excitement

Opthalmicum: a remedy for disease of the eye

‘9+

95

Pectoral: remedy to relieve chest affections
Resolvent: dissolves and removes tumors

Sialagogue: increases the secretion of saliva
Stomachic: strengthens and gives tone to the stomach
Styptic: arrests hemorrhage and bleeding

Sudorific: produces profuse perspiration

Tonic: remedy which is invigorating and strengthening
Vermifuge: expels worms

APPENDIX C

Phylogenetic classification

APPENDIX C
Phylogenetic classification

Species with reported medicinal uses were compared with those used
medicinally by four Great Lakes Indian tribes: the Menomini, Meskwaki,
Ojibwe, and Forest Potawatomi (Smith, l923, 1928, 1932, l933). Usages
reported by Smith were obtained from living tribesmen in Wisconsin who
had retained as much as possible the traditional medicinal practices.

It was found that of the approximately 153 species used by the respon-
dents of this survey, 22% were species also utilized by the Woodland
Indians.

It is of interest to note that of those species used in common by
the Indians and the sampled population, 70% (33/153) were native species
(Gleason & Cronquist, l963). In other words, in the 300 years or so
from the first contacts with French and British fur traders to the time
of Smith's research, introduced species were incorporated in the native
American Indian medicinal flora. In fact, approximately one-third of
the species utilized by the southern Michigan sample and the Wisconsin
Indians were introduced.

The following phylogenetic classification includes an indication
of tribes with recorded use of the species in question (see page vii for
abbreviations) as well as the probable origin of the species.

96

97

DIVISION FUNGI

Class Ascomycetes
Subclass Hemiascomycetidae
Order Endomycetales
Family Saccharomycetaceae
Saccharomyces rouxii - Miso fermenting agent

Subclass Euscomycetidae
Order Eurotiales
Family-Eurotiaceae
Aspergillus oryzae - Miso fermenting agent

Class Basidiomycetes
Subclass Homobasidiomycetidae
Order Agaricales
Family Agaricaceae

Agaricus spp. - Mushroom

DIVISION PTERIDOPHYTA

Order Equisetales
Family Equisetaceae
Equisetum arvense L. - Horsetail
lhative: FP,OJ)

Order Filicales
Family Osmundaceae
Osmunda spp. - Fern

Family Polypodiaceae
Polypodium aggjlinum (L.) ~ Bracken fern
Elhative; Mn, 55)

DIVISION HAGNOLIOPHYTA

Class Magnoliopsida
Subclass Magnoliidae
Order Magnoliales

Family Myristicaceae

‘ Myristica fragrans Houtt. 9 Nutmeg

Family Lauraceae
Cinnamomum Cassia (Nees) Nees ex Blume - Cinnamon
C. Loureirii Nees
CI EEYTEHTEGm Nees
Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees — Sassafras

 

 

 

 

Order Piperales
Family Piperaceae

‘Piper nigrum L. - Black pepper

98
Order Aristolochiales
F. Aristolochiaceae
Asarum canadense L. - Wild ginger
(native; FP',Mn, Ms .03)

O. Ranunculales
F. Ranunculaceae
Cimifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. - Black cohosh
Coptis trifolia (L.) Salisb. - Goldthread
(native;5FP,Mn,Oj)
Hydrastis canadensis L. - Golden seal
F. Berberidaceae
Caulophyllum thalictroides (L. ) Michx. »_Blue cohosh
(native; FP, Mn ,Ms ,Oj)
Podophyllum peltatum L. — May apple

 

 

 

 

 

0. Papaverales
F. Papaveraceae
Sanguinaria canadensis L. - Bloodroot
(native; FP,Mn:Ms,Oj)

 

Subclass Hamamelidae
O. Urticales

F. Ulmaceae

Ulmus fulva Mich. - Slippery elm
(natiVe; FP,Mn,Ms,Oj)

F. Moraceae
Ficus Carica L. - Fig

F. Cannabaceae
Cannabis sativa L. - Marijuana
Humulus Lupulus L. - Hops

F. UrtiEaceae
Urtica dioica L. - Nettle

 

 

 

 

 

Subcl. Caryophyllidae
O. Caryophyllales
F. Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca americana L. - Poke
F. Caryophyllaceae
Stellaria media (L. ) Cyrill. - Chickweed
F. Chenopodiaceae
Spinacea oleracea L. - Spinach
F. Amaranthaceae
Amaranthus retroflexus L. - Amaranth

