AN EVALUAUGK CF THE
CU‘SHEQNENG ?§O?ERNES O?
CQRRQGA'EEG FAPEMCARBE

Tfiests for 1530 Degree of M. S.
EMCEHGAN S'E‘A'E‘Ei ‘UXE‘IERS‘E‘E‘Y
Gerald L Faimreuter

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ABSTRACT

AN EVALUATION OF THE CUSHIONING PROPERTIES
‘ OF CORRUGATED PAPERBOARD

by Gerald L. Palmreuter

This study was undertaken in order to determine the
shock absorbing characteristics of built up corrugated mate-
rial. Test cushions varying in thickness, basis weight, and
flute size were evaluated with a Vertical Dynamic Drop Test-
er. The data obtained was used in evaluating cushioning
prOpertics and predicting the shock experienced by an article
packaged in corrugated.

0n the basis of the data, the following conclusions were
drawn:

1) Unstressed corrugated is a very inconsistent mate-

rial and its performance inside a package cannot be steadily

predicted after the initial drop.

2) Prestressed corrugated cushioning is a relatively

consistent cushioning material and it performs quite

well inside a package. However, its cushioning ability
cannot be predicted with the use of cushion curves.

3) The basis weight of the corrugated medium is a

more important factor in determining cushion effective-

ness than the basis weight of the liner.

h) As the flute size increases, the first impact ef-
fectiveness increases but the multidrop effectiveness

decreases.

AN EVALUATION OF THE CUSHIONING PROPERTIES
OF CORRUGATED PAPERBOARD

By

Gerald L: Palmreuter

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

f MASTER OF SCIENCE
School of Packaging

1968

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. James w. Goff, Professor
and Director, Michigan State University School of Packaging,
for his guidance throughout the course of this study and
Stephen R. Pierce, Instructor, School of Packaging, for his
suggestions and assistance on technical problems.

He would also like to thank Roger W. Esker, former Pack-
aging Technologist, West Virginia Pulp and Paper, for both his
ideas and his help in obtaining the test samples needed for
this study and Mrs. Elizabeth Anderson for her assistance in
preparing this paper.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNONLEDGENENTS ..................................
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................
LIST OF TABLES ....................................
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................
INTRODUCTION ......................................
BACKGROUND ........................................
TEST EQUIPMENT & INSTRUMENTATION ..................
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE ............................
RESULTS ...........................................
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .............................
CONCLUSIONS .......................................
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................
APPENDIX I ........................................
APPENDIX II ........................................
APPENDIX III ......................................
APPENDIX Iv .......................................

iii

' Page

ii
iii
iv{

vii

10
17
22
80
86
87
88
89
91+
99

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
' I. Shock Predicted Via Corrugated Cushion

Curves Vs. Shock Actually EXperienced
By An Article Packaged In.Corrugated

cushioning .0....0.0000000000000000000COO 75

II. Dynamic DrOp Test Data .................. 100

. iv

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9-12
13-16
17-22
23-26
27-30
31-36
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LIST OF FIGURES

Unstressed, 2h", ZZ-A Flute Cushion Curve ...
Hypothetical Cushion Curve ..................
Hypothetical Cushion Curve ..................
Vertical Dynamic DrOp Tester ................
Dummy-Load For The Package DrOp Test ........
L.A.B. Model 5D~lOO Package Drop Tester .....
Baldwin-Emery SR—h Compression Tester .......
A Typical Package Ready For The Package

DrOp Test ...................................
Unstressed, 2h", ZR-A Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2h", AV-A Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2h", RRHA Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2h", FR-Q Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2h", AR—Q Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2h", AR—A Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2h", ZZ-A Flute Cushion Curves ..
Unstressed, 2%", AS-A Flute Cushion Curves ..
UnstresSed, 2h", PLY PAC-A Flute Cushion
Curves ......................................

Unstressed, 2h", PLY PAC-Q Flute Cushion

Cllrves .0......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0000...

Page

12
1h

16

2o
23
27
31
37
#1
#5

55

61

67

Figures ' Page

57 Prestressed, 2%", ZRmA Flute Cushion Curve .. 71
58 Prestressed, 2h”, AV-A Flute Cushion Curve .. 72
59 Unstressed, 18", PLY PAC-A Flute Cushion

. Curve ....................................... 73

60 Unstressed, 30", PLY PAC—A Flute Cushion

Cul‘Vre ...O0."...00.0.0.0.........OOCOQOOOOOOO 71+
61 Cushion Curve Comparing Cushioning PrOperties

Of Corrugated ind Foamed Polyethylene ....... 82
62 Cushion Curve Used To Determine Effects Of

Flute Size .................................. 83
63 Cushion Curve Used To Determine Effects Of

Varying The Basis Height Of The Corrugated

Liner ....................................... 8%
6h Cushion Curve Used To Determine Effects Of

Varying The Basis Height Of The Corrugated

Medium ...................................... 85
65 Foamed Polyethylene Cushion Curves .......... 92

66-68 Photographs Of Selected OscillOSCOpe Traces . 96

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
I. A Key To West Virginia Pulp & Paper's
Letter Designations ......................... 88.
II. The Cushion Design Method And in Example .... 89-
III. A Justification For The Electric Filter
Setting ...................................... 9%

IV. Dynamic Drop Test Data ...................... 99

. - D '
. -

vii

INTRODUCTION

In our competitive society, the search for potential areas
of cost reduction is a never ending battle. Consequently, many
companies which previously regarded packaging as a "liability"
are being forced into realizing that packaging is a frontier .
which, if conquered, could give them the edge on their compet-
itor. With this increased interest, a movement is beginning
which is aimed at changing packaging from an-art into a science.
In this respect, the cushion curve-gpggk.g_vs static stress
curve--has been a very useful tool. with_the help of such
curves it is possible to compare the merits of various cush-
ioning materials for a certain given application. The School
of Packaging at Michigan State University has derived such
curves for many materials. However, prior to the time of this
study, no cushion curve work had been done with corrugated
material.

This study then is designed to use cushion curves to in-
vestigate the effects of various variables associated with cor-
rugated board--basis weight of liners, basis weight of corrugat-
ed medium, flute size, cushion thickness, etc.--upon cushioning
properties. In addition, a comparison between corrugated and

other commercially available materials will also be included.

