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?REPOSWONAL USAGE IN
PRESENT-DAY ENGLISH

Thesis for the Degree of M. A.
MlCHlGAN STATE COLLEGE

Grant Turnblom
1949

IIIIIIIIIII|I|III||I||II||II|

31293 104314

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Pre positional “Saga,
in Present ~Oafl {musk

presented hg

gun-wt Tim-w 8’80»

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

_M_A_ degree in M

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Major professor

Date W?

 

 

 

 

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returned after the date
stamped below.

 

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Beeed on a Study of the
Iritinge of Ernie Pyle

by

Grant Tumble:

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L THESIS

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ULSTER OF ARTS

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THESIS

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lI'lle Reughty Imposition

I I lately lost e preposition; ' 2
It hid, I thought, beneath my chair;
And angrily I cried, “Perdition!

‘ 1‘9" from out of in under there!”

' correctness is my vede meeum
‘3" m Struggling phrases I ehhor,
‘ #19 'Lnd yet I wondered, "what should he come

Up from out of in under for?"

    

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PREFACE

  
  
  
  
  
  
 
 
  
 
  
 
  
  
  
  
 
 
  
 
 
  
  

Propositional usage in present-day English has confronted
grammarians and linguists with many complex problems. The
[present study of prepositions in current English, based on the
flitings of Ernie Pyle, represents an attempt to clarify some
at these problems.

When I decided to base my study upon the writings of Ernie
l}!yle, I had several things in mind. His two books Here is

"-.  .M (1943) and Brave Men (1944) were both "best-sellers"
1 ' {Ind have both since been reprinted many times. His writing
If éherefore must be more or less representative of a style that

L {is certainly not displeasing to a Vast number of Americans.
{31.1.10 his education (B.A., University of Indiana) was perhaps

‘ :ié‘lter than average, his style was anything but academic and
"=&épmached very closely the spoken language. Perhaps this is
33‘! without reason. when he wrote it was often somewhere with-
' x; reach or German rifle fire, at other times under even worse

14-1". _
3 Witiona. What circmnstances could possibly place more

.{5

fine on simplicity and directness and less on ornamentation

- v‘: 0‘

W;

utifiee than theee2 In the light of these considerations
«if- 3’!n that his writings were well suited to furnish materials
13% “nail-15th analysis as representative of present-day
42°!!! lnglish.

T3: _ Ellen I started this study I had in mind considering (l)

thositions (including two propositions functioning

 

 

-- ——-

    
   
  
 
 
 
 
  

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-11-

as a unit), as by, out of; (2) prepositional compounds or
compound prepositions (including prepositions compounded with
adjectives, adverbs, or conjunctions), as around behind, ac;
cording to, because of; and (3) multiple prepositions (three
or more propositions and phrasal prepositions), as from in
anger, on tap of, in on top of. As the study progressed, and
the material proved more extensive than I had eXpected, I
decided to omit entirely consideration of multiple preposi-
tions and curtail my treatment of prepositional compounds.

I devote most of my essay therefore to single propositions,
and add in the second chapter, as more or less undigested but
valuable'material, my citations from Pyle involving preposi-
tional compounds.

For the text of Pyle I have used Here is Your War, New
Iork, Henry Holt and Co., 1945, reprinted New York, Pocket
Books Inc., 1944, and Brave Men, New York, Henry Holt and
90., 1944. A11 citations from Pyle are from these editions.
Throughout the study when there are more than two citations,
I have usually employed block form; the specific book and
P986 number appear in parentheses immediately following the
citations. Thus:

were rather lost in Oran (Here, 28)
soldiers up from I?a1y (Brave, 343)

In the running text I have used single quotation marks to en-
close citations. The preposition under discussion together
with its attached units (if any) I have underscored. Double

Quatation'marks I have reserved for quoted materials (other

 

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’gffiaktions) from other sources.
' J“ .533 thanks should be extended to the various people who i
”his t1ded me in this study. Mr. John N. Winburne, whose , j;
' ;-firterest in prepositional usage led me to this study, has been
ihelprul throughout and was more than kind in allowing me the

file of his very extensive collection of Idioms Peculiar to ..
.. Micah English. I also wish to mention the faithful and un- _ 1
" 'tlring assistance of my wife, Martha, who not only gathered 1
tffltatione, typed copy as it was ready, and did all final proof- 3"
vaeading, but furnished me with necessary encouragement and

fflpport during the frequent "difficult moments." I am unable a
n PEG-express my deep obligation to Professor Anders Orbeck, of
r “Mean State College, who placed at my disposal an untold

3;”!
mm of hours of his valuable time. His thorough understand-

JI' h1“. -

I ‘0
. .
. III

- 31' the structure of the English language past and present,
Q‘ ‘01}. as the extent of his scholarly attention to detail,
“31;-.- only be realized and appreciated by those who have been

’ ' _. ,-’§°r‘3nnate as myself in working under his direction.—

(

«3:; Ge To
51.;
1 _
3.:
44.

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ELDER OF CONTENES

P? 1.1% - '.
Preface..............................i
Introduction.........................1 -
Single Prepositions..................5
prepositional compounds . . _. ., -. . . . . . . .199

f Ȣenclusion.........................347

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INTRODUCTION

LA great portion of all past study of English syntax and
accidence has been based upon classical notions of grammar
as derived from more highly inflected language such as Latin,

Greek, etc. Modern English however has developed new methods

of expressing grammatical relationships, and more often than

not the older methods of approach fail to yield realistic or

even adequate analysis. Historical grammar of course has its

Place, but its business should not be that of interpreting
Present-day English by means of older English or other lan-

guages which can no longer be structurally compared to English.

The grammatical relationships which were eXpressed in older

lanalleges by means of inflectional endings have come to be

°IPressed in modern English largely by two devices: word-

Order and prepositional structure. It seems to me therefore

that the linguist who is going to achieve order in and under-
‘tflnding of current English must devote his study to these
“0 devices. I have elected the study of prepositional func-
t1°n in the hope of adding some small contribution to-the
better understanding of present-day English.

I have, as a result of this study, come to define a prep-

aaition as a. word in a sentence, or a group of words thought
a
1' as a unit, serving to relate its substantive object to

a
0'“ Other element either eXpressed or implied.

By and large, the relationships which we now express by

 

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means of prepositions were in the earliest stages of inflec-
tional languages expressed by means of case endings in sub-
stantives. Particles, supplementary to the case endings, were
introduced when (l) the case endings weakened and came to be
felt as inadequate and (2) when new relationships, not ade-
quately represented by the case endings, needed eXpression,
and these particles were perhaps originally adverbial in func-
tion. In FMary works i2_the house,‘ as Curme explains, i£_was
originally ”an adverb modifying the verb works. The idea now

conveyed by in the house was at this early period expressed

 

by Eggég in the old locative case. The adverb in with the mean-
ing inside expressed the same idea as the old locative case,
but expressed it more concretely, hence more forcibly. Grad-
ually £1. came into closer relation with £13933, so that it be-
came more intimately associated with REEL-‘22 than with the verb
and thus deve10ped into a preposition, and since its force
‘88 stronger than the old locative, the latter gradually dis-
appeared as superfluous.“a According to Sturtevant preposi-
t1”S‘Drobably developed first from accusative function. L.
W illustrates and motion, and end function was expres-
Red by the accusative. The accusative however had other func-
1:13“, and an accompanying adverb of direction came to be used
he clarify the specific case function. "As the adverb grad-
“ally usurps the functional force of the case, it comes to be
re“ more and more as an adjunct of the noun rather than of

\\ _ A
a .
mm" : Syptax, 561 .

 

 

} the'verb; that is, the adverb becomes a preposition. In Indo-
( European and also in the earliest Sanskrit and Greek, preposi-
1 tions were somewhat like the German adverb hinauf in Er stieg

) den.Berg hinauf, while the developed prepositions of later

 

time are more like English 'up' in 'he climbed up the moun-
' tain'. Even in Latin such a pair of sentences as flumen ineo

and in flumen eo shows that we are but one step removed from

 

the use of in as an adverb; the position of the word has
scarcely become fixed."3 When a preposition limits the force
' of the verb by the nature of its expressed relationship, it

t 18 closely allied to, sometimes indistinguishable from, the

adverb. Words usually construed as prepositions often func-

 

tiOn as adverbs; cp. 'he is _i_n_' (adverb) and 'he is in the

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  
 
   
 
  

h0use' (preposition). Similarly the line between preposition
and conjunction is often not clear; cp. 'he came _a_f_'t_e_r_ ten
O'clock' (preposition) and 'he came EELS—I: they had left'

‘ °°nJune ti on) .

Once prepositions had come into use the desire for more

And better means of expressing relationships led to the devel-
Opulent Of more and more prepositions. "We form them not only
r1031 adverbs but also from nouns and present participles:
£93449. (1.e., by the side of), alongside of, or alongside, i_1_1_-_
gig—(1.8., in the place) 93, on account of, mm,
W. etc. A perfect participle occurs in 25.5.3.3 and as

a\ #
gturtevant, Linguistic Change, 144-

 

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gggpared with."4 Present-day'English now makes use of prep-
ositions to indicate an almost infinite variety of circum—
stances. Even in the Old English period there developed the
use of two prepositions together, one to reinforce the mean-
ing of the other, or perhaps to indicate relationships even
more complicated than that eXpressed by either individually.
Thus 35.; tg_came to be regarded as a single unit (a prep-
ositional compound) as early as the 10th century; see 1.28.
How it is not infrequent to see three prepositions or even
four together as in 'stolen right out from under the driver'
(£252, 504), 'came from out of in under,’ or, although per-
haps facitiously, as many as seven:

and yet I wondered, "what should he come
up from out of in under for?"

As a further development prepositions have come to be
r988rded as units of such independent value that they in turn
can be modified. Thus in 'he came Lust after ten- o'clock'
#1923. can now be thought of as modifying 2:163 and indicates
~ tn. degree of relationship expressed by the preposition. I

Qall such a particle an intensifier.

 

 

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I
SINGLE PREPOSI TIONS

l. A single preposition I define as one that, whatever its
origin, is used to eXpress a single relationship. Usually
single prepositions are spelled as single words even though
they derive from two separate elements, as Lula, beside, etc.,
but out of, for example still persists as two words in our
spelling.

Prepositions in modern English have had various devel-

°Pments. Some have developed from particles that were al-
ready used as prepositions in OE, such as in, by, _t_o_, 93,
etc. These prepositions I consider as belonging to one cat-
egory which I call Composition Group I. Others have devel-
°P0d from an earlier preposition )1 an element that was not
a (Preposition, as aboard, beside, inside, etc. Here, 3, 333,
3-3 rePresent earlier prepositions (OE 23, be, in), and
m and :_s_:_l_<_i_g which were earlier nouns. These preposi-
t1°n8 I consider as belonging to a second category which I
Gall Composition Group II. Others again have developed from
t" ear‘lier prepositions which joined to form a unit, such
‘8 $9.12. 9333, out of, etc. These I consider as belonging
t° Cmpoaition Group III. Finally some have developed from
‘ords ”her than prepositions, as during, originally a pres-
.ht participial form, or past, originally a past participial
tom, and these I classify in Composition Group IV.

r. _6_

1.1 ;board: Historically aboard is DE 21.1. ,1 herd, and
therefore the preposition should be regarded as belonging to

Composition Group II.
(a) Only four prepositional usages occur in the text.

after two days of loading American soldiers
aboard our troopship (Here, 3)

a poor man indeed who couIdn't sport a death-
like cough aboard ship (Here, 8)

Chaplains aboard sEip said (Here, 13)

Gower came to Ifrioa aboard one of a group of
bears (Here, 22)

The text also employs aboard adverbially about equally as
often.

and climbed aboard, feeling grubby (Here, 2)
shortly after getting aboard (Here,
‘ and of hoisting aboard‘tr‘ousanr’s of bedrolls
. (Here, 3)
3 after we got aboard (Here, 8)
knot)! a lot of the officers and men aboard (Here,
1 8

81shitloantly all are used in the sense of movement on to a

 

boat or of location on a boat.
; (h) Only one occasion for mentioning train travel occurs
( find in that instance Pyle uses the preposition 2.9.:
( we sat up all night 93 the train (Egg, 2)
Other conveyances, or means of conveyance, are mentioned.

The most interesting of these is the case of airplanes or

 

‘11' tPavel when a similar preference for 52 rather than

W is exhibited.

mechanics 2;; the Flying Fortress kept discover-

h ins (Here, 59)

adaéyfmerica shortly before 23 a bomber (Here,

I? back in his motorcycle and rode (Here, 29)
had to go 93 trucks (£933, 39)

 

 

_—_. __i,._..__.,__..,._ ,..___._.. ”I

 

In the same vein it appears that 22 rather than aboard fre-
quently appears in the ease of boats.
are finicky about allowing dogs on troop trans-
ports (Here, 3)
on any transport, some crowding is unavoidable
_(Here, 4)
I'd Be sailing to Africa on her (Here, 4)
nurses on other ships in Ihe convoy (Here, 13)
nobody on our ships saw the torpedo (Here, 14)
According to the recently published American College Diction-
ary British usage restricts aboard "especially to ships" but
.umerican usage extends it to ”railroad cars, buses, etc.‘1
Personal feelings, as well as the above cited evidence, lead
'me to regard aboard as being likewise restricted in the U.S.
largely to ships. I seriously doubt the currency of the word
with regard to buses.
(c) Kruisinga notes that some word groups are preposi-
tional groups: they do not take ”the definite article before
the noun qualified by 2;," He gives two pertinent examples:

on board a steamer 2
on Boar! of a steamer

The older usage on board is represented in the Pyle text but
should perhaps be regarded as indeterminate now.
commanding officer of troops on board (Here 6)
there wasn't any saluting on 5and (Here, )
I doubt there was a soul on Boafd who expected
(Here, 11)
No single instance of on board of occurs. Rather unrealisti-

cally the majority of the standard dictionaries all list the

 

1 American Colle e Dictionar , 3.
I KFuIsInga, ApcIIence and Szptax, 292.

 

compound as the main entry under prepositional usage and re-
gard aboard as mainly adverbial.3 However further investiga-
tion of this phase of the word would be to the point.

(d) No instance occurs of the use of aboard with the
meaning of 'alongside' or 'close by.‘

(e) Apparently (1) aboard tends to be used almost exclu-
sively in conjunction with boats, either directionally or po-
sitionslly, while (2) other conveyances or means of conveyance
prefer,gg. Furthermore (3) usage between aboard (prep.) and
g£.with boats is about equally divided and (4) aboard appears
prepositionally about equally as often as adverbially. The

evidence however is not conclusive.

1.2 Agggt: This preposition belongs to Composition Group
II as 03 abutan : onbfitan : on bUtan ('on the outside of') :>
In3222233.

(a) In the meaning 'regarding' or 'concerning.‘ This
‘ ' leaning accounts for approximately 45% of the instances I have

collected. Further differentiation as to this meaning can be

r 'made according to the preceding element or the type of prepo-
sitional object following 3131923.

(a1) ébggj_may connect a noun, adjective, or verb with
another element contained in the sentence.

After a noun:

we'd get out the regulations about correspond-
ents, which said (Here, 8)

 

3 new International, 6; Funk & wagnall, 5; American Collegg
. c onarz, .

 

rt“

 

 

-9-

'make rude jokes about the fool (Here, 9)

a mimeographed lefter...about some church fes-
tival (Here, 51)

on the same principle as the booklet about Eng-
land (Here, 60)

who gidn't give a damn about anything (Here,
64

the startling thin to me about those rest pe-
riods (Here, 256

stories, SofE funny and serious about their
battle (Here, 258)

nice talks anut England (Here, 272)

a book abou? the medics (Here, 274)

stories aBSut our ambulances (Here, 275)

stories anut the Germans (Here, 275)

there was no red tape about wEether a patient
was legally entitled (Here, 85)

such as an item about hmerIca building thirty-
two thousand "chefs" (Here, 50)

we even made jokes about carrying collapsible
foxholes (Here, 1

say something about being sorry (Here, 272)

After an adjective:

keeptng silent about military secrets (Here,

42

they were passive about it (Here, 57)

and being touchy about raids, as Arabs were
(Here , 59)

girI; were pretty sore about one thing (Here,
64

 

he wgnt nuts about the Arabian horses (Here,
66
something pathetic and terribly touching
about it (Here, 174)
bitter about that (Here, 269)
felt too deeply about it (Hope, 271)
German boys were as curious about us as we were
about them (Here, 283)
why be surly aSout it (Here, 283)
felt badly about my sugar Being sunk (Here, 74)
all crazy shout living out under canvas (Here,
the British are finicky about allowing dogs
(Here, 3)
men weren't upset about getting into the line

(gore, 259)

After a verb:
Talk:
but didn't talk about it (Here, 24)

 

 

 

 

-10..

the Americans talked about how dirty Oran was
(Here, 28)

talEIng about a barroom (Here, 68)

the officers kept talking a5out three fellow
officers (Here, 166) ‘-

we had been taIEing about them while they were
‘missing (Here, 173

talk about Having to pull stories out (Here,
174 .

talked a great deal about that (Here, 78)

hear the soldiers taIE about it (Here, 75)

like? to talk about their experiences (Here,
87

we sat and talked for a long time about things
in general (Brave, 215)

Tell:

when he told about it (Here, 51)

the officers toId him aBouI the three members
(Here, 168)

told me about a new man (Here, 265)

Ask:

kept appearing from down below or over the hill,
asking about things (Here, 165)
I asked a French Algerian about this (Here, 61)

Know:

and they knew about Army stew (Here, 62)
fortunately I don't know about the? (Here, 265)
didn't know any more about our plans than (Here,
287 "“
knew less about what was happening (Here, 34)

an:

the papers at home were saying about the battle

(Here, 24)
asked Ens what he wanted me to say about him

(Here, 71)
Iorrz:

I was worrying about you (Here, 272)
"and you're worrying about tIres!" (Here, 173)

nutter:

and they muttered about *les Americains." (Here,
(Here, 56) ‘

 

 

ell-

' Hear:

we didn't hear much about them (Here, 107)

Igite:

was written at home about our.African booklet
(Here, 60)

I have already written a great deal about the
(Here, 162)

Think:

he thought about home a lot (Here, 70)

but they dih constantly think ahout home (Here,
49

thought too much about the wounded men (Here,
268

Chat:

and we'd chat for hours about his job before
the war (Here, 12)

Comment:
other officers commented about him (Here, 162)
22.:

“who do you do about washing your shirts"
(Here, 40)

pg:

it was 232.1% watching the sky (19.112: 162)
(a2) Type of prepositional object:
Abgg§,/ simple noun or pronoun object:

we'd get out the regulations about correspond-
ents, which said (Here, 8)

make rude Jokes abouh Ehe fool (Here, 9)

and we'd chat for hours about his Job before
the war (Here, 12)

telling endIess anecdotes about his fraternity
(Hare, 18)

the papers at home were saying about the battle
(Here, 24)

keepIhg silent about military secrets (Here, 42)

I didn't know any more about it than they did
)§2£29 5°)

 

-12-

they told a story about one soldier (Here, 51)

a mimeographed letter...about some church fes-
tival (Here, 51)

they were passive about it (Here, 57)

and being touchy ahout raids, as Arabs.were
(Here, 59)

was ertten at home about our African booklet
(Here, 60)

on the same principle as the booklet about Eng-
land (Here, 60)

I asked a French Algerian about this (Here, 61)

who gidn't give a damn about anything (Here,
64

girl? were pretty sore about one thing (Here,
64

he went nuts about the Arabian horses (Here, 66)

asked him.what he wanted me to say about hIm
(Here, 71)

so a IIttle inquiring about the sugar business
(Here, 72)

hear the soldiers talk about it (Here, 75)

liked to talk about their experiences (Here, 87)

I have already ertten a great deal about fhis
(Here, 162) """"'

other officers commented about him Here, 162

"and you're worrying about tires!" Here, 173

something pathetic and terribly touchIng about
it (Here, 174)

the startIing thin to me about those rest pe-
riods (Here, 256

stories, Both funny and serious about their
battle (Here, 258)

told me about a new man (Here, 265)

bitter shout that (Here,

felt too deeply about It (Here, 271)

nice talks about EngIand (Here, 272)

a book about the medics (Here, 274)

stories shout our ambulances (Here, 275)

stories shout the Germans (Here, 275)

German boys were as curious shout us as we were
about them (Here, 283)

why be surly shout it (Here, 283)

asked questions ahout our uniforms (Here, 284)

didn't know any more about our plans than the
correspondents (Here, 237)

we sat and talked for a long time about things
in general (Brave, 215)

About / clause:

knew less about what was happening (Here, 34)
there was no red tape about whether a patient

was legally entitled (Here, 85)

'7'" " -13-

About / present participle as gerund (with or without
object):

such as an item about America building thirty-
two thousand "chars" (Here, 50)

felt badly about my sugar Being sunk (Here, 74)

all crazy shout living out under canvas (Here,

43)
"what do you do about washing your shirts”
(Here, 40) ' '

the troops were warned about smoking (Here, 6)
th? British are finicky ahout allowing hogs
Here 3
we even’made jokes about carrying collapsible
foxholes (Here, 1
it was about watching the sky (Here, 162)
say something about being sorry (Here, 272)
men weren't upset about getting into the line
(Here, 259)
About ,1 the present participle is to be distinguished from the
rare use of to be / about / present participle to express 'at
the point' or 'Just going to."
u (b) In the meaning 'near to,‘ 'in close proximity to,‘ or
'approximating.‘ This meaning accounts for approximately an-
other 45% of the usage of about. Many grammarians prefer to
regard the entire group, in this sense, as adverbial. However
I feel that about used thus is a preposition and that many
grammarians have been misled by the positional abstraction
which often follows about. Icspersen notes that about is simply
called an adverb by'most dictionaries and points out that the
same term is never used in regards to the combination far from,'
next to, etc.,5 all of which I regard as to the point. In an-

other way the analyst is thrown off by his readiness to sub-

4 Jespersen, A Modern En lish Grammar V, 213; Poutsma, A Grams
mar of Late fiodern English, ”I, 796.

6 Jespersen, A. odern ngg s Grammar, IV, 387.

 

 

-

~‘~.-

 

-14..

stitute 'approximately' and because of the -1y ending regard

the construction as adverbial. However 'approximating"might

Just

as well be used if it would be an aid to clearer analysis.

(bl) Temporally about may be used to indicate time 'in

proximity to:'

into my cactus-patch destination about an hour
before sundown (Here, 170)

one about every thiriy seconds (Here, 184)

the Iizard spent about three hours (Here, 30)

about the time they decided (Brave,

woid came to us about noon (Here, 170)

came)past about eieven in the morning (Here,
72

it took about ten minutes (Here, 265)
waited shout thirty seconds (Here, 270)

we step—d—pe about midnight (He'_—re, 281)

Price chooses to regard the following instances as preposi-

tional:

from

he enlisted about May 8

about that time she slipped on the sleety
street

having resigned his reserve commission about
December

examination was made about March 1st6

(b2) At an approximate position directionally distant
another point:

in a patch of cactus about a mile from town
(Here, 168)

was ahout ten miles back (Here, 169)

had moved about eight miles (Here, 169)

a small cactus patch about haii a mile off
the road (Here, 171

about three feet from its tap (Here, 12)

and rode about thirty miles on iop (Here, 30)

took off for Arzev, about twenty miles from
his camp (Here, 29

Spitfires flying about two thousand feet over-
head.(Here, 42)

out agrees the fields about fifty yards (Here,
163

 

6 Price, American English Grammar, 122.

-15-

cactu? patch about fifteen miles behind (Here,
170
they had got about halfway back when (Here,
281
about halfway down its body (Here, 219)
t the ground about thirty feet ahead (Here,
266

(b3) Allied to the preceding is about in the following

instances:

it would cost about 3100 (Here, 30)
the lizard was ahout a foot Iong (Here, 29)
about a fourth of them were colored troops (Here,

the price for a horse was about the same (Here,
65

the prices were about the same (Here, 30)

were attached two circular devices, about saucer
size (Here, 91)

raised the price to five francs apiece (about
seven cents) (Here,7l)

about fifty erceni of our neurosis cases were

ere, 275

aboh3_ihree-eighths of that circle was German
(Here, 264)

whai we wanted was about fifty more white ele-
phants (Here, 288

(hi) About may indicate 'less than' (never 'more than').

In this case about would be closely allied to almost and close

‘) 3 Es

 

 

actuglly was about the most hospitable (Hero,

43

the war seemed about over (Here, 20)

the wine was about the only thing left to buy
(Here, 27)

that's about the only way I know to put it
(Here,

(c) In the meaning of 'here and there':

scores of rmmors a day floated about the ship
(Here, 10)

motopcycle that he rode about the country (Here,
29

as I travelled about the camps (Here, 50)

one Irench motor iaunch went about Oran Harbor
firing (Here, 53)

PT" ' -16-

 

 

and monuments about the ground (Here, 213)
(d) In the meaning 'characterizing' or 'characteristic
of':

and there was nothing bashful about them (Here,

64)
they)had a nice spark of life about them (Here,
58

not the least trace of the smart aleck or wise
guy about him (Here, 111)

had a “going concern‘ air about it (Here, 80)

something calmly forceful aboui him (here, 278)

there was a fine dignity ahoui even the most

ragged (Here, 25)

(e) In the meaning 'all around' or 'encircling':

oblivious to the danger about him (Here, 20)

(f) In the meaning of 'on the point of.‘ The pattern is
to be I about / infinitive and expresses, depending on the
tense of the initial verb, either the prospective future or
prospective past. Jespersen states that "about is now the
only preposition which can take a tar-infinitive."7 My only
example from Pyle illustrates the prospective past.

when they were about to go into battle (Here,
269

(g) In miscellaneous meanings. Often the meaning of
about nears that of other prepositions. Poutsma notes a case
were upon and about seems to be interchangeable:

He meditated a full hour by the clock upon how
to carry out her wishes to the letter.

In this case about seems a little more natural to me. Sim-

 

? Jespersen, A Modern En lish Grammar, III, 11. Por another
interpretation see Uurme, Sigiax, 48.

8 Poutsma,.A Grammar of Late Mo ern nglish, 796.

WV
‘ -17-

 

ilarly, against and about may substitute for one another with

freedom on certain occasions.
troOps were warned about smoking or using flash-
lights on deck at night, and a ainst throwing
cigarettes or orange peels overheard (Here, 6)
In a number of cases about seems to fail.to convey full mean-
ing since intensifiers are employed to qualify the preposition.

and they told me all about it (Here, 23)
onl; about one hundred of the hospitals (Here,

a bearer was 13st about done in (Here, 275)
everybody knew more about his job (Here, 292)
are heard onl about a second before ihey hit
(Here, 2 ‘T
Poutsma notes the intensification of about and gives a cita-
tion:

I was Just about falling into a doze, when he
suddenly started up.

He observes that‘lggt "may be held to modify the latter the
preposition by itself rather than the whole word group."9 I
also have two citations for 'to go 2222: (one's) business'
which should perhaps be considered idiomatic since it has be-
come more or less a fixed expression and appears to be illog-
ical in construction and meaning.

while Captain Gale went about his business

(Here, 19)
and the doctor went on about his business (Here,
21

Apparently due to some sort of a weakening, the preposition
about appears in a large number of compounds (see 2.2).
The results of the study indicate that (1) 90% of the

usage of about is divided about equally between the meanings

 

8 Ibid., 791.

“Fl—”'7" '
-18-

 

'regarding' and ‘in proximity to,‘ (2) 22223 also has the
ability to influence tense, (3) it combines with a large hump
ber of other prepositions indicating some sort of weakening,
and (4) 22233 most frequently orients a preceding verb, rather

than a noun or adjective, with another portion of a sentence.

1.3 Above: The development is on 23'! be-ufan : abufan>»
MDE above and accordingly the preposition falls into Composi-

tion Group II.

In its most frequent use above refers, as it always had
done, to spatial relations: 'over,‘ 'in a higher place than,’

'on a plane higher.than.' From Pyle I have the following in-

stances:

the nose bore a painting...and above it the

words (Here , 40)
there were still masts and funnels sticking

above the surface of harbors (Here, 49)
the truck's big steel boom above her*(Here,

so)
a quarter of a mile above us (Here, 164)
Just a few inches above ihe earth (Here, 180)
the light above the surgeons was fiery bright

(Here, 8
hours of daylight when the air above us was
silent (Here, 264)

a hundred fee? above us (Here, 282)

Above occurs also, though less frequently, in various ex-
tended meanings. In such statements as 'health is above wealth?
it means “more important than.‘ In 'not above an hour,‘ 'not
above a dollar,‘ though I have no instances from Pyle, it means

'more than' and is especially frequent in negative statements.
In above ground the meaning is not as clear but it is to be
noted that the idiom resembles off campus, underground, etc.,

and should perhaps be regarded as adverbial. Pyle gives:

 

 

NEH E.Er h? .l...) #4» finds-4...... . 4 -

T‘l-'!"firr——r"

-19-

'nothing showed above ground except the planes' (Eggs, 185)
and 'never was anything built above ground at Thelepte' (Eggg,
185). .Lbove all should perhaps also be regarded as a unit,
adverbial in function, with the meaning 'more than anything
else.’ The phrase is common to Pyle.

and above all he was honest (Brave, 209)

above all he loved to tell stSFTEE on himself

W 318)
A single example occurs where the intensifier 235 is used to
emphasize the meaning 'over' or 'in a higher place than':
'sped unseen across the sky far above our heads' (Here, 260).
However lggt above, right above, straight above, well above
and gigar above all seem to me to be current as well as neat

distinctions heard in colloquial language. The only preposi-

tional compounding is in out above.

1.4 Across: on 93 / 11-33 (L. gulpmn across and ac-
cordingly the preposition belongs to Composition Group II.

The general meaning of 'from one side to the other' seems
. to be the older meaning of the preposition as well as the main
‘ sense accorded to it by the dictionaries.10 Pyle uses the
, preposition with this meaning frequently.

foodstuffs across the Mediterranean (Here, 26)

extending hands across the sea (Here 4

plain extending across North Africa (Here, 44)

the air-raid signal swept across one of our
airdromes (Here, 59)

where soldiers marched across fields or camped
for the night (Here,

seen from the mud road leading across a field,
the hospital looked like (Here, 75)

'10 See: new International, 22; Funk a‘wagnall, 18; American
Oolle ge UIctionary , IE.

 

 

F ‘ -20-

 

 

started out by flying across the Pacific (Here,

116)
a gong slope, across a creek, up a slope (Here,
55

a narrow path wound...across a creek (Here, 255)

who marched them across the fields to the rear
(Here, 275)

wreoEeH tanks scattered across a mile-wide val-
ley (Here , 290)

command cars, half-tracks and Jeeps started west
across the fields of semicultivated desert
(Here, 169)

However the limited meaning 'over a certain portion of'
apparently has developed from the original sense. The only
reference to this which I have been able to discover is made
by Bryant who notes that 'across the country' signifies ”a
distance in any direction to be covered and including the hur-
dling of any obstacles along the way."11 Her definition came
from a court ruling covering a case involving a steeplechase
and she feels that the term is limited to that sport. Pyle
was well acquainted with this meaning and used it in this sense
about equally as often as in the original meaning 'from one

side to the other.‘

train rides in unheated cars across England
seemed to have (Here, 8)
the moon laid a brTTTIant sheen across the
water (Here, 11)
looking out over that armada of marching ships
they did really seem to march across the
ocean (Here, 15)
across the slightly rolling land a person could
see for long distances (Here, 44)
eame)wandering across the plain hoping (Here,
85
and flew off across the mountains (Here, 116) 1
soaring across the desert (Here, 172) j
to the rear across the desert (Here, 171)

 

Bryant. English in tnepgw Courts, 62.