 

 

 

 

O. Polygonales
F. Polygonaceae

FagOpyrum esCulentum L. - Buckwheat
eum - apontitum L. « Rhubarb
Rumex Acetosella L. — Sheep sorrel

 

 

 

Subcl. Dilleniidae
O. Violales
F. Violaceae
Viola spp. — Violet

 

99

(some native, some introduced; FP,OJ)
F. Turneraceae .
Turnera diffusa Willd. « Damiana
F, Caricaceae. » .
’ Carica papaya L.'- Papaya
F. Curcurbitaceae-. , ‘
Cucumis sativus L. — Cucumber

 

 

O. Capparales
F. Cruciferae . ~

Brassica alba L. - Mustard

B, ni ra KoCh. ~ Black mustard
.inaturalized: Ms)

B. oleracea L. - Cabbage

Capsella Bursaepastoris Medic. - Shepherd‘s purse
(introduced;FP,Mn,Ms)

 

O. Ericales
F. Ericaceae - -» .
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. - Bearberry

(native; Mn)

Gaultheria rocumbens L. - Wintergreen
(nativ£3_FP:Nfi:53)

Subcl. Rosidae
O. Rosales
F. Rosaceae
Fra aria vesca L. - Strawberry
(introduced: FP) .
Potentilla recta L. - Five-finger
E, reptans L. - Five-finger .
Prunus omestica L. - Prune
Pyrus Malus L. - Apple

Rosa spp. - Rose
(some native; FP, Mn,Ms,OJ)

Rubus alle heniensis Parter. - Blackberry
(native; FF, Ms, Oj)
R. ne lectus Peck. - B ackberry
E} occidentalis L. - Black raspberry
(native; FP, MS, 03)
R, strigosus Michx. - Blackberry
S iraea a a Du Roi - Meadowsweet
S, ulmaria E. - Meadowsweet
F. Leguminosae

Arachis h aea L. - Peanut
Glycinesoia Sieb. and Zucc. - Soybean
'fiedicago sativa L. f Alfalfa
’ ‘aseo us lunatus L. - Lima bean
‘ Pi'vul'ari§”L. - Kidney, pole, bush, wax, navy beans
‘ Pi5um sativum L. - Pea

Trifolium» ratense L. - Red clover
(introduced: FP) .
'Trigonella foenum:graeCum L. - Foenugreek

 

 

 

 

 

 

100

0. Myrtales
F. Myrtaceae .

Eugenia car 0 h llus (Speng.) Sprague - Cloves
menta officinalis Lindl. - Allspice
0. Santalales

F. Loranthaceae
Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh) Nutt. - Mistletoe

O. Celastrales
F. Aquifoliaceae '
Ilex paraguensis St. Hil. - Yerba mate

 

O. Rhamnales
F. Vitaceae
Vitis vinifera L. - Grape

 

0. Sapindales

F. Anacardiaceae
Mangifera indica L. - Mango
Rhys t hina L. - Staghorn sumac

na ve: FP, Mn, Ms. 03)

F. Rutaceae
Citrus aurantifolia Swingle. - Lime
C. Eimon Burman. - Lemon
E} sinensis Osbeck. - Orange

 

0. Geraniales
F. Oxalidaceae ,
Oxalis stricta L. - Wood sorrel
native: FP)
F. Balsaminaceae
Impatiens biflora Halt. - Jewel weed

(native; FP, Ms, 03) '
1. ca nsis L. - Jewel weed
I. aIIida Nutt. - Jewel weed
(native: FP,Ms,OJ)
O. Linales

F. Linaceae
Linum usitassimum L. - Flaxseed

O. Umbellales
F. Araliaceae
Panax uin uefOlium L. - Ginseng
,(nat ve; , n, Ms, OJ)
F. Umbelliferae
Anethum graveolenEL. C Dill
‘ A ium 'raveo ans . - e ery
' Carum carvi E. - Caraway
CTIpetroselinum Benth. and Hook. — Parsley
Coriandrum sativum L. - Coriander

 

 

 

lOl

Daucus carota_L. — Carrot, Wild carrot
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. « Fennel
Pimpjnella anisum L. w Anise

 

 

Subcl. Asteridae
O. Gentianales
F. Asclepiadaceae
Hemidesmus indicus Brown - Sarsaparilla

 

O. Polemoniales
F. Solanaceae
Capsicum frutescens L. - Red pepper
Q, minimum RoXb. - Red pepper
Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. . Tomato
Nicotiana tobaccum L. - Tobacco