BACKGROUND

Until werld war II there was little interest in package
cushion testing. However, during the war the Forest Products
Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin, began studies on cushions
used in packages. These early studies were based on static
tests and they were aimed at finding some way of predicting
a cushion's performance inside a package. The static method
involves placing a series of weights on the cushioning material
and measuring the amount of compression of the material as
each weight is added. The greatest drawback to this method
lies in the fact that the forces are not applied to the cush-
ioning material at the same rate as they are when the cushioned
article is dropped. Because of this, dynamic testing, which
more closely simulates the action of a cushion in an actual
drop, became the accepted method for evaluating cushion per-
formance.1

All dynamic tests in package cushioning operate on the
same basic principle. A cushion of known thickness and area
is impacted by a mass of known weight. The deceleration of
the falling body as well as the deflection of the cushion and
the drOp distance-~based on impact velocity-~can then be measur-
ed. 'Several methods have been tried. Of these, the one making
use of the Vertical Dynamic DrOp Tester is most common because,
of the ease with which impact velocity is controlled. This
method makes use of a variable weight platen that is dropped

2

on a sample cushion.2

The main purpose in using a dynamic tester is to derive a
cushion curve. All such curves are of the basic form shown in
Figure 1. They have g's deceleration plotted against static
stress and are used to evaluate the merits of a particular pack-
age cushioning material for certain given applications. Figure l
is a first drOp -2h" free fall cushion curve for 2" ZZ-A Flute.
The ZZ_indicates that the basis weight of both the corrugated
medium and the liner is 17 lbs/1000 sq ft. (Appendix 1)

The way in which a drop tester is used to derive the curves
is the static stress, which is measured in lbs/sq", is varied
by changing weights on the dynamic drOpping head which impacts
a cushion 8 inches square. The g's experienced in the drOp for
a certain static stress are measured by an accelerometer and
' recorded on an oscillOSCOpe. From Figure 1 it is easy to see
that: .

1) Under a load of .19 lbs/sq" a shock of 50 g's was

experienced. -

2) Under a load of .MO lbs/sq" a shock of 30 g's was

eXperienced. V .

3) Under a load of .50 lbs/sq" a shock of 50 g's was

eXperienced.

Knowing that the area impacted wasi6h sq" and that static stress
(53) = pounds loading of the drOp platen (lbs)/square inches
impacted by the platen (sq"), it id easy to determine the num-
ber of pounds which impacted the cushion-at each of the above

static stresses.

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STATIC STRESS -

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ss = lbs/sq"
where 53 = .19 lbs/sq" and Sq" = 6% sq"
. therefore .19 lbs/sq" = lbs/6h sq"
or‘lQ§= .19 lbs/sq” X 6% sq" = lg;l§”;b§

Similarly at .h lbs/sq", 25.6 lbs impacted the sample and at
.5 lbs/sq",,3g.lb§ impacted the sample. 1

From this one can see that 6% sq" of this cushion offers
2%" first drop protection to an article which has a fragility
of 50 g's if this article weighs inbetween 12.8 and 32.0 lbs.
Above and below this weight range the cushion will not give
the desired protection if 6% sq" of cushioning is used on the
side of the package which is to be impacted. However, by de-
viating from the 6% sq" it is possible to protect an article
with a'SO g fragility which has a weight outside the 12.8 to
32.0 lb range. This is beyond the purpose of my study. If,-
however, you are interested in this aspect of cushion design,
the Cushion Design Method and an example of this method appear
in Appendix 2 of this study. I I

As a result of the previous discussion concerning cushion
curves, it should now be relatively easy to compare cushioning .
prOperties with the use of cushion'curves. Figure 2 gives 2h"
free fall cushion curves derived for two hypothetical cushion-
ing materials. From these curves it is obvious that both mater-
ials protect throughout the same ldading range. However,
material A is better to protect a low fragility item. (It

offers protection to an article with a fragility of 32 g's at

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a static stress of .31 lbs/sq"). The best protection material
B can offer is 88 g's at a static stress of .325 lbs/sq". Thus
if a packaging engineer had only materials A and B available
and he had to protect an article with a fragility of 60 g's;
his only choice wbuld be material A between a static stress of
.2 lbs/sq" and .M35 lbs/sq".

Figure 3 represents two more hypothetical cushion curves
derived for a 2%" free fall. It can be seen that material C
is only good at light loadings. (At .185 lbs/sq" it prOtects
down to 28 g's). Material D is good over a wide loading range
but it offers best protection at .5 lbs/sq" (32 g's). If a
packaging engineer were faced with a choice between materials
C and D in protecting an article with a fragility of #0 g's,
the major consideration would be the weight of the product.
Material C would be used for a light product and material D
would be used for a heavy product.

From the previous discussion it is obvious that cushion
curves can be very useful to a packaging engineer. For this
reason some companies have had such curves derived for their
package cushioning material.3 However, as far as could be
determined, no cushion curves have been made available for
built up corrugated cushioning.

Mr. R. K.,Stern who is a technologist for the Forest
Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin did some work con-
cerning the cushioning ability of freely ventilated corrugated

pads. However this work was concerned with only single loading

 

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--one impact-~of one to five layers of corrugated. On the
basis of this work he concluded:h .
I) For a single impact, the larger the corrugation Size
-f1ute size--the greater the cushion effectiveness.
2) For a single impact, an even number of 1ayers--2 or k
--is more effective than an odd number of layers-~l, 3 or 5.
As an extension of Mr. Stern's work, this study is concerned
with using cushion curves to:
1) Compare corrugated cushioning to a few selected foam-
ed plastics (polyethylene and polystyrene) in order to see
if corrugated has any distinct cushioning advantages.
2) Compare the various types of corrugated cushioning
to one another in order to evaluate the effects of such
variables as flute size, basis weight, and cushion thick-
ness. I
3) Evaluate the accuracy of predicting shock eXperienced
by a product packaged in corrugated.

h) Evaluate the effects of prestressing corrugated pads.

TEST EQUIPMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION

The equipment and instrumentation section will be divided
into the following three parts:

1) The dynamic drop tester and the associated instru-

mentation used to derive cushion curves.

2) The package drop tester, the dummy load, and the ‘

instrumentation used to evaluate the shock predicting

ability of corrugated cushion curves.

3) The compression tester used to prestress corrugated

cushioning.

Dynamic Dr0p Tester

The testing apparatus consisted of a dynamic drOp tester
plus the associated electronic instrumentation. A dynamic drOp
tester is a machine having a drOpping head and a massive anvil.
A Kistler Model 818 accelerometer was mounted on the drOpping
head. This accelerometer, together with a Kistler Model 5H8 B
piezotron coupler and a Tektronix Type 56% storage oscillosc0pe,
gave a complete deceleration vs time curve for any given drop.
Selected traces were photographed using a TektroniX.Model 0-12
oscilloscope camera and Polaroid Type #7 high speed (3000 ASA
equivalent) black and white film. ~'A'Xrohn-Eite Model 33cm band
pass filter was used to purify theadeceleration vs time pulse '
because the Kistler Model 818 acceIerometer has such a high
natural frequency that it picked up undesirable noise from the

movement of the bearings on the shafts. 'The filter was proper-

10

ll

1y adjusted so that it filtered out only the noise and not part
of the fundamental shock which was being measured. A justifi-
cation for the filter setting is Shown in Appendix 3.

All of the data in this study is based on "equivalent
free fall height" rather than actual drOp height.' This free
fall height is based on impact velocity. In order to measure
this impact velocity a Sanborn 3LVI7N linear velocity trans-
ducer was employed. This transducer has a calibration in terms
of mv/in/sec and it was set up such that the velocity was
measured one inch before the actual impact. -(For a 2%" free
fall the impact velocity which had to be read 1" before impact
is l33.5"/sec).s This was done to avoid the effects of an air
cushion which existed between the test sample and the drOpping
head when they were less than one inch apart. Remembering now
that the transducer has a calibration in terms of mv/in/sec,
its voltage output was recorded on a Tektronix Type 502 dual
beam oScilloscOpe and converted to in/Sec which is velocity.
The dynamic drOp tester and all of the associated instrumen-

tation is shown in Figure H.
Package Droo Tester

This part covers the items used in the package drOp test.
The three prinCipal items were (1) the corrugated containers,
(2) the dummy load used in the packages and (3) the package
drOp tester itself.

The containers were constructed of 260 pound test A flute

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board. They had inside dimensions of 8 X.8 X 11 inches. 'All
were regular slotted containers with the manufacturers' joint,
the top, and bottom sealed with glass reinforced asphalt_
laminated kraft backed tape.

The dummy load consisted of an 11% pound wooden block.
Figure 5 illustrates the block. This block was constructed
of maple dieboard. The layers were glued together. Addition-
al rigidity was added by the use of 3/8" bolts running from
the top to the bottom at all four corners. Steel plates
were bolted to the t0p and bottom to increase the weight of
the block to 13% pounds. A Kistler Model 818 accelerometer
was mounted in the center of the block (see Figure 5). The
output of this accelerometer was fed into a Tektronix Type
56% storage oscillosc0pe through a Kistler Model 5&8 B piezo-
tron coupler.

The package drOp tester used was a L.A.B. Model SD-lOO
drOp tester. The base plate which held the drOp tester and
which the packages impacted was one-half inch steel plate
grouted onto an eight-inch concrete floor resting on tamped

earth.' The package drOp tester is shown in Figure 6.
Compression Tester

A Baldwin-Emery SR-h compression testing machine was used
to prestress the corrugated samples. This compression tester

has a capacity of 50,000 lbs. It is shown in Figure 7.

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l6

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

This section will be broken up into three parts corres-
ponding to the three parts found in the equipment and instru-
mentation section. They are (l) the dynamic drOp tester (2)
the package drOp tester and (3) the compression tester.

Dynamic Drog Tester

In order to derive the cushion curves used for this study,
a modified version of ASTM D lS96-6h-Standard Method of Test
for the Shock Absorbing Characteristics of Package Cushioning
Materials-was used. According to this method, drOp height
is specified as "equivalent free fall height" rather than actual
drOp height. This is because all dynamic drOpping heads are
influenced by friction. This friction may be due to the air
and/or the shafts which guide the dropping head. The signi-
ficance of this effect varies not only with the type of
apparatus, but also with the various weights used in a given
apparatus. For this reason a velocity transducer was used to
measure impact velocity. .

The test Specimens consisted of 8 X 8 inch built up cor-
rugated pads which varied in (l) flute size (2) specimen
thickness (3) basis weight of the liners and (h) basis weight
of the corrugated medium.

All Specimens were preconditioned at 50 t 2% relative hu-

midity and 73.h t 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit for at least 2% hrs.

17

18

The test procedure consisted of the following four basic
steps: .
1) Adjust the impact velocity for a gfifl.fgegԤall--a few
curves were also derived for 18" and 30" free falls. This
was done by varying the height that the platen drOpped
until the readout from the oscillosc0pe indicated the im-
pact velocity desired. (Our Sanborn velocity transducer
was calibrated so that a readout of 5.3 volts was needed
one inch above the cushion in order to achieve an impact
velocity of l36"/sec). ‘
2) ieasure the original thickness. An accurate ruler
was used to determine the thickness of the Specimen at its
four corners. An average of these four readings was taken
and recorded as the original thickness.
3) Impact the specimen. The test specimen was placed
in position on the anvil and impacted by the dropping head
with a series of five drOps at a predetermined static
stress-pthe lowest for which the material was to be eval-
uated. (Static stress is a function of the weight of the
-dr0pping head). A minimum of one minute elapsed between
drops. After each drOp (l) a complete deceleration vs
time record was taken from the oscillosc0pe and (2) the
Specimen thickness was again measured. If the thickness
of the specimen had decreasedjfor any given drOp, the drOp

height had to be changed in ofder to retain the prOper

19

impact velocity for the next drop. The last of the five '
thicknesses was recorded as the final thickness.
#) Obtainla new sample, change the weight of the drOpping
head and repeat steps 1 through 3 until the upper loading--
static stress-~for which the cushion is to be evaluated
has been reached. f
The data obtained by this procedure is found in Appendix M and
the first and second drOp cushion curves derived by the use of

this data can be found in the results section of this study.

I

Package Dron Tester

Once the test cushion had been selected, three test pack-
ages were assembled and sealed. Figure 8 illustrates the cross-
section of a typical package ready for testing. .

The test procedure used consisted of 5 impacts on the bottom
surface of the instrumented package. A drOp height of 2%" was
used and approximately one minute was allowed to elapse between
drOps.

The package drOp test data can be found in the results

section of this study.
Compression Tester

The procedure for prestressing the corrugated material
consisted of the following:
1) Placing a sample between the platens of the com-

pression tester.

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2) Adjusting the machine to automatically shut off when
the sample eXperienced a load of 1,250 pounds.

3) 'Setting the bottom platen to move up at a rate of
.5"/minute. This rate of movement continued until the
sample experienced a load of 1,250 pounds.

H) Removing the 1,250 pound load from the sample as soon

as possible.

RESULTS

This section is divided into two parts. Part I--Figures
9 to 60--contains the cushion curves which were drawn using
the dynamic drOp test data found in Appendix IV. For reasons
presented in the introductory comments to this appendix, five
dr0p average cushion curves, as specified by ASTM D l596-6h,
were only drawn for the prestressed materials. (Prestressed
‘curves appear in Figures 57 & 58). All other figures in this
section represent either first or second drOp cushion curves
for one of the materials tested. Third, fourth, and fifth
drOp cushion curves were also drawn, but they were not in-
cluded in this report.

Part II consists of a table comparing the shock predicted
via corrugated cushion curves and the shock actually experienced

by an article packaged in corrugated cushioning.

22

 

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60

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220

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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w. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H a D DIV. (Sandusky)
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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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W. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D DIV. (Sandusky)

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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AR-Q Flute

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20" Free Fall D

200

220

200

u.’Ve. Pulp a Paper H a D Div. (Sandusky)

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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W. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Sandusky)

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V. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 510 Div. (sandUSky)

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80
60

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STATIC STRESS ' PSI

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2&0

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STATIC STRESS -PSI

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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24” Free Fall Dr0p (first drop)

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63

STATIC STRESS - PSI

2““ Free Fall Drop (Second Drop)

2&0

220

W. Va qué 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Sandusky

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w. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Gloucester)
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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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2h" Free Fall Drop (Second Drop)

2&0

220

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PLY PAC A-Flute

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STATIC STRESS ' PSI

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2&0

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% w. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Sandusky)

FLY PACPQ Flute

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67'

 

STATIC STRESS - PSI

F1 ure 53

2h” Free Fall Drop (Second Drop)

22

20

w. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 o Div. (Sandusky)
PLY PACoQ Flute

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

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220

200

ii. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div.‘

PLY PAC-Q Flute

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(Sandusky)

80
60

‘40

20

69

 

STATIC STRESS - PSI

F1 mare 5i

70

W. Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5,D Div. (Sandusky)

PLY PAC QrFlute

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24" Free Fall 0

22

West Virginia Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Sandusky)
Prestressed ZR-A Flute

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71

 

STATIC STRESS - PSI

3“

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West Virginia Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Sandusky)
Prestressed AV-A Flute

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

fill

F111

l8" Free Fall Drop (first drop)‘

2h0

220 ‘

200

W; Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div.

PLY PAC A-Flute

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UT

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(Sandusky)

80
60

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STATIC STRESS - PSI

F1 uroig

l

w. 'Va. Pulp 5 Paper H 5 D Div. (Sandusky) 71*
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(firSt drop)

30” Free Fall DrOp

STATIC STRESS - PSI

 

8”
a, .

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i20
l00
80
60
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0
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2&0
220
200
l80
160

TABLE I

Shock Predicted Via Corruoated Cushion Curves Vs.
Shock Aetfiallx Exoerienccd Bv An Article

 

 

 

 

Packaged In Corrugated Cushioning
Static DrOp Predicted Actua1**
Material m Jig; Shock Shock
3" ZR-A Flute* .289 1 110 g's #1 3'3
.289 2 110 g's #8 g's
.289 3 110 g’s 50 3'5
.289 h 110 g's 50 3'5
.289 5 110 g's SO g's
.616 1 2ho+ g's' 60 3'3.
.616 2 2HO+ g's 99 8'5
.616 3 2HO+ g's 109 g's
.616 h 2h0+ g's 128 3'5
.616 5 2h0+ g's 1H0 g's
3" AVAA Flute* .289 1 1H5 g's #2 g's
.289 2 1&5 g's 5H g's
.289 3 IDS g's 5h g's
.289 h IDS g's 56 g's
.289 5 1H5 3'5 58 g's
.616 1 2h0+ g's 66 g's
.616 2 2h0+ 3'5 103 g's
.616 3 2h0+ g's 117 g's
.616 h 2HO+ 3'5 132 g's
.616 5 2HO+ g's 1H5 g's
* Prestressed Material

** Average Of Three Tests

75

76

Static Drop Predicted Actua1**

 

 

 

Material ‘§§g§§§ .432; Shock _§hock;_
3" RR-A Flute .289. 1 . 52 g's » 52 g's
.289 2 #9 g's . #8 gts

.289 3 58 3'3 #9 g's

.289 # 5# 3'5 50 g's

.289 5 52 g'6 51 3'3

.616 1 22 g's 26 g's

.616 2 28 g's 31 3'5

.616 3 36 g's 3# 3'5

.616 # 99 8'3. #2 3'5

.616 5 158 g's 66 g's

3" FR-Q Flute .289 1 #6 g's #2 3'5
.239 2 ## 8'5 37 2'8

.289 3 #6 g's #0 g’s

.289 # 50 g's #8 g's

.289 5 56 g's #8 g's

.616 l 19 3'3 20 g's

.616 - 2 3# 3'5 30 3'3

.616 3 98 3'5 62 g's

.616 # 200 3'5 12# g's

.616 5 2#O g’s 161 g's

3" AR-Q Flute .289 1 31 3'3 33 3'3
~289 2 29 g’8 35 3'3

.289 3 36 g's 33 g's

.289 # #2 3'3 3# g's

~289 5 58 8'5 36 g's

** Average Of Three Tests

77

Static . Dr0p Predicted Actual**

 

 

 

Material ‘§§£§§§ ‘_flg&, ___Shock~_ Shock

3" AR-Q Flute .616 1 ' 19 g's 18 g's
.616 2 62 g's 39 g's

.616 3 135 E's 108 g's

.616 # 235 g's 161 g's

.616 5 2#0+ g's 215 3'5

‘ 3" AR-A Flute .289 1 68 g's 72 3'5
.289 2 61 g's 66 g‘s

.289 3 5# g’s 61 g's

.289 # 51 g's' 61 g's

.289 5 51 2'3 63 3'3

.616 1 31 g's 3# g's

.616 2 32 g's #2 g's

.616 3 29 g's #5 g's

.616 # 5# g's ## g's

.616 5 8# 8'3 51 g's

3" ZZ-A Flute .289 1 26 g's 28 g's
.289 2 22 g's ‘ 30 g's

.289 3 5# g's 35 3'8

.289 # 115 g's 39 8'5

.289 5 175 8‘5 #6 g's

.616 1 , 22 g's 21 g's

.616 2 i 190 g's ## g's

.616 3 ?Q 2#0+ g's 68 g's

.616 #- 2 2#0+ g's 76 3’3

.616 5 2#0+ g’s 88 g's

** Average Of Three Tests

 

Static DrOp Predicted Actual**
Material |§§§g§§_ ._flg; Shock Shock__
3" AveA Flute .289 1 27 gis 32 3'3
~289 2 27 3'8 38 g's
.289 3 3# 2'8 39 3'8
.289 # 56 3'5 #2 g's
.289 5 72 g's #7 8'5
.616 1 16 g’s 18 g's '
.616 2 86 g's 30 g's
.616 3 135 g's 38 g's
.616 # 175 3'8 #9 g’s
.616 5 200 g's‘ 6# g's
3" AS-A Flute .289 1 76 g's 80 g's
.289 2 66 g's 71 g's
.289 3 68 g's 7# g‘s
.289 # 65 g's 7# g's
.289 5 6# g's 68 g's
.616. 1 37 3'8 35 3'5
.616 2 30 g's ## g's
.616 3 37 g's #6 g's
.616 # #6 g's #8 3'3
.616 5 57 2'8 50 3'5
3" ZR-A Flute .289 1 52 g's 33 g's
.289 2 #5 g’s #9 g's
.289 3 ## 0's .53 8'5
.289 # #7 g's 53 8'5
.289 5 #6 3'3 52 8'3

** Average Of Three

Tests

78

 

 

79

 

 

 

Static DrOp Predicted Actual**

Material 'Stgggg _fig& Shook Shock

3" ZR-A Flute .616 1 19 g‘s 20 g's
.616 2 28 g's 30 g’s

.616 3 5# 2'5 33 g's

.616 # 120 g'S‘ #0 g's

.616 5 180 g's 58 g's

3" PP-A Flute .289 1 3# g's 31 g's
.289 2 168 g's 37 g's

.289 3 2#0+ g's 72 g's

.289 # 2#0+ g‘s 91 g's

.289 5 2#0+ g's. lll g’s

.616 l 176 g's 16# g's

.616 2 2#0+-g's 190 g's

.616 3 2no+ g's 2ho+ g's

.616 # 2#0+ g's 2#0+ g's

.616 5 2#0+ g's 2#0+ g's

3" PP-Q Flute .289 1 127 g's 100 g's
.289 2 2#O+ g's l#0 g's

.289 3 2#0+ g's 1#8 g's

.289 # 2#0+ g's l5# g's

.289 5 2#0+ g's 160 g's

.616 1 2#0+ g's 200 g's

.616 2 2#0+ g's 230 g's

.616 3 2ho+ g's zuo g's

.616 # 2#0+ g's 2#0+ g's

.616 5 2#0+ g's 2#0+ g's

** Average Of Three

DISCUSSION OF ESULTS

The graphs and tables found in the results section of
this study form the basis for several statements regarding
corrugated cushioning. These statements are as follows:

1) Unstressed corrugated is a very inconsistent mate-

rial when compared to foamed polyethylene. 1.9. The g's

vary drastically between drOps. (See Appendix IV).

2) Compared to foamed polyethylene, corrugated is better

on the first drOp but worse on successive drOps. Figure

61 illustrates that 2" AV-A flute corrugated protects

to a lower "g" level on the first drOp than does 2"

foamed polyethylene. However, when 2nd drOp protection

is required, the useful range of the corrugated becomes
limited to the crosshatched area while the useful range
of foamed polyethylene remains unchanged.

3) Prestressed corrugated cushioning is a relatively

consistent cushioning material and it performs Quite

well inside a package. (See Table I and Appendix IV).

#) Q flute protects to the same or a lower "g" level

than A flute on the first drop. However, if multiple

drOp protection is required, the range of static stresses
through which Q flute is useful becomes limited. (See

Figure 62).

5) 'An increase in the basis weight of the liner will

80

81

cause a shift to the right of the-pggg g vs static stress
curve. However, the level and range of protection remain
approximately equal. (See Figure 63).

6) Decreasing the basis weight of the corrugated

medium will give better first drop protection. However,
when second dr0p protection is required, the range of
useful static stresses becomes extremely limited. (See
Figure 6#).

7). The inner package performance of prestressed corru-
gated cushioning and unstressed corrugated cushioning
after the initial drOp cannot be predicted consistently
by the use of cushion curves. This may be due to the
fact that tie movement of air is restricted inside a
package and not restricted when it is tested on the

Vertical Dynamic DrOp Tester. (See Table I).

82

 

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This study has been an attempt at providing scientific
information for present and potential users of corrugated
cushioning. nggwg vs static stress curves were derived
for unstressed corrugated material in the hOpe that they
could be used to determine the amount of cushioning needed
to protect an article of a known fragility. (The Cushion
Design Method). After a series of tests it was concluded
that these curves did not accurately predict the abSolute shock
eXperienced after the initial drop. However, they were found
quite useful in determining the cushioning prOperties of one
material in relation to another. On this basis it was found
that;

1) A larger flute size does not necessarily mean better

cushioning.

2) The basis weight of the corrugated medium is more

important in determining cushion effectiveness than the

basis weight of the liner.

As a result of the inconsistency of unstressed corrugated,
some work was done with prestressed corrugated. It was con~
cluded that prestressed corrugated has cushioning possibilities.
However, it was still impossible to accurately predict
the shock eXperienced by an article packaged in this material

with the use of cushion curves.

86

3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Stern, R.K., "The FPL Dynamic Compression Testing Equip-
ment for Testing Package Cushioning Materials." Forest
Products Laboratory Reporthq, 2129, August, 1958, p.6.
Klingenberg, A.D., "The Theory and Operation of A Dynamic
Tester for Evaluating Package Cushioning Materials."
Wright Air Development Center, MADC Technical Heport
56-3#2, September, 1956, p.6.

Blake, Howard C. III, "2# Inch DrOp Height Peak Deceler-
ation - Static Stress Curves for Selected Cushioning Mate-
rials." School of Packaging, Michigan State University,
Technical Report No..5, Project Egéwl, November 1, l96#.
Stern, R.K., "Tests Show Corrugated Pads' Performance As
Cushioning." Package Engineering, Vol. 13, February, 1968,
p.71.

"Standard Method of Test for the Shock Absorbing Char-
acteristics of Package Cushioning Materials." 561m
Standards Part 15, April, 1968, p.568.

Blake, Howard C. III, "A Cushion Design Method and Static
Stress - Peak Deceleration Curves For Selected Cushioning
Materials.? School of Packaging, Michigan State University,
Technical Report mg, Project 17.9... _1_, March 25, 1963.

87

APPjNDIX I.

f: Key 29 West Virginia Pulp £25 Paper’s
Letter Designations

 

 

g Flute = Thirty-six - 3/16" flutes per foot.
nglute = Twenty-six - 3/16" flutes per foot.
,g,= 26 lb/lOOO sq ft virgin kraft liner.

‘E,= #2 1b/1000 sq ft virgin kraft liner.

'2 = 30 lb/3000 sq ft virgin kraft liner.

'3 = 26 lb/lOOO sq ft semi-chemical corrugated medium.
§,= 33 1b/1000 sq ft semi-chemical corrugated medium.
.V = Off grade saturated kraft-cushion stock.

2 =

17 1b/1000 sq ft virgin kraft liner.
Examples

1. A material labelled as 2" ZRpA flute would indicate that
the A flute corrugated material in question is 2 inches thick,
has a kraft liner which weighs 17 lbs/1000 sq ft, and has a
semi-chemical corrugated medium which weighs 26 lbs/1000 sq ft.
2. A material labelled as l" AS-Q flute would indicate that
the Q flute corrugated material in question is 1 inch thick,
has a kraft liner which weighs 26 lbs/1000 sq ft, and has a
semi-chemical corrugated medium which weighs 33 lbs/1000 sq ft.

88

APPENDIX II
The Cushion Design Method And gg_Example6

The basic steps to arriving at a cushion design for a
given article are:
l. Weigh the article to be packaged.
2. Measure the length and width of each surface of the
article on which the article could rest.
3. Compute the area of each of the surfaces measured.
#. Compute the static stress of each measured surface
by dividing the article weight by the area of each sur-
face.
5. Determine the maximum peak deceleration the article
can safely undergo in g's. This maximum peak deceleration
is often called fragility.*
6. Determine which materials could conceivably be used
to package the article in question and obtain static stress
vs.'pg§gdg curves for these materials.
7. Cushion selection.
a. Examine the static stress vs. pggkflg curves to
determine which of them have the static stress and
peak deceleration levels needed.
*Obtain this information from the designer. If it cannot be
obtained from this source it must be either estimated or mea-
sured. Precise means of measuring fragility are not available

land estimating techniques rely heavily on the estimator.
89

90

b. Adjust cushion size. If desirable, from the
standpoint of economy or the availability of par-
ticular cushioning materials, the static stress
level may be raised by reducing the size of the
cushion supporting the article. Similarly, the
static stress level may be reduced by introducing
a rigid load Spreading member between the article
and the cushion.

c. Final selection. This will be based on cost,
weight, compatibility, etc. I

Cushion Design Example

The article weight is 65% with dimensions of 12" x 12"
x 20" and a maximum allowable peak deceleration of ## g's.
The problem is to protect this article in-a 30" drOp assum-
ing that polyethylene is the only suitable material.
Design steps:
1.. Weight - 65#
2. Load bearing surfaces
3. 12" x 12"
b. 12" x 20"
3. Doad bearing surface areas
a. 1th sq in
b. 2#0 sq in

#. Static stress on surfaces

5.
6.

91

a. .#52 psi
b. .271 psi
Maximum allowable peak deceleration - ## g's

Polyethylene has been determined to be the only

suitable packaging material. See Figure 65 for the

applicable cushion curves.

7.

Cushion selection

a. ‘From the cushion curves it is obvious that
l" and 2" polyethylene do not give the desired
protection. However, 3" and #" polyethylene

do protect to ## g's.

b. Use 3" polyethylene for economy and realize
that it only protects to ## g's between a static
stress of .#6 and .7# psi. Decide to package

to a static stress of .56 psi and take advantage
of a 3 g safety factor. With this design

65#
.56i/sq in

116 §q_in

 

of cushioning will have to be used On all sur-

faces in order to get the desired protection.

.
. . - -

 

 

DIo S

q

 

 

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22

DOW CHEMICAL ETHOFOAM

(POLYETHVLENE)

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92

  

STATIC STRESS - PSI

Fi ure _6_5

93

Comments On Cushion Design

Polyethylene is a consistent cushioning material. i.e.
successive loadings--dr0ps-do not significantly effect the
thickness or the cushioning ability of foamed polyethylene.
Therefore a cushion curve based on an average of five drOps
can be used in the Cushion Design Method.

Corrugated paperboard is not consistent. For this reason
a cushion curve based on an average of five drOps cannot be
used. Instead, individual cushion curves must be drawn for
each of the five drOps. Then, if an article is to be protected
against five drOpS, only the area common to all five graphs '
could be used. Similarly, if an article is to be protected
against four drOps, only the area common to the first four

cushion curves could be used.**

**Theoretically speaking this is true. However, Part II of

the results section proves that it is not actually true.

APPENDIX III
A,Justification For The Electric Filter Setting

Until 1955 it was necessary to use an accelerometer with
a low frequency reSponse or an electric filter in order to
monitor the shock pulses generated by shock machines. This
was because these early machines had fabricated steel car-
riages which, when struck by other steel members, created
high frequency ringing of the carriage structure. Both of
these methods--the filter and the low frequency response ac-
celerometer--gave a readable acceleration vs time curve.
However, this curve was not a true indication of the actual
shock which was experienced because the "filtering affect"
distorted the shape of the acceleration vs time curve by
shifting different parts of the Spectrum by varying amounts.

This study is concerned with a dynamic drOp tester-~not
a shock machine. However, the same principle applies. A fil-
ter should not be used to merely obtain a "clean wave form."
Instead, if one is to be used prOperly, it should be set so
that a minimum amount of distortion occurs from the unfilter-
ed signal. The question now becomes, "where is this ideal
setting?" One of the most generally accepted theories is that
advanced by Sandia Corporation. This group feels that a high
frequency cutoff which is five times the basic frequency of a

half sine signal does not produce undue distortion of that

signal.
9h

95

The filter used in this study was originally set on this
basis. However, to be absolutely certain that the filter did
not effect the results, a "margin of safety" was incorporated.

This "margin of safety" is illustrated below:

The high frequency cutoff (f) must be‘gtwlgggt five times the
basic frequency of a half sine signal (F) which represents the
shock pulse being measured.

-Therefore f = 5F
The shocks in this study range from 3 ms to 50 ms in duration.
Since the period of a shock pulse equals twice its duration,
the periods of these two shock pulses are 6 ms and 100 ms re-
Spectively. Now, by knowing the period of these shock pulses,
it is relatively easy to calculate F because F = l/period.

l/.006 sec
166.7 ops

l) The frequency (F) of the 3 ms shock pulse

2) The frequency (F) of the 50 ms shock pulse = l/.l sec
=i9_._9..c_2§.

Five times the highest of these two frequencies should be the

acceptable high frequency cutoff. I

Therefore f = 5F = 5(166.7) = 833.5 Cps

The filter was set at 1000 ops even though a setting of 833.5

would have been adequate. Thus the safety factor was (1000.0-

833.5) 166.5 Cps. '

The following three pages contain diagrams which illustrate

'that the filter, which had a high frequency cutoff of 1000 ops,

did not significantly affect the results.

 

Filtered

 

 

Material: 2" ZZ-A Flute
DrOp Number: 1
Static Stress: .0625 lbs/sq"
Vertical Sensitivity: .5 volt/division
Horizontal Sensitivity: 5 msec/division

Accelerometer Sensitivity: 10.06 mv/g

From the sensitivities, it is obvious that both the
filtered and the unfiltered pulse represent a shock of ap-
proximately 185 g's magnitude and 5 ms duration. These
pictures also illustrate, as do those on the following two
pages, that the error in reading the unfiltered pulse is more

significant that the error due to filtering.

97

 

Unfiltered Filtered

Figureléz

Material: 2" ZZ-A Flute
DrOp Number: 1
Static Stress: .1875 lbs/sq"
Vertical Sensitivity: .1 volt/division
Horizontal Sensitivity: 5 msec/division

Accelerometer Sensitivity: 10.06 mv/g

Both the filtered and the unfiltered pulse represent a
shock of approximately #8 g's magnitude and 20 ms duration.

98

 

Filtered

 

 

Material: 2" ZZ-A Flute
DrOp Number: 1
Static Stress: .500 lbs/sq"
Vertical Sensitivity: .2 volt/division
Horizontal Sensitivity: 5 msec/division
Accelerometer Sensitivity: 10.06 mv/g

Both the filtered and the unfiltered pulse represent a

shock of approximately 50 g's magnitude and 25 ms duration.

APPENDIX IV

Dynamic Drog Test Data

This appendix contains a partial listing--magnitude only--
of the acceleration vs time curves which the oscillosc0pe re-
corded for each drOp. The durations of the shocks have been
omitted because no conclusions regarding them were made. If,
however, anyone is interested in these durations for future
research, they are on permanent file at the School of Pack-
aging which is located on the campus of Michigan State Univer-
sity.

From this data, it should be noted that five drOp averages
were only computed for the prestressed material These averages
were used to draw cushion curves which are based on a five drOp
average. without prestressing, the magnitude of the shock var-
ied so much that a cushion curve based on an average would be
useless. Therefore, individual cushion curves were drawn for

each dr0p and the averages were not computed.

99

100

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107

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108

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109

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110

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115

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116

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117

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120

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=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:iN
=iN
:iN
=iN

enmeom

noun

«maimed
noun m

omw
oom
OiN
OOH
OOH.
Ne
oe
mO
om
NOH
OOH
omw
+omm
+omm
+omm

+Omm

noun
sum

oiw
ome
ome
ioe
oo
oo
mm
we

no
omH
omN
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm

noun
a3

iMH
im
im
Om
Nm
mm
mm
Ne
we
iOH
ONN
omN
+omm
+Omm
+omm

+omm

noun
Uum

Om
Om
mm

wm
mm
Ne
om
ONH
OON
omw
+omm
+omm
+omm

+Omm

noun
USN

ooe
ime
oew
omw
oee

om

Om
OO

moun

pmH

oome.
memo.
omwo.
mwot.
ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
ooo.e
meme.
omem.
mwem.

 

mmoupm
Ovapm

opSHn dfm< :N

opsee erme =e

 

HwHuopoz

122

=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
.=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:iN

pnmeom
noun

0 6:0
m t P
noun m<

wee oo om
we im wm
MM mi om
mi wi Oi
oi
Om Om Om
mm oo io
oe oe oe
me ooe ooe

moe ooe mme
mmw mmw mmw

+omm owm omw
omm oew oow
owm oew ome

oem mmw moe

w... ...! ....I
amen ..a .
Sui Uumn

om
mw
wm
om

wm
mm
oo
oe
moe
ooe
mmw
ooe
mo
om

mi

moum
USN

im
om

S? E?

mm
oe
im
mme
mme
mmw
om
om
im
wi

MOHD

umH

oome.
memo.
omwo.
mwom .
ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
ooo.e
meme.
omem.
mwem.

 

mmoupw
oepmpm

Opfiflh <lm¢ cm

onSHm dim< ..N

 

Hmeuouwz

120

=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN

pememm

noun

omwuo><
noun m

+Omm
+Omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
mow
one
OOH
OHH
mee
+omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm

noun
gem

+omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm

OON .

OOH

+Omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
mwm
min
iNH
on
a
iHH
mee
+omm
+Omm
,+omm
+omm
+Omm

noun
Uum

+omm
mew
oow
mee
ome
mo
oe
ie
mm
mwe
mee
+omm
40mm
+omm
omm
omw

noun
USN

mm
oo
mm
oe
me
ioe
moe
moe
mee
ome

.oew

+omm
mm
on
me
mm .

noun

pmH

oome.
memo.
omwo.
mwom.
ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
ooo.e
meme.
omem.
mwem.

 

mmoupm
oepapm

oanh ¢Im< :H

opSHh <[NN am

 

HwHuopoz

121

...:N
:JN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:JN
=iN
:JN
=iN
=iN
=iN

wimmme

noun

mmnmnmfi
noun m

can
OON
OiN
ome
OOH.
Ne
oe
mo
om
NOH
OmH
omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm

+Omm

noun
gem

oiw
ome
ome
ioe
oo
oo
mm
we

no
one
omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm

ooun
Sui

 

ime
in
im
Om
mm
mm
mm
we
we
iOH
ONN
omw
+omm
+Omm
+omm

+omm

noun
Uum

0i
om
Om
mm
ii
wm
mm
we
on
ONH
OON
omw
+omm
+omm
+omm

+omm

noun
USN

ooe
ime
oew
omw
oee

om

Om
OO

noun

pmH

oome.
memo.
omwo.
mwom.
ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
ooo.e
meme.
omem.
mwem.

 

mmoupm
OHuwpm

ovSHuH dim/H :N

opseu erme =e

 

Hoeuopoz

122

=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:iN
:iN
=iN
.:iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN

unmeem
noun

wmwuv>4
noun m

wee
we
NO
oi
mi
om
om
mm
oe
me
moe
mmw
+omm
omm
owm

oem

noun
ipm

0O

oo

oe

ooe
ooe
mmw
owm
oew
oew

mmw

wwnn
ipi

Om
mm

Om

ii .33 i?

io

oe

ooe
mme
mmw
omw
oow
ome

moe

nonm
Uum

om
mw
wm
om

wm
mm
oo
oe
moe
ooe
mmw
ooe
mo
om

mi

Mfiwnw
USN

im
om

E? 5?

mm
oe
im
mme
mme
mmw
om
om
im
wi

noun

umH

oome.
memo.
omNO.
mwom.
ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
ooo.e
meme.
omem.
mwem.

 

mmoupm
oepmpm

OpfiHh <lm4 :m

OpSHeH «0min :N

 

Hweuopwz

123

=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
...:N
=iN.
:JN
.=iw
=iN
=iN
=iN
:JN
=iN
=iN
=iN
...:N

pememn

noun

mmnnnwm
noun m

oeH
we
mm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm

.+Omm

+omm
miH
OHN
OOH
omH

ome

noun
gem

omH

OOH

noun
a;

OOH
em
ei
+Omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
+omm
oeN
oeN
Oe
OO
0O
ii

Nm

noun
Uum

wm
om
ei
+Omn
+Omm
+Omm

.+Omm

+Omm
+Omm
mow
ONH
Om
Nm
mm
mm
mm

1

noun
USN

om
ON
ei
+Omm
oom
oew
oee
oee
ooe
mm
eO
mm
ow
im
im
mm

noun

pmH

omwe.
emeo.
mwoo.
mwem.
oemw.
oomw.
oeew.
meme.
oome.
omweh
emeo.
mwoo.
ooo.e
meme.
omem.
mwem.

 

mmoupm
oepwum

euemooeamo
oeseu «see =w

neemsonwmo
opsee «nee =e

OpHeHuH ¢Im¢ :m

 

Hweuopwz

121+

=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
....JN
=iN
=iN
=iN
.:iN
=iN

pimemm

noun

mmwuo>
noun m<

.+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
OOH
OO
ON
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
mmw

omm

nnmn
sum

+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
mow
OiH
ie
eN
+Omm
.+omm
+Omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
mew

oeH

noun
ipi

+Omm
+Omm
+omm
OeN
mON
OHH
mi
ON
+Omm
_+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
OiN

OOH

nnmm
Uum

+Omm
OON
OON
moe
oiH
mO
ON
Nm
+Omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
miw
OON

mm

noun
USN

oie
ooe
oe
mm
mm

OH
Nm
+omm
mow
OiN
mie
OiH
OO
mm.
om

nnnn

va

ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
omme.
omwe.
mwoo.
mwom.
ooom.
memi.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
omme.
wome.

 

mmoupm
oepapm

Engage
0
pSHm <Inn : m

nemmsoaamo
opsem «new :w

eaeuopwz

 

125

=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
...:N
=iN
=iN
.:iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
:iN
=iN
=iN
=iN

enmewn

noun

 

no oow:

undunn:
noun min

 

 

HwHuopwz

+Omm
+omm

+Omm.

+Omm
+Omm
+Omm

nnun
ipm

uopmoonoHO H
...

+Omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
+omm

mean
me:

use
memen_mnn meme

+Omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
+omm
+omm

nnnn
Uum

+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
omw
ome
Oe

+Omm

+omm
+omm
+Omm

u+Omm

+Omm

noun
USN

+Omm
oom
oeN
mmw
mON
OOH
me
NO
mo
oe
+Omm
OON
OON
oee
OOH:
OiH

noun

pme

 

mmoupm
ompwpm

oiim.
omem.
oemw.
oomw.
oeew.
meme.
oome.
omwe. ..- -.-. .
emeo. _ .

mNOO.AuopmooSOHOO
095.9% I
Omhwo d. mm :H

mwem.
oome.
memo.
omwo.
mwom.

AnmeUSme
ovfiHh 4min?“ = m

 

emeuopwz

126

...:N
...:N
siN
=iN
=iN

”=iN

:iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN
=iN

. =iw
Ewe». n

noun

omwmvne
noun m

+omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm
mOH

Om.

noun
sum

+omm
.+Omm
+Omm
.+omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
ONH
oe

n oun
a3

+Omm
+Omm
+omm

.+omm

+Omm
+Omm

.+omm

...Om m
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm

.+Omm

OON

mm

iO

neun
Uum

+omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm
+Omm
+omm
OON
OiN
moe
mme
OHH
OO

mm

mwem.
USN

oiw
mew
mow
mow
mee
ome
mwe
owe
mm
oo
om
wi
oi
ei
mm.
NO

noun
an

 

mmoupm
oprpw

omwo.
mwom.
ooom.
oni.
ommi.
oooi.
omem.
oiim.
omem.
oemw.
oomw.
oeew.
meme.
oome.
omwe.

AuopmooSOHOV
mwoo. ooseu «tee =i\m e

 

Hweuopwz

127

...:N
=iN
: ...—N
...:N
=iN
=iN
=iN
tiN
=iN
him
_aiN
=iw
:iN
.::N
:iN
...:N

nimwmn

noun

0 mum
[O _!V_
noun mH

ONN
OO
Nm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
OOH
om
.+Omm
+Omm
+omm
OOH
+Omm
+Omm

ndum
ipm

mme
wm
im.
+omm

.+Omm

+Omm

.+omm

oom

Om
+omm
+omm
oom
omH
+Omm
+Omm

oum
Sui

mmH
im
on
.+Omm
.+Omm

.+omm

,+Omm
mow
me

+Omm
+Omm
OON
mme
+omm
+omm

noun
Uum

OOH
ON
Om
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
+Omm
oeH
em
Om
+Omm
+Omm
mmw
Ne
+omm
+omm

noun
USN

ON
ow
im
+omm
owm
OiN
oew
OO
ON
wm
+Omm
mmw
ooe
OO
+Omw
oeN

noun
vnH

omwe.
mwoo.
omio.
omem.
mwem.
oomw.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
omio.
meme.
omwe.
mwoo.
omio.
oome.
memo.

 

mmoupm
oepapm

U
95H...“ Glam :m

0
pSHn Oinn ,... N

0
vfiHh Ul&m :H

MMMvnooSOHOO
Hm «[mm =#\m H

 

HwHuopmz

128

.::N

=iN
:JN
=iN
::N
::N
::N
...:N
...:N

...:N

::N
=JN
::N
::N
::N
=JN

2.. mfiim

noun

Hmm
oom
oma
moa
man
man
me
mm
mm

omono>¢
noun m

cam
omm
mmH
oom
o:H
ONH
me
mm
mm
+omm

.+omm

+Omm
+Omm
+omm
+omm

moan
npm

owm
OMN
05H
mmH
omH
mmfl
on
em
No
+Omm
+omm
+omm
+Omm
+Omm

o:m

moon
:9:

mmw
can
cma
00H
ONH
can
we

:0

.+omm

+omm
+Omm
+Omm
+omm

omm

moan
chm

m:

omH
mmH
ONH
mmn
ooa
oom
oe

:0
+omm
+Omm

+omm

+Omm
owm
05H

moan
cam

::
OHH
OOH
om
mm
mm
:m
we
:m
ow
+omm
OHN
omH
o:fl.
OOH
mm

moan

umH

 

mmonpm
OHpmpm

Hmanopwz commonpmoun *

mwoo. .opsam 41>< gm

mmmm.
ooom.
mem:.
omem.
mmam.
oomw.
memH.
omma.
mwoo.
ooom.
mem:.
omem.
mmnm.
oomw.
memH.

*odeh élmN.=m

opsam oumm em

 

Hanopaz

129

Hammond: commonpmoun *

 

 

 

 

 

 

=mH oom mem:.

=mH omm omem.

gma . o:m mmnm.

w=mH megmmmz men oomw.

..ma 9:5 4...: mmw. mm 03 mema.

..mH omw: gm mww. mind. “and mm omNH.

=mH e: mmmo.

.=mH . 4mm mmmo. opsam <.em =H
=:m omm omm omm cam omH ONH mmmm.

=:m .oma cam . .oom mmH men omm ooom.

::m men mma omm oem omH omH mem:.

=:m mofl omH mea own mma moH omem.

.=:m mma men men mmH o:H OHH mmam.

a:~ mma omm o:H m:H omm oom. oomw. :

::~ mm con oom OOH mm me memH.

=:m mm om om om ‘ _ mm om ommH. *opsam 41>< =m
g g 3.3. and. mam mama. mama. 33% 320%:

noun g95 m sum a»: mum mum and . oauapm

130

=mH
gmH
=mH
=mH
=mH
gmH
=mH
=mH
amH
=mH
=mH
.:wH
,=mH
=mH
=wH
=mH

pnMHom
noun

 

HoHnopmz

 

 

upsfim «rmm «ma mm.
OUOE GHQ .QH vfio
m NH Hno

 

0 who
><
onn can con
.Jfi!|:.. m __ m m noun

noun_m
a
pm a»: mum
cam

:H
om
0:
omm
omm
mmH
ooH
omH
mmH
om
oe
mm
mm
mH
om.
+omm

noun

pmH

memH.
ommH.
mwoo.
oome.
mem

omwo.
mwom .
ooom .
mem:.
omem.
mmHm.
oomw.
memH.
ommH.
mwoo.
ooom.

 

mmonpm
0pr9m

0
pflHh diam :m

0
Pfiflh <lmm :N
0

vSH& «lam :H

 

HmHnopoz

131

wdfiuv><
noun m

 

ocmz

 

oww:

 

HmHuopwz

 

vdeh <Imm
mOHQ :0“ mac flHGO

 

 

HOHquOz

 

mann <Inn

noun
gum

 

noun
a»:

Ozu mn

emu mm.
mmmn :mH Ono HHnn.

.noun

cum

noun
can

OOH
Om
om
+omm
o:m
00H
me
mmH
OOH
mm
mm
Om
::
mm
on
NH

.noun
.pmH

memH.
OmmH.
mmOO.
OOmm.
memH.
OmmH.
mwoo.
OOme.
memo.
Ommm.
mwom.
ooom.
mem:.
omem.
mmHm.
oomw.

ammupm
oprpm

 

onfiHm dlnn :N

opfiHn «Inn :H

OpSHm <Inn :m

 

HaHuopOz

132

com
:om
com
:om
=om
:0m
:0m
:om
:Om
zom
=om
:om
com

pamumn

noun

mwmnmwfi
noun m

 

ocmz

 

HOHquOz

 

oufiHh filmm
mOHQ =Om GEO UnHfiO

ndun
mum

 

noun
:9:

Onu mn

noun
cum

noun
can

+Omm
oem
OON
m:H
OHH
om
o:
:m
::
+omm
own
omm
oeH

noun
an

mwom .
ooom.
memx.
omem.
mmHm.
oomw.
memH.
OmmH.
mwoo.
mem:.
omem.
mmHm.
OOmm.

 

mmoupm
OHpmpm

.9-.-’ .

ovfiHh diam :m

opSHm qlnn :N

 

HOHuopwE