 

 

as it sped unseen across the sky far above our
heads (Here, 2)
armored vehicles rumbled across country all
night (Here, 267)
It is to be noted that in the case of the meaning 'over or
covering a certain portion of' the usage is clearly closely
allied to the preposition over. In a majority of the above
citations over would be equally satisfactory. In order to
further emphasize this overlapping I have a number of perti-
nent Pyle citations where either across or over seem to be
possible.
there was Just room in each tent for two men...
usually slep together so they could ile both
men's blankets across them (Here, 35

we merely slung them over our sEoulders for
carrying (Herc, 7)

they worked their way inland over the hills
(Here, 24)

witF—Hpstick all over his face (He___r__e, 25)

the buggy was bounc and swaying over the
rough desert trail nfiflcre, 59)

we bounced over gullies and ditches, up the

side (Here, I77)

To distinguish the two meanings more clearly intensifiers
or~modifiers are frequently used: 'and drove clear across
London through the blackout' (Here, 2) and 'and a third bullet
cut right across his right-hand fingers' (Brave, 454). Poutsma
also notes the intensification of across: 'The wind blew - not
up the road or down it, though that's bad enough, but sheer
across it.'12 In addition to these instances it seems to me

that only_across and straight across are current in colloquial

language.

 

12 Poutsma, 5 Grammar of Late Modern English, 807.

 

  

-22-

A further development in the meaning of across is 'on
the opposite side of': 'a deaf man live across the street'
(E222: 21) and 'on the corner lߤt across the street from
where we were standing' (B5313, 406). Used temporally across
can also mean 'from one point of time to another': 'had all
come back to him across those twenty-five years' (Here, 21).
Across also occurs in several prepositional compounds (see

8.2).

1.5 51321;: 0E 35 ,1 33:25 (comparative)>MnE 11333. There-
fore after belongs to Composition Group II.

(a) The temporal meaning of 25325 is by far more common
than any other. At the same time it is the most troublesome
to pin down in meaning. Bryant notes that it is this use of
25333 which gives the most trouble in the law courts, and offers
the following definitions: (1) having the meaning of later,
with certain definite limitations shown by the context; (2)
immediately following; (5) simply, later in time.13 A sensi-
ble approach might be to regard the word to mean, temporally,
‘mcrely 'following' and to regard every object of after as
either definite or indefinite qualification except when after
is made definite or indefinite by means of a prepositional in-
tensifier. Further classification may then be made according
to the type of object that follows the preposition.

(a1) 'Lfter"most often takes a simple noun or pronoun ob-

18 Bryant, English in the Law Courts, 64.

 

an;

l '- ll. ' — -23..

Ject. In this case the preposition usually is indefinite or
semi-indefinite unless qualified by a prepositional intensi-
fier.

after two days of loading (Here, 3)

after a while the sea calmed (Here, 6)

after the second day we were (Here, 7)

to get him up to better quarters after a couple
of days (Here, 8)

it was all gone after a day or two (Here, 9)

like a football team shifting after a huddle
(Here, 14)

and after a bit marched them away (Here, 24)

in:o)the city after the original few days (Here,
5

to costume balls after the war (Here, 30)

after the first assault those Bangers had (Here,

was a regular gumbo after rain (Here 44)
a certain time after the occupatlon (Here, 48)
after the initial occupation there would neces-
sarily follow a period of getting established
(Here, 50) '
after all those months in left handed England
4 (Here, 52)
I I nrght add that after several months of study-
' ing (Here, 60)
trips together after the war (Here, 70)
came ashore in assault boats the morning after
the occupation (Here, 17) ""'
after several monfih§_they would probably return
(Here, 101) ‘
and-after a few of those something began to
) Jump lnside them (Here, 100)
for several months, after which they went back
) for (Here, 100)
( system of resting aircrewmen after a certain
number of missions (Here, 1
they could uit the front forever after thirty
missions Here, 101)
then after a few days (Here, 286)
felt physlcally tired even after the marches
(Here, 268)
at dahn after a particularly tough battle (Here,
272
so well that after the battle his praises were
(Here, 277)
after a while I went back to (Here, 279)
hour or so after my episode (Here, 277)
continued trying to destroy thelr own stuff
after surrender (Here, 287)

 

 

I ' - V -34-

so he)would have none of it after that (Brave,
176

I went to the regimental comman port in a Jeep
after dark one night (Brave, 181)

it was after dark when we hacked away from the
dock (Brave, 250)

after a couple of hours the route ahead seemed
to clear up (Here, 260)

after four days in battle my division (Here,

after they sat around in bunches (H252, 287)
Similar examples are also given by fries: 'aftgg the close
of the schools' and 'EEEEE thorough investigation...l believe
that.'14
:53323 is made more definite by means of intensification
in a number of instances from Pyle:
ust after sunrise (Here, 171)

embers that frequently came Just after dusk

to blast our airdrome (Here,

Just after daylight our traln pulled up (Here,

it was long after dark when we left (Here, 44)
lon after our arrival there were still—CHere,

didn't hear a shot till long after daylight
(Here, 24)

.hot chow arrived ust after dusk (Here 258)
had come up lust a er us (Here,—Ed§)

iust after dawn (Here, 267)
e t e inc Just after daylight (Here, 268)
it was long_after*dayllght (Here, 2

I Apparently 2513;, when followed by sunrise, 9213a daybreak,

233;, or darkness, usually takes an intensifier although in-
stances without the intensifier also occur. I have no exams
Dle of an intensifier with after to express indefinite time.

The idea may be eXpressed by sometime after: 'they found

‘

14 Fries, American English Grammar, 116, 122.

 

 

iii 3:
4113 L

(

mg '(

I.—

52-33:

hence

Cine

)1in.l

F I I” ' -25-

him sometime after the rest had gone home and were in bed.‘
This use of sometime must not be confused sometime after mean-
ing 'quite a while.‘

£532; in the expression after all must be regarded as an
integral part of the idiom and therefore inseparable; it is
hence not a preposition. I have several examples from Pyle:

but after all I’m past forty (Here, 35)

it finally wound up that the planes never
went after all (Brave, 212)

I guess he saw Tunlor after all (Brave, 186)

Gunme prefers to call this expression an adversitive conjunc-

tion.15

(a8) 53325 also takes objects which are substantives con-
taining verbs or verbal elements. By their inherent nature,
all of these examples must be regarded as attempts to express
definite time, although the vague character of the preposition
in most of these instances defeats the attempt at precision.

. Pyle's writing furnishes several instances where the subs
stantive-obJect of 35325 is headed by, or composed completely
of, a present participle.

paid off the first complaint three days after
arriving (Here, 65)

after firing, the boys were dumping the empty
shells (Here, 59)

after chaslng her around the stage he finally
had her hiding behind the piano (Here, 64)

at the hospitals they told me they even had
soldiers down in bed after riding all day
in a Jeep (Here, 42)

and at dusk - five days after leaving London -
we steamed slowly into a prearranged forma-
tion (Here, 5)

_‘

1.5 Game, Smtax, 167, 340.

 

 

 

after dumping their bags and extra film, they
waded back (Here, 17)
we all expected to sail shortly after getting
aboard (Here, 2)
would order a complete second dinner after
finishing the first (Here, 9)
after being both shelled and bombed (Here, 267)
It is interesting to note the amount of freedom the usage of
(I) after / present participle grants the user in tense choice.
Poutsma notes that there is seemingly no guiding principle in
the disregard or observance of tense distinction and particu-
larly in the case of after / present participle ("imperfect
gerund") and gives instances.
after having married you, I should never pre-
tend to taste again
after having seen him publicly thus comport
mself, but one courig was open to me-to
cut his acquaintance.
(a3) Instances where the substantive-object of after is
a content clause, usually containing at least a subject and a
predicate, may be sub-divided according to the tense employed
following after. After, when used thus, is considered a con-
Junction by many grammarians. However I feel that the common
function of a clause as a substantive, despite the loss of
that immediately preceding the clause, has been overlooked by
many of these grammarians. I prefer to regard after in this
case as a preposition since I feel that it has not changed in
meaning nor function.
The past perfect expresses the extended action before-

Past idea.

¥

16 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 482.

 

 

l -27-

JMerchantharine officers, after they had been
in Gran a couple of days (Here, 53)

after we had talked an hour or two (Here, 62)

eventually, after poor Mitzi had given her-
self up (Here, 64)

kept firing for three days after we had oc-
cupied their hill (Here,

after we had occupied the hill they fired

‘(H‘ei-e, 263)

after the machine unner had made me flee in
shame (Here, 279

after we had occupied the hill they fired on
our troops to the rear (Here, 263)

The preterite expresses the simple before-past notion.17

one of the.Ten Best Colds of 1942 the day
after we got aboard, and spent the next
flve days in (Here, 8)

after we got in the fi ht he transferred to
our forces (Here, 37

‘my own special homber crew arrived shortly
after I landed in Africa (Here, 39)

after I arrived, told me the people at home
(Here, 53)

after they left he said to me (Here, as)

drlvlng the Germans off the hill, and after
the battle was over we came back (Here, 263)

but after the worm's eye view I got..., it was
hahd to see anything (Here, 268)

a few hours after the last German was marched
(Here, 278

I have no examples from Pyle of (l) the use of the present to
express either the past or future idea,18 or (2) the use of the
5 present perfect to express the idea of habitual action.
(b) The positional sense of after is relatively easy to
group. The meaning is generally 'position behind,’ and further
distinctions are merely slight modifications of this broader

sense. One modification is the meaning 'in pursuit of' or 'in

OW”

search of': 'he ran after the truck' (Here, 186). Another

L

1'7 Iespersen, A Modern English Grammar, IV, 25.
18 11:14., N, ‘26—'25, .

 

 

‘ ,Ellllll-vvilhll.gflgt.'ru . .

r ‘ -28-

‘modification is the meaning 'behind in place' or 'following
behind' with an implication of some sort of 'continuousness.‘
This variation in meaning is employed fairly frequently by
Pyle. It is interesting to note that this use of 23335 has
fairly definitely become subject to the formulization (one)
/ 23325 J (another).

all during that time one long troop after an-

other day and night (Here 2) ‘
hour after hour I stood at the rail looking ‘

 

 

(He re , 1’57 1
time after time he heard the boys say (Here, 1
24) '

the stuff that came down da after day along ;
the Algerian coast (Here, 07 g

as we drove past tank after tank (Here, 176)

to throw battalion afterIbattalIon onto an
(Here, 238)

of mlle after mile contained more Germans than
Amcficans (Here, 282)

 

 

 

Conclusions to be drawn from the study are: (l) the tem-
poral use of 3:32; is by far the most frequent; (2) ggtgg
takes a simple noun or pronoun object a majority of the time;
(3) there exists a strong desire to use ggtg£_to indicate a
specific time and possibly because of this 33325 often requires
an intensifier when followed by'gggg, daybreak, $235, and
darkness; (4) 2:32; has the ability to cause tense fluctua-
tions; (5) positional usage is restricted largely to the forb

mule (one) / after / (another).

1.6 Against: OE ongean-es (adverbial genitive) / added
-_t_> In] against. Therefore against belongs to Composition
Group II.

Against occurs in Pyle with a wide variety of meanings.

The core of all the meanings however is an opposition, of some

 

“‘

“)9 CI
3‘:‘ects :
forces :1

rested t:

“.5. .
«acre:

ID

I
(D

W” -29-

 

sort, explicit or implied, between two objects: between two
objects in contact with each other; between two objects or
forces thought of as moving in opposite directions or one di-
rected toward the other; between two objects thought of as
different or contrasting. Although the prepositional function
of against seems fairly clear, Poutsma prefers to regard
against as.an adjective since it has the value of opposed
"from which it structurally differs in that it does not require
the connecting preposition 33.719 However it seems to me that
his argument is invalidated by his failure to recognize the
function ofigg as an integral part of the idiom. Against con-
forms to my definition of a preposition and can hardly be con-
sidered otherwise.
(a) In the meaning 'in contact with':
he felt someone leaning a ainst him (Here, 20)
who had died while leaning agalnst him (Here,
28
a broken armchair leaning against a barn
(Here, 286)
were lying in the sun a ainst a bank alongside
a dirt road (Here, 27l)
lying in the sun against a bank (Here, 271)
(b) In the meaning 'in opposition to':
they were bitter a ainst the politicians and
, the general slovenllness (Here, 57)
a country at war which still let enemies run
loose to work a ainst it (Here, 25)
trOOps were in actual Battle for the first
time a ainst seasoned troops (Here, 54)
they were used to force, and expected us to)
use it against the common enemy Here, 55

in February a ig German push star 6 against
the American troops (Here, 168)

_‘

19 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late modern English, 38, 759.

T_.

to) 2
Of this 211

mum

(d) :

 

(c) In the meaning 'for resisting.’ I have no instances
of this meaning but Fries gives: 'vaccinations against ty-
phoid.'zo

(d) In the meaning 'contrary to' or 'in contrariety to':

a quhck victory was against all logic (Here,
49

(e) In the meaning 'in contrast to':

we laughed and cheered a ainst a background
hf semihohscious listenlng for other sounds
Here, 2

it Blended so well with the fields and against
the low rollin mountains in the distance
that (Here, 80

with the whlte skin of their backsides gleam-
ing against the dark back round of brown
uniforms and green grass Here, 274)

green trees stood out a ainst the bare brown
of the desert (Here, l77)

(f) In other meanings. In instances where the verb Eight
occurs there is no marked difference whether against, immedi-
ately following, is omitted or not. For example, compare
'fight the enemy' and 'fight against the enemy.‘21 I have no
example from Pyle of (1) the rare meaning ’in preparation for'

'11sted by Jespersen (in 'everything is preparing against you

22

come'), (2) the meaning 'in the Opposite direction to' (in

‘riding against the wind'), nor (3) the meaning 'in exchange

f
E
I

for' (in 'to draw against merchandise shipped'). An interest-
ing example occurs where the two prepositions about and against
seem to be interchangeable: 'troops were warned about smoking

or using flashlights on deck at night, and against throwing

Iries, American En lish Grammar, 119.
31 Jespersen, A Hodern English drammar, III, 253.

88 Ibid.,‘v, 350:*

 

W- . -51-

“I! ’Q-Rw -

 

cigarettes or orange peels overboard' (Hggg, 6).

Although it is not impossible for against to appear ad-
verbially, I have no example of that usage. Apparently the
word is prepositional to such an extent that it normally takes

an object in colloquial usage.

1.7 All over: Since all over represents the compounding
of an intensifier and apreposition to form a single preposition,
it falls into Composition Group III.

I have very little historical background for this preposi-
tion and I have been unable to find any mention of it in
Jespersen, Poutsma, Kittredge, Curme, nor any books on English
grammar which I have had occasion to consult. The NED gives
its earliest appearance as 1851 (cf. DAE, 1833, for gil-

overishness) and brief mention is made of all over by Francis

 

Palmer in Agerican Speech ("Gleanings for the 'DAE' Supple-
ment," American Speech, XXII, 1947, p. 200). Further study
of all over is badly needed. I came to the conclusion that
all over was a single preposition when I added together (1)
that all over occurs very frequently in Pyle and (2) that it
has a meaning all its own, independent of 3133 and Ell! In
the sentence 'for a while it was a vivid and noisy display of
shooting all over the place' (H333, 5), 9131; rather than _a_l_._l_._
.1105 would convey the idea of 'above the specific location.'
A§;_by itself, of course, would be senseless. The true mean-
1118 Of all over would be 'everywhere about.‘ Occasionally the
meaning seems close to that of over in the meaning 'covaring.’

‘11 Over does not however man so much a blanket 'covering' as

Fl ' -32-

a 'scattered covering.‘

for a while it was a vivid and noisy display
of shooting all over the place (Here, 5)
with lipstick all over his face (Here, 26)
show us all over the town (Here, 43)
go blushlng all over Oran buying up dozens of
those feminine Items (Here, 72)
brothers scattered all over the world (Here,
98
whitewashed rock borders all over the place
(Here, 80) -
barracks and tents all over America, Ireland
(Here, 138)
for all over the desert tanks began roaring
(Here, 177)
blood all over his undershirt (Here, 272)
I had heen weak all over Tunisia and Sicily
(Brave, 233)
she would Jump all over the old time sergeants
and lick their Taces (Brave, 191)
all over it were engraved names and places
. rave, 216)
a large box for myself, with horseshoes tacked
‘all over it (Brave, 351)
he would miss the stake with the helmet and
, wguhd squash mud all over himself (Brave,
3 6
( debris flying back and forth all over the
room (Brave, 247)
all over the bushy slope...you saw little groups
rave, 270)
the shlp ran with lights on all over it (Brave,
287
they pinned bright little flags and badges all
over you (Brave, 458)
kids were all over the tanks like flies (Brave,

«o )
they here throwing rocks all over you (Brave,
365

personal belongings were strewn all over those
bitter sands (Brave, 360) .

pieces of flak were falling all over the orchard
(Brave, 370) .

he hhd run restaurants all over America (Brave,
34

he hooked it by loud-speakers into barracks 2;;
over the place (Brave, 336)

the Germans would he dug in all over the woods
(Brave , 442)

the remainder splattered themselves all over the
rice paddies of China (Brave, 316)

 

WV

‘fihw-

 
 
 
 
  

 

-33-

peOple rode on top of the cars and hung all

over the sides (Brave, 135)
so he had been runnlng around all over Algiers

(Brave, 94)

1.8 Along: Historically'an along was 0E and / lang :

andlang, and the preposition is therefore to be placed in Comp

position Group II.

Along currently seems to have only one meaning: 'by the

length of.‘ The only distinction which should be pointed out

within this meaning is that between along used to indicate a

series of fixed positions 'by the length of' and along used to

indicate motion from position to position 'by the length of.‘

of':

(a) In the meaning of fixed position(s) 'by the length

the fantastic searching of tracer bullets along
the shore (Here, 17)

Arab farmers hy the hundreds waved at us along
the road (Here, 45)

cahe down dhy after day along the Algerian coast
Here, 60

”little rainfall is experienced along the coast"
(Here, 60)

like a snake hidden somewhere along the path
(Here, 162)

guides were posted along the line to keep the
rear (Here, 262)

thousands In fields alon the roads (Here, 286)

all the towns along a ine of battle (Here,
290

The frequent appearance of the intensifier all preceding along

when used in this meaning is interesting and one might spec-

ulate that this intensification arises from a desire to dif-

ferentiate between this meaning of along in (a) and that given

in (b) below.

all along the length of that ribbon (Here, 255)

 

American soldiers were posted all alopg the
trail (Brave, 144) .
all alon the dock was a chicken yard bedlam
of “Hey Joe" (Brave, 227)
the M.P.'s hid armored cars and tanks all along
this route (Brave, 380)
infantrymen hidden all along the hedgerows with
rifles (Brave, 440T

 

(b) In the meaning of motion from position to position

'by the length of':
he saw two tommygunners walking along the street

(Here, 31)

couple of miles east along a highway to a cross-
roads (Here, 176)

do noh explode but skip along the ground (Here,
181

Army telephone wire is simply strung gkggg the
ground (M, 263)

walking alone g;ggg_highways (H253, 282)
Although Bryant makes a neat legal distinction between 'by
the length of' and 'in the vicinity of,‘23 I have not been
able to regard any of the above listed citations clear enough
in meaning to make this distinction within the one meaning 'by
the length of.‘

A further development in meaning is where glggg_can indi-
cate the sense of 'regarding.‘ However along that line seems
to me to be more or less a fixed expression and I am.not cer-

E tain that the phrase is grammatically logical: 'talked an
0

hour or two alonggthat line' (Here, 62). Along occurs very

 
    
  

frequently in prepositional compounds (see §2.2), along. In
addition to these compounds Curme lists along of24 but the text

fails to provide a single example of it.

 

:2 Bryant, En lish in the Law Courtg, 78-79.

0, Slntax’ O

 

1.9
preposit
513:? (h
N
hence (5
when
31’ ling;
5933 $3

min .01;

P: _ ’ - 35..

1.9 Alongside: The development of alongside as a single
preposition has occurcd during the Modern English period. MnE
along the side of>»along side of >-alongside of'> alongside,
hence the preposition belongs to Composition Group III. Many
grammarians refuse to accept the last development in this chain,
of linguistic evolution but the only two occurences in Pyle
seem to indicate that alongside is a single preposition: 'our
train pulled up alongside a huge ship' (H252, 2) 'lying in the
sun alongside a dirt road' (H332, 271)

1.10 Agggg: The development is 0E 33’/ (ge)mang : Egggg‘>
Inn ggg_g, We may therefore regard the preposition as belong-
ing to Composition Group II. ’
:ggggg currently seems to have only one major meaning al-
| though it is possible to differentiate two different shadings.
(a) In a large number of instances ggggg means 'within,’
'within the ranks of,’ or 'within the group of':

there was considerable seasickness...down be-
low, amon the troops (Here, 5)

number of Igis sympathizers among the French
(Here, 55)

there was a deep fascist tinge among some of
the officers (Here, 57)

”the only women among several thousand men”
(Here, 63)

inquired especially amon the wounded soldiers
about this (Here, 73)

turned up amon the first patients (Here, 78)

one amateur)electrician among the enlisted men
(Here, 78

if there was one amon them (Here, 100)

rumors were rampant among our fllers (Here, 100)

next morning we spoke around amon ourselves
and found that all of us had tossed away the
night (Here, 254)

stayed hidden in the rocky hillsides right

' among our own troops (Here, 263)

 

I!“

.‘l‘ d
\afla ..
t 3‘
ANN a
V a .i n ‘ A
n \hav ‘t‘ fl \ \I‘ w

’ -36-

find hurselves places among the rocks (Here,
281

the only Americans amon scores of German
soldiers (Here, 2

mingled with them all day and sensed no sad-
ness among them (Here, 283)

(b) In some instances‘among is almost equivalent to 21:
the noun following among is the subject or the source of the
action implied in the noun, or stated in the verb, preceding

it.

no trouble at all amon the troops during the
voyage (Here, 12

church attendance amon the troops wen up no-
ticeably (Here, It)

no lack of bravery amon our bomber and fighter
pilots (Here, 100

it was generally agreed among airmen that (Here,

dihghgsion of the Arabs ggggg our men (H353, 174)
Supposedly ggggg is a "praepositio pluralis tantum"25 and in
the case of two persons or objects the preposition between is
to be used.26 Pyle for the most part observes this distinc-
tion and I have only one citation of doubtful intent:

we put our jeep in superlow gear and drove out

across the sands amon the tanks...as we drove

past tank after tan , we found each crew at

its post (H252, 176)
In this instance I am sure the most exacting grammarian could
be puzzled as to whether gaggg or between should be employed.
It is my conviction that the jeep could hardly drive with more
than one tank on either side at any one time, in which case
between would seem a little more logical to me.

.hmong appears compounded with another preposition only in

 

25 Jesperaen,.A Modern English Grammar, II, 183, footnote.
26 For further discussion ofihfs point see §1.19, between.

   

I -37-

two instances (see §2.2(10) below).

1.11 Around: Historically MnE around is 0E 33,/ 0F

roende. This preposition therefore falls into Composition

Group II.

A number of quite divergent meanings occur in the case

of around and I shall treat them according to meaning.

once

(a) In the meaning 'encircling' or 'along the circumfer-

of':

with a canvas wall around it (Here, 81)

they hould have been around the world (Here,
116

marked the trail by wrapping toilet paper
around rocks (Here, 263)

guns roared in a complete circle around us
(Here, 264)

my one blanket around me (Here, 281)

acted quickly to throw guahds around all cap-
tured supply dumps (Here, 28

(b) In the meaning 'on all sides of' or 'enveloping':

who crowded around the guns (Here, 25)

standing around the piano singlng (Here, 27)

chatted with the men, passed around the cig-
arettes (Here, 24)

squatting around their plans (Here, 41)

and they sat around bonfires (Here, 44)

with the vast amount of sheeting, swabs, band-
ages and towels - all white around a desert
operating table (Here, 82)

with little rock walls around them (Here, 267)

Because of the develOpment of other meanings (c,d,e,f)

intensification of around has become common to express mean-

 

 

ings (a) and (b), which incidentally are not easily differen-

’ tiated.

other soldiers lay all around them (Here, 18)
the Americans were working a three-shITt'day,

ri ht around the clock (Here, 47)
he peered all around the cocEpit (Here, 115)

I .. 38-

"and 88's dropping all around you" (Here, 173)
dropping 88's right around them (Here, 281)
and the mountains all around us were full of
the dreadful noise of canon (Brave, 106)
all around my hut were similar ones, connected
‘by concrete (Brave, 327)
the infantry all around them were crouching
(Brave, 388)
planes were throbbing and droning all around
in the sky above the light (Brave,
our own heavy artillery was crashing all around
us (Brave, 435)
our own hlg guns were all around us (Brave,

 

 

 

 

397)

he 1ohked all around him as he talked (Brave,
433

explohions were going on all around us (Brave,
398

shells struck all around it (Brave, 401)
all around me officers were cusslng (Brave,

there was the roar of big guns all around us
(Brave, 358)
”when I came to, they were shelling all around
me" (Brave, 454)
all around my hut were similar ones (Brave, 327)
the mountains all around us were full of the

) dreadful noise (Brave, 106)

(c) In the meaning 'to (or on) the other side of' or
'semicircularly about':

the grind of a truck starting in low gear, in
high wind around the eaves, somebody merely
whistling a tune (Here, 182)
3 they oured around us charging forward (Here,
' 177
J worked their way up onto a long slope in front
( of them and around each and behind them
(Here, 270)
with our feet and walk around them (Here, 260)
; then hweeping around the ends of the-hlll (Here,
254
working around the left of the hill (Here 277)
I went around the rock so fast (Here )
we detoured around the smaller ones (Here, 290)
we had to drive around it (Here, 290)
'men kept coming round the hlll‘hnd vanishing
(Here, 256) ““‘
. shylng around Arabs who loomed up (Here, 44)
Captain Gale got his foot around the dead driver's

leg (Here, 20)

   

r7 , -39-

(d) In the meaning 'in or near' or 'in the vicinity of':

the boys hung around the field part of the day
(Here, 112)

the—hiilsides around Oran, (Here, 24)

stand on a new Iine around Sheiila (Here, 182)

it was a Joke around iown, (Brave, 312)

no transportation ieft around ihe post (Here,
175

things were tense around the command post
(Here, 182)

the tiniest fraction of what we actually had
around there then (Here, 44)

being with the troops in Africa was in many
ways like attending a national political con-
vention especially around one of the head-
quarters set up in (Here, 37)

(e) In the meaning 'here and there in (on)' or 'about':

"we were hardly aware of anything around us"
(Here, 17)
Lrahic spoken around those parts (Here, 84)
it was a Joke around town (Brave,
standing and sitting around a farmyard, (Here,
285
in rummaging around one supply dump I came
) upon a stacE (Ears, 289)
driving around the country (Here, 44)
the boys around the tent all iaughed (Here,
82
hour walking around the town (Here, 20)
chasing her around the stage (Here, 64)
empty building around the town (Here, 48)
dozens of camps around the countryside.(Here,

81)

’ (f) In the meaning 'not far from' or 'approximately':

‘

“*d

'as soon as the sun got low, around four o'clock' (Here, 32).

‘9

It is interesting to note that in this instance around and

about seem to be interchangeable but around seems to be a bit
more vague than about.

(8) In the meaning 'upon':

the whole crude existence was built around the
call of those thousands of men whose iives

depend on them (Here, 81)

 

   

I —_N_— . -40f

)

 

 

work was being done around two field telephones
(Here, 164)

Around occurs in a nmmber of prepositional compounds

which are listed in §2.2(ll).

1.12 §_t_: Historically on 91: (Icel. g, Lat. ad) > MnE
‘51. This preposition therefore can be regarded as belonging
to Composition Group I.

Prhmarily 31 should be regarded as a preposition of
static implication although it may at times assume the kinetic
force of the preposition to with the implication of 'motion or
direction toward.‘ However this occurs relatively infrequent-
ly and more often the preposition kinetically approaches the
meaning of to rather with the implication simply 'indicated
direction.‘ In the static sense at usually indicates 'pres-
once or contact in space or time' or more simply '1ocation.'
Thus we can understand its function as that of the old loc-
ative oaa¢,87 Bearing the brunt of expression of location
(along with 32, 23,.33, and 91), has however, weakened the se-
mantic value of 33 to such a degree that we may hardly regard
it any longer as having much independent worth. The American
College bictionarz realistically notes that because of its wide

variety of meanings it is "hence used in many idiomatic phrases

'expressing circumstantial or relative position, degree, or

rate, action, manner...”8 This, as we have already noted, is

one of the best ways of determining the degree of weakening of

 

27 Ourme S ntax 561.
28 American Uoiiege Dictionary, 78.

 

F“. ' -41-

)
I

 

meaning involved.

In a sense‘gt has a great deal of the force of to but is
at the same time much more vague than in, on, or by, However,
it is very difficult to go much further than this point in gen-
eral definition without reference to the two categories into
which the majority of uses of at fall.

(a) By far the greatest number of instances indicate po-
sition in space. Bryant differentiates between two meanings
of at: (l) the definite meaning 'one specific place,‘ 'in,'
or 'within,' and (2) the indefinite meaning of 'near' or 'a-
round.'29 I agree with this distinction but should like to
distinguish a third class which may be regarded as 'relative.'
Of course when 'position in space' becomes relative, it is
often difficult to distinguish between space and time. How-
ever far the sake of covering these borderline cases I shall
consider them under the general heading of 'position in space.‘
I may add that Bryant fails to make the major separation be-
tween spacial and temporal usage.

(a1) Position sometimes is indicated in a very general
sense. Often in this case the definite article is omitted and
then the sense sometimes approaches that of 'condition.'

the first couple of days'at see our ships

seemed (£033, 5) —
after we were a couple of days at sea, but

they (Here, 13)
when you-hhink of people at home squawking

their heads off (Here, i5

 

29 Bryant, English in the Law Courts, 90-91.

W— ***** ‘

1 M"

”W“

 

the papers at_home were saying (Here, 24)

entertainments to be had at home and in Eng-
land (Here, 29) “‘

as warm as it 13.22 home in late June (Here,
32 ‘

than you did at_home (Here, 34)

we didn't know what you were thinking at home

(Here, 50) -
”what are the folks at home thinking about?"
(Here, 50)

a few hlocks from him at home (Here, 72)

make everybody feel at-hbme (Here, 80)

we read your column hid the time at home in
Cleveland (Here, 89)

spend the rest of the war working a£_home
(Here, 101) '

flying people at home know as the (Here, 114)

(a2) Specific positions is eXpressed by the use of at in
varying degrees of exactness. Where the object of‘gt is for-
mally or logically plural it is to be noticed that position or
place is much more general than when the object is singular.
It is also interesting to note that proper nouns (including
number addresses) generally do not take the definite or indef-
inite article.

we stood at the rails and (Here, 2;

with benchds at each side (Here, 4

the men ate g£_those tables (Here, 4)

there was a constant long queue at each one
(Here, 9) -

and water canteens gg'our belts, (Here 12)

being played at the more remote camps (Here,
'36

but _a_t_ many camps (Here 33)

2.5. some camps (Here, )

'movie facilities gj_the camps (Here, 35)

or at what camp in Ireland or Engiand I had
‘mdi them (Here, 37) -

everybody ate at two big messes set up by the
army’(Here,

said it was cold at high altitudes (Here, 41)

‘23 the hospitals They told me (Here,

‘men worked‘gt crude tables (Here, 30)

a battle at which I was preseni (Here, 274)

finally we stopped 33’s little-used suburban
station (Here, 2)

F -43-

one would catch sight of somebody he knew at
the rail (Here, 3)

hour after hour I stood 22 the rail looking
out (Here, 15)

finally he stopped at a field hospital (Here,

30)

I say a soldier sitting at a cafe table (Here,
30

our troOps in Africa were at the front (Here,
37

and we're at the front (Here, 37)

the last tide I had seen him was at'a cocktail
party (Here, 38)

stapped at the first airport (Here, 42)

‘23 a chateau out in the country (Here, 42)

we stOpped at an antiaircraft gun (Here, 42)

for an hour at a sidewalk cafe (Here 13)

and at an engineer company (Here, )

quicE-stops at a supply depot (Here, 43)

figured the Uhrman would emerge g§_the far end
of the cloud (Here, 111)

killed another at the same spot (Here, 280)

one of my friend? at Londonderry (Here, 38)

taught the fifth aid sixth grades T‘s:- five years
at Clifford, Indiana (Here, 121)

we wound up at Sidi-bel-Ihhhs (Here, 43)

he was at Camp Bowie (Here, 70)

t a foothdil and basebali ietter-man at the Uni-
. versity of Alabama (Here, 97)

working on his Master's at Penn State (Here, 90)

Lieutenant Spence was atthellevue, in New York,
before the war (Here, 31)

from Muskin um Coliege at New Concord, Ohio
(Here, 90

we had been in school together at Indiana Uni-
versity (Here, 38)

the family home was at 3122 Robinhood Street
(Here, 111)

Barr iived at 1314 Logan Ave., Tyrone, Penn-
sylvania There, 90)

he lived at 333-1/2 Seneca Street (Here, 84)

(a3) Relative 'position' as I have pointed out above of-
ten nears the sense of 'time' and in some instances also the
idea of 'condition.'

General point in a series:

et first the activity (Here, 267)

and at that season it didn't even smell very
bad,(Here,

 

-44-

at first, our troops were rather lost (Here,

we marched at first gaily and finally with
great weariness THere, 16)

but always with a feeiing that at last we were
(Here, 16)

didn‘t seem to make much impression at first
(Here, 7)

I thought at first he was doing it in fun (Here,
7

as I had at first (Here, 2)

had a tough time at first (Here, 35)

at first, they sometimes even put off washing
(Here, 81)

there weren't many'kmerican sailors in Cranial
first, but (Here, 31)

we saiied at last (Here, 4)

Special point in a series:

it was wet and cold at the start (Here, 120)

Rate or degree:

set of: down the road at a_good clip_(Here, 19)

we sailed at top speed for about—three miies

(Brave, 24) 1
we Iurched back to Oran at fifty miles an hour
(Here, 44)

(b) In the sense '1ocation in time' I should like to ob-
serve the distinction between time as general and time as
specific.

(b1) General time: It is interesting to note that in or
during can usually be substituted for a£.in most of the cita-
tions.

and at night, slept in (Here, 4)

using flashlights on deck at night (Here, 6)

and sandwiches at night (Edie, 9)
and at night the entire convoy tightened up

Here, 14)
but %i night it turned sharply chilly (Here,
85

was cold out there at night (Here, 43)

but Ned didn't knowdthat at the time (Here, 20)
at the time I still had a‘THere, 51) '""'
'hind blew at such times (Here, 33)

-45-

the zigzags were made at frequent intervals
(Here, 14)

(b2) Specific time using at is indicated by the context
of the prepositional object. Here I am regarding dawn, dusk,
etc., as nonscientific attempts at exact measurement.

the soldiers were routed out at 6:30 A4M., and
33_10:00 AJM. every day (Here, 6)

the army was to pick up my hedroll at 2:00 P.M.
(Here, 1)

true, I woke up at two (Here, 72)

were awakened at seven each morning (Here, 9)

‘21 dawn the thihd day a colonel rushed up and
(Here, 19) ’

at dawn the next morning (Here, 18)

ht dawn, after a (Here, 27

dt'noon one late Octoher day (Here, 1)

the headwaiter wore a tuxedo at dinnertime and
(Here, 9)

‘at_darh, hot food arrived (Here, 257)

and g£,dusk-five days after ieaving London-we
(Here, 5)

The specific eXpression, where the words dawn, dusk, sunset,
etc. are employed, often requires an intensifier to emphasize

the preciseness of the gg'us in the case of before and after;

.3; after §1.5(a1), before §1.14(a5).

than Just at dawn, their ship moved (Here, 17)
Just at sunset one day we passed (Here, Z6)
managed to arrive Just at lunchtime (Here, 79)
for just at that moment all the soldiers

Jumps up (Here, 20)

(e) As was mentioned at the beginning of the section deal-
ing with this preposition, at.may indicate some of the meaning
of to in the sense of 'direction toward':

the two cameraman looked g£_each other (Here,
17

largely by Just looking pitifully at each
other (Here, 23)

who invited me down to look at the navy’s
hospital (Here, 31) ’

looking smacE at the front and (Here, 172)

-46-

Harblin looked at me (Here, 266)

I looked at Harhl'in (II—ere, 266)

but they Thughed at tF—at remark (Here, 22)

a sniper who had hhot at them (Here, 18)

madder than ever at their enemy (Here, 289)

the traditional last glance at land (Here, 4)

an officer near me screamed 3 her (Here, 7)

heaved a hand grenade out the window at an
imagined shadow (Here, 18)

and round away at them with his camera (Here,
19

the constantly whispered password directed at
every approaching shadow (Here, 24) "'

'tzo dozen of them coming right at us" (Here,
63 '

motions with his bayonet at their behinds
(Here, 273)

(d) A! may also be followed by a present participle and
the entire phrase comprises a past infinitive.
newspapermen here failed at getting the finer
points over to you (Here, 53)

an odd snnse of irritation at not being able
to talk (Here, 29)

they were neOphytes 33 living in the field
(Here, 77)
‘33 ieaving I put on my army uniform (Here, 1)
(e) In some instances‘gt implies cause in the sense 'as
a result of.‘ B1 can often be substituted for at in this
meaning. Cp. by§l.21(o).
boys from New Mexico and Arizona were amazed
at how much (Here, 25)
"shdcked _a_t the-i'd-ea" (Here, 78)
(f) I have no examples of verbs that may either take
direct objects or take at plus its prepositional object.
Jespersen lists catch, clutch, curse, envy, at, play, point,

strike, and visit and gives citations.30

mi

30 Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, III, 253.

-47-

(g):§tpmay also be used to express condition. Most of
the cases falling into this category should perhaps be re-
garded as idiomatic. Cf, instances under (al).

but at that, they didn't have (Here 40)

at any rate, the Rangers were good (Here, 35)

and we no French,'gt least hardly any (Here,
43 "“'

"I feel at loose ends" (Here, 287)

Japan had—been at war with Russia for six
months (Here,_288)

we stopped completely, and lay at anchor for
a day (Here, 5)

(h) I have a number of special eXpressions often employ-
ing at:

(hl) At all occurs frequently in Pyle, carrying the force
of 'whatever' or 'of any kind' and it must be regarded as ad-
Jectival in function. It is interesting to note that at all is
employed after negatives in a vast majority of instances.

”haven't you got any sense at all?" (Here, 7)

there was no trouble at all among the troops
during the voyage (Here, 12)

and nobody at all saw the submarine (Here, 14)

was not a bad piece at all (Here, 28

no such reaction at aiI (Here, 33)

they had no kicks at ail (Here, 41)

he was never homesich at air—in England (Here,
70

neither he nor Snip made any headway at all
trying to learn French (Here, 70)

we didn't sleep at all (He-_re, 267)

it had straw on the iioor, hut no furniture 3}
all (Brave, 265)

he_dianE aimost not at all (Brave, 314)

never ducking or appearing to he concerned at
gll_(Brave, 395)

we couldn‘t gauge distance at all (Brave, 233)

the few who escaped had never eXpected to sur-
vive at all (Brave, 259)

we heard no expiosion at all (Brave, 233)

"I'll bet they haven't heen in the line at
all” (Brave, 270)

‘men who didn‘t have to be there at all (Brave,
418

 

- 48..

I have no idea at all why he went to sleep
(Brave, 368)

they might as well not be there at all (Brave,
363

the German's didn't use their planes at all
(Brave, 383)

it made the waste on the beachead seem like
nothing at all...really nothing at all
(Brave, 3

had not been heard from at all (Brave, 364)

he had not collected any guns at aII in Nor-
mandy (Brave, 423)

the rest of the Army wasn't needed at all
(Brave, 363) .

I don‘t remember my walls coming down at all
(Brave, 249)

yet often those close bursts didn't damage
the place at all (Brave, 163)

there was no hiachut at all (Brave, 291)

I didn't see anything of the enemy at all
(Brave, 404)

he didn't have to be over there at all (Brave,
411 -

he hadn't done any war paintings at all since
the invasion (Brave, 448)

sometimes the wouIdn't come out at all
(Brave, 441

he didh‘t have to be over there, at all
(Brave, 221)

Zippos are not available at all to civilians
(Brave, 303)

the general didn't smoke at all (Brave 307)

some would never go at alI (Brave, 352

he didn't look like a warrior at all (Brave,
260

they didn't have any name at all (Brave, 159)

 

(hZ) At once occurs frequently in Pyle in the meaning
'at the same time' or 'concurrently with.' Since apparently
at once fails to convey enough preciseness, it can take the

intensifier all.

the explosion, and the concussion came all at
once (Brave, 278)

as many as seventy-five letters all at once
(Here, 51)

once we saw three rainbows at once, one of them
(Here, 12)

-49-

(h3) é£./ a numeral (indicating age) occurs in Pyle to
indicate a specific period in the past of a persons life.
Jespersen notes that 'at ten years old' may have historically
"arisen from a blending of the two eXpressions 'at ten years'
and 'ten years o1d.'"31 I would like to suggest the further
development 'at ten years old':>'at ten.‘

.23 seventeen he became the youngest Rotarian

(Here, 17)

at nineteen he opened a studio (Here, 17)

(h4) I have several citations which need further inves-
tigation:

the Job for which they had trained and waited

was at hand (Here, 17)
and out of danger, with one man steerin and
another man at the throttle (Here, 20

had an opportunity to talk’at length with the
Germans (Here, 288)

roads in Nohthhrn Tunisia that were littered
for miles at a stretch (£353, 290)
(1) Several fairly definite conclusions suggest themselves:
(1) at refers to position in space more frequently than to po-
sition in time; (2) at frequently takes an object without an
article, and the omission of the article seems to give the id-
iom more general, or adverbial, meaning; (3) g§_appears fre-

quently with intensifying particles, particularly in expres-

sions of more exact time.

1.13 Back: The preposition back is a develOpment of OR
baec (akin to Icel. and LG bak). I place it in Composition

Group IV.

 

31 Jaspersen, A Modern English Grammar, IV, 384.

-50-

ngk, as a preposition, often occurs with hgmg_in the
sense of at. In the citations from Pyle, listed below, at
is a perfectly intelligible substitute for 2335, but Eggk
carries the implication the reference is to a place previ-
ously occupied, or identified with, the speaker.

to get newsreels for showing in the theaters
back home (Here, 16)

Ned's teammate had been a civic leader back
home in Easton, Maryland (Here, 16)

it seemed to be a larger sky than ours back
home (Here, 32)

I hoped the people back home wouldn't get im-
patient (Here, 50)

back home, Tom used to be (Here, 70)

was a big shot back home (Here, 71)

the ones back home weren't cowards (Here, 100)

all I want is to finish and get back home
(Here, 105)

going to marry Mary the day he gets back home
(Here, 123)

dad used to be county auditor back home (Here,

 

123)
ex erts from the factories back home showed up
Here, 130) '

snapshots of his wife back home in New Bruns-
wick, New Jersey (Here, 146)

how h?rd people were working back home (Here,
256

there were some intimations in print back home
(Here, 267)

Back also occurs with the demonstrative substantive there
in more or less the same meaning, even though at is no longer
an adequate substitute for back, or in a meaning derived from
the implied contrast of 'front' and 'back.‘

so many tanks back there (Here, 169)
back there were a hundred and fifty soldiers

(Here, 86)
Scholarly opinion does not generally regard back as a prep-
osition. The dictionaries list back as a noun, an adjective,

a verb, an adverb, or as a prefix in various compounds, but not

-51..

as a preposition. Fries lists back in and back to and treats
them as though they were prepositions although, to be sure,
he calls them "function words."32 In the present discussion
I am considering bag; as a preposition of direction and home
and.thg£g as substantive objects.

OE Mwas a noun and meant 'back' or 'the rear.' There
has obviously been a great extension of meaning. The devel-
opment from noun to preposition might have followed this pat-
tern: in the back : in the back of in back of back of MnE
beak. Somewhere along this chain of development the meaning
was extended to indicate a place where the speaker had once
been but was away from at the time of speaking. As a noun
232; could be followed by'gf and as extended meanings devel-
oped it came to take other prepositions as well. The use of
bag! alone to indicate the direction east came, Winburne feels
"as a result of the westward expansion of America. As the
frontiersmen, the cattlemen, and farmers pushed on westward
they could quite naturally refer to back east. They probably
had a definite part of the East in mind at first, but later
as the westward expansion surged on and on, almost any place
eastward of their location became back east.”35 The develop-
ment of meanings probably was somewhat like this: 'the be-

hind' 'to a place previously occupied' 'east.' At the pres-

 

32 Fries, American English Grammar, 117, n. 12.

33 Winburne, 3An Analysis of the Particles Back, Down, Out,
Over, and.U ' unpublished manuscript of paper read-h3'-
for eSociet% of Michigan Linguists, December 4,1948,

p. I.3.

cit tine
here is

ferri 2g

frm E1;

tiin:
IE:
1
”:E
1
”Be
'0
E
.25
-/c
1
(
”Be
1
'0
I
1
1
3am
~'\$ ED]
tiafls 91
perhaps
(1
“es $2

-52-

ent time we have all three meanings existing side by side.
There is a fourth meaning, temporal rather than spatial, re-
ferring to a time previous to the present, as in 'bggk than
men made a business of fighting.‘ I quote several citations
from Winburne even though they do involve a second preposi-
tion:

”Back in the days of desert fighting around
Tebese..." (Pyle)

"Jeffrey recalled that no one had called him
'Jeffie' except back in the sat" (Marquand)

”Back in February of 1943..." Pyle)

'...the three of us laughed at our inexperi-
ence and nervousness back in those days”
(Pyle)

"Back in those days Walter Newcombe had looked
like a young clerk in a general store..."
(Marquand)

"Back in those days when Jeffrey had first come
to New York..." (marquand)

"...there was a cannoneer who used to be a
photographer for Harris and Ewing in Washing-
ton, back in tgi days when I worked in Wash-
ington" (Pyle)

Back appears with a large variety of intensifiers in the cita-
tions from Pyle and also compounds with other prepositions
perhaps more frequently than any other single preposition.

(See§2.2)

1.14 Before: The development is 0E 22 / {gran : beforan
>'MB before(n) IMnE before. We may therefore regard before as
belonging to Composition Group II. It should perhaps be noted
that this preposition also occured in DE with prepositional
function (followed by dative).

 

34 Ibid., 3.

-53-

The more common meaning of before, to judge from the ex-
ample of it I have collected from Pyle, is temporal in the
sense 'earlier than.’

(a) Before by far most commonly indicates position in
time. We can further distinguish various shades of this tem-
poral usage by noting the type of object with follows the prep-
osition.

(a1) Before { an object marking a specific point in time
indicates specific time:

and we'd chat for hours about his job before

the war (Here, 12) '—-——_'

before the war Ned had his own studio (Here,

was at Bellevue, in New York, before the war

(Here, 31)
but Before the war he was an oil Operator (Here,
35 '-——-

had been a lawyer before the war (Here, 166)
and before the war he was (Here, 27
before that first day of the great surrender
ere, 284)
(a2) Before / object indicating a recurrent point in time
indicates generic time:

usually the sky was a clear blue before noon

(Here, 32)
nothing else moves a foot before daylight (Here,
168 "““‘ '-—-

and before every battle he (gage, 280)

The obvious difference between (a1) and (a2) is the omis-
sion of the definite article in the instances under the latter.
Normally the omission of the definite article makes time more
general. There are instances when the context (the tense of the
verb) shows reference to specific time even without the defi-

nite article, as 'drove into my cactus-patch destination about

-54-

an hour before sundown' (@333, 170), 'food arrived again in
the morning REESE? daylight' (B252, 257), and 'would culmi-
nate in an attack in which some of the men were to die before
dawn' (E233, 270); but cp. 'we got to where we were going half
an hour before dawn' (Eggs, 261) and 'the week before the
annual Pioneer Days celebration' (EEES: 67).

(a3) In the idiom before lopg, 123g seems to stand for
'a long time':

before long they would be ready (Here, 48

hefore‘lopg that phase was over (Here, 55

were going home before lopg (Here, iUl)

undouptedly get to go home before long (Here,
116 “"

but before long I knew (Here, 171)

before lon there wasn't a correspondent who
didn't swear by him (Brave, 308)

they knew it would be lots rougher before lopg
(Brave, 345)

(a4) Before / present participle indicates time prior to
the implied action. In instances where the present participle
is expanded to a finite verb and provided with a grammatical
subject, the before is generally construed as a conjunction.

were issued sun lasses before coming ashore,

but (Here, 20
sat around bonfires before going to bed (Here,
44

and whatever the nmmber of missions before
posting, there would be a wild rush (here,

101)
got married just before going overseas (Here,
136

a few minutes before going to (Here, 271)

hours before being hrought in (Here, 274)

to wreeE as much as possible before surren-
dering (Here, 283)

(a5) The only intensifier that I found used with before
18 Just and in the examples I have, it occurs only in the in-

-55-

stances that omit the definite article (daylight, dusk, dark,
etc.). Cp. parallel usage of _a_§§l.12(b2) and after §1.5(a1).

I managed to get awake and on deck just before
daylight (Here, 15)

it was just hefore dusk (Here, 59)

noiseless peacefthat sometimes comes just be-
fore dusk (Here, 131)

in the evening lust before dusk (Here, 148)

the mail came up in jeeps just before dark
(Here, 257)

dashed to the train just before departure time
(Here, 72)

 

 

(a6) I have a large number of citations in which before
is generally construed as a conjunction. Apparently the only
difference between before as a preposition and before as a con-
junction is that as a conjunction it takes a whole clause as
its object.

the Germans will turn him loose after two days,
to get rid of him before he talks them to
death (Here, 173) """"

at Indianapoiis just before the race starts
(Here, 176)_

"we'II tear our ears off before this is over"
(Here, 161

many of them will die behind their cameras be;
fore it is all over (Here, 16)

has to be ripened in brine before it is edible

(Here, 44)

and then back again before we could hear it
(Here, 34)

a few)cusswords before he would consent (Here,
272 "'“

but before I could get a word out (Here, 272)

onto an aiready pulverized hill before we could
finally take it (Here, 269)

a day before they were to change bases (Here,
41

grow to an absolute cascade before it would be
enough (Here, 47)

to make a feiiow very somber before the day
was over (Here, 264)

credit for stopping Rommel's supply line ust
before the British eighth Army started ere,

-55-

on the back slope of the hill before any rest
began (Here, 255)

he du himseif a hole before he sat down (Here,
256

it was a couple of days before the fighting
was all over (Here, 31

job in scaring them before we arrived (Here, 33)

two hours to wait before the troop train came
(Here, 2)

wouid he gone for three or four days before we
realized his absence (Here, 38)

heard)on1y about a second Before they hit (Here,
265

the big night came a couple of mornings before
we got to (Here, 10)

put there by the Germans before we came (Here,
55 ‘_“—‘ '-—"

(b) Before in the spatial meaning 'in front of,' judging
from my citations from Pyle, is apparently much less common:
'mainly to show off before the other kids' (Eggg, 21), 'before
them were file cases' (gagg, 80), and 'in the front lines 32;

fore Mateur' (Here, 254).

1.15 Behind: MnE behind develops from OElbg./ hindan :
behindan which becomes ME behinden. The preposition therefore
belongs to Composition Group II. It should perhaps be noted
that this preposition also occured in DE with prepositional
function (followed by the dative).

(a) The citations involving behind which I have from Pyle
all, with one exception, refer to space relation in the gener-
al sense 'in the rear of' or 'at the back of.' The more spe-
cific meaning varies with the point of reference.

(al) In the meaning 'at the rear of' the speaker:

the ship behind us was the West Point (ggyg,

10)
the sky behind us (Here, 163)

-57-

wound up less than a hundred yards behind us
(Here, 266) ""—

a coupie of miles behind us the engineers (Here,
(Here, 267)

(a2) In the meaning 'on the far (more distant) side of'

an object in front of the speaker: 'we couldn't see those

behind other ships' (Here, 14), 'moon came up but it was be-

hind a great black cloud' (Here, 260).

(a3) In the meaning 'in (to) the rear of' an object, not

the speaker, thought of as facing in the opposite direction:

far:

‘many of them will die behind their cameras
before it is all over (Here, 16)

finally had her hiding behihd'the piano (Here,
64

aimed about two inches behind them, he would
always get his fly (Here, 91)

fiftegn miles behind its first position (Here,
170

stuck them behind his ears (Here, 172)

just hiding hehind rocks (Here, 270)

a big rock behind which our Battalion staff
lay (Here,

The two intensifiers that appear with behind are just and

both signalled that a torpedo had passed ust
behind us and ahead of the other transpor
(Here, 14)

the rest were far behind the lines (Here, 37)

men 1? routine—jobs just behind the fines (Here,
105

I heard a low voice just behind my rock pleading
(Here, 262)

just hehind us a German tank was (Here, 271)

(b) One citation from Pyle involves the use of behind in

the meaning 'backing' or 'supporting': 'the French were fun-

damentally behind us, but that a strange, illogical stratum

was against us' (Here, 56).

Compounded behind appears as the primary element only in

-58-

behind on. However, the preposition appears more frequently

 

as a secondary element and I have examples of around behind,

down behind, from behind, and in behind. (See §2.2(16) below)

1.16 B3191: ME bilooghe ('by 1ow')>MnE m. rI'he prep-
osition therefore belongs to Composition Group II.

I have only two examples of bglgy_from Pyle, one independ-
ently and the other in the compound down below, both_with the
meaning of 'beneath in place': 'soldiers were quartered BEBE!

decks, in the holds' (Here, 4). Op. down below cited in §2.2.

1.17 Beneath: 0E 23 / neothan : beneothan >1le benethe >
MnE beneath, and the development indicates that beneath be-

longs to Composition Group II.

I have only four examples from Pyle, all in the sense of

'under' or 'below in place':

seemed in collusion with the evil that lay be-

neath the waters (Here, 11)
and Beneath the littie hombs (Here, 40)

stood with others beneath the great plane (Here,

130)
and not know what was beneath us (Here, 264)

1.18 Beside: 0E 22'/ sTdan : besIdanz>MnE beside. We

may therefore regard the preposition as belonging to Composi-

tion Group II.

The common meaning of beside is 'by (at) the side of.'

I have four examples from Pyle:

Ca tain Gale was sitting beside the driver
Here, 19)

standing beside a radio half-track (Here, 177)

I knelt beside it (Here, 272)

shall hit right besidd_him (Here, 266)

-59-

One example occurs in the meaning 'to one side of' or

'aside from' (which the New International regards as obsolete

 

"except in certain figurative uses; as beside the question'ss):

'is illegal, but that's beside the point' (Brave, 126).

1.19 Between: Historically 0E'33_% tweon(an), -tweon(um),

 

derivative of 333': betweon(an), betweon(um):>ME betwene2>MnE
between. The preposition therefore falls into Composition
Group II. It should be noted that this preposition also oc-
cured in OK with prepositional function and was construed with
the dative.

(a) Etymologically between refers to two, and the original
meaning is probably best retained in the sense 'by the joint
action of, shared in by,': 'My master and his man...betweene
them they will kill the coniurer.'$6 The current handbooks
still insist that between is proper usage only when the refer-
ence is to two. In Pyle, as in current English generally, 33;
33333 is frequently used in reference to two, in slightly dif-
ferentiated senses.

(al) In the meaning 'in the space separating': 'and drove
right between two German tanks' (3333, 172), 'fragment went 33:
3333 his left arm and his chest' (5933, 266), 'they carried a
five-gallon can of water between them slung from a stick'
(33333, 217).

(a2) In the meaning 'anywhere from (one limit) to (an-

 

35 New International, 214.
36 Jespersen, A MSdern English Grammar, II, 203.

common

cause any

53},
(as)
“can All
(at)
53% Said
66).
(b)
they
b1
Vici
In these

-50-

other)': 'one unforgettable Tunisian day between three and
four thousand shells passed over our heads' (E333, 264).

(a3) In the meaning 'connecting': 'didn't permit much
communion between them and our troops' (3333, 283), 'didn't
cause any old-palship to spring up between them, for the pris-
oner was one of those bullheaded Nazis and Connell got so dis-
gusted he didn't even ask his name' (3333, 288).

(a4) In the meaning 'separating': 'the difference 33;
33333 French and British temperaments' (E333, 27), 'Merchant
marine officers were astonished by the difference between what
they thought the situation was and what it actually was' (§3£3,
63).

(a5) In the meaning 'involving': 'most of the battle 33;
33333.Axis and American troOps' (E333, 160).

(a6) In the meaning 'partaking of': 'a gazelle, as some-
body said, is a cross between a jack rabbit and a moose' (£233,
66.).

(b) Between is also used in reference to more than two:

they held to a daily schedule between all our

big headquarters (Here, 115)—_—_——_

vicious brand of thidtid that grew between the

rocks (3333, 287) "__—"
In these instances the handbooks would insist on 3333g in place
of between. But the NED notes that "between had been, from its
earliest appearance, extended to more than two...It is still
the only word available to express the relation of a thing to
many surrounding things severally and individually, 33335 ex-

pressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely; we should

-51-

not say...'A treaty among three powers'..."37 {Marckwardt and
Welcott in their report regard an almost identical sentence

as "established."38 I myself feel that the use of between in
reference to more than two is more widely current than the two
citations from Pyle would suggest.

(e) I have an example of between compounded secondarily

only in from between. Poutsma however gives in between.39
As a prefix Pyle employs betweentimes. Jespersen also notes

40

betweendmaid and between-decks although they are probably

more current in England than in the United States.

1.20 Beyond: OE 33 ,1 geondan : begeondan>ME beyonde>
MnE beyond. The preposition therefore belongs to Composition
Group II. It should be noted that OE begeondan functioned as
a preposition and was construed with the dative.

The primary meaning of beyond is 'farther than.‘ This
general meaning is further differentiated into (1) 'horizon-
tally farther than,' with 3333.as a frequent substitute, (2)
'vertically farther than,' with 33333 or 33333 as frequent
substitutes, and (3) 'figuratively farther than,' with some-
times 3333, sometimes 33333, as a frequent substitute.
Poutsma also observes this closeness of beyond and.p333_but

only because they both take active forms of the present parti- ,

 

37 'Between,’ 333, Vol. I, 19.

38 ‘Marckwardt and Waleott, Current English Usage, 107.

39 Poutsma, A Grammar of LateiModern English, 699.

40 JespersenTTModernfEhglish Grammar,’fbetweenamaid) VI, 160,
(between-dedks) II, 32.

41
ciple. Apparently the preposition appears relatively infre-
quently since I have only a few examples from Pyle and since

Fries fails to include it on his charts of "Function Words

with Substantives."43

(a) In the meaning 'horizontally farther than' or 'more
distant than': 'German artillery beyond our tanks' (3333,
181), 'our observer was beyond our own falling shells' (£333,
870).

(b) In the meaning 'vertically farther than,' 'higher
than,' or '1ower than.‘ I have no instances.from Pyle although
one hears currently 'he flew beyond 5000 feet' (perhaps more
accurately 'he flew up beyond 5000 feet') and 'he dove beyond

ten feet' (perhaps more accurately 'he dove down beyond ten

feet.')

(0) In the meaning 'figuratively farther than,' 'surpas-
sing,' or 'exceeding the capacity (limit) of.' Beyond appears

more frequently in this meaning in Pyle than in meanings (a)
and (b).

performed far be ond the ordinary call of duty
(Here, 62)

they hrought exactly the amount necessary 33;
yond what was on the docks (Here, 48)

bu hey have a bitter, puckering taste that's
beyond description (Here, 45)

it was be and his powers, however, to create
(Here, ti)

the doctor's feared the scourge was beyond their
their ken (Here, 84)

how they survived the dreadful winter at all was

beyond us (Brave, 142)

 

41 Poutsma, A Grammar'of Late Modern English, 480. See also

paragraph (6) below.
42 'Fries,.American English Grammar, 111, 120-21.

lid 3:

-53-

how the leaders ever followed it was beyond
me (Brave, 202)
how men iike that kept from going nuts is
beyond me (Brave, 345)
Though I have no citations from Pyle, Poutsma gives instances
of beyond / the active form of the present participle:
This fellow's formal, modest impudence is be-
and bearing.
He ried her patience beyond bearing.
The Turks are beyond bearing.
and similarly instances with past in the same sense as beyond:
He was sat rousing.
He woul ave been ast saving.
That we can come out 32 it with credit or dig-
nity is past hoping. 5

The only example of beyond in a compound occurs in on be-

yond.

1.21 31: r:- OE 33mm 33> MnE _y. The preposition therefore
belongs to Composition Group I.

‘3y has been in the language for many centuries, and during
that time it has had ample opportunity to develop various uses
and meanings. In so far as it eXpresses the relationships of
association, instrument, and cause, it performs functions once
expressed by the old instrumental case.44

(a) 3y often eXpresses agency. In this usage the prepo-
sition indicates (3333, is followed by) the person or thing re-
sponsible for the action expressed or implied. The agent

whether a person or thing is thought of as acting independently

 

43 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 480.
44 Curme, Sygtax, 561.

-54-

and free of outside control or manipulation.

and)were never located 3y the officers (Here,

3

the regular cabins used 3y passengers in
peacetime (Here, 4)

we must be treated with "courtesy and consid-
eration” b the army (Here, 8)

were awakens at seven each morning 3y the
cabin steward, bearing (Here, 9)

it also would be wrong to say that fear was
shown 3y anybody (Here, 14)

the drama 1c welcome given the American troops
‘3y the French and Arab people (Here, 19)

everyone was afraid of getting shot 3y his own
‘men (Here, 24)

comic-opera fashion 3y hordes of Arab children
(Here, 25)

had heen brought up gybthe army (Here, 36)

two big messes set up the army (Here, 37)

usually tended b smal children (ff—ere, 45)

”our welcome 3y he inhabitants is not known

at the time (Here, 60)
property had been damaged 3y our forces (Here,

65)

respected 3y his fellow soldiers (Here, 68)

the drill was run b the dentist (Here, 82)

to fill the gaps 16 t 3y those who-didn't re-
turn (Here, 292)

ridge was inhabited 3y a frightening manag-
erie of snakes (Here, 257)

but their tension was broken 3y_a voice on the
loudspeaker calling their numbers (Here, 17)

we couldn't walk down the road without heing
walled in 3y,a singing melody of hundreds of
"okays" (Here, 58)

and they shdiis were being carried back 3y
the slipstream (Here, 59)

torn apparently 3y,a piece of flak (Here, 60)

was frequently in rrupted 3y shattering
laughter (Here, 22)

five people were killed b trucks (Here, 65)

for the Tunisian Arab ha een well soid‘3y
German propaganda (Here, 291)

The matter of sentence stress enters into the expression of
agency by means of b . Curme feels that "the idea of active
agent or cause is best stressed by employing passive form and

Putting the word denoting the agent or cause at the end."45

 

T5 Curme, SEtax, 561.

-55-

(b) 3y can also express instrumentality. In these in-
stances the meaning of 3y is understood in the sense of 'by
means of.' In this usage the preposition indicates (3333,
is followed by) the instrument (the means, technique, device,
tool, etc.) employed to achieve an objective. The definite
or indefinite article or an equivalent may follow 3y but in
majority of instances the definite article is omitted.

it was reached b a steel ladder (Here, 12)

he was just hang ng‘3y the skin of his teeth
(Brave, 216)

a suhmarine commander can spot a convoy, hours
after it has passed, 3y such floating debris
(Here, 7)

they were piped over the ship 3y loud-speakers
so that the troops could hear (Here, 13)

had to find our little places to lie down -
seviral hundred of us - largely by feel (Here,
281

the young lieutenant...solved the problem 3y
putting his words in the form of advice
(Here, 166)

[the men manifested fright], he said, largely
by just looking pitifully at each other and
edging close together (Here, 23)

a trip by troOp transport (Here, 1)

Ned.Modica had gone 3y foot up to the (Here, 20)
it was just before dusk and, 3y dinner heii and
rifle shot, the air-raid signal swept across

one of our airdromes (Here, 59)

belongings were taken by trucks (Here, 81)

they ate and read 3y lantern light (Here, 81)

some went part way y air and the rest Ey’wire-
less (Here, 95)

stuff went home 3y wireless (Here, 95)

and brought up 3y'jeep, in big thermos containers
(Here, 257)

expiosives set 3y_hand after we got ashore (Brave,
361

was prefaced b the admission that "our welcome
by the inhab tants is not known at the time'
(Here, 60)

the hook ended b saying (Here, 62)

Kay Francis star ed it off 3y saying they'd
rather be there than any p ace in the world
(Here, 63)

ended her act b calling for jitterbug volun-
teers (Here, 3)

l is use
see: to
have abs

361
to:
he .
he :
he 1
506
he

he =
We
‘6'

-55-

This usage is more common than the citations from Pyle would
seem to indicate, and I should like to include a few that I
have observed myself:

seized him b the seat of the pants

took the bu b the horns

he came in 3y_t e side door

he solved the problem b algebra

he was working 3y moonl ght

scared him b telling him stories

he traveled 0 New York 3y rail

he came home from Rome b sea

travel b air is interes ing

we'll ge to Detroit 3y bus

The expression of agency or instrument by means of 3y,
as evidenced in the citations listed under (a) and (b), runs
counter to the handbooks. In a letter in the Atlantic Monthly
in 1949 a banker comments on the misuse of by and with: "I
was taught that 3y denotes the actor, and with the instrument.
'The dog was killed by the man with the club.' This misuse
usually occurs after passive verbs, but in many of these i1-
1ustrations the verb is active." He goes on to give examples
(such as 'the nail was hit 3y the hammer') of what he consid-

ers misuse of 3y and with by authors such as Trevelyan, Boas

and other3,4° It should be pointed out here that the banker
reflects the handbook distinction or a misinterpretation of
the handbook distinction: that 3y is restricted in usage to
aSency and 3333 to instrmment and that, by implication, agency
is restricted to persons and instrument to things. It is ob-

VTOHS from the citations from Pyle (under (a) above) and from

‘

45 Follctt, "The State of the Language," Atlantic Monthly,
CLxIv, 265-66.

-57-

daily practice that agency is inherent in things as well as

in persons. The important thing is that agency is thought

of as acting independently or free from outside control of
manipulation; it obviously adheres in persons but it may in-
here in things. Thus in 'the house was struck 3y lightning'
the 31 clearly indicates agency. In 'he was never frightened
3y anything' 3y is at first glance not so indicative of agency;
but in 'he was never frightened 3y anyone' the meaning is quite
definitely agency. Compare similarly 'he was struck 3y_an
automobile' and 'he was struck 3y a reckless driver.' Here
automobile is thought of as implying the reckless driver. Com-
pare further 'five people were killed 3y trucks' (3333, 65)
with 'belongings were taken 3y trucks' (3333, 81). The first
3y_indicates agency, the second instrument. Wilson Follett

in his reply to the banker agrees in principle with the hand-
book distinction but points out a boarderline region: ”There
is an area in which 3333 is nearly or quite obligatory..., and
another in which‘3y is as clearly called for..., but between
them there is a misty mid-region, possibly more extensive than
either, in which we have a legitimate option."47 It is ques-
tionable whether or not we have a ”legitimate option" through-
out the whole of this "misty mid-region." It is true we have
an option between'gy and 3333 in part of the region, as in
'[mirage] induced 3y approximately four bottles of cheap wine'

(Here, 61), 'almost always prefaced their after-war plans with

 

4'7 Ibid. , 266.

-68-

"if I live"' (3333, 71), etc. Cp. examples under 3333 §l.48.
In the other part of the mid-region‘3y is "nearly or quite
obligatory." Thus in 'he was reading 3y moonlight,' 'he solved
the problem.3y_a1gebra,' he came in 3y the side door,‘ 'she
sewed it 3y and,’ and 'he seized him 3y the scruff of the neck,’

with is not substitutable.

I have some instances of by where the distinction between
agency and instrument is not at all clear:

the laying of smoke screens 3y our armored
speedboats (Here, 17)

induced b approximately four bottles of cheap
wine ( era, 61)

a generator run 3y a gas engine (Here, 82)

but go damage was done 3y bombs or shells (Here,
27

wreckedl3y shellfire (Here, 290)

(6) 3y likewise expresses cause in the sense of 'as a re-
sult of,' 'because of,' and 'by reason of.' Jespersen notes,

questionably I think, that 33y is chiefly used with expressions

or (physical) acts, not so much with eXpressions of feeling."48

our ability to go on and on forever ensured 3y
th? perfection of our own discipline (Here,
15

they were American boys who 3y;mere chance of
fate had (Brave, 401)

we wire all impressed 3y the neatness (Here,
45

and they visualized it as guaranteed 3; the
methodical rule of the Axis (Here, )

I was frequently revolted b the shriveled
greediness of soul that nhabits so much of
the world (Here, 58)

weren't assigned to the hospital unit 3y design
or anything (Here, 84)

they were spellhound‘3y the scenes (Here, 17)

3y that act they became the first army news-

—.~

48 Jespersen, A Modern English Grammgg, V, 68.

-59-

reel men (Here, 17)

3y its very gentleness, the night seemed in
collusion with the evil that lay beneath the
waters (Here, 11)

were disiliusioned and shattered 3y the foul
mess into which Paris had fallen (Here, 57)

bewildered 3y the suddenness (Here,

the British waiters were somewhat shocked 3y
the appetite and dining-room manners (Here,
9

33 is also frequently used to eXpress cause in this sense.

Cp. for example, shocked 3y in the last citation with 'shocked

33 the idea' (Here, 78). See §l.12(e).

or

ure:

(d) Temporally the main use of 3y is in the sense of 'at'

'before' or 'no later than':

‘3y dark we were rolling (Here, 5)
ypu'll be in China 3y the time it's all over”
Here 21
3y.d?rE’it was usually cold enough for (Here,
32
quiet as the grave b 10:30 P.M. (Here, 33
were on American ra ons‘3y then (Here, 33
thought the)war would be over 3y,ApriI of 1943
(Here 49
we(wouid all be headed for New York 3y spring
Here 50
b then’the doctors could be (Here, 74)
one in b the time he (Here,
most of hem were sergeants and platoon leaders
‘3y that time (Brave, 137)
‘3y no: everything was an indescribable (Brave,
435

(e) 3y also expresses quantity in terms of units of mess-

and :hey recounted the fight 3y the hour (Here,
87

and getting weaker 3y the minute (Brave, 88)

almost any wounded man has missed deathl3y a
‘matter of inches (Brave, 55)

it missed the two cameramen 3y three feet (Here,
17

'mail sacks were iled on the docks 3y_the thou-
sand (Here, 50

-70-

(f) fix likewise means 'in conformity with': 'they cleaned
it up some, Ry the colonel's request' (@233, 10), 'troops took
lukewarm saltwater showers, 21 army orders, every three days'
(Egg, 4).

(g) By can also indicate 'with respect to (basis of dis-
tinction or claseification)’: 'he was a watch repairer by trade'
(gage, 69), 'a house painter‘by profession' (£332, 84).

(h) Q1 also can mean 'under (the designation)’: 'Riles
went by the nickname "Snip’H (3353, 69), 'we already knew each
other by our first names' (5333, 89).

By also occurs in a large number of prepositional compounds.

See 31 §2.8.

1.22 Down: OE g; ,1 dune : adune >1va doune>MnE down. The
preposition therefore belongs to Composition Group II.

(a) Down is used to indicate the general meaning from
higher to lower or at a point lower than. The point of refer-
ence is the higher level, although the speaker may be on either
level. From the compositional elements of the preposition it
seems obvious that this was the earliest meaning of down. The
preposition may imply movement or position.

(al) In the sense 'in continuous motion from higher to
lower level on':

in two columns we plowed down a half-mile slope

(Here, 260)

came down the hill (Here, 273)

struggling down a rocky hillside (Here, 274)

speeding down the low sloping plain (Here, 178)

a narrow path wound...down a long slope across
a creek (Here, 255)

(a2
tetians
'le sta:
ence is
of down

‘
be canst

alleys t

-71-

(a2) In the sense 'at a lower point on.‘ I have no ci-
tations from Pyle of this usage, but the meaning obtains in
'we stopped at a cabin $213 the hill.’ The point of refer-
ence is more likely to be the higher level. Intensification
of gg!g_in this usage is common with pglgw_or thggg, both to
be construed, however, if £213 is a preposition, as substan-
tival in function. In this usage the point of reference is
always the higher level.

my special hangout down below was in a section

where (Eggg, 12)
taken to war like galley slaves £213 there in

the hold (Here, 12)
there was fighting going on down there (Here,

 

41)
cases)were down below in smaller words (Brave,
289

(b) Down is used in the sense 'in continuous motion from
front to back of.' In the first two of the following instances
the word starts at the head of the column or line. In the
first example the men are going down the hill. When word comes,
it comes back, indicating to the rear of the column. Hence down
here, if used in the sense eXplained in (a1), should be up. In
the third instance the first desk is thought of as representing
the head of the line.

we plowed down a half-mile slope...and then

suddenly word came down the column: “No
more talking. Pass it back" (Here,260)
word was passed down the line for us to squat
down (Here, 261)
those able to walk went down a line of desks
(Here, 81)
In certain situations the movement is the reverse, 'from back

t0 front' or 'from the end to the beginning,‘ as in 'they were

-72-

ushered Q2 2 the aisle to their seats,‘ 'he walked £213 the
street' (i434, toward the business center of the town, hence
toward the lower numbers). There is one citation from Pyle
in which dg!g_seems to mean from the rear to the head of a
column: 'word was passed d23£_the line' (i;g;, indicating
motion to a tank stopped 'at the foot of the street'; Bragg,
406).

(c) 2313 is used in the meaning of 'on' or 'along.’ Ere-
quently'gp is interchangeable with 2333, ngn_in these in-
stances may have other implications, but they are not clearly
indicated.

set off down the road at a good clip (£223,

andgzalked down the street (Here, 29)

we couldn't-731k down the ro§h_hithout being

walled in by a singing melody of hundreds
of 'Okeys“ (Here, 58)

 

(d) 2312 is used to indicate a point south of the speaker
or south of the original position of the subject of the sen-
tence. Winburne notes only that ”9213 is used to indicate di-
rection to the south away from the speaker. What is down south
to a speaker from Chicago may be up north to one from New 0r-
1eans.'49 I have no citations of this use from Pyle except in
the compound way down: 'used to Jerk sodas way down South'
(§2£2: 97).

(e) 2313, in reference to river travel, usually implies
direction 'with the current of': 'hunting trip dawn the Nueces

River' (Here, 70). I do not agree with Poutsma that down in

____

49 Winburne, 02¢ Cit-e 7'

-73..

50

this sense has great semantic strength. There are times

when the current of a river runs due north when some would
say {32 the river' and others 'dgwn the river.’

(f) 231g occurs in a large number of compounds as the
primary element. I have examples of down along, down among,
down at, down behind, down below, down by, down from, down
in, down into, down on, down onto, down over, down through,
down to, down upon, and down with. As a secondary element,

down appears only in from down.

1.23 During: L. durare>F. WNAE duregn), past par-
ticiple during2>MnE during. The preposition therefore belongs
in Composition Group IV. ‘

During is almost entirely restricted to the one meaning
'throughout the continuance of.' Furthermore during seems to

be limited to use with vague or rather generalized indications

of time.

‘ correspondents were to be allowed on deck dur-
%n§ an attack (Here, 5)
s1 ) uring that time one long troop train (Here,
2
there wasn't any saluting on board during the
whole trip (Here, 6)
only one "incident" during the entire trip
(Here, 14)
dur"_1ng a lull, I decided I had to (Here, 278)
no(movies were to be shown during the trip and
Here, 13
no trouble at all among the troops during the
voyage but we did have (Here, l2)
dancing had been banned during more than two
years (Here, 36)
sixt dollars a week during tobacco season (Here,
70

E

50 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 759.

-74-

American movies, prohibited during German oc-
cupation, were being shown again (Here, 52)

I felt, during the first few days, that I was
on the wrong side of the road (Here, 52)

toll taken of their men during the last few
days (Here, 283)

st?nding outside their foxholes during the lull
Here, 265

I got in the front lines durin a big portion
of the fight (Here, 268

tense except during certain fast-moving periods
(Here, 268)

telling me how the soldiers felt during that
first advance (Here, 24)

durin their second night on African soil the
two photographers ”slept” (Here, 19)

'mixup of French emotions that showed itself
durin the fighting was fantastic (Here, 53)

I had that battleground scratched in the sand
for)me fifty times during the forenoon (Here,
174

durin the night the command post assembled
what was left (Here, 170)

during the next few hours there in the cactus
patch I listened (Here 174)

durin a cold spell the men filled their mat-
tress covers with straw (Here, 33)

The intensifier gll'only emphasizes the fact that the event,
action, etc. took place continuously 'throughout the contin-
uance of': 'treated the wounded of the other side all during
the battle' (Eggg, 75); but cp. 'during all the time we were
under fire' (§e_1_'_e_, 267).

During is comparable to the prepositions within, from...
£2, and from...till when they are used temporally. During
however seems to be more general in indication of time; cp.
'tons per day within a certain time' (@333, 48), 'all within
five hours of battle' (£253, 276), see §l.49; 'boys worked
£533 daylight to dark' (LIP-£2: 276), '39}; December till late

March there were' (Here, 32); see §l.25.

-75..

1.24 Egg: This preposition represents exactly the OE
form and should therefore be regarded as belonging to Compo-
sition Group I.

Er, like 2;: and 1:3 (and to a lesser degree £122, 21, and
:ijh), has little or no semantic value, its function being
primarily that of expressing relationships between other words
in sentences, clauses, and phrases. It appears frequently but
usually ambiguously in regards to definition. Even in 0E 33;
could govern the dative, accusitive, and instrumental cases as
well as indicate 'place' and numerous other ideas. All of this
would seem to indicate that long before the Norman invasion of
England 32; had lost most of the semantic value it might have
at one time possessed.

(a) £33 can indicate duration of time in the meaning 'to
the extent of.' The citations falling under this meaning
constitute by far the largest single grouping.

he stood for a moment at the curb (Here, 292)

they workth_for fifteen minutes (Here, 17)

we talked £§§hhalf an hour (Here,

and have boat drill for an hour (Here, 6)

had to stand in line-Z§: three hours (Here, 9)

he went around for hours (Here, 26)

and we'd chat fggDhours about his Job (Here,
12

stand 33; hours in mess line (Here, 8)

war? opened 325 short periods each day (Here,
7

and lay at anchor 33; a day (Here, 5)

we didn't sail £23 forty-eight hours (Here, 2)

for two days it would pour rain (Here, 33)

thh'sea was fairly rough £25 a coupIe of days
(Here, 5)

and for the last three days we were all
ordhhed to sleep in our clothes (Here, 14

and for days they lived like that (Here, 26

and.dtdn't eat £g£_days (Here, 4)

-75-

s fellow would be gone £35 three or four days
before we noticed (Here, 38)

worn the same shirt {3; two weeks (Here, 40)

hadn't seen him for weeks (Here, 103)

switched to nonchhhatant flying £23 several
months (Here, 100)

Eggpmonths their training had been (Here, 34)

was foreign news editor of "Time" :23 three
years (Here, 8)

another feIIow I hadn't seen £23 ten years
(Here, 38)

people I hadn't seen 235 two decades (Here,
38

it cannot be put off ggg long (Brave, 464)
went without eggs for a long time (Here, 71)
and said good-bye th—civilian clothes for
God knew how long (Here, 1) "_—
and £2£_a while it was a vivid and noisy dis-
play (Here, 5)
and in fact stopped us cold £g£_a while (Here,

20)
through with combat flying for a while (Here,
292 "“ "“‘

for a little while there was a sudden burst
(Brave, 199)

For a while seems to have a very vague meaning and an indica-
tion of the possibility of its one day becoming a single unit
‘is provided in a single example where no break occurs between
the indefinite article‘s and ghilg: 'for awhile there two
ships were running' (B5213, 171).

Intensification under this particular grouping seems to
be limited to 1.9.55.3

would be sent home ust for a while (Here, 101)

could have seen theh‘}h§t_3nce, ust TSF—an

instant (£239, 256)

(b) §g£_(along with 32) can express the dative relation-
ship which in older English was usually expressed by means of
an inflectional ending. The dative function which 32; expres-

sea in all of the examples from Pyle is the "dative of inter-

est." This form denotes the person or persons to whose advan-

-'77.

tags or disadvantage the action results.

one deck set aside Lor officers (HLre, 5)

once under way, two_ canteens were opened Lor
the troops (Here, 9)

they put on two shows that night, Lor the en-
listed men only (Here, 10)

"that fresh air was too much for me" (Here, 23)

gaze)a terrific demonstration-Lhr them (HLre,
5

turned it into a club for troops (HLre, 27)

was too big for him (Here, 33)

room in each—thnt for two men (HLre, 33)

and entertainmentLFSF the soldiers (Here, 35)

two night clubs Lor officers (Here, 36)

and restaurants Lor troops on leave (Here, 36)

the Opening of two night clubs Lor enlls ted men
(Here, 36)

he mahe a beauty Lor the general (HLre, 70)

running errands Lor me (HLre, 70)

scratghed in the— sand Lor me fifty tines (HLre,
174

madea agood name for themselves in every
battle (HLre,'_§h9)

now it was over *Lor them (Begs, 284)
Supposedythe dative of interest is limited to a person or per-
sons. However in 'and posed 325 the camera' (Eggs, 172),
camera is the dative object. The explanation probably is that.
the action was to the advantage of the person holding the cam-
era. Likewise in 'their surrender did more £2£_American
morale than' (£232, 286), American morale is probably synon-
ymous with Americans generally. However the development is an
interesting one and to me seems to parallel the genetival de-
velopment where the :5 ending supposedly is associated with
living beings but is often used where an inanimate object is
thought of as possessing some human characteristic: 'the ship's
nose? or 'the ocean's roar.’

Occasionally for and 33then expressing this dative notion

are actually interchangeable. "In some cases, practice is wa-

.. 78..

vering between for and 33, no appreciable variation of mean-
ing being involved in the choice between the two preposi-
tions.”51

for many of us the trip was a grand rest (Here,

‘13)

Sometimes the complete ambiguousness of £3; as used to
express the dative notion is apparent when the preposition
fgrpmay be omitted without change in meaning.

good homes would be found for them (Here, 3)

his only interest was in dafag for the—army

what he had been doing as a cTVTlian (Eggs,
the:; was also a brand new mass kit I was big

enough to leave for the next fellow (Here,

39) "" '___'

(e) E2; is often used to introduce the subject of an in-
finitive. In this case the structure for... / infinitive is
employed and the {25 sometimes also expresses the notion of
the dative of interest (and sometimes the dative of reference)
mentioned in (b) above. ”In the fourteenth century...there
arose a desire to extend the use of the convenient infinitive
construction, and people began to give the infinitive a sub-
ject of its own when there was no noun or pronoun in the prin-
cipal proposition which could serve as a subject. The sub-
ject was put before the old tofform of the clause and 325 was
used as a formal sign of the introduction of this new element...
In the original infinitive construction...the subject was not

expressed but was contained in some noun or pronoun in the prin-

cipal preposition. Thus from the very start the subject was

 

51 Poutsma,.A Grammar of Late Modern English, 772.

(’7‘

CA7

ll,

7
[H r)

-79-

not a part of the infinitive construction; and later when the
infinitive could have a subject of its own, it was placed be-
fore the clause outside of its construction, just as it had
always stood outside of it. The £33...merely indicates that
in the case in hand the infinitive has a subject of its own.
In older English, there was before the infinitive a £33..fl§g
of a different origin. This older Egg..,£3 hadn't the func-
tions of the later £35...£g but was used interchangeably with
simple 33. This older £3;..atg has disappeared from the lit-
erary language but is still widely used in dialect."58

(cl) In the formula fog... / infinitive the dative re-
lationship between £33 and its object (the subject of the in-
finitive) is often clear. In 'It is no great feat for a lord
to condemn a man without answer or word' Curme feels that "the
£35 / noun...represent an older simple dative of reference
which...is still sometimes used.”55

Dative of reference:

a new shore f3}; them to stom (£13.13, 35)

Dative of interest:

he left his friend there 32; them to experiment

with (Here, 30)
Vsmail forms, for him to write home on (Here,

51)
it would have been wonderful for them to know
they could quit (Here, 101)
(08) For when employed in the for... / infinitive formula

may have no apparent function other than that of introducing

 

52 Curme S tax 457-58.
53 Ibid.: ‘9‘“1 1. '

-80...

the subject of the infinitive.

and wait for a mortar shell to burst (Here, 19)

and start?d_looking for a place to set up their
hospital (Here, SIT——

didn't take Ionglfgg the Germans to answer
(Here , 181)

waitIng for us to tell them (Here, 285)

(d) The preposition for often serves the purpose of in-
troducing a present participle used as a gerund.

our British papers were taken away 32; safe-
keeping by the anmy (Here, 1)

the soap for washing dishes was (Here, 4)

we merely slung them over our shoulders 23;
carrying (Here, 7)

another officer was arrested 33; taking pictures
of the convoy'(Here, 13)

and took down outfit numbers £3; looking up
new army friends (Here, 16)

to get newsreels Egg showing in the theaters
(Here, 16)

was very effective £33 hiding the city (Here,
28

one gallon a day for drinking (Here, 53)

all the paraphernalia there was Egg directing
the battle (Here, 164)

enough recompense 32;.his fighting (Here, 284)

Further evidence of the ambiguity of {23 is presented by two
examples where the present participle used as a gerund may be
preceded either by g£.or £25;

Frenchman's love for show, for cheering any-

thing that passes (Here,

"tgg)time £3; coddlin§_troops is over” (Eggs,

(e) Another common function of the preposition $2; is that
of indicating 'an intended destination.‘ In most of the cases
in this particular category, £3; seems to be interchangeable
with 32, Possibly £23 sometimes indicates the possibilty that
the destination might not be reached.

one day he took off for Arzev (Here, 29)

-81-

as they headed east 33g Bizerte (Here, 41)

we would all be headed ggg New York By spring
(Here, 50)

and set sail g2g_England (Here, 72)

were headed for the front are, 72)

there)wou1d'be_a wild rush Egg the planes (Here,
101

reaching out - it seemed to us - ggg the runway
(Here, 132)

before starting for the battle scene (Here, 175)

we start ggg a dartain hill in the dark (Here,
262

they just left £2£ the west (Here, 287)

(f) Egg is also used to indicate something like an "equals
sign" between the values, functions, etc. of things. In this
case ggg can be said to be equivalent to the phrases 'in ex-
change for' or 'in place (the stead) of.'

but he had paid $32 for the pups (Here, 3)

traded our money gag—the new American issue
(Here, 16)

top of the can for a wick (Here, 33

thanking me for’the baths (fiere, 41

”sold” theirfFSrtress to an Arab gag twenty
thousand eggs (Here, 41)

traded cigarettes for eggs (Here, 41)

and I ggg_one can testify that we missed (Here,
71

for dust glasses, we were given a pair of old-

'__fashioned racetrack goggles (Here, 91)

bought a two-burner gasoline stove from some
Frenchman for $3.20 (Here, 140)

paid dearly f3? their victories (Here, 269)

had a different'expression $22 the same thing
(Here, 274)

(g) §3g_is often employed with verbs of varying form to
indicate the older genetive function of expressing the outward
direction of a mental activity toward something. "After the
decay of the inflections, the old genetive was in part pre-
served for a while in the form of the prepositional genitive
with 2g, so that forms like eager of, etc., tarried for a time,

only, however, to be entirely replaced later by the more con-

-82-

crete forms eager for, eager after, etc. Similarly, the Old
English words for to yearn, £223, lggg, strive, thirst, gggb
225, etc., required a simple genetive, but in modern English
these verbs take a preposition which gives a more concrete ex-
pression to the idea of an outward direction of an activity
toward an object: to year for; to hope for; to long for; £3

strive for, etc. The first evidences of this new trend appear

 

in Old English.'54

more than fifty submarines were said to be wait-
ing Egg us (Here, 11)

against a background of semiconscious listening
for other sounds (Here, 12)

”at—Teast we can ask for them” (Here, 21)

and waited for the heft-move (Here, 21)

as if it had—Seen waiting ggg Nat all the time
(Here, 29)

they even advertised in the newspapers for
secondhand ones (Here, 36) ‘—

watching for snakes In the grass (Here, 42)

been)prayTE§ and praying gag the Americans (Here,
84

was an ordinance man, caring for the guns on air-
planes (Here, 140)
grousing, yarn-spinning, and yearning for home
(Here, 256)
waiting for the medics (Here, 273)
feel sorry for those prisoners (Here 284)
contempt for their allies (Here, 285
(h) Since for has so little semantic value of its own it
is usually difficult or impossible to assign meanings to the
preposition in many instances. If a meaning is found which
seemingly distinguishes two separate functions of for, another
meaning applicable to both usually appears. However I have a
large number of citations among which I seem to sense certain

minor distinctions and, despite the drawbacks to definition

 

54 Curme, Sygtax, 112.

-83-

already mentioned, I shall attempt to loosely differentiate
among the various usages. I do not claim that overlapping and
ambiguity have been eliminated. Furthermore I list the cita-
tions by headings rather than by paragraph numbers since I feel
that the entire group of citations should be regarded as a
whole in function and not as separate independent functions.
'For reason(s) of' or 'for the purpose of':
to take it somewhere for its mysterious convoy
labelings (Here, 1)
there was a bar in the evening for soft drinks
(Here, 9)

the trip had no sooner started than rehearsals
for an enlisted men's variety show began

(Here, 10)

a man learned to walk in ditches for protection
(Here, 19)

the drtver, for no apparent reason, fell (Here,
20

to Iceland for fear he would go riding (Here,
30

the officer got the creeps ggg_fear the French
would (Here, 31)

these guys Eadn't spent their months in the
army‘ggg nothing (Here, 32)

for some reason they weren't allowed (Here 44)

71):?ng the office tent 33g light (Here—79', 5

there was a whole pro ression downward ESE
emergency (Here, 82

wandering around ggg_a good look into the sky
(Here, 115)

they were fifty feet apart ggg dispersal (Here,
255

a blanket over himself gag blackout (Here, 262)

would run up close to the fellow ahead 23g
company (Brave, 401)

'Over possession of':

to where the fighting ggg.Saint-Cloud was going
on (Here, 19)

they ran onto all kinds of snags in dickering
with the local business people ggg theaters
(Here, 35)

negotIated for clubs ggg'enlisted men (Here, 36)

-84-

'Intended for':

they were filled with extra film Lor their
cameras (Here, 18)

there were quite a few carriages £2£ hire in
the desert towns (HLre, 58)

so I picked out that— spot of shade Lor my
writing room (HLre, 278)

'Belonging to':

had only three bullets Lor each rifle (HLre,
25
afrwmework for a dozen pictures hanging in
the window (Lars, 27)

'In behalf of':

Bob Neville, correspondent Lor the Army papers
(Here, 7)

had‘ worked Lor the "Herald Tribune" and "PM"
(Here, 8)—

had teen travelling route agent Lor a bakery
(HLre, 70)

'In regards to':

and depending Lor safety mainly on their speed
(HLre, l)

instructions for "battle stations” in case of
attack (Here, —5)

and we'd chat for hours about his job before
the war, and of our chances Lor the future

(Here, 12)
'Suiting the needs of':

it was a perfect night Lor romance or Lor death

(Here, 11)

the 3 ot for which they had trained and waited
Here,

qualtfy him Lor some kind of police work (HLre,
71

(i) Strangely enough the preposition gag fails to appear
in combination with other prepositions frequently. ‘ggg appears
primarily compounded only in the case of for about; secondary
compounding of £25 occurs in ahead for, due for, and except

for. The phrasal combinations for possession of and for fear

-85-

‘22 are also employed by Pyle.

1.25 1223: OF. _fr_am : m> MnE £129.13 The preposition
therefore belongs in Composition Group I.

2533 is one of the most important of the English prepo-
sitions. It serves a large number of functions, such as in-
dicating the dative, implying origin, derivation, cause, etc.
Surprisingly enough, unlike some of the other prepositions
which have been in use for such a long period of time, its
uses can be broken down into only a few really distinct cat-
egories. Of course there exist many finer shadings of mean-
ing and many complex usages, but the essential meaning of from
remains semantically fairly strong. Poutsma feels that one
indication of this is the fact that Eggg_is one of the prep-

55 The best expla-

ositions which cannot be used adverbially.
nation of this essential meaning would be an arrow pointing
directly at the eyes of the reader with the base fastened to

an "I" mark on this page. In lieu of this device I offer the
explanation that £339 indicates generally, no matter what the
specific nuance, the idea of source or starting point. I shall
arrange the various uses of from in three general categories
according to (a) spatial, (b) temporal, and (c) figurative
meanings.

(a) I recognize six different uses of from implying move-

ment, extent, or point in space.

 

55 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 610, 806.

(a1) From is used to indicate point of departure, start-
ing, origin as in place:
missions to Europe from English bases (Here,
100
a black dog and two little puppies from Eng-
land (here, 3)
we would rendezvous with a big convoy from
America (gage, 10)
we got radio news broadcasts twice a day from
BBC (Here, 13)
were mainly from Roosevelt Hospital in New
YOrk (Here, [3)
windmill came from my home state (Here, 286)
hourly news from Kmerica (Here, 34
news from BBC in London (Here, 34)
good friends from America (Here, 38)
the words "DevIIs from Hell." (Here, 40)
When names are followed by an address of more or less specific
nature (street number, city, or state) from and g; are used
variously. From and g; are interchangeable when the pattern
is name / preposition / city / state; cp. 'Corporal Jimmy
Edwards from Tyler, Texas' (Here, 66) and 'MaJor.Austin Berry,
2; Balding, Michigan' (Here, 71). In the same pattern both
from and 3£_may occur in the same sentence: 'the gunner was
Corporal Bud Carmichael 23_Monterrey, California, and his
assistant was Private George Everhart, from Thomasville, North
Carolina' (Brave, 269). However the preposition can be entire-
ly omitted: 'Sergeant L. Wortham, Leeds, Alabama' (Brave,
405). When the pattern is name / preposition / street address
{ city (/ state) the preposition 33.15 most often used: 'Bill
Cody'gg 1001 Oakwood Avenue, Wilmette, Illinois' (Here, 72);
but cp. 'he was Private Francis J. Hoffman, 608 Tennessee Av-
enue, N.E.' (Brave, 104). If however in the same pattern the

street address is preceded by come then from can be used:

' ieute
palis‘
adires:

939303:

-87..

'Lieutenant Gilmore Reid came fggm_846 North Hamilton, Indian-
polis' (Bragg, 72). If a noun other than a name precedes the
‘address of more or less specific nature, apparently only the
preposition Egg is used:

where I ran onto a bunch of soldiers from New
Mexico (Here, 12)

boys from New Mexico and Arizona (Here, 25)

a friend of mine from Gallup, New Mexico (Here,
51

a colonel from San Francisco (Here, Sl)

Lieutenant Colonel George T. Madison, a tall,
gangling, slow-talking lawyer from Bastrap,
Louisiana (Here, 65)

tall)gaunt man from Princeton, New Jersey (Here,
71

they were mostly from New England (Here, 80)

old boys from Oklahoma (Here, 88)

he was from Houston, Texas (Here, 111)

he was from Hope, Indiana (Here, 121)

a couple were from Arkansas (Brave, 422)

(e8) From is used to indicate source as in a person or
persons:

the move was on orders from the commander
(Here, 20)

and Ralph learned the trick from him (Here, 21)

Iran our troops they dug up an accordionIst
(Here, 10)

interrupted by shattering laughter from his
convalescing audience (Here, 22)

hadn't heard from.his wife In three months

(Here, 51)
boug§t twentyanine eggs from an Arab (Here,
78

(a3) From is used to indicate source as in a thing:

like twine from a hidden ball (Here, 16)
they couldn't see the can from which they were
eating (Here, 158)
picking olives right from the trees (Here, 44)
(:4) From is used to indicate a directional line as from
a given place:

it came back to him, as cold fact right from

-88-

the bridge (Here, 10)

shooting from the ground too (Here, 27)

live? across the street from his Home (Here,
21

from our perch we could get a perfect view
(Here, 12)

a forward command post, from which a battle
is directed (Here, 164)

a good place from which to watch (Here, 175)

Here belong also:

when looking at them from behind (Here, 255)
they took the Germans from the rear (Here, 277)
it rained from above all the time (Brave, 252)
they would Be shooting at us from behind and
from our flank (Brave, 442)

 

(35) From is used to indicate the starting point of spe-
cifically measured space:

everybody felt far from the war (Brave, 92)

girl who lived Sust a few blocks from him at
home (Here , 72)

they began firing immediately from a field not
far from the beach (Brave, 388)

about three feet from its top a steel platform
had been built (Here, 12)

about twenty miles from his camp (Here, 29)

he used to live only twenty miles from where I
was raised (Here, 31)

two hundred miles from us (Here, 34)

four hundred miles from home (Here, 133)

a mile from the town of Sidi-bou-Zid (Here, 168)

 

Here belongs also: 'our convoy from England £2.Africa was'
(Here, 1).

(e6) From is used to indicate instrumentality. I include
this usage of from here largely for the reason that it seems
to fit nowhere else:

white canvas.hammocks slung from hooks Just

above (Here, 4)
the enemy could pick up our position from the
current (Here, 13)

(b) From can indicate the measure of time from a point:

-89-

and that even a year from then would be pretty
Optimistic (Here, 49)

being an old horse-hater from way back, I re-
fused (Here, 66)

it was alI gone after a day or two, and from
then on it was probably the driest ocean
voyage ever made (Here, 9)

from then on I stayed on the correct side (Here,

"we'll give 'em hell from now on" (EEEZE: 205)
A slight difference is observable when from is used to indicate
temporal progression in the formula frgm...£g: 'the attack had
been delayed from day to day' (B5313, 432). '

(c) I recognize five uses of Eggm_in a figurative sense:

(cl) £3.35 is used to indicate cause:

sag? troops got mild dysentery EEEE it (Here,

he was newly deaf from the explosion (Here, 21)
I still had a cough from the convoy trip (Here,

31)
were skinned from crawling over rocks (Here,
258

to sink into the ground from the overload they
were bearing (Here, 256

(02) From is used to indicate inference:

don't get the wrong idea from that (Here 23)

Just assumed from his gestures (Here, 33)

we could take comfort from the fact that (Here,
101

(03) From is used to indicate contrast or separation:
Contrast:

a welcome change...from the wet bitterness of
England (Here, 32)

life was considerabl different from what it
had been (Here, 36

becomes indistinguishable from the faint boom
(Here, 182)

personality was a bit different from that of a
similar bunch (Here, 283) .

Separation:

for a much-deserved respite from combat (Here,

ture:

256).

-90..

101)

freakist escapes from death (Here, 102)

we felt the sad sense of parting from new
friends (Here, 13)

hardly keep from laughing (Here, 175)

it was the letdown from being uncommonly tense
(Here, 268)

to Eeep them from running off into the dark-
ness (Here,

he would he put in some back wash job far re-
moved from combat (Brave, 334)

(04) From is used to indicate abstract point of depar-

'body could recuperate from critical exhaustion' (Here,

(05) The formulas from...tg, frmm...up to, and from...gg

22 are used to indicate range. All of the instances should be

considered as figurative although it is possible to make minor

distinctions within this grouping.

to]

Range of movement:

who traveled from camp to camp (Here, 36)

we ran our legs off from one budeThg‘Eg
another (Here, 37) .

moving forward from hill to hill (Here, 266)

the colonel went from one-hattalion §g_an-
other (Brave, 4

Numerical range is limited to the formula from / number /
number / plural noun:

"except you give a horse from twelve tg_six-
teen times as much” (Here, 88)

they used any where from twenty to three
hundred men a night (Brave, 1437

they had gained anywhere from ten to forty
pounds (Brave, 349)

Range of variety or class:

they run all the way from hideous beggars u
Eg_solemn men in long white robes (Here,_%B)

and they used everything from that on up
(Brave, 233)

ran the whole scale from eager cooperation to
bitter fighting to the death (Here, 25)

nlill ll 1.!

-91-

met hundreds of vehicles from Jeeps to great
wrecker trucks (Here, 163)

Prepositionally'fggm appears in a very large number of
compounds. Initially I have examples of from across, from be-
hind, from between, from down, from inside, from off, £539
223, and from up. {£32 is Just as prolific as a secondary el-

ement: away from, back from, down from, in from, out from, and
up from.

1.26 In: Since the MnE preposition represents exactly the
OE form, the preposition belongs to Composition Group I.

The older meaning of ig_was probably closer to the mean-
ing of MnE inside and was usually adverbial. Since then in
as well as inside, outside, within, an, at, b , under, etc.,
has come to replace a great nmmber of the functions of the old
locative case. ”The idea now conveyed by in the house was...
expressed by EEEEE in the old locative case. The adverb in.
with the meaning inside eXpressed the same idea as the old loc-
ative case."56 Thus, in order to reinforce or emphasize the
locative idea, ig_was used more and more frequently. "Gradu-
ally in came into a closer relationship with £2232, so that it
became more intimately associated with 22222 than with the
verb or reinforcement and thus develOped into a preposition,
and since its force was stronger than the old locative, the

latter gradually disappeared as superfluous.'57

 

56 Curme S tax 561.
57 Ibid.: SE"— ’

-92-

(a) In can indicate place as was pointed out above. Sta-
tistically this function of in accounts for 49.5% of the in-
stances from Pyle; see paragraph (m) below.

(al) In often indicates merely a general place. This use
of ig_accounts for over half (27.9%) of the total instances
where ig_is used to indicate place.

everything else I had to pack in a canvas bag
(Here, 1)

many officers were in cabins far more crowded
than ours (Here,'§T

two cabins four i3 each (Here, 2)

some had books in their hands (Here, 3)

an army desk in‘the pier shed (Here, 2)

‘most of us Judt lay in our bunks (Here, 4)

soldiers were quartered below decks, in the
holds (Here, 4) "'

their food was as good as ours in the officer's
mess (Here, 4)

in our cahins we had water only (Here, 4)

and at night slept i3 white canvas hammocks
(Here, 4)

troops in the two bottom decks, down by the
water—Tine, were to move up to (Here, 5)

officers were to stay in their cabins (Here 5)

in the holds below, the ports were (Here, 7)

Tdng train rides in unheated cars across Eng-
land seemed (Here, 8)

but had to go to general quarters'ig the hold
and sleep in a hammock (Here, 8)

stand for hours in mass line (Here, 8)

he lived in one 3? the two cabins with us (Here,

8)

and had traveled quite a bit in foreign countries
(Here, 8)

smohing was prohibited in the dining room (Here,
9

those of us in the cabins were awakened (Here,
9

'we can't smoke in the dining room because it's
a..." (Here, 97—

soldiers often had to stand in line for three
hours (Here, 9)

taken to war like galley slaves down there'ig
the hold (Here, 12)

‘my special hangout down below was‘ig a section
where (Here, 12)

a couple of small "incidents" lg the officers
section (Here, 12)

-93-

‘monkeying with his revolver in his cabin (Here,

12

sat in the lounge (Here, 13)

there was no roll whatever in the ship (Here,
14

when we were in suspicious waters (Here, 14)

to get newsredi for showing in the tneaters
(Here, 16)

they worked for fifteen minutes waist-deep in
the water (Here, 17)

the fiery s lash of colored flares in the sky
(Here, 17?

the soidiers ig_the schoolroom (Here, 18)

the two photographers "slept" in another coun-
try schoolhouse (Here, l9) "‘

a reconnoitaring trip that Captain Paul Gale
was making in a Jeep (Here, 19)

Sergeant Harrihgton was in the back seat (Here,
19

they had unwillingly spent a pleasant hour in
a town that (Here, 19)

a man learned to walk lg ditches (Here, 19)

the two cameramen bivouacked i2_tiny shelter
tents (Here, 20)

tiny shelter tents pitched in an olive grove
(Here, 21)

the wounded soldiers in the tent had been
through (Here, 22)

'...the damn3 thing exploded right i£_my face"
(Here, 22)

"there was no constipation‘ig our outfit”
(Here, 23)

they came ashore in big steel motorized invasion
barges (Here, 217

officer intended to drive right ashore in a
Jeep (Here, 24)

{12 the shadows, soldiers couldn't tell (Here,
24

it pulled up and stopped in the city (Here, 25)

in most sectors the French—(Hare, 25)

hdt in other places the 75am.m. guns did (Here,
25

carry around in my pockets (Here, 26)

a dozen pictures hanging in.the window (Here,
27

garbage in the gutters, dogs that are (Here, 28)

both citids are'in semi-arid country (Here, 28)

sitting 13 the most expensive cafes (Here, 28)

the poorer Latin cities‘in our own hemisphere
(Here, 28)

dictT—onary ip his hand (Here, :30)

lived mostly in the fields (Here, 33)

the streets 33 the cities (Here, 33)

 

-94-

room ig each tent (Here, 33)

bought some liquid paraffin in a near-by town
(Here, 33)

lived pretty primitively in their scattered
camps (Here, 33)

way things are ig this crazy world (Here, 34)

I had put it in a bottle (Here, 34)

all summer and—fall in the coid waters (Here,

34)
military police duty'ig_a near-by town (Here,
35 --

one of the headquarters set up in_the various
coastal cities (Here, 37)

sports equi ment in the camps, and the towns
(Here, 36

‘in a countr stripped of almost everything
(Here, 36

in the room I had (Here, 39)

hdxing was popular in the camps (Here, 36)

they’livad _ip their—Tittle shelte——r tents (Here,
40 -—-

we were likely to be pumping his hand EE.3°m°
other foreign country (Here, 38)

in almost every billet or barracks (Here 39)

there were snakes in the grass (Here, 12

a hole in the grouhd (Here, 42)

fifty miids ig’a Jeep (Here, 42)

that distance 2.4 a Jeep-(Trere, 42)

all day in.a Jeep (Here, 4

detachment ig each camp (Here, 42)

washing her feet in her steei helmet (Here, 43)

going to bed in_th3ir little tents (Here, 44)

but we seldom saw one of those beautifui Arab
steeds that we read about in "sheik” books
(Here, 45)

mention his name in one of my reports (Here,
71

iron)stoves half buried in the ground (Here,
85

known ig_those parts as ”Filler-up Phil" (Here,
97

seventy four others would stay right ig their
trenches (Here, 138)

we stopped in what is known as a forward com- '
‘mand post-There, 164)

‘men slept right in their foxholes (Here, 266)

with man sitting up there $2 the Open (Here,

' 289

I also have several instances of i£_used in this sense where

the omission of the article before the place noun is very com-

-95..

mon expressions seems to indicate that the preposition might
be merging with the noun.

really felt better satisfied than those in
town (Here, 29) '_—

in town the Red Cross as usual (Here, 36)

thansiants ig_town on leave (Brave, 339)

they were in town on leave (Brave, 347)

and spent the next five daysfgfi‘fied feigning
saasickness (Here, 8)

there’were snipers in the tree in front (Brave,
450

soldiers ig_camp lost no time (Here, 163)

In can indicate place within a specific country:

the morning we filed off the boat in North
Africa and (Here, 3) "'

how)to conduct ourselves in North Africa (Here,
5

was in Spain for that war (Here, 8)

was E Spain for that war, _in Poland for that
one (Here, 8)

and in India and China and Australia (Here, 8)

I had—been in Africa a few days when (Here, 16)

he became thd youngest Rotarian in_America
(Here, 17)

”here in Africa is the first place I ever
pickdd" (Here, 21)

a tent way out in a field ig_Africa (Here 21)

was a little fellow in Arkansas (Here, )

"you'll be in China 5? the time"UhdFe, 21)

although he was born in Arkansas (here, 22)

they were ig_England There, 23) m

the soldiers whom I had Known in nngland (Here,
23

were welcome in North Africa (Here, 25)

in England (Here, 26)

EEIEngland the taping was...very conventional
(Here, 27)

the worst townigg the United States (Here, 28)

perfume to their girls in America (Here, 30)

and lipsticks to their girls $2.5ngiand (Here,
30

the nicest hospital in North Africa (Here, 31)

was probably the nicest hospital in North
Africa (Here, 31)

winter day in England (Here, 33)

bigger tents in England (Here, 33)

he was an oil operator in South Taxes (Here, 35)

what it had been 12 EngIEnd (Hare, se)""‘

or at what camp ig'Ireland or England I had met

 

 

-96..

them (Here, 37)

our troOps i2 Africa were at the front (Here,
37

being with the troops in Africa (Here, 37)

here in Africa, he got—THara, 38)

friend? I had known in Engiand (Here, 38)

the greatest raciter of limericks in_England,
all of (Here, 38)

when we were following Wendell Willkia in
England (Here, 38)

arrived shortiy after I landed 12 Africa
(Here, 39)

I had met them first in England (Here, 39)

decorated since we had—parted in Engiand (Here,

40)
but in Africa the nose bore a painting (Here,
407‘

glad to be in Africa (Here, 41)

the roads ig_North Africa (Here, 44)

we were not somewhere ig.the United States
(Here, 44)

but i3 Africa he thought about (Here, 70)

never homesick at all in England (Here, 70)

Australia, Africa and thice i2_Engiand (Here,
71

he had been'in France (Here, 71)

with the British Army'in Tunisia (Here, 71)

Ig_can indicate place within a specific city:

into a trunk to remain _i_r_1_ London, and I (Here,

1)

I'd seen her (the ship-ed) tied up ig.Panama
(Here, 4)

wasi..ig Cairo for the first Wavell push (Here,
8

a civic leader back home in Easton, Maryland
(Here, 16)

then on to two years' study in Paris (Here, 16)

”1;? going to get discharged-IQ.Paris"(Here,

the whole original North African occupation
took place in Oran (Here, 23)

every French dictionary in Oran (Here, 27)

were rather lost in Oran-THara, 28

parents of nice gihls i3 Oran were very fussy
(Here, 29)

American sailors 12 Oran at (Here, 31)

every radio i2 Oran had been hddght up (Here,
36

‘in Oran, for instance, the cansor's (Here 37)

onsgy first day 22 Oran a beaming feliow (Here,

-97-

at a cocktail party in London, where (Here, 38)

in the room I had in-Uran (Here, 39)

he was born in Pawhdska (Here, 88)

your column dil the time at home in Cleveland

(Here, 89)

Court of Appeals ig_Philadelphia (Here, 187)

Ig_can indicate position within a specifically named place:

German's entire U-boat pack was concentrated

in the approaches to Gilbraltar (Here, 11)
and—landed waist-deep ig_the Mediterranean
(Here, 17)
swimming in.the Mediterranean on the coldest
days (Here, 35)

An interesting observation is the apparent necessity of
employing ig.to indicate a city or state when preceded by from
or particularly gt_giving an even more specific location.
Therefore the ig.bacomes an indicator of the container.

were mainly from Roosevelt Hospital 12 New

York (Here, 13)
Lieutenant Spence was at Ballevue, ingew York,
before the war (Here, 31)

at Camp Bowie in Texas (Here, 70)

(b) In can also be used temporally. This use of the prep-
osition accounts for a little over a quarter (28.8%) of the
total usaga.58 The temporal use of in is often the butt of
puns where the listener or reader is expecting 'place' follow-
ing in but finds time instead, or visa versa.

Bungee shot _i__n_ the first half hour (Here,
272

(bl) 15 can indicate general time. For the most part all
of these uses of in are indefinite with the idea of 'sometime

within.‘

 

58 For more complete statistics see paragraph (m) same sec-
tion.

7:00 to 9:00 12 the morning and 5:30 to 6:30
ig.tha evening (Here, 4)

some people did open them $3 the daytime (Here,
7 .-___

there was also tea la the afternoon, and (Here,

9)
there was a bar ig_the evening for soft drinks
(Here, 9)

$3 the daytime we ran half a mile or so apart
(Here, 14)

bug-didn't talk about it in_rest periods (Here,
4

it was hot in_the daytime (Here, 25)

several times ig’those early days (Here, 27)

both are dusty in the spring (Here,

in_the morning the sun wasn't (here, 32)

as it is at home in late June (here, 32)

personal luggage i2 wartime is a paradox (Here,

than we did in wartime (Here, 42)

pragticed better security i£_peacetima (Here,
4

had to be outfitted i£_short order (Here, 72)

at two in the morning (Here, 72)

eleven IE the morning (here, 72)

and wind up in Boston some beautiful day in
1944 (Here, 90) -_'

even in wartime (Here, 182)

early’in the campaign (Here, 268)

 

I also have several citations that seem to be idiomatic in
nature and need a great deal of further study:

adventure starts almost too soon ig_some cases
(Here, 17)

in the meantime, Ned (Here, 20)

queer little incidents happen ig_war (Here, 59)

but, once heard in war, they are never forgot-
ten (Here, 1827—

like so many cowboys he made the rodeos lg
season (Brave, 194

‘(b2) In can apparently be used to express a duration of

time.

the first real eggs I'd tasted in four months
(Here, 9)

the hardest fighting in the whole original
North African occupation (Here, 23)

in a few days the army had bought (Here, 27) ,

ddbtionary in Oran was sold in a few days (Here,
27

-99-

Ln a day or two the navy was (Here, 31)

neither had had a bath Ln a longtime (Here,
40

hadn't heard from his wife Ln three months or
frpm his friends Ln longer than that (Here,
51

got thirty personal letters in one day (Here,
51

the first one she had sent Ln many years (Here,

51)
once he had two baths Ln less than one week
(Here, 52)

never shot anything bigger than a rabbit Ln my
life (Here, 70)

time of his life Ln World war II (Here, 71)

been in France Ln“ the last war (Here, 71)

twenty tangerines Ln half an hour fiat (Here,
72

 

(b3) in is used to indicate the end of a period of time:

that we'd hit Gibraltar Ln six hours (Here, 10)
it came back to him, as cold feet right fr rom
the bridge, in Just half an hour (Here, 10)

(c) 13 is often used to indicate confinement within. The
sense is close to that of place in instances where the object
is concrete in nature; cp. {in a Jeep' (place) and 'his arm $2
a cast' (confinement). Is it possible to differentiate in the
case of 'he is 13 a Jail'? Often when the definite or inde-
finite article is omitted the sense approaches that of condi-

tion.

a trip by troop transport Ln convoy (Here, 1)

the ships Ln our convoy were (Here, 1

and a sad sight too, Ln a way, to see them
(Here, 2)

to see them marching in endless numbers up the
steep (Here, 2)

all the ships Ln the convoy tested their guns
(Here, 5)

meais were Ln two sittings, an hour apart (Here,
9

you could take any thousand soldiers Ln our
army (_H____ere, 10)

there was genuine talent Ln (show) it, and
(Here, 10)

 

~100-

the knowledge, deep in everybody's mind, that
this (Here, 11)

two other detachments of nurses on other ships
in the convoy (Here, 15)

I 55a often wondered in Just what sort of for-
mation a big convoy moved (Here, 15)

we were all ordered to sleep in our clothes
(Here, 14)

but because they were lined “P.lfl rows and we
(Here, 14)

the ships poured us out onto the docks in long
brown lines (Here, 16) "'

they are in the §ignal Corps and (Here, 16)

‘many of thhse men...scattered in our forces
throughout the world (Here, Th

Norman was the best newsreeI man in the army
(Here, 17) ‘

about his fraternity days in college (Here, 18)

and the color must stand out in the technicolor
film (Here, 18) ,

hear the click of cartridge clips ig_pistols
(Here, 18)

in the infantry a man learned to walk (Here,
19

he served a hitch in the army (Here, 22)

the troOps in the fTrst wave (Here, 26)

the boys had-no inhibitions _13 the matter (Here,
27

and it could be compared in many ways (Here, 28)

Arabs dressed in ragged sh€ets (Here, 2

solemn men in Ihng white robes (Here, 28)

these guys hhdn't spent their months in the army
for nothing (Here, 52) -

simple athletic games in which lots of men
(Here, 36)

being with the troops in Africa was, in many
ways, like (H333, 57)

a beaming fellow in British uniform came up and
(E932. 58)

everybody in the crew called everybody else
(Here, 55)

ten little bombs in a row (Here, 40)

had an arm in a cast (Here, 42)

how long he had been in the legion (Here, 45)

field telephones resthd'ig their leather cases
(Here, 80)

fighters arrived several times a week in little
groups (Here, 102)

dive with trenches in their underwear (Here,
158

over gentral Tunisian roads in convoy (Here,
163

Just ig_one battalion several (Here, 274)

 

 

 

-101-

I have one example with a compound object.

There are many of these men, in both the anny
and the navy (Here, 16)

(d) The use of in is also used to eXpress a state or con-
dition.

I felt self-conscious and ridiculous and old
in army uniform (Here, 1)

ushh'by passengers in peacetime (Here, 4)

he was doing it in fun (Here, 7)

and generally cohhuct themselves in a manner
unbecoming to (Here, 9) '__

and in that environment the boys went buoy-
aniiy through their performances (Here, 11)

the entire convoy, moving in unison, zigzagged
constantly (Here, 14)

we somehow became like an enormous oceanic
machine, engaged in a giant rhythmic rota-
tion (Here, 15) .

we still sailed a long time, still in danger
waters, but (Here, 16)

even in battle dress he looked and spoke like
an Efficer (Here, 16)

cameramen looked at each other i2_wonder (Here,
17 ‘

these two learned that in a hurry (Here, 19)

the things a man learns in war (Here, 20)

lost in_the craftsman's enthusiasm of getting
his pictures (Here, 20)

”thirty-minute newsreel, most of it in tech-
nicolor" (Here, 21)

and edging ciose together to have company in
misery (Here, 23)

the troOps were followed in almost comic-opera
fashion (Here, 25)

broke out in a rash (Here, 26)

were in a pitiful condiiion (Here, 26)

but we got our change in francs IHere, 27)

in England the tapin was $3 very conventional
patterns (Here, 29 -

that)the French had vacated in_haste, and (Here,
51

ig_fine weather the troops went (Here, 32)

even 33 bad weather (Here, 33)

the team was in a deah run (Here, 59)

based all their hope in a beiie? (Here, 100)

brigadier general was in command (Here, 168)

normally crossed in low gear (Here, [72)

whole column feet-flat automaticaily and En
unison (Here, 261)

 

-102-

work of the medics came in peaks (Here, 274)
room for improvement in iheir efficienty (Here,
289

 

I have several cases in which the in could be construed
to indicate time, place or condition.

in the moonlight that first night (Here, 25)

Road _13 the darkness on the hurrio‘—‘ane deck
(Here, 17)

in ihe darkness they could hear (Here, 18)

I_was introduced in the darkness io Major
William.H. Pennihgton (Here, 38)

However, the distinction can sometimes be determined. In the

following instance place is indicated:

at ni ht, and i2_the dark of the moon (Here,
262

(e) Strangely enough in is able to express some of the

relations of the old instrumental case. I have a number of

examples from Pyle:

heavily laden - in steel helmets, in overcoats,
carrying (Here, 2)

we shaved in coId water (Here, 4)

the hills shadowed in moonIight (Here, 25)

said something in EhElish (Here, 26)
they even adverhised in the newspapers (Here,

36)
was able to say in English (Here, 58)
were close enough-to be brutai in their noise

(11933, 264)
Poutsma notes this usage and says in a reserved way: "mention
‘may be made of in in a function approximately to that of agency."
He gives:
Our feast shall be much honoured ig_your'mar-

riage.
What: quite unmann'd in folly.59

 

59 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 97.

-103-

(f) la is often followed by a present participle. Jes-
persen notes that "in English the use of the gerund with a
single object begins in the 14th century and goes much further
than in any of the languages Just mentionedILSanskrit, Gr.,
L.J, the chief reason being the formal flientity of the gerund
and the participle. As a secondary reason we may mention in-
fluence from French, where we have g§_;gnt with an object in
exactly the same sense as English igfl;ing."60 Poutsma states,
in reference to this usage that "the verbal in -ing...is no
longer to be distinguished from an ordinary participle."
Poutsma calls this usage (in / present participle) an attempt
at "a kind of passive meaning."61 I have several instances of
this use of i£_from Pyle:

extra propaganda job in scaring them (Here, 33)

all kinds of snags in-hickering with locaI
business (Here, 557

lost no time in hitting their slit trenches
(Here, 165)

ig_rummaging around one supply dump I came upon
a stack (Here, 289)

(g) Ig_also indicates quantity: 'did show up 33 sizable
amounts' (Here, 36).

(h) Only one example occurs where completion of the ver-
bal sense seems to definitely required $2: 'I would also have
invested $3 a camera' (Here, 59). In this connection Jesper-
sen lists several verbs which can either take a direct object

or be followed by the preposition i2; believe (in), indulge

 

60 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, V, 116.
61 Poutsma, A Grammar of fate Modern English, 500, 524.

-lO4-

(in), and share (in).62
(i) I2.appears in a number of idiomatic phrases.

and in fact stopped us cold (Here, 20)

an oIh Hoosier boy ‘.l£ fact, he used to live
(Here, 31)

so pieasant in fact that American officers
(Here, 2887-

they said it was there i3 case the German (Brave,
488

then a small section with mortars, in case they
ran (Brave, 400)

keep for him, Just in case (Here, 280)

in case he was captured or wounded (Here, 280)

ihe stamp was i3 case any of the currency (Here,
2?

walking arm in arm with Frenchmen.(Here, 30)

in addition, the entire convoy (Here, I4)

IE addition, I saw lots of handb‘l'r‘a (Here, 36)

hhd had a commission in the offing ever since
(Here, 278)

like ihe Spartan boy in the story, he (Here, 3)

could move separately, and in any direciion
(Here, 29)

and Ieit mine in their place (Here, 59)

and there was Tittle in companionship I could
contribute to them There, 70)

I have several examples that make interesting comparison.
Instrument:

temperaments displayed in the way windows were
taped (Here, 27)

Idiom:

crowded around the guns until they were actually
$3 the way (Here, 25)

Place:
Campbell sneaked up, revolver i3 hand (Here, 24)
Idiom:

he got the Marine situation well 13 hand and
then lost his voice (Here, 38)

 

62 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, III, 258.

-105-

(J) In represents one of the prepositions which have had
a 1<>ng history of compounding. It has combined often with
nouns, adJectives, adverbs, and verbs. _I_n appears as an in-
tegral part of several independent prepositions: inside, with-
ill. and into. Primary compounding occurs in in about, in be-
I_1_1_n_a,‘ in from and right in with. _13 is the most prolific of
allof the prepositions in regards to formation of the group
DIHeposition. I have from Pyle in addition to, in behalf of,
.LI; case of, in charge of, in close to, in collusion with, $3
finnection with, in contrast to, in favor of, in front of, _i_p_
.2313J.possession of, in lieu of, in order to, ingspite of, i9
Lerms of, in the center of, in the course of, in the fall of,
3L5! the middle of, in the midst of, and in view of. ,As a sec-
ondary element in compounds 3 occurs in back in, away back in,
Slsugn in, off in, out in, over in and gp_ig.
(m) I have made a statistical survey of all the instances

0f _i__n_ according to usage:

 

Classification Number of Percentage of
of Usage Occurences Total Usage
(a ) General place 90 27.9
Place named, country 45 13.9
Place named, city 20 6.2 49.5
Place named 3 .9
Place, container 2 .6
(bl) General time 26 8.0
(bl) Time, duration 16 5.0 13.6
(b3) Time progression, end 2 .6
(c ) Confinement 47 14.7
(d ) Condition, state 30 9.3
No-specific category 4 1.2
(e ) Instrumental 7 2.5
(f)Z_[_r_1_/-lgg_ 4 1.2
(g ) Quantity 1 .3
(h ) Verb {.32 1 .3
(i ) Idioms 24 7.4

 

323 100.6%

-106-

1.27 Inside: ME yn the syde of (NED l504)>fiMnE inside.
The preposition therefore falls into Composition Group II.
The general meaning is 'within' and the few examples I
have illustrate both spatial and figurative uses of the gen-
eral meaning. In the case of temporal usage inside however
requires a following 3;.
inside that tent men worked (Here, 80)
iiiiie black puffs of death everywhere they
looked - and after a few of those something
began to Jump inside them (Here, 100)
the war came inside us then, and we felt it
deeply (Here, I30)
Poutsma explains that the suppression of g; in combinations
with side is very common. "The suppression is regular in the
case of beside, and frequent after inside and outside. In
their denuded state these words are undistinguishable from
ordinary prepositions. But also when side enters into combi-
nation with other words that distinctly preserve their indi-
vidual meaning, 3; is frequently dropped." He gives:
one on either side the door
on the other side the Atlantic
on one side the atrium
on that side the garden
on either side the road

t'other side the hedge

brown hair (fell) either side the...face65

Compounded inside appears in inside of as well as from

inside.

1.28 Into: Into represents a compounding of in / to and

therefore belongs in Composition Group III. It has however

 

63 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 801.

~107-

been firmly established as a single preposition a long time,
according to NED since the tenth century, although for a long
time written as two words.64

I232 expresses the idea of both its component parts:
'within' and 'toward.’ At one time the idea of rest was ex-
pressed, with or without i3 or 32, by the dative, and motion
‘12 or toward by the accusative. "After adJectives and nouns
lost their distinctive endings it became necessary to add 33
to $2 and 2g to bring out the idea of motion toward a position,
while simple i2 and 2g were retained to indicate rest in a
position.”55 It is interesting to note that in the compound
in precedes 33, Jespersen observes that "we should have ex-
pected it to be possible to say...'he ran tg_ig_the room!
(1:2;, to a point in the room) and 'the cat Jumped.tg_32 the
table' (ELSL, to a point on the table)..."66

(a) I232 is used very widely and frequently in the sense
'to a point within.’ It expresses a passing or movement from
the exterior of a thing to its interior. In by far the larg-
est number of instances i333 in this use is preceded by a verb
of motion. In the examples in the first group the meaning is
literal; in the next three it is more or less figurative.

finally got more stuff into Tunisia than they

had (Here, 288) '_'—'
so we g5i_into the Jeep (Here, 178)
Germans tuhhhd most of th3_§?ape-crop alcohol
into their own motors (Here, 47)

the little personal things went into a trunk
to remain (Here, 1)

 

e4 'Into,‘ NED, Vol. 5, §1.
65 Curme S ntax 560.
66 JespersL—Men, A ’odern English Grammar, III, 8-9.

~108-

we piled into two compartments and I (Here, 2)

they Jumped into their steel-sided assauIi boat
(Here, 17)

and thumped into the yard (Here, 18)

poured it into an empty can (Here, 33)

tossed it into the Mediterranean (Here, 34)

Private Croshy Lewis walked into my room (Here,
37

got back on his motorcycle and rode into Arzev
(Here, 38)

they went into the city (Here, 41)

not to take dogs into a house (Here, 61)

"I never go into town" (Here, 7

drove the twenEy miles info town because (Here,
81

had to discover the minefields by stumbling
into them (Here, 160)

disappeared into the bushes (Here, 167)

so I packed into my Jeep (Here, I70)

I drove into my cactus-patch (Here, 170)

when I came into this cactus patch (Here, 171)

one put "Satch" Elkins into a ditch (Here,
274

proJectile would tear into the sky (Here, 181)

shooting off impotently into the sky (Here,

183) .

slipped into the slow stream of vehicles (Here,
184

of every ridge, deeply dug into foxholes (Here,
254

their feet seemed to sink into the ground
(Here, 256)

lifhe? their rifles and fell into line (Here,
258

upset about oing into the line again so soon
(Here, 259

hit a sort of path and fell into a single line
(Here, 260)

he siepped into a hole (Here, 262)

Harblin dived into his foxholes (Here, 266)

whamming 75-mm. shells into a hilIside (Here,
271

and the fourth went into the ground (Here, 279)

when he drove into Ferryville (Here,

 

III the same sense but more or less figuratively:

proJectile would tear into the sky (Here, 181)

shooting off impotently into the sky (Here,
185)

the stamp was in case any of the currency fell
into the hands of the enemy (Here, 27)

fingers to delve into things international

~109-

(Here, 54)
and shattered by the foul mess into which Paris
had fallen (Here, 57)

Also, figuratively, after verbs of looking, peering, etc.:

to look into a burned out tank (Here, l80)
to peer into the hole (Here, 279)

Also, figuratively, in reference to bodies or parts of bodies:

new grim vigor into the American people (Here,

German propaganda had also drilled into them
the glories of the New Order (Here, 57)

asinine thought popped into my head (Here, 180)

and we had got into our Heads that production
alone would win the war (Here, 187)

With no verb of motion expressed:

the first troops into Oran (Here, 44)
a good look into the sky (Here, 115)

(b) 2232 is also used in the meaning 'to a point in.‘
There is motion involved here too, but the idea is that the
point finally reached is thought of, not as eveloped or en-
circled, but as a position in a line.

he turned down a commission and went into the
ranks (Here, 8)

doctor bein put into the Army Medical Corps
(Here, 88

had to be called into the game (Here, 181)

under the Americans our leaders make us go
into the army again (Here, 57)

 

(0) Into is used to indicate entrance into a condition
(more or less temporary):

got into a long discussion (Here, 269)

upset about going into the lIne again so soon
(Here, 259)

waitgng impatiently to get into action (Here,
37

of combat boats that got into trouble trying
(Here, 22)

before going into battle (Here, 271)

the first army newsreel men to go into action
(Here, 17)

-110-

and the holds didn't get into the frightful
condition they do on some voyages (Here, 86)

they finally broke down and entered into the
spirit of the thing (Here, 9)

going nuts waiting to get Into action again
(Here, 35)

their traces to get into battle (Here, 54)

(d) Into is used to indicate transformation into some-

thing else (more or less permanent):

lifted their rifles and fell into line (Here,

258

hit a sort of path and fell into a single line
(Here, 260)

slipped into the slow stream of vehicles (Here,
84

when our infrantry went into a certain big push
in Tunisia.(Here, 158)

we made our rendezvous and at dusk...we steamed
slowly into a prearranged formation, like
floating pieces of a puzzle drifting together
to form a picture (Here, 5)

turned it into a club (Here, 27)

one ‘tore worked its name Into a design (Here,
27

and turned it into a hospital (Here, 31)

folded up into small portable trunks (Here, 80)

the booklets would be translating ItalIan into
German (Here, 289)

puppies had grown into big dogs (Here, 292)

 

The three instances into line, into the line, and into a sin-
.glg line I have classified variously under (0) and (d). In
'hit a sort of path and fell 1333 a single line' (E222, 260)
the implication is that the men had been previously deployed,
the single line is therefore something into which they trans-
formed themselves. In 'lifted their rifles and fell.ig£g
line' (£233, 258) the fuller context indicates that the men
had been eating and were not in any sort of formation. In the
light;of the contexts I classify these instances under (d).

In 'upset about going into the line again so soon' (Here, 259)

~111-

the reference is clearly to the front line of battle and the
idiom is quite parallel to into battle, into action. I clas-
sify this instance under (0).

(e) ngg_is used after certain verbs, such as 323, bump,
etc., and indicates 'in contact with.' The preposition here
is felt to be closely linked with the verb, and the meaning of
the verb / preposition is 'to meet by chance or coincidence.‘
A1though my citations from Pyle involve into, 3333 can serve,
in some instances at least, as an adequate substitute (for
onto see below under §l.33).

when I ran into Private Ned Modica (Here, 16)

he kept running into soldiers he knefi_TE§£§,

I :23 into another fellow I hadn't seen for

ten years (3232, 38)

they ran into some American nurses (Here, 41)
I ran into some of my fighter pilot friends

 

 

 

(Here, 42)
I bumped into Lieutenant William Spence (Here,
'BTT

another time, I bumped into Lieutenant Colonel
Louis Plain of the marine Corps (Here, 58)

 

(f) Into occurs, though rather infrequently, with an in-
tensifier:

well,)I ran smack into that same bunch (Here,

119

ran them almost into the hands of a German
patrol are,

we moved on closer to the actual tank battle
ahead, but never went right into it (Here,
181

leaving Italy, we flew most of the day and far
into the night (Brave, 295)

(g) The compounding of into is very common but only as a
secondary element. Pyle furnishes examples of back into, down

into, off into, on into, out into, clear out into, over into,

-112-

up into, and straight up into.

1.29 E923: OE 3&3, comparative 5153mm garg>MnE £635.
I should like to place near in Composition Group IV since its
use as a preposition has been relatively recent and few dic-
tionaries at present even recognize its status as independent
of to. The American College Dictionary regards near preposi-
tionally as "strictly the adverb with 'to' understood.”67
"Understanding" something that isn't expressed is however rath-
er unrealistic practice and often obscures the bare fact that
a change has'ocoured in grammatical function. Even in Old
English there was confusion regarding the exact function of

near (mean), and Bright compromises by calling it an ”adver-

 

bial preposition."68 At any rate the Old English forms of

 

near and next (to) governed the dative. The tg_however has

disappeared after near, nearer, and nearest (usually before a

 

noun, less frequently before a pronoun), and we no longer have
any indication of case except in pronouns. Curme notes that"
as soon as such a group of words (near to in this case) as a

whole is felt to be a preposition, the latter element drops

out, as superf1u0u5,69 Near DOW omits the 33 and takes an ab-
Ject and hence may be regarded as a preposition. I would
likewise like to regard the new comparative and superlative

forms nearer, nearest as prepositions. It is not historically

 

67 American College Dictionary, 811.
68 Bright, Anglo-Saxon Reader, revised by J. R. Hulbert, 334.

69 Curme, Syntax, 566.

~115-

without evidence, as I have already illustrated, for a com-
parative form to become a preposition; cp. MnE‘ggggr from OE
SE (away from) / the comparative suffix ~333.

Egg; is used in the sense 'close to':

an officer nLar me screamed at her (Here, 7)

a country schoolhouse near the little aIgerian
town (HLre, 18)

area near the front (Here, 68)

on a Hill lside near two telephones (HLre, 164)

lieutenant stood near the phones (HLre, 165)

stooped nLar us (HLre, 181)

cactus patch near Tbeitla (HLre, 182)

men can't see a shell unless he's standing
nLar the gun when it (Here, 264)

AfriTa grew nearer the saturation point (HLre,
48

 

In compounds near is restricted to near by and near to.
Near and near-by appear also as adjuncts or adjectives,

and Jespersen feels that this use comes from the adverbial

farm.70 The NED gives examples of this usage dating as early
as the 14th century. From Pyle I have several examnles:

and near-b 2 villages (HLre, 58)

every minute or two our near-b y artillery
would (Here, 165)

rocks on a nearb hillside (Here, 281)

a few hundred yards from the nLar side of the
road (Brave, 453)

 

 

1.30 SE: OE 3L: £>MnE 93:. 'i'he preposition therefore
belongs in Composition Group I.

The original sense of the preposition 3: was 'away from.'
Some of this original sense has been retained in the variant
2;; and, to be sure, in various uses of 3;. Very early fig;

was naturally used in the expression of the notions of removal,

 

7O Jaspersen, A Modern English Grammar, II, 557.

 

-ll4-

separation, privation, instrument, material, etc. Its scope
was enlarged, even in OE, by its employment to render L. ab,
.22: or 23, in constructions where the native idiom would not
have used it; and by its employment from the llth c. as the
equivalent of F. Q3, which not merely represented L. $2 in its
prepositional uses, but had come to be the Common Romanic, and
so the French substitute for the genitive case."'71 Q£.has

thus become probably the most active of all words in English
and at the same time perhaps one of the emptiest in meaning.

It is because of this lack of semantic value that 33 has as-
sumed rather peculiar prepositional functions. Its chief func-
tion is merely to link substantives to one another; its equiv-
alent would be simply a mathematical sign of some sort to in-
dicate that in '.A_ ,1 g_f_ / _13' the 5 should be connected to E'

As a result in attempting to analyze a sentence containing 3;,
one cannot merely examine the relationship of.§ as modifying A
but must also examine the relationship of §_as modifying E,
Thus in 'the nose g£_the plane' it seems fairly clear that the
relationship of nose to plane is that of part to whole. In
'the city 32 Oran' the relationship becomes a little more cloudy
since eitherr'Oran city' or 'the city Oran' seems equally ef-
fective. At firstgglance, in 'a rest of some kind'uging appar-
ently particularizes rest; yet 'some kind 33 a rest"means pre-
cisely the same thing and probably shares currency equally with

the former. Or consider the idiom 'a pound of butter.' Here

 

71 'or,' NED, Vol. 7, Pt. 1.

-ll5-

incidentally the arrangement is non-reversible, and the pre-
ceding noun pgugd indicates the quantity of butter. It is
further necessary to point out that the idiom 'a dozen eggs'

is parallel in function to la pound of butter' except that

[of is omitted. 'Had been waiting for Nat all of the time' is
current, but so also is 'had been waiting for Nat all the time'
(gage, 29). 'Covered the nose and half 33 the face' again is
interchangeable with 'covered the nose and half the face'
(2192.2. 91).

When the difference between 'the nose of the ship' and 'a
pound of butter' is examined, the analyst is further confused.
'The nose 2; the ship' represents essentially 'part' /‘3£ {
'whole.’ 'L pound of butter' represents essentially the same
pattern. So also 'the arm 3f the chair.‘ It can be argued
that all three are instances of the partitive relationship.
But it should be noted that there is a difference between 'the
nose 2£_the ship' and the other two idioms; it is perfectly
possible to say 'the ship's nose,’ whereas it is quite impos-
sible to say 'the butter's pound' or 'the arm's chair.’ For
this reason, as well as for other, I distinguish between a
partitive and a quantitative use of the preposition.

All these functions, as well as practically every function
of the preposition 3;, have been called genetives. Kruisinga
notes that "it is not uncommon, in scientific grammars of pre-
sent English, to call these constructions with 2;; genetives.
Thus a partitive genetive is distinguished (agpound of rice),

a genitive of material (a house of cards), a genitive of def-

-116-

inition (the University of Oxford), etc. The reason for this
is that in related languages (including the earlier stages of
present English, 1.6. Middle and Old English) a genitive was
really used in these cases. But it is the business of a gram-
mar of present-day English to show what the function of the
genitive is now, not to mix this up with the functions of the
genitive in earlier English. If the writer of a descriptive
grammar of present isnglish does his duty, he shows the inter-
esting fact that the genitive in present English is far more
restricted in its functions than in the older periods. There
is no need, whether practical or scientific, to hide this fact,
and the whole procedure seems to be due to a mistaken idea of
the use of historical grammar."73

I distinguish below thirteen uses of the preposition of.

It should be noted immediately however that the lines be-
tween these functions of 23 are not always altogether clear.
There are instances where the meaning is both, or somewhere
between, 'characteristic of' (al) and 'deriving from' (f:
source); as in 'the coolness of the evening.‘ Similarly the
meaning may straddle both 'characterized by' (a2) and 'with
respect to' (ml) in 'little things of beauty'; or both apposi-
tion or definition (d) and 'with respect to' (ml) in 'a lack
of hot water'; or both 'consisting of' (c) and quantification
(i) in 'a detachment 2; Rangers'; or both 'characteristic of'

(a1) and possession (g) in 'the infirmities of age'; or both

 

78 Kruisinga, Accidence and Syntax, 295-96.

-ll'7-

grossession (g) and partification (h) in 'the leaves of the
trees.‘ It is quite possible even for a use to straddle three
osategories: possession (g), description (a1), and source (f),
as in 'the wet bitterness _o_f_ England'; or specification (ml),
ggeaographical origin (el), and supposition (d), as in 'the pop-
11].ation 2£_Oran.' Such instances no doubt require further
study and analysis.

(a) Q; is used to indicate or introduce some description
(£1 word or phrase) of the substantive preceding. In most cases,
:11? not in all, the description following of can be turned into
811 adjective or adjective function and placed attributively
before the noun described.

(al) In the meaning 'characteristic of,' ‘characterizing,'
'appropriate to':

then on into the calmness of the Mediterranean
(Here, 16)

eerie peacefulness of the beach (Here, 25)

the wet bitterness E: England (Here, 32)

uncanny accuracy‘gg the 75's made their hearts
(Here, 25)

and)entered into the spirit of the thing (Here,
9

revolted by the shriveled greediness of soul
that inhabits so much of the world (fibre, 58)

(a2) In the meaning 'characterized by':

the fiery s lash of colored flares in the sky
(Here, 173

this was our night of danger (Here, 11)

Third Circuit Court of Appeals (H re, 71)

little things of bedfity (Here, 2

he was having the time of His life (Here, 71)

they)had a nice spark giflife about them (Here,
58

Ramsey was the greatest reciter g; limericks in
England (Here , ea)

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sometimes the parts before and after 2?. are reversible:

they ran onto all kinds of snags (Here, 35)

some kind 2: police work—(Here, '71

due for a rest of some kind soon (Here, 100)

wondered in Just—what sort 93 fom—ations a big

convoy moved (Here, 13)
(a5) In the meaning 'according to measure,‘ 'measured by':
survived a tour of one hundred and fifty miles
(Here, 4)
and odd thing for a boy 11:. sixteen just out of
high school (Here, 16)
that's an average of better than seven eggs
apiece (Here, 72')—

(b) 9; is used to indicate material in the meaning 'made
of' (as in 'a hedge _o_f_ roses'), but I have no instances of this
use from Pyle.

(c) _Q_f_ is used to indicate the component parts of some-
thing in the meaning 'consisting of,' 'comprised of,' as in 'a
Glass 21 seniors.‘ The idiom frequently, though not always,
involves a collective noun, and its meaning is therefore close-
1y allied to the use under (1). I have only one clear cut in-
Stance from'Pyle: 'we were issued our desert gear 23 dust
masks, water purifiers, and so on' (Here, 16).

(d) p_r_ is used to indicate a relationship best represented
by the sign of equality, as in 'the sign of equality.' Curme's
178ml for this relationship is ”apposition"; Kruisinga's is
"definitionflflz5

at the end of the first day of the Battle 31:

Oran (Here, 18)
the New York School of Fine Arts (Here, 16)

standing around the‘SIano singing'WTEE white
Cliffs 91 Dover” (Here, 27)

\_

'73 Gurme, Syntax, 84; Kruisinga, Accidence and iyntax, 295.

-119-

at last we came to the Strait of Gibraltar
(Here, 15)

on the continent g£_Africa (Here, 71)

the little Algerian town 3£_Arzev (Here, 18)

one known as the House of Jackson (Here, 39)

but the House of Jackson-continued (Here, 40)

men of the House 2§_Jackson (Here, 4I)

the §3u33.2£ Jackson's service stripes (Here,
40

nameygf Robert Taylor Shows, who traveled (Here,
36

Here I class, on the strength of a statement by Uurme,
ttle following two instances from Pyle: 'we had a hell 2; a
'tiLme' (EEES’ 23) and 'a hell g£_a time' (Eggs, 41). "The ap-
pc>sitive genitive is often added to a noun, not to define its
infiaaning more accurately, but to indicate a class to which a
ttling or person belongs that has Just been characterized as
811 individual by the governing noun: the rascal of a land-

.léagg; a Jewel of a cup; a beast of a night; a frail slip of a

 

 

woman; a brute of a husband; his termagant of a wife; a love

 

 

<>f a child; a devil of a hurry, etc." Curme points out that

tfliis idiom is not native English but comes from French(in turn

from Latin) .74

(c) Q; is used to indicate geographic origin in the gen-
eItal sense 'from.' With names of countries, states, and cities

from is substitutable for g_i_'_ (for instances with from see

1.25; see also Curme, Syntax, 84-85):

Captain Raymond Ferguson of Los Angeles had a
Christmas Box (Here, 51)—-

a hairy corporal - Joe Comita 3: Brooklyn (Here,
10)

Bob Wollard of Clovis (Here, 72)

Major Raleigh—Edgar, 2; Columbus Ohio, (Here, 90)

\

'74 Cume, SEtax, so.

-120-

Before street locations 23 only is current:

Private Julius Novak,‘3£ 1615 Avenue V, Brooklyn
(Here, 96)

Lieutenant Gordon Carlisle, g£_l4 Cass Street,
Exeter, New Hampshire (Here, 96)

Private William J. Harrington, of 908 Greenfield
Avenue, Pittsburgh (Here, 97)“—

Private Ed Sailor, of 2542 North 51st Street,
Philadelphia (Here: 97)

Private Robert Lee Wichard, of 5422 Leverton
Avenue, Baltimore (Brave, TBS)

Sergeant Earl Mayne Sutter‘gf 1129 Lombardy
Avenue, Oklahoma City (Brave, 222)

Sergeant John D. Baker, of B59 Park Avenue, In-
dianapolis (Brave, 2257—

Corporal John Jourdain, of 1466 North Claiborne,
New Orleans (Brave, 5827'

Corporal Martin Kennelly, a: 8040 Langley Street,
Chicago (Brave, 405)

Sergeant Van Jones, 2; 1715 Princeton Avenue,
Birmingham, Alabama (Brave, 425)

 

 

In some instances 2; carries the meaning 'a member of'
Imather than specific geographic origin:

with)Frenchmen of the Foreign Legion (Here,

30

Major Fuzeav of the Foreign Legion (Here, 45)

Lieutenant CoIBnel Louis Plain g£_the Marine
Corps (Here, 58)

Joe Liebling, of the New Yorker (Here, 7)

we were: Bill-Lang, §Z‘Time and Life (Here, 7)

Red Mueller, of Newsweek (Here, 7)

Oillie Stewart7'§ffthe8altimore Afro-American
Here, 7

GauIt Macgowan, of the New York Sun (Here, 7)

Guy Bamsey, g£_tHE'London News-JHFSnciIe (Here,
38

 

 

(f) 23 is used to indicate source (including filial deriva-
tion):

Sergeant Uhudle Caviness, a nephew of Senator
Hatch (Here, 12)

the nice safety 2; my noncombatancy (Here, 71)

when he heard the zing 3; a passing bullet
(Here, 19)

they could hear the click 3: cartridge clips
(Here, 18)

-121-

from the eXplosion 3; an enemy shell (H333, 21)

(g) Q; is used to indicate the general notion of posses-
sion. The category covers not only legal ownership but tema-
;>:>rary ownership, responsibility for or close association with
something, etc.

home Lf the famed Foreign Legion (HLre, 45)

in the cold waters Lf Scotland (HLre, ‘54)

that was the body Lf a sniper (Here, 18)

in a manner unbecoming to the dignity of a
British cruise-ship waiter (HLre, 9)‘

the dining-room manners Lf the— younger officers
(HLre, 9)

the_ specialty_ of the Rangers is landing (HLre,
55

the currenc fell into the hands 3; the enemy
(Here, 27

 

Q£_can be followed by another genitive in a construction
ttlat has come to be called the double genitive. This usage is
not common with Pyle, and I have only a few citations:

a friend of mine (H____ere, 24)

this money Lf ours was accepted (HLre, 27)

a good friend Lf mine (HLre, 51)

Chirme makes some pertinent observations on the double genitive.
'"The simple form in :3 is still widely used when the genitive
E3tends before the governing noun, but in the position after the
éaaverning noun it has been entirely replaced by the form with
SEE" for it would here not be felt as a genitive but as a plural.
VIE may, however, quite often use the terminational genitive of
EJersonal pronouns after the governing noun provided we place
tnle prepositional genitive sign'gf before the terminational
genitive, so that it becomes clear that the form in question is

a. genitive...the clear genitive sign of is put before his, since

141 this and similar genitives, as yours, mine, etc., the gen-

-122-

itive force is not felt, since these forms are also used as
possessive pronouns in the nominative, dative, and accusative
relations. The combination of g; and the old genitive, his,
heggn ygugg, theirs, etc., makes a clear genitive...But the
partitive idea often mingles with that of possession: 'a
friend of mine,‘ 'an admirer of hers.‘ In course of time there
has become associated with the double genitive a marked live-
liness of feeling, so that it now often implies praise or can-
sure, pleasure or displeasure.”5 Poutsma regards the con-
struction as only partitive in nature,76 and Jesnersen spends
five pages in an attempt to prove the double genitive "is not
predominatly partitive"77 and stands for what I regard as a
more realistic point of view.

In one instance, 'he opened a studio 2; his own' (Eggs,
1?), it is possible to say that 22 can be followed by two gen-
itives. Here gig is the second genitive, and 313, originally
presumably a past participle, now generally construed as a

rioun,'78 serves as a third.

(h)‘Q£ is used to indicate the relationship of part to
‘Whole, usually called partitive, which I shall refer to also
the partification. While scholars generally include in one
(sategory the partitive and quantifying relations, I shall dis-

1hinguish between the two, treating partification here and

575 Curme, S tax, 75-76.

576 PoutsmaTx%_§?ammar of Late Mpgern English, 762.
'77 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, III, 15-20.
'78 Curme, SIntax, 530.

-123-

quantification in the next section. The distinction between
the two seems simple: if the matter treated of is considered
as the part of a whole, and there is no primary purpose to
indicate quantity, as in 'the hurricane deck 23 the ship was
crowded,‘ I consider the relationship partitive; if the pri-
mary purpose of the statements is to indicate quantity, as in
'a number 33pmen were sent home,‘ 'a quart 2: milk,‘ 'lots g;
handball,‘ I consider the function of the preposition quan-
titative.

Although 22 in other functions is not uncommon in end
position, in its partitive function it almost always occurs
before its object. I failed to find a single instance in Pyle
of the preposition in any other position. Jespersen observes
this phenomena but gives an interesting citation from Defoe's
Robinson Crusoe.

I also found some rum in the great cabin, of

ghlgh I took a large dram, 393.EEEEE.I ifideed
nee enough of to spirit me.

There are some borderline cases which can best be treated
separately below. The partitive use of the preposition 2: is
‘very common in Pyle.

through the top of the can (Here, 55)

on the hurricane-deck g; a troopship (Here, 17)
sprawled on the floor 3; a country schooIEouse

(Here, 18)
”down in one of the compartments 3; the boat"

(Here, 22)
emaciated little faces 23 the children (Here,
25)

the curve 23 the beach (Here, 18)

¥

'79 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, III, 188.

-124-

'masts and funnels sticking above the surface
‘2; harbors (Here, 49)

”to be the beach-Busters 3; every landing"
(Here, 21)

since the start 23 the war (Here, 71)

at the end of that first day (Here, 18)

the aver woufi be over by Apr11"LT194s (Here,
49

like floating pieces 33 a puzzle (Here, 5)

up to the front line of the attack upon Saint-
Cloud (Here, 20) _—

was aitting on the edge 3; a folding cot (Here,
21

down on the edge 3: the next cot (Here, 22)

they let the folding and 2;:the barge down too
soon (Here, 24)

resting on the top of his cap (Here, 29)

clear to the top gffhis head (Here, 29)

up the back 2; his neck (Here,

painted on the nose 3: their plane (Here, 40)

under the wing g£_the bomber (Here,

fallen off the wing of his plane (Here, 42)

it was at the back Li‘everybody's mInd (Here,

71)
the non-medical part 33 running a hospital
(Here, 77) -

There are many border line idioms that involve both par-
tification and quantification. In 'a couple 2: days we had
good weather' there is no relationship indicated of part to
whole: in the phrase 'a couple of days' couple is a quanti-
fier, g; the preposition of quantification, and ggy§_the ob-
Ject quantified. In 'a couple 3; the days we had bad weath-h
er' the reference is to two out of a (presumably known) num-
ber of days, and the statement made is about two of those days,
not about all of them. The relationship, in other words, is
one of part to whole and g; expresses partification. There is
to be sure quantification involved: 'a couple indicates quan-
tification but there is no 23 here. The g£_in the sentence

indicates, not quantification, but the relationship of part to

~125-

whole. Partification, not quantification, is the primary in-
tent of the sentence. It may be pointed out that partitive
2;,18 likely to be followed by the definite article or its
equivalent.

sure that half 3: them would (Here, 55)

the most experienced and traveied 3; all of
us (Here, 8)

none of ideas turned out to be true (Here, 10)

sure That half 2: them would (Here, 5

I myself came down with one 2; the Ten Best
Colds of 1942 (Here, 8)

three rainbows at once, one of them making a
horseshoe (Here, 12) _—

one a; them was Sergeant Chudle Caviness (Here,
12

goal that obsesses ever one 3£_the Americans
marching on (Here, 16

one 2; the bunch sat up all night (Here, 18)

and one of their shells came through Ede side
(Here,—22)

all down in one of the compartments (Here, 22)

two of them went-THere, 41)

two 5? my Flying Foriress Friends (Here, 72)

the Three of us ate (Here, 72)

and some gifthe boys Had never even heard of
the place (Here, 2)

and some g£_the men complained (Here, 4)

some g£_them thought we were (Here 5)

some of the officers knew (Here, 5)

toward—the end some 3; us even hated to have it
over (Here, 15)

some 3; us marched twenty miles (Here, 16)

some g£_us marched three miles (Here, 16)

some)g§ the wounded soldiers in the tent (Here,
22

some 23 our soldiers spoke French (Here, 27)

Oran was cleaner than some 33 the poorer Latin
cities (Here, 28)

some of the Algerian rugs (Here, 50)

where-He knew some 3; the dociors (Here, 50)

some 2£_us listened to the (Here, 54

some 2: the harder heads said (Here, 56)

some 2; them I knew (Here, 57)

some 2; their comrades (Here, 40)

lost some 3; their good friends (Here, 41)

ran auto some 23 my fighter-pilot friends (Here,
42 '

and aitnessed some 3; our preparations (Here,
72

~126-

lots of their athletic equipment never showed
up THere, 55)

lots 3; our men (Here, 284)

yet many g£_the boys said (Here, 4)

when many 3: the ports were open (Here, 7)

for aany 2: us the trip was a grand rest (Here,
15

there are many of these men, in both the army
and (Here, 167—

many 3: them will die behind their cameras
(Here, 16)

many 2: the soldiers (Here, 25)

many of them said (Here, 25)

silenfiy,most of them (Here, 2)

most 23 us Just-iay in our Eunks (Here, 4)

"thirty minute newsreel, most of it in tech-
nicolor" (Here, 21) ‘__

most of the Kmericans talked (Here, 28)

most §£ us had never heard (Here, 28)

but most g£_the Americans (dere, 28)

most 3; the men (Here, 55)

most of us couldn't read french (Here, 54)

most 3? it we couldn't use (Here 37)

gave Edch 3; that food (Here, 26)

much 2: our Northern Tunisian mountain fighting
(Here, 262)

except for a small portion pf one deck set aside
(Here, 5)

_already knew a lot 2: the officers and men
aboard (Here, 8)

those of us in the cabins were awakened (Here, 7)

theyjhdd had a shot 2: the real business (Here,
34

a very tiny percentage 3; our troops in Africa
(Here, 57)

the rest 23 us stayed (Here, 168)

even the most ragged 2: them (Here, 25)

the more eXperienced 2; our troops (Here, 25)

to Agrica aboard one 2; a group of combat (Here,
22

was one 3; our boys standing (Here, 50)

one ag'the army hospital commandants who (Here,
51

I asked one 3; them (Here, 55)

boxing gloves were one a: the things that
(Here, 56)

especially around one 3; the headquarters set
up in (Here, 57)

one of my friends at Londonderry (Here, 58)

one 3? my other airmen friends (Here, 41)

said—She of the boys (Here, 41)

I could s53 each one 3: ideas (Here, 42)

one 3: them had an arm in a cast (Here, 42)

 

 

-127-

his na us in one Lf my reports (HLre, 71)

in charge of one 2£,the army's big warehouses
(HLre, 72)

two— pneumonia cases, both Lf whom pulled through
(HLre, 8)

but* I saw two Lf the most thrilling sunrises
I've ever known (Here, 15)

forty percent Lf the demonstration (Here, 26)

the ten men Lf_ the House of Jackson (HLre, 41)

two members 25 the crew (HLre, 40)

there were nine members Lf our special little
group (HLre, 7)

better than any Lf us had eXpected (HLre, 2)

the stamp was in“ case any Lf the currency fell
(HLre, 27)

the* tiniest fraction Lf what we actually had
(HLre, 44)

(i) Q; is used to indicate quantification. The preposi-
tion is here almost devoid of meaning, hardly more than a
symbol, and is in fact frequently omitted. It is equally pos-
sible to say 'a couple 3: days' and 'a couple days'; cp. also
'a pound g; butter' with 'a dozen eggs.‘ The pafierns involv-
ing 23 include both definite and indefinite quantification of
both countable and mass nouns. I shall list my instances from
Pyle in order: (1) definite quantification of mass nouns, (2)
indefinite quantification of mass nouns, (5) definite quan-
tification of countables, and (4) indefinite quantification of
countables. I include instances with all of (the) under quan-
tification since Ell indicates totality: any statement made
refers to the whole (Whether countable or mass) and not to a
part of the whole.

the Jeep drove off into eight feet Lf water

(Here, 24)

a fddi—long, plus six inches of tail (Here, 29)

two years Lf German rule (H352, 56) -

"they can have only twenty gallons Lf gasoline"

(HLre, 12)
he meant every word Lf it what he said (Here, 7)

 

 

—128-

they couldn't speak a word 32 French (Here, 30)

I saw lots 2; handball (Here, 56)

because there's too much 3£_it [personal lug-]
gage (Here, 26)

the cabin steward...bearing cups of hot tea
(Here, 9) , ‘_—

vast)quantities 23 African foodstuffs (Here,
26

everybody handed out an earful of dope, rumor
and fact (Here, 37) '__ ,

people simply abandoned part 3f_it={baggage]
(Here, 39)

they fixed me up a bottle 3: cough medicine
(Here, 31)

got a Bottle 3: vino (Here, 41)

they)bought a special bottle 3; champagne (Here,
70

and it was filled most 3: the time (Here, 8)

most 2; the time (Here, 32)

tiniest fraction 2; one percent (Here, 162)

the)first couple 2: days at sea our ships (Here,
5

to get him up to better quarters after a couple
2£_days (Here, 8)

the big night came a couple of evenings before
we got to Gibraltar (Here,-Tb)

a couple 3: small "incidents" in the officer's
section of the ship (Here, 12)

after we were a coupleLEE days at sea (Here, 13)

it was a couple of days before the fighting
was all over (Here, 31)

a couple of generals (Here, 42)

a couple §z security officers (Here, 42)

spilled ourselves a couple 3; tImes shying
around (Here, 44)

after a couple g£_hours (Here, 183)

where I ran onto a bunch 33 soldiers from New
Mexico (Here, 12)

a little bunch 33 Arabs (Here, 41)

a bunch 2: men and women (Here, 76)

carrying vast numbers 23 troops and depending
(£19.22. 1)

an enormous number 2; troops (Here, 4)

and a number 2; army nurses (Here, 4)

an amazing number.g£ soldiers had no idea (Here,
5

we counted a certain maximum number 3; ships
(Here, 15)

lots g£_the soldiers started growing bears
(Here, 6)

 

-129-

and lots 2: other places (Here, 21)

there were lots 3; reasons (Here, 55)

thepe were scores 23 last minute things (Here,
1

scores 2; rumors a day floated about the ship
(Here, 10)

I shook hands with scores of people whose faces
I knew (Here, 57) _—

of scores of Hospitals built for men then
healthy (Here, 72)

and of hoisting aboard thousands of bedrolls
'and barracks bags (Here, 3) "'

our ship carried tiousands 23 officers and men

 

(Here, 4)

we were beginning the final series 3£_marches
(Here, 16)

grinding away at the hordes 32 soldiers (Here,
17

one of a group of combat boats (Here, 22)
two other detacfifientslgf nurses on other ships

(Here, 13)
a large formation a; Junker 88's coming (Here,
41

got a whole flock g£_Pittsburgh Presses one
day (Here, 52)

a large Batch 33 officer promotions came through
(Here, 52)

dozens 2; those feminine items (Here, 72)

and all 2; them had come to Africa (Here, 34)

the greatest reciter of limericks in England,
all 3; them unprintable (Here, 38)

troops gprangers had practiced (Here, 34)

following a detachment 33 Rangers (Here, 35)

local troupe g£_singers and dancers (Here, 56)

looking out over that armada 2£_marching ships
(Here, 15)

and)small convoys 2; swift ocean liners (Here,
1

immepse bundles 3; sticks on their backs (Here,
44

shielded with two sets 33 heavy black curtains
(Here, 7)

and 2: cameras they had aplenty (Here, 18)

The quantifiers all and half, whether used with countable
or mass nouns, are frequently used without the preposition 2;:

but all the large produce-carrying compartments
had been (Here, 4)

American gunners manned all the ship's guns
(Here, 5)

our first morning out, all the ships in the con-
voy (Here, 5) .

-130-

they run all the way (Here, 28)

as if it had been waiting for Nat all the time
(Here, 29)

suffered almost no casualties and spared all
the Frenchmen's lives (Here, 54)

all the guns in one sector could be centered
(Here, 255)

all the work was being done (Here, 164)

in Northern Tunisia all the towns along (Here,
290

black rubber schnozzle that covered the nose
and half the face (Here, 91)

in it were hidden half a dozen half-tracks
(Here, 171)

they didn't even wear their steel helmets half
the time (Brave, 278)

I couldn't tell half the time Just what the
situation was (Brave, 404)

they turned in all their belongings (Here, 81)

Egyptian and all those exotic languages (Here,
84

a daily schedule between all our big head-
quarters (Here, 94)

he called all his men (Here, 168)

all day guns roared in a complete circle (Here,

264)
all day we were a sort of crossroads for shells

and bullets (Here, 264)
but all those were—sideshows (Here, 283)
my dirty hat, my letters - all—the little
personal things (H333, l)
The non-appearance of the preposition occurs after other quan-
tifiers than all and hglg. Curme feels that in such instances
a partitive genitive has been replaced by appositional con-
struction. ”Instead of the genitive we often find apposition
after certain words; a little Egggd; two dozen gggg, dozens of
.gggg; a great many children; a few bgyg; two thousand dollars,
thousands of dollars; four million people, millions of people;
three score ygggg and ten, scores of times. In older English,
the appositional construction here was more widely used than

now: 'no morser'bred' (Chaucer); 'a barel ale' (ig.), etc.

This construction arose in the period of the decay of older

 

-131-

inflection. A simple genitive often did not have a distinc-
tive form, so that it appeared to stand in apposition with
the governing noun. Later, the true genitive was restored by
replacing the appositive by the clear modern prepositional
genitive. The old construction in general, has been retained
only where the governing noun has been construed as an ad-
Jective."80

(J) 9;,13 used to indicate what is usually known as the
subjective genitive, as in 'the desire 3; young men to go to
college.’ I have only one citation from Pyle illustrating this
use:

our endless shifting 33 formation (Hggg, 15)

(k) 9; is used to indicate the object following it as
subject to the verbal action implied in the noun preceding it,
as in 'the production 2; steel.‘

the laying Lf smoke screens by our armored

speedboats (Here, 17)
the fantastic searching Lf tracer bullets
(Here, 17)

the Opening of two night clubs (Here, 36)

photographed—the actual capture 3?_§ seaplane

base (Here, 18)
wounds ot WE than the loss Lf his hearing (HLre,

 

21)
ensured by the perfection Lf our own discipline
(Here, 15)

elimination Lf the eneny (HLre, 54)

meant the liberation Lf France (Here, 26)

grand tour Lf American camps (Here, 42)

could get a perfect view of the convoy' s zig-
zagging maneuvers (Here, —12)

was arrested for taking pictures Lf the convoy
(HLre, 13)

 

80 Curme, Syntax, 87.

 

~152-

and got pictures 23 their first wartime corpse
(HLre, 18)

getting shots Lf the troops dashing ashore
(Here, 18)

and took pictures 3; the local people (Here, 19)

(m) 9; is used to indicate specification after nouns,
adjectives, and verbs.
(ml) After nouns:

who had charge g£_an antiaircraft battery
(Here, 12)

took)excellent care Lf those who were (HLre,
31

they take such good care of me (Here, 31)

I last all track Lf where— we were (Here, 2)

now and then one would catch sighto L? something
(Here, 3)

a pleasant relief took hold of us (Here, 16)

double-barreled curriculum Lf_body toughening
(HLre, 34)

there wasn't much danger of malaria (HLre, 32)

who did a strip-tease burTEsque Lf Gypsy Rose
Lee (HLre, lO)

evidence+g£ the previous day's battle (HLre,
180

the same assurance of delivery (Here, 34)

the worst trouble aboard was a lack Lf hot
water (Here, 4)

there was no lack Lf bravery among our bomber
and fighter pilots (HLre, 100)

the shortage Lf sports equipment in the camps
(Lore, 36)—

this overweight Lf baggage (Lere, 39)

fifty-fifty chance Lf his recovering (Lere, 21)

felt an odd sense Lf irritation at not being
(Lars, 29)

an almost choking sense Lf its beauty (Here, 15)

the days Lf the night Air Mail (Here, 42)

their own forms of entertainment (He ere, 36)

incidents Lf the last war (Here, 43)

but the hero of the evening was (Lere, 10)

a permanent pictorial record Lf the war (Lere,
16

but the parents Lf nice girls in Oran (Lere, 29)

the neatness and cleanliness Lf the farming
country (Lere, 45)

he was judge Lf the 1hird Circuit Court (Lere,
71

executive 2§.a big soap company (Here, 271)

~133-

was appointed commanding officer of troops on
board (Here, 6) _—

the people 3; Oran (Here, 26)

the population 3: Oran is actually mostly French
(Here, 28)

the morning 2£_the American landings (Here, 5l)

came ashore the first morning of the occupation
(Here, 51)

at the end of that first day of the Battle of
Oran (Here, 18) _—

but what 2: it (Here, 72)

amazed by the suddenness 3; it all (Here, 25)

 

the normal state of laughing (Here, 256)

then began a day §i reassembling (Here, 257)

no hope 3; getting it back (Here,

after two days 3: loading American soldiers
aboard our troopship, and 2£_hoisting aboard
thousands (Here, 3)

a vivid and noisy display'2£ shooting all over
the place (Here, 5)

the divine right of getting ourselves shot
(Here, 5)

and cheered against a background g£_semi-
conscious listening for other sounds (Here, 12)

the sad sense of parting from new friends and
of returning'to old toils (Here, 13)

that first night of landing (Here, 24)

the original few days of fighting (Here, 25)

the prospect g£_getting something to eat again
(Here, 26)

did a good job of setting up clubs (Here, 36)

the drab, hard work g£_supplying the army or
waiting (Here, 57)

other methods g£_fighting (Here 70)

"the idea of living like this" (Here, 78)

no permanent system of posting the men for
leave or transfer Had been worked out (Here,
101

(m3) After adjectives:

not have to feel afraid of them (Here 285)

were terrified of air raids (Here, 535

slept wearily; Sblivious g; the Bedlam around
us (Here, 261)

were terrified of air raids (Here, 33)

not have to feel—afraid g; th—_THem ere, 283)

"we were hardly aware g: anything around us”
(Here, 17)

hadn‘t even been aware of it when it hit (Here,
40

and pround of myself (Here, 42)

-134-

everyone was afraid Lf getting shot (Here, 24)
I'm ashamed Lf being_ so soft (HLre, 35 5)

"On the analogy of afraid of past participles denoting

 

fear, in which the adjective character is particularly prominent,
naturally take of rather than_‘!_3_y.”8:L Jespersen regards afraid
as an adjective "Afraid is originally the participle of affray,
but is no longer felt as a participle; it takes of, and the
same is the case with the synonymous participle frightened,"82
In this sense the use of the preposition approaches the in-
strumental function of the by Which would normally follow.

(m3) After verbs:

told me_ Lf running his ambulance out (HLre,
275

their personal effects consisted Lf two tooth-
brushes (Here, 18)

it consisted L? a big black rubber schnozzle
(HLre, 91)—

this one consisted Lf a tent (Here, 164)

bivouac consisted Lf nothing more than (HLre,
266

the Algerians couldn't conceive of the fact
that our strength lay in our freedom (HLre,
57

it reminded me very much Lf Lisbon (HLre, 27)

slow ones, made up of freighters (Here, _1)

had never even heard—of the place (Here, 2)

most of us had never Heard Lf Oran (Here, 28)

the men complained bitterly- Lf the food (HLre,

4)
”when you think Lf people at home squawking”
(HLre, 12)

personally knew Lf instances (HLre, 275)
stripped of almost everything a person would
(Here, 53)

(n) Q£_is used in certain idiomatic adverbial phrases.

Ifit is possible that of here represents the prepositional equiv-

\

:1 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 96.
£3 Jespersen, A Modern‘English Grammar, III, 318.

-135-

alent of the older inflected,adverbial genitive, as seen in
'he works days,’ and survives in the occasional 'of a Sunday
he goes to church.‘ In the former illustration days is now
regarded as a plural form. I list a few instances from Pyle
without comment:
the ship, of course, was entirely black out
(Here, 77“

but, 2: course, the chooser (Here, 40)
and those of course were the war years (Here,

43)

then all 2£_a sudden they weren't (Here, 261)

we were Just ready to start when all 22’s
sudden (Brave, 400)

I decided all g; a sudden that I couldn't face
C rations (Brave, 408)

and then all a: an instant the universe became
filled with a gigantic rattling (Brave, 436)

9; appears in a very large number of compounds and phrasal
EDrepositions, probably due to its lack of semantic strength.
Crhe only example occuring in Pyle's writing of a compound when
SDf'was the primary element was in the case of of about. 92_
sippears as the secondary part of compounds in ahead of, far
.gghead of, back of, because of, inside of, instead of, outside
(>13 sort of, and upward of; see 2.2(31). In addition of has
toecome the second portion of the single preposition out of.
“The preposition 2£_has become the last element in a very large
Iiumber of phrasal prepositions, particularly with the preposi-
1310n in. I have examples of in behalf of, in case of, in
Sflggrge of, in favor of, in front of, in full possession of, in
lieu of, in spite of, in terms of, in the center of, in the

llsflgrse of, in the fall of, (right) in the middle of, in the

\midst of, in view of, out in front of, on the bottom of, 33

-136-

the edge of, on top of, and on (this, the far, both, all)

 

 

side(s) of. In addition the NED lists by means of, by reason

 

 

23, for fear of, in behalf of, in consequence of, in respect

33, on account of, on behalf of, on condition of, on the point

of, etc.85

1.31 93:: OE of (unstressed)>'MnE 23:. The preposition
therefore belongs in Composition Group I. The stressed form
of OE g£_ MnE g£_(see above 1.30).

(a) The general meaning of 333 is 'away from a position
occupied.' The majority of examples fall into this category.

but the morning we filed of: the boat in North
Africa (Here, 5)

the first place I ever picked an orange off a
tree (Here, 21) ‘—_—

merely fallen off the wing (Here, 42)

clear battle dEFfis of: the docks (Here, 48)

carrying him off the stage (Here, 63)

let her carrthfim off the stage (Here, 64)

half a mile of: the road (Here, 171)

to keep the accumulating frost 23E my face (Here,
183

about a mile of; the road (Here, 236)

captured a dug in 88-millimeter gun while driv-
ing the Germans off the hill (Here, 263) 4

the captain got halfway of: the litter (Here,
272

(b) I have one instance of the meaning 'close by or beside':
a troopship lying off the coast (Here, 17)
(0) Off is also employed in certain idioms:

but she almost danced him off his feet (Here,
63)

(d) Often off floats halfway between inseparable adverbial

\

83 'or,' NED, Vol. 7, Pt. 1, $62.

~137-

attachment to a verb and prepositional status because of its
frequent employment in verb-adverb combinations such as blow

off, get off, give off, pick off, put off, shoot off and put

 

off. I have an example from Pyle illustrating the floating

status of off: 'and stay off certain decks' (Here, 8).
Off appears primarily compounded very frequently and I

have examples of off at, off in, off into, off on, and off to.

Off from.strangely enough fails to occur. Curme mentions the

frequent occurence of the compound in popular speech84 and

JPoutsma gives a citation in his Grammar for the usage. Un-

:fortunately many school grammarians warn against this partic-

lllar compounding and it is my personal opinion that off from

 

:13 much more current in the Spoken language than a study of

IByle's usage would indicate. Off appears compounded second-

Eirily only in the case from off; see §2.2(32).

1.32 92; Since the MnE form develops directly from the

(DE gn, the preposition belongs to Composition Group I.
The preposition 23, although it retains perhaps more se-

‘nlantic value than for and of, is truly confusing by virtue of

1.ts manifold meanings and usages. Even in OE 32_governed the

Eiccusative, dative, and instrumental cases which may be an in-

<1ication of early weakening of the preposition.
(a) The principle use of 22 is to indicate contact with a

sllrface. However, there are a number of minor distinctions

\

84 Curme, A Grammar of the English Language, III, 565.
85 Poutsma, a Grammar of Late Modern English, 751.

-l38-

which need to be made within this general category.

(al) Position contacting an upper or supporting surface
may be indicated by the use of on. 1'he implication is that
the surface is horizontal.

enlisted men were allowed to go anywhere on
deck they wished (Here, 4) ‘-_

officers weren't permitted on the enlisted men's
deck (Here, 5) -—'

correspondents were to be allowed on deck during
an attack (Here, 5) '_—

using flashlights on deck at night (Here, 6)

one night a nurse came on deck (Here,

played handball 9.2 the Tech with—Ft e officers
(Here, 8)

he Had to sleep on floors (Here, 8)

occasionally 33 ‘the horizon—we could dimly sight
a sailing sloop (Here, 12)

many soldiers slept g§_deck those last few
nights (Here, 14)

the last two mornings I managed to get awake
and on deck just before daylight (Here, 15)

Ned had—his own studio on fashionable Madison
Avenue (Here, 16)

stood in the darkness gg_the hurricane deck

(Here, 17)

a wounded French soldier lying 33 the beach
(Here, 18)

the two photographers sprawled 2n the flour
(Here, 18)

in their first twelve hours 3g African soil
(Here, 18)

during their second night on African soil the
two (Here, 18)

"slept" in another countr schoolhouse - that
time 23 desks (Here, 19

wounded soldiers gathered on near-by cots (Here,

22)

"there were dead men lying on the deck" (Here,
23

he stumbled onto an Arab sleeping 3g the bench
(Here, 24)

standing 2n the street (Here, 30)

a monstrous-looking lizard lying on the pavement
(Here, 29)

with a camel on his handle bars (Here, SO)

tending wounddd sailors and soldiers 2n the
beach (Here, 31)

is landing an enemy beaches (Here, 35)

two strangers sleeping 22 my floor (Here, 37)

-159-

blankets I found 22 the floor (Here, 39)

going on down there on the ground (Here, 41)

a note 23 my pillow Tfiere, 41)

.22 ground covered with sagebrush (Here, 43)

they)were camped gg_a sloping hillside (Here,
43

alleviated somewhat when we got on the desert
(Here, 71) "‘

the last place 23 earth where anyone would get
malaria (Here, 92)

the most important lacks of the soldiers on
foreign soil (Here, 101) '_-

already had fought on several fronts (Here, 116)

were put gg_stretchd?s (Here, 273)

served 32 the African front (Here, 274)

An extension of the action of writing, which requires a

surface, occurs in several instances. Instrumental function

could also be interpreted.

listed horse meat on their menus (Here 27)
it had been plannedfgp paper (Here, 555
Just weren't possible 33 paper (Here, 102)

Conveyance or means of transportation such as trains, ships,

<3tc., are regarded as possessing flat, supporting surface. Ci-

‘tations have already been listed in 1.1 paragraphs (b) and (c).

(a2) 93 many also indicate contact with or support from a

wrertical surface.

Unean

and huge packs 33 their backs (Here, 2)
bullets pinged 23 the walls (Here, 18)

rations carried 3g their backs (Here, 26)
pasting shatter tape on the windows (Here, 27)

bundles of sticks _o_I_:1_ their backs (Here, 44)
but 22 their scoreboard they (Here, lI9)

(a3) 93 with the sense of contacting a surface may also
'covering' when the surface is not flat.

goggles were frequently seen 2n_nmerican heads
(Here, 284)

he was fully dressed 22_the upper half (Here,
120)

but 2p_the lower half he had nothing but shorts
(Here, 120)

~140-

(a4) 93 occurs in the expression on the way which liter-

 

ally would mean 'in the process of moving'. The expression

dates back to OE where on weg could mean 'on the path or road.’

but on the way somebody told us (Here, 2)
passing troops on the way, and (Here, 19)
"met each other on the way? (Here, 11)

on the way back we put (Here,

was sunk on the way back (Here, 52)

 

 

(a5) 93 also occurs in the expressions on the whole, 33

 

the other hand, and on the averagg. Here the eXpressions may

be regarded as illogical and hence idioms. However, earlier

use of these idioms was similar to that listed under (b6) and

for that reason I include the idioms here.

on the whole (Here, 25)

'ddt on the whole they were Just (Here, 87)

gp_tE§ whole, they couldn't understand (Here,
288

‘33 the other hand, it also has (Here, 28)

33 the average, the nights even (Here, 32)

(a6) Position in contact with a surface may also be in-

dicated indirectly by giving a direction or location relative

to the speaker or a point of reference.

our ship was 23 the outside (Here, 14)
had stopped Just 32_our right (Here, 181)

The intensifiers Just and right occur usually only under

the general category of 'contact with a general surface.‘

had stopped Just 22 our right (Here, 181)

outdoors, right 32_the field (Here, 41)

gave injections right 3p the field (Here, 76)

had bien killed right 23 the home field (Here,
110

(b) 9g also serves to eXpress relationships once indicated

by the old instrumental case.

play loud tunes 33 their glasses with their

-l4l-

forks (HLre, 9)

gorged ourselves Ln them (HLre, 26)

they lived Ln oranges (Here, 26)

and got along on pidgin Erench and loud shout-
ing (HLre, 27T

loaded up Ln perfume and lipsticks (HLre, 30)

when they were in battle and excited— they sort
of went on their nerve (Here, 158)

in through— the brush on foo t (Here,166)

men came straggling in Ln foot from the desert
(Here, 170)

Ln another order we all crept over into some
—grass (HLre, 261)

a mystery— to me how troops could move Ln foot
in total darkness (Here, 262)

or tripped on a telephone wire (Here, 262)

already living Ln borrowed time (Here, 271)

the back and ran on two small caterpillar
tracks (HLre, 2§§)

In one instance the instrumental is not at once clear. How-

ever I include an above cited example for better understand-

ing.

Compare:

they lived 32 oranges (H333, 26)

with:

they were 22_American rations (Hggg, 94)

(c) Qg_is used to indicate the object that receives the

direct action of the verb work:

and had been working 22 his Masters at Penn
State (Here, 40)

I have one instance where the verb work is not employed but

carries the same sense. Furthermore the name of a newspaper

apparently can or cannot be regarded as the object receiving

the direct action of work rather than the employer of work.

Grainger Sutton, once a linotype operator 32
the Washington Daily News (HLre, 38)

The verbal construction to be / based is usually followed

-l42-

by gn_or upon.

based on personal and bodily gratitude (Here,
26
was based on the Frenchman's love (Here, 26)

(d) Qg_is often employed to indicate the dative notion.
Curme notes that in colloquial language eXpressions such as
'the fire has gone out on me' and 'he has gone back on me'
frequently occur and feels that on is the equivalent of
against and the result of a desire for a clearer expression
of the idea of disadvantage.86 I have several examples of
this usage from Pyle's writings.

he had two strikes 33 deafness to begin with
(Here, 22)

they didn't have much on me (Here, 40)

he would never use his—jhjitsu, except on the
enemy (Here, 70)

you'd think it would be pretty devastating on
a fellow of Barr's background (Here, 90) -—'

when fitukas were driving 2n_our troops (Here,
162

they fired on our troops (Here, 263)

shall? were-landing smack an the Germans (Here,
270

I also have several instances which seem to me to carry the
dative notion, but not that of disadvantage:

finally it dawned 2n_somebody (Here, 59)
there were several patients QEDwEom they had
done normal operations (Here, 83)

(e) Qg_is also employed by Pyle to indicate past, present,
or future engagement in an activity.

a few had gone on the Dieppe raid (Here, 34)

Captain Jacob took me on a cross-country walk
(Here, 35)

already flown 3n several missions (Here, 40)

he got it on the very first American mission
(Here, 4T7 -

_—

86 Curme, Syntax, 106—07.

takipg me on a South Carolina deer hunt (Here,

41

I agreed to go on the trips (Here, 70)

I went on two egg orgies (Here, 71)

went through more in Africa than they ever did
on missions to Europe (Here, 100)

piTSts were then on their third tour of combat
duty (Here, lOlT—

allowed to go along on bombing missions (Here,
106 “’"‘

asked if I cared to go along on a mission
(Here, 106)

finished their required missions and gone on
ground duty (Here, 292)

(f) Q£_is very frequently employed in a temporal function.
(fl)‘ngmay have the same meaning as the preposition

during.

on our first morning out (Here, 5) A
hhe frightful condition they do 2n_some voyage

(Here, 6)

we all grew to like him very much an the trip
(Here, 8) -

humor runs pretty thin 23 a long convoy trip
(Here, 8)

acquaintanceships grew broader and broader, )uSt
as they do on a peacetime cruise (Here, 15

on the morning of November eighth (Here, 17)

Th the Mediterranean 23 the coldest days (Here,

35)
on my first day in Oran a beaming fellow (Here,
38

work his head off on his own time (Here, 141)
surprised that on £36 average day they (Here,
285)
(f2) The preposition 22 may indicate a specific time in
the sense of at.
to my room on Christmas Eve (Here, 70)
they stopped-taking quinine 23 the first of
December (Here, 92)
(3) On (I definite or indefinite article) / noun may be
periphrastic equivalents of a present participle. Poutsma

notes that they may occur with or without the definite of in-

~144-

definite article and says: "These with the definite article,
always active in meaning, are very frequent, especially in
colloquial language; those without either article are often

passive in meaning, i.e. when the noun answers to a transitive

verb."87

a lieutenant and three enlisted men up there
all the time, 3n lookout with binoculars
(Here, 12)

they had been on the go all day (Here, 18)

when they were 33 the move (Here, 43)

"we've got 'am on the run" (Here, 168)

were up all nigh? on the march (Here, 266)

(h) Q§_may'be followed by a present participle. In this
case the usage is restricted to the verbs count and insist
which may or may not take the preposition ,1 object.

we insisted on trusting everybody (Here, 42)

they)insistedޤn running errands for me (Here,
70

Snip insisted on taking me (Here, 70)

always count 33 being awakened (Here, 267)

In this connection Jespersen notes a number of verbs which
may or may not take the preposition ¥ object: attend, begin,

commence, decide, enter, improve, operate, play, ponder, re-

solve, remark, touch, etc.88

(1) Q5 often means simply 'regarding.‘

to get a line on whether I was going to live
or not (Here, 31)

I heard them remark 2n_it a hundred times (Here,
66

complementing each other on our hospitality
(Here, 43)

advice booklets were distributed on how to con-
duct ourselves in North Africa There, 5)

a captain at another command post requested a
decision on whether to move forward (Here, 166)

 

E

37 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 543.
88 Jespersen, AfMSdern English Grammar, III, 264-66.

-145-

(3) 'Movement ahead' is sometimes indicated by on.

they were eager to sweep on through (Here, 24)

‘gn‘beyond were high hills—THere, 177)

gg_ahead there were single rifle shots (Brave,

428)

(k) 92 like most of the older prepositions seems to com-
bine frequently with other prepositions (or itself) and has
already compounded with 33 to form the single independent prep-
osition onto.

Link compound:

on and on.

Primary compounding:

On about, on into, on over, and onto; seei§2.2(34).

 

Secondary compounding:

(Far) back on, behind on, down on, off on, out on, 332;
on, and gp_gg; see 2.2(34).

Primary element, phrasal prepositions:

was bombed on an average of every two hours
(Here, 119)

splattered on all sides of them (Here, 162)

and on all sides of us (Here, 14)

warships were ahead and on all sides of us
(Here, 14)

we came to the Strait of Gibraltar - to lights
on both sides of us (Here, 15)

the move was on orders from the commander (Here,
20

I hated to think of that faithful ship being 33
the bottom of the ocean (Here, 52)

to create much "drinkin' liquor" on the con-
tinent of Africa (Here, 71)

was sitting on the edge of a folding cot (Here,

 

 

21)
I sat down on the edge of the next cot (Here,
22

down on the far side of a hill (Here, 270)

painted on the nose of their plane lHere, 40)

resting on the top of_his cap and looEIng for-
ward (Here, $9)

 

-l46-

to go into action on this side of the ocean

 

 

(Here, 17)
and landed right on top of a chaplain (Here,
157

there were boats stacked on top of each other

(Brave, 366)
and kissed a front row colonel on top of his

bald head (Here, ll)
poised comfortahly on top of his head (Here, 30)
rode about thirty miles on top of Nat's head

(Here, 30)
uniforms with coveralls on top of those (Here,

113)
many pet dOgs riding into the battle on top of

tanks and trucks (Eggzg, 460)
dived into his foxhole and I was right on top
2; him (Here, 266)
1.35‘Qgtg: Since onto represents an amalgamation or com-
pounding of 33 ¢ tg_the preposition belongs in Composition
Group III. Qgfig is now recognized by most authorities as a
single preposition although it is of much more recent origin
than into. NED dates 3333 from the 16th century89 although
Jespersen further notes that Keats was apparently the first to
adopt the spelling as one word.90 Interestingly enough the
New International only mentions 1333 in a brief footnote and
gives it as a variation of 2223191
(a) 9233 eXpresses the complex notion of motion to or to-
wards a position of rest in space. "The preposition 2333, or
less prOperly on tg_corresponds closely to igtg. As it indi-
cates motion toward the upper surface of something it differs

distinctly from 23 or upon...The use of onto or 22_33 ought

not to be discouraged, as is done by many grammarians, but

 

89 'Onto,' NED, Vol. 7, Pt. 1.
9 Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, III, 9.
91 New International, 1504.

-147-

strongly encouraged, for it enables us to eXpress ourselves

more accurately."92 Curme exnlains the adding of to to the

preposition on as a result of the loss of the dative and ac-

cusative case endings.93

(b) The primary use of onto is in the sense of 'to a
place on or upon.’

they Jumped onto whatever seemed to be the lead-
ing band wagon (Here, 57)

walked challengineg onto the stage (HLre, 64)

and it had been tagged onto him ever since
(HLre, 87)

rose up from his bed onto his elbow (Here, 105)

lashed the sheep' s carcass onto one of them
(HLre, 122)

throu h the escape hatch oLto a stretcher (HLre,
130

had a 50 pound radio strapped onto his back
(HLre, 260)

to throw battalion after battalion onto an al-
ready pulverized hill (Here, 269)“

didn' t dare to venture onto the shell-raked
field (HLre, 276)

forced it oLto his middle finger (HLre, 280)

 

(c) Qgtg is distinct from the combination of the insep-
arable adverbial attachment on { the preposition 33.
he went to the New York School of Fine Arts,
then 23 to two years study in Paris (HLre,
"IISAnt to get g£_tg_the front." (H332, 86)
However the distinction sometimes is not observed as is the
case with igtg_which Jeepersen notes in his Grammar.94

conversation drifted onto the merits (HLre,
269

(d) The use of into as an inseparable adverbial unit at-

 

92 Curme, 8 tax, 566.
93 Ibid., III, 560. Also see above 51. 28 Into.
94 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, III, 9.

-l48-

tached to the verbs run and stumble also occurs. As was pre-
viously pointed out, into and onto in this case are apparently
interchangeable; see above §l.28.

in a section where I ran onto a bunch of soldiers
from New Mexico (Here,l2)

they ran onto all kinds of snags (Here, 35)

I was always running onto some genuine acquaint-
ance (Here, 37)

there I ran onto Lieutenant Dick Alter (Here, 42)

he stumbled onto an Arab (Here, 24)

 

 

 

 

(e) Onto only occurs secondarily in compounds as was true
with into and Pyle uses down onto, out onto, over onto, and 22

onto; see $2.2(34).

1.34 Out: Historically MnE out represents OEjEE. The

preposition however falls into Composition Group IV since it
was not a preposition until after the OE period.

(a) QEE as a preposition is used in the sense 'from a
position within to a position without,’ 'from a point inside
to a point outside.’ The position within or point inside is
thought of as a center, and out always implies direction away
from the center. This center is always the point of reference
and may be a room, a house, a yard, an enclosure, a city, a
country, etc. I have only one instance from Pyle:

heaved a hand grenade out the window (H233, 18)

In this instance, and in others widely current, the meaning
of gut might be given as 'through...in the direction from in-
side to outside.‘ The speaker may or may not be identified
with the point of reference; in 'he went out the door' the

speaker is identifiable with the point of reference; in 'he

~149-

oame 22£.the door' he is not. In the citation from Pyle
(above) it is impossible to tell whether he is or not. The
opposite direction is expressed by means of in or some com—
pound of lg.

I might raise the question whether this use of 333 is on
the decline. Certainly the citations I have from Pyle show
more instances of out of in this meaning than out: 'out of
the bushes came' (Egrg, 168), 'on the morning of the German's
surprise breakthrough out of Faid Pass' (Egggfi 170), 'stuck
his head out of the turret' (5222! 26), 'guns and food came
pouring out of the busy hatches' (3222) 47), 'hundreds of Arabs
came pouring out of the mud buildings' (Eggs, 202); for fur-
ther instances of out of see $1.35.

(b) 93£_1s used also in the sense 'along,‘ as in 'out
main street,’ 'out Highway 68.’ The meaning is 'in a con-
tinuous movement along' but with the implication 'farther from
the center.‘ Movement in the opposite direction is indicated
by means of down, that is, 'nearer the center.‘ I have no in-
stances from Pyle of this use of out.

(o) 923 is used by Pyle to indicate orientation to a point
of reference. No movement is here implied: the function of
.223 is orientation, which in the use under (a) was only inci-
dental. This meaning of out is very common with Pyle and may
be on the increase in our spoken language.

it was cold out there at night and they sat

around bonfires before going to bed in their
little tents. They were the first troops into

Gran, but they had never been back to the
city (Here, 43—44)

-150—

"I never go into town. I feel better out here
than I've ever felt in my life." (Here, 78)
they seldom drove the twenty miles into town
because they got to like it out there (Here,
81 "" '_—_—
digging out there in the soft desert sand was
paradise compared to the claylike digging at
our base (Here, 205)
maybe that was Because we were out where we
could see more sky than ordinarily (Here, 32)
”I know why you're out here" (Brave, 3
In these instances the function of out is to indicate a place,
location, away from some other place, point of reference. It
is to be observed also that in these instances out is immedi-
ately followed by here, there, or where. Out there implies
that the speaker is more or less identifiable with the point
of reference; out here implies that the speaker is not iden-
tifiable with the point of reference; out where does not of
itself give any indication whether the speaker is or is not
identifiable with the point of reference. Usually the point
of reference is mentioned somewhere, most often before out, in
the same sentence or paragraph. In the case of the last ci-
tation above there was no point of reference given in the text.
The statement was made at a time when Generals Doolittle and
Spaatz visited a bomber station. When the pilot in speaking
to them uses out here, he is undoubtedly thinking of the head-
quarters from which they came as the point of reference. Out
our way and out your wgy, although I have no citations of
either from Pyle, carry the same implications as out here and
out there.

Out in the phrase out west was probably at one time an

instance of the above usage. Winburne feels that out west

-151-

"developed as back east‘may have during the days of westward
expansion when the West was almost literally out of the coun-
try. At any rate, in the United States we often use the
idiom out west."95
933,1ike back and ggwn, has a strong tendency to combine
with other prepositions to form compounds. I have examples

for out above, out across, out along, out at, far out at, out

by, out from, out in, far out in, out into, clear out into,

 

out on, far out on, out onto, out over, out to, far out to,
out toward, out under, and out with. 93£_has already combined
with g: to create a single preposition; see $1.35. The only
use of 22£_as a secondary element is in the instance from out.
923 represents the older separable prefix and its appearance
in countless nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs, speaks

amply for its strong combinative abilities.

1.35 Out of: Whether represented as one word (very rare-
ly) or as two words (almost universally) the preposition 323
2; represents a combination of the OE adverbjgt (variants 3122:
jgtg) and the OE preposition pf. The OE adverb E1 later devel-
oped into a preposition and in this function combined with 3;.
I accordingly classify out of in Composition Group III.

In present practice out of reflects in various ways the
function of the older ablative case. The relationship eXpres-
sed by the old ablative was primarily separation, and separation

'from' seems to be involved in many of the uses of out of (in

k

95 Winburne, 22, cit., 9.

 

direction, motion, position as related to point of reference,
partification). In many instances out of has come to be used
in place of the simple _o_Ly_:_ (see §l.34) or _o_f_ (see§1.30).
Out of is greatly in need of historical study. We need to
know when and under what circumstances the two words first
came to be used together and when the combination came to be
felt as a unit. Poutsma gives one example from Shakespeare of
its early use, but offers no comment on it beyond its meaning
in the passage:

Her chariot is an empty hazel-nut

Made by the Joiner squirrel or old grub,

Time ggt_g"mind the fairies' coachmakers.96

In the present study I am treating out of as a preposition-
al unit. Traditional grammarians are likely to treat the par-
ticles separately, and if they recognize any functional unit
do so grudgingly. Poutsma regards out of as consisting "of a
primary adverb and a primary preposition belonging, strictly,
to different elements of the sentence, but so closely con-
nected as to form a kind of unit."97 Jespersen devotes a sin-
gle line to it and notes that ”out of may be used in contrast
to i232.”98 Kruisinga feels that out of is the only independ-
ent meaning of_o_f_.99 Certainly in a great many instances gut
2£pmust be construed as a close unit if we are to be realistic

in our analysis of current practice. In 'he rolled, out of

 

96 Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, I. 4, as quoted in Poutsma,
A Grammar_gf Late’Modern English, 803.

97 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 718.

98 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, IV, 384.

99 Kruisinga, Accidence and Syntax, 294.

~153-

control' (£353, 302) it would be difficult to construe out of,
either 233 alone or the combination as a whole, with the verb,
particularly in view of the comma between the verb and out of.
In 'at home' and 'out of town' there certainly seems to be a
parallel in meaning. Even more striking is the parallel 'he
went into the house' and 'he went out of the house.‘ The
only difference is that into is spelled solid and out of still
as two words.

It is possible, on the basis of the citations from Pyle,
to distinguish six uses of out of.

(a) Out of is used, very extensively, in the sense 'from
a position within to a position without' or 'from inside to
outside.‘ This was the first of the uses of out alone, and
indeed in some instances gut_and out of are interchangeable,
though out of seems much more common than out; see $1.34. This
use represents 81. % of the instances from Pyle with out of.

(al) I list first instances of out of in this sense where
the object following is thought of as a container, more or
less limited, with more or less natural boundaries:

they tumbled out of the barge and landed waist-

deep in the-Egaiterranean (Here, 17)

stuck his head out of the turret and somebody
yelled (Here, 26)

couldn‘t get him out of a slit trench all night
(Here, 68)

cold water out of a canvas washpan (Here 78)

bayonets stuck out of the bags (Here, )

contributed to the mess fund out of their own
pockets (Here, 95)

made their eyes pop out of their heads (Here,

 

102)
the first man to drop out of the plane (Here,
103)

dining in style out of mess kits (Here, 116)

-154-

leaping out of an airplane (HLre, 120)

and out of them six big transports climbed
the eighty-five weary ground men (Here, 120)

C rations out of tin cans (HLre, 311

couldn' t get the ball- turret gunner out of his
turret (Here, 121)

damned fools we were to get out of that ditch
(HLre, 137)

they didn't even get out of bed (Here, 141)

auction in his fox-hole that he could dn’ t get
out of it (HLre, 146)

pu uIIed a tiny piece of shrapnel out of his
pocket (HLre, 146)

flowed like water out of their vehicles (Here,
163

until he felt like a mouse trying to get put
of a room of silent cats (HLre, 172)

pull stories out of people (Here, 174)

the moment he got out of a pIane (Here, 194)

it was truly an Old world scene out of a book
(HLre, 195)

then we just walked out of the tent (HLre, 198)

it took days to gett he 3 ust out of our eyes
and noses (Here, 200)

he never got out of bed (HLre, 214)

Don got his sleepy head out of the blankets
(HLre, 228)

Lennie —Jumped out of his Jeep (HLre, 247)

got to be like a scene out of a Saroyan play
(HLre, 260)

caused me to jump out of my skin (Here, 300)

blew him out of his hole (HLre, 302

trucks and guns and food came *pouring out of
the busy hatches (HLre, 47)

hundreds of.Arabs came pouring out of the mud
buildings (HLre, 202)

the amount of material pouring out of those
ships was impressive (HLre, 47

the boys were dumping the empty shells out of
the planes in midair (Here, 59)

balanced the amount by gett1ng out of bed to
give them drinking water (HLre,

his head sticking out of the_ open turret door
(Here, 176)

(a2) I list next instances where the object following is
a geographical area, usually of considerable size, with spe—
cific or approximate boundaries:

he had to clear scuttled ships out of the
harbor (Here, 48)

-155-

suddenly out of a blank sky, two fighters dived
on them (Here, 124)

it had to pull out of its battle positions,
time the departures of its various units (Here,
148

and out of the bushes came (Here, 168)

on the morning of the German's surprise break-
through out of Faid Pass, I was up in the
Ousseltia Valley (Here, 170)

the Germans would be thrown out of Tunisia
(Here, 186)

as Eeneral Joe Stilwell said about our getting
kicked out of Burma the year before (Here,
186

who would run Rommel out of Tunisia (Here, 187)

faked in order to get out of the front lines
(Here, 275)

chased me out of my shady place (Here, 279)

prisoners were worked out of the forward
Tunisian area (Here, 287)

cleaned the Russians out of Siberia (Here, 288)

they had been cleaned out of the battle area
by both sides (Here,

swept the Heinies out of the rough coastal
country (Here, 3

big push such as the one that broke us out of
the beachhead (Brave, 443)

we drove on out of town for a quarter of a mile
(Brave, 452)

the last German was out of Africa (Here, 245)

"let's get the hell out of here" (Here, 20)

had decided to get the hell out of there in a
hurry (Here, 59)

 

 

 

(a3) I list finally instances where the object together
with the preposition represents a condition (frequently in an

abstract sense):

the jeep roared on down the road and out of
danger, with one (Here, 20)

misconceptions at home must have grown out of
some missing parts of the picture (Here, 54)

had sort of slipped out of the category of
rivalry (Here, 107

iced up and went out of control (Here, 121)

suddenly out of siestalike doze the order came
(Here, 1

let a Legionnaire get out of control on the
street (Here, 214)

a man could manage to wangle out of it [life]
by personal ingenuity (Here, 221)

~156-

defective shells got out of shape (Here, 265)

came out of it [the battle] madder than ever
at their enemy (Here, 289)

wouldn't come out of low gear (Here, 300)

our combat troops moved back out of range of
enemy strafers (Here, 305)

not because they were out of eye range, but
because (Here, 13)

and laughed till he was out of sight (Here, 59)

the commandant was out of Bed (Here, 211)

glad to be out of it fthe‘war) IHere, 284)

we had additional escorts out of sight over
the horizon (Here, 14)

where)I could lie down out of the wind (Here,
227

with a violence utterly out of character with
a landscape so rich in nature's kindness
(Here, 235)

he rolled, out of control (Here, 302)

what little warmth and safety a man could man-
age to wangle out of it [a soldier's life]
by personal ingenuity (Here, 221)

Americans and British could get out of the
Legion (Here, 212)

had demolished four German tanks before being
put out of commission themselves (Here, 180)

they put Eim out of action (Here, 277)

their plane would Be out of commission for a
few days (Here, 6?)

guns were out of commission (Here, 133) .

the ship was completely out of trim SHere, 133)

every plane out of action (Here, 127

(b) Out of appears in the sense 'because of.' I have only

two instances of this usage among my citations from Pyle:

tine after time just out of fascination (Here,
76)

which I drank hungrily out of deep gratitude
for their thoughtfulness lHere, 90)

(0) Out of is used to indicate the materials from which

something is made. This use is more or less parallel to that

of (b) under 3;; see $1.30. Although the use is widely cur-

rent, I don't have too many instances from Pyle.

made their own utensils out of those famous

-157—

five-gallon gasoline tins (Here, 143)

can't be made out of a five-gallon gasoline
tin (Here, 143)

and out ofmboxes we built (Here, 148)

you could take any thousand soldiers in our
army, and out of them create a good orches-
tra (Here,

they made a fireman out of him (Here, 89)

it made quick veterans out of them (Here, 100)

wrong to try to make anything sinister out of
that (Here, 233) ““"'

(d) Out of is used to indicate partification in the sense

of (h) under 23; see $1.30:

and put fifteen out of one hundred and fifty
of them in the Hospital (Here, 117)

they actually managed to get about three hours'
sleep out of their first sixty ashore (Here,
19

one man out of that five thousand (Here, 137)

nine times out of ten it turned out to be one
of our own (Eere, 163)

two or three dim-witted guys out of every
company got lost (Here, 263

bombardier was temporarily out of the crew too
(Here, 103)

(9) Out of is used to indicate complete separation, often

with the implication 'through destruction,‘ of a part from the

whole, often figuratively:

run)

”we are going to kick hell out of them" (Here,
175

we didn't kick hell out of them (Here, 175)

and murder the hell out of the low down (Here,
196)

bombed hell out of an empty field (Here, 271)

out the seat out of their trousers (Here, 273)

(r) Out of is used to indicate (particularly after the verb
the exhaustion or end of something:

they had run out of white tape (Here, 263)

1.36 Outside: 0n the outsides of (NED 1505))’MnE outside.

The preposition belongs therefore to Composition Group II.

-l58-

The suppression of the 3; following outside has been a
long established practice and we can regard outside now as an
independent single preposition. The omission of the 23 fol-
lowing side when in combination with other words that are
semantically strong is a common practice.100 However some
dictionaries still fail to recognize the independent status
of outside as a preposition.101

The meaning of outside is 'without' or 'beyond the limits
of' and all of my examples from Pyle are used in this sense.

that was happening outside the radius of our

lenses (Here, 17)

outside the big cities, Algeria hadn't fared

T?” y (Here, 56) .,

French_h08pital Just outside Kasserine (mere,

186

standing outside their foxholes (Here, 265)

Intensification seems limited to Just although Poutsma

102

notes an occurence of far outside. Outside appears com-

pounded only in outside of.

1.37 9_y_e_x_-_: OE _o_f£_1_::>MnE 3111;. We may therefore regard
the preposition as belonging to Composition Group I.

(a) The general and oldest sense is 'above or higher than
in place or position.' There are however several variations
involved in this meaning.

(31) If there is no motion implied or the motion is in a
relatively straight line in a higher position, the meaning is

almost identical to that of above.

 

100 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 801.
101 For example see: American COIIege Dictionary, 861.
102 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late’ModerngEnggish, 791.

-159-

and looking forward snakelike over his brow
(Here, 29)

AraBs squatted closely over it [the fire] like
old pals (Here, 30)

cold at high altitudes over Africa (Here, 41)

over)Africa as it had been over England (Here,
41

planes bound for destruction of the Axis
roared over the weird city of canvas (Here,
81

and which hung over each jaw (Here, 91)

a certain number of missions over enemy ter-
ritory (Here, 100)

they were operating over the Mediterranean
(Here, 117)

shells roared over us from every point (Here,
264

three and four thousand shells passed over our
heads (Here, 264)

over the large streams American and British
engineers had (Here, 290)

Intensification seems to be most common in the case of this
specific meaning.
Clear over:

"they went clear over our heads" (Here, 270)

 

Far over:

shells from both sides kept going far over
our heads (Here, 261)

High over:

holding their cameras high over their heads
(Here, 4)

 

Just over:

 

a sniper's bullet had taken him just over the
right eye (Here, 20)

Right oger:
one of them making a horseshoe right over the

ship (Here, 12)
their dives right over our hill (Here, 282)

 

(a2) Over also may imply a certain type of motion which

-l60-

(1) starts at a point, (2) goes to a higher point (usually an
obstacle of some sort), and (3) goes down to a point relatively
level with the starting point.

Harrington reached over the body and grabbed

the wheel (Here, 20)
they worked their way inland over the hills

(Here, 24) _
crawl — up his arm, over his shoulder (Here,
29

they accidentally ran a number of ships over
sunken hulks and tore out their bottoms
(Here, 49)

wound like a ribbon over a hill miles away
(Here, 254)

up a slope and over another hill (Here, 255)

skinned from crawling over rocks (Here, 258)

moved on foot in total darkness over rough,
pathless country that was completely strange
to them (Here, 262)

(b) 91§£_may also be used to indicate the instrumental
function eXpressed in older languages (and a few modern lan-
guages) by means of inflection. The general sense is 'by means
of' or 'because of.'

we were going to Russia over the Murmansk
route (Here, 5)

deliriously happy over the American's arrival
(Here, 26)

cooked over their campfire (Here, 41)

enthusiastic as a child over the whole hospital
setup (Here, 78)

over the intercommunication phone (Here, 121)

near the phones and did all the talking over
them (Here, 165)

came to the tanks over their radios (Here, 177)

officers wept over the ghastly death (Here,
283

German officers were obviously down in the mouth
over the tragic and of their campaign (Here,

 

283)
broke)their rifle over bridge abutments (Here,
287

Sometimes the difference between instrumental function and the

indication of 'place higher than' is hard to distinguish.

-l61-

Instrumental:

they)carried three over their shoulders (Here,

18

containers slung on poles over their shoulders
(Here, 257)

Place:

we merely slung them over our shoulders for
carrying (Here, 7)

throwing the exhausted soldier over her shoulder
(Here, 63)

(c) 9123 has come to have the meaning of 'covering' which
I assume to be a further development of the sense 'higher than'
mentioned in paragraph (a). A blanket was technically both
'higher than' and 'covering' to a person. ‘ngg then assumed
the function of 'covering' in places not quite as logical as on
a bed, i.e. 'a blanket 3123 the door.'

for no apparent reason, fell over his steering
wheel (Here, 20) ~

put down one blanket to lie on and had five
spread over them (Here, 33)

before long they were ready to spill out in a
smothering flow over the enemy (Here, 48)

mosquito nets over the cots (Here, 78)

heavy mosquito bar drapped over that (Here, 82)

f1ap)was pulled over the tent entrance (Here,
82

hideous rash over his neck and face (Here, 84)

a camouflage net over it (Here, 162)

a canvas cover over It (Here, 162)

was mixed up over an area of ten miles (Here,
169 ' ---

he got down and threw a blanket over himself
(Here, 262)

and drew the other shelter half over me (Here,
281

(d) Over apparently can convey the same meaning as across
in indicating 'movement across a flat surface.‘ The only dis-
‘ tinction I have been able to sense is that across would be

employed for a straight or level line whereas over might in-

~162-

dicate a bumpy, but relatively level, line or a winding course.

the buggy was bouncing and swaying over the
rough dust trail (Here, 59)

battled their way over that very ground (Here,
76

separated by previously laid mine fields over
which neither dare to pass (Here, 161)

hundred of miles over Central Tuisian roads
(Here, 163)

we Bounced over gullies and ditches, up the
side (Here, l77)

five miles or more over that rugged country
(Here, 275)

 

 

(e) 9335 can indicate the dative notion of inner effect
to a person or persons. The only examples are restricted to
usage with the verbs, 23mg, 53, and settle.

a new Jubilance came over the troops (Here, 23)

weariness came over me—THere, 268) —'

a great sigh went—Ever the—Erowd (Here, 63)

a feeling of anticllmax settled ovEF—Him (Here,

286) """ —

(f) 91 3 may be used as an directional preposition to in-
dicate position east or west (or the quartering directions on
either side) from a point of reference, or to emphasize the
distance from a point of reference. Winburne notes that over /
(lg,_gtn 21, etc.) is used to emphasize "the distance from the
speaker, or...between the speaker and the listener.”105 This
sense is probably contained in the use of 2135 alone. However,
he omits the consideration of the east or west implication.
Certainly 'he's over at Milwaukee' would sound correct to a
Lansingite but 'he's over at Memphis' would sound a false note.

Likewise, for an American in Panama to say to a few American

'how do you like it over here?' would sound ridiculous, whereas

 

103 Winburne, op. cit., 5.

~163-

Pyle, writing in North Africa, could say without false note
'our soldiers 2123 here were shocked' (3253, 66). I feel that
this directional sense is the more likely of the two suggested
meanings in this case. One further consideration is the fact
that the speaker refers to a point of reference, not neces-
sarily himself. A person asking another person 'how do you
like it 313; here?‘ certainly does not have the distance be-
tween himself and the listener in mind. Rather he has in mind
the distance or direction (more likely) from the point from
which the listener came. This is not generally true, however,
in the case when gzg£_combines primarily with another preposi-
tion.

that he "delivered papers" 2333 there in

America (Here, 79)
and we over here thought you folks at home

 

 

(Here, 55)

that there would be little to buy over here
(Here, 61)

but good mules were harder to get over here
(Here, 65)

our soldiers over here were shocked (Here, 66)
over)here Hollywood could have found (Here,

run wild in the mountains over here (Here, 67)

the donkeys over here are very small (Here,
122 "——'

thousands of Americans over here Here, 163)

of the average guy over Eere (Here, 64)

the two oldest correspondents over here at
first were (Here, 230)

(g) In some instances over exeresses superiority; cp.
above, §1.3. Victory (superiority), when the victim is indi-
cated, usually is followed by over.

his fifth victory over a twin-motored messer-
schmitt 110 (Here, lll)

-l64-

(h) Over occasionally eXpresses the same sense as beyond.
we had additional escorts out of sight over
the horizon (Here, 14)
the afternoon sun went over the hill (Here,
166)
(1) Over also occurs in the general formula (one) % over
/ (one of the same).

made a rhythmic knocking sound as if turning
end over end (Here, 265)

(j) The preposition over apparently has equal ability to
combine primarily and secondarily. From Pyle's writings I have

examples of primary compounding in over at, over by, over in,

 

over into, over on, over onto, and over to. Over appears as

 

secondary element in the compounds along over, down over (2),

out over, and up over.

1.38 Past: L. passus) OF passer>ME passegn), past par-
ticiple passed :pass'd:>MnE past. We can regard the preposi-

tion as a member of Composition Group IV sincenggt was not
used as a preposition until the MnE period.

Perhaps best evidence of the strong prepositional status
of pggg is furnished by the fact that 2253 / its object can
form a subjunctive as in the case of a 'pgglfdue notice.‘
HOwever the creation of a preposition from the past participle
of a verb is infrequent and an odd development which has led
many grammarians to suspect the preposition. Thus Jespersen
while he calls past "a regular preposition" in 1927 only refers

to it as "a kind of preposition" in 1940.104 Poutsma explains

 

104 Jespersen, A Grammar of Modern English, II, 345 and v, 419.

-l65-

that the reason pg§£_may do duty as a preposition is that it
was derived from a mutation-verb which conjugated with £3_§g.105
(a) The principal usage of p333 seems to be in the sense
of 'passing in front of to a point beyond.' Therefore we may
regard this meaning as a kinetic one.
one day we drove Egg; a big bivouac of supply
trucks a few minutes after some German

planes had dive bombed and strafed them (Here,

161)
as we drove past tank after tank (Here, 176)

trucks were rolling past the edge (Here, 183)
we copld walk past it or stand on it (Here,
264
bounced past us so close (Here, 266)
ambulances going past German machine gun nests
(Here, 275)
(b) The static meaning would therefore be 'a position be—
yond.’

but after all I'm past forty (Here, 35)

1.39 Through: In this case OE IEEE (akin to Goth. thairh)
>ME thurgh : m : etc.) MnE through so that the preposition
is a member of Composition Group I.

The preposition through seems to have a multitude of mean-
ings. The reason for this may be the fact that through fluc-
tuates between adverbial and prepositional usage. In addition
to this through has become terribly involved in overlapping with
other prepositions such as 21, by means of, and Eggp in the in-
strumental function, across and lg spatially, and during tem-

porally. In adverbial usage through strongly tends to ally it-

 

105 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 714.

~166-

self with verbs, particularly to be, come and g2, Jespersen
observes the difficulty of attempting to determine whether
through is adverbial or prepositional, particularly in the case
where it follows g3) and feels that it can, as often as not,
be adverb1a1.106 Poutsma mentions that oftentimes the mechan-
ical method of determining stress is the only way in which to
decide whether the through is adverbial or prepositional.107
Curme regards through as a prepositional adverb since, although
we may regard such a word as through as prepositional and fol-
low it with an object, the older adverbial force is felt and
we indicate this by means of stress.108 However in a majority
of cases the sense of througg, no matter how closely allied to
the verb, does require some completion. For this reason I feel
that it is correct to assume that through is prepositional in
such a sentence as:

He managed to run through a splendid fortune.

although Poutsma regards the adverbial function as unmistak—

able.109

In view of the variety of meanings involved with through,
I shall attempt to make classification by means of definition.

(a) Through can mean 'in at one end, side, or surface and
out at the other.' This is a complex idea and in this sense

the word is extremely useful. In all the examples of this

 

106 Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, III, 275 (section
13.92 which is misplaced).
107 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 88.

108 Curme, Syntax, 69}
109 Poutsma, A rammar of Late Modern English, 88.

-167-

meaning the object is real in nature.

and shot a nice hole through the wardrobe

(Here, 12)
"one of their shells came through the side"
(Here, 22)

and showed this through the top (Here, 33)

were being carrie 80' by slipstream, right
throu h the propellers (Here, 59)

shot throu h the stomach (Here, 83)

insppction tour through the hospital (Here,
85

who talked through his nose (Here, 273)

(b) Through can also eXpress the idea of 'penetration or
movement within a certain portion.' We can regard the usage
as a modification of the meaning given in paragraph (a) above.
Used in this manner through often approximates the sense of
across; cp. across, §1.4.

trudged over plowed ground and pushed through
waist high shrubs (Here, 159)

scream of a shell throu h the air (Here, 182)

but its rush throu h the air makes such a loud
sound (Here, 263)

is the sound of Jerking a stick through water
(Here, 265)

planes thrummed throu h the skies (Here, 267)

rustling throu h the shells (Here, 276)

I had watched them plow through the Tunisian
skies (Here, 292)

(0) Through can mean 'across a certain portion of.' Used
in this sense through and across are interchangeable.

as we drove throu h the country (Here, 45)

to safety through the desert (Here, l74)

track across the desert and through irrigated
fields (Here, 178)

Through is also used in an abstract sense with the same mean-
ing:
and drove clear across London through the
blackout (Here, 2)

they came throuoh the rain (Here, 2)
going through the same mental phase (Here, 42)

-168-

stumbling march through foreign darkness (Here,
260

(d) Through can mean 'by means of' or 'on account of.'
This is an instance where the old instrumental case, denoting
association, instrument, and cause, has been displaced by a
preposition.

throu h the interpreter, the Arab said he (Here,
E4)

looking at it throu h field glasses (Here

we watched throug our glasses (Here, l78)

watching through binoculars (Here, 270)

artillery behind them was completely unheard
through their weariness (Here, 257)

102)

 

(6) Through can mean 'to the end of.' The meaning is
temporal and the object indicates the period to the end of
which the force of through carries.

prefaced their after-war plans with "If I live
through it...” (Here, 71)

she could have lived throu h the day (Here, 84)

the head doctor detailed another nurse flust to
watch her through the hectic first hours
(Here, 85)

had lived through the dreadful summer heat
(Here, 1

but through it all they (Here, 117)

could possibly have lived through the months-
long bombing (Here, 290)

Through temporally may mean 'during' in which case the inten-

sifier all will probably appear. Throughout often is used to

 

indicate this sense; cp. throughout §l.40(a).

 

all througg the advance the troons were fol-
llowed (Here, 25)

 

(f) When through appears immediately following the verbs
23 and g3, the meaning can hardly be expressed independently
of the verb. On the other hand, the meaning cannot be com-

pleted unless through takes an object. The sense in this in-

~169-

stance is 'to eXperience,' or 'have knowledge of.'

had been throu h the same lethal nightmare
(Here, 22)

the boys who went throu h it (Here, 25)

he had been through hearl Harbor (Here, 98)

men really went throu h hell (Here, l20)

soldiers who had Been through four big battles
(Here, 264)

it was an exhausting, cruel, last-ditch kind
of war, and those who went through it would
seriously doubt (Here, 268)

and throu h four big battles (Here, 269)

all the soldiers who have been through the
mill (Brave, 84)

he had been throu h four invasion assaults
(Brave, 121)

by thpse who had been through the mill (Brave,
449

 

Two examples of the extended meaning of 'to rehearse' or 'to
preform' occur in the text.
the boys went buoyantly through their perform-
ances (Here, 11)
they were encamped, running through mock land-
ings (Here, 35)
(g) Through appears compounded primarily in through with

and secondarily in around through and down through,

1.40 Throughout: Throughout is an example of two prep-

 

 

ositions Joining (through % out) to form a single preposition
which I classify in Composition Group III. I do so since OE
EI_came to be used as a preposition before it combined with

through.

(a) Throughout can mean 'all during' or 'from the begin-

 

ning to the end of.' As was pointed out previously, during,
through, and throughout in this sense are interchangeable; cp.

during, $1.23 and through, $1.39(e).
and we stuck together throughout the trip

~170-

(Here, 7)
an M.F. serves throughout the war as an M.P.
(Here, 68)
throughout the night (Here, 170)
they were patrolling throughout the night
(Here, 202)
constpntly throughout the