 

 

 

0. Lamiales
F. Boraginaceae

Bora o officinalis L. - Borage

Echium vUT are L. - Bugloss

Sympfiytum o cinale L. - Comfrey

F. LaBiatae

Glecoma hederaceg L.(- Ground ivy 1

Hadeoma ule ioi es L. Pers. - Amer can pennyroyal

H 550 us officinalis L. - Hyssop

Lavengula officinalis Chaix. - Lavendar

Leonurus cardiaca L. - Motherwort

Marrubium vul are L. - Horehound

Melissa officinalis L. - Balm

Mentha piperita L. - Peppermint
(introdtced;PMn) 1

M, Pule ium . - ennyroya

M, spicata L. - Spearmint

Monarda istulosa L. - Bergamot

Nepeta cataria L. - Catnip
(intrddhced; Mn, Oj)

Ocimum basilicum L. - Basil

Origanum majoram L. - Marjoram

Q, vul are L. - Oregano

Prune a vulgaris L. — Heal—all

(native:-Oj)
Rosmarinus officinalis L. - Rosemary
sa1vsa chia Fern. - Chia
S. officinalis L. - Sage
Satureia hortensis L. - Summer savory
Scutellaria laterifolia L. - Scullcap
Thymus vfilgaris L. ellhyme

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O. Plantaginales
F. Plantaginaceae
'Plantago major L. - Plantain
If (introduced: FP,‘Mn,'Ms, Oj)

102

O. Scroghulariales
F. Scrophulariaceae
Verbascum Thapsus L. - Common mullein
*(introduced; FP, Mn, Ms, Oj)
F. Pedaliaceae
Sesamum indicum L. -Sesame seeds

 

 

O. Campanulales
F. Lobeliateae
Lobelia inflata_L. - Lobelia

 

O. Dipsacales
F. Caprifoliaceae
Sambucus canadensis L. - Common elderberry
(native; Mn, Ms)
F. Valerianaceae
Valeriana officinalis L. - Valerian

 

 

O. Asterales
F. Compositae
Achillea millefolium L. - Yarrow
*(hative or introduced; FP, Mn, Ms, Oj)
Anthemis nobilis L. - Chamomile
Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. - Ox-eye daisy
(introduced; FP, Mn, Oj)
Cichorium intybus L. - Chicory
HETianthus anuus L. - Sunflower
H, tuberosus L. - Jerusalem artichoke
Lactuca canadensis L. - Lettuce
E'(introduced; Mn)
L, Serriola L. - Wild lettuce
(introduced; Ms)
L. sativa L. var. capitata L. - Head lettuce
Matricaria Chamomilla L. - Chamomile

Solida o spp. - Goldenrod
(some native; FP, Mn, Ms, Oj)
Tanacetum vulgare L. - Tansy ‘
f (introduced, Oj)
Taraxacum officinale Weber. — Dandelion

(introduced; FP, Ms, Oj)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cl. Liliopsida
Subcl. Commelinidae
O. Cyperales
F. Gramineae
Hordeum vulgare L. - Barley
Or za satIVa L. - Rice
‘Panicum miliiaceum L. - Millet
Saccharum officinale L. » Molasses
Secale cereale L. - Rye

Initicumxulgare Vill. - Wheat

 

 

 

 

103
Lea [hays L. — Corn

0. Zingiberales
F. Musaceae
Musa sapientum L. — Banana
F. Zingiberaceae
Elettaria Cardamomum (L.) Maton - Cardamom
Zingiber officinale Rosc. - Ginger

 

Subcl. Arecidae
O. Arecales
F. Palmae
Phoenix dactylifera L. - Date

0. Arales
F. Araceae
Acorus Calamus L. - Sweet flag
(introduced; FP, Mn, Ms, Oj)

Subcl. Liliidae
O. Liliales
F. Liliaceae
Allium Cepa L. - Onion
Af"sativum L. - Garlic
AL tricoccum Ait. - Wild leek
Aloe vera var. officinalis - Aloe vera
As ara us officina is L. - Asparague
Liiium su erbum L. - Turk's-cap lily
Smilax ar sto ochiaefolia Mill. - Sarsaparilla
ST ornata Hook. - Sarsaparilla
F. Irioaceae
Iris florentina L. - Orris root

ICHIGRN STATE UNIV. LIBRQRIES

11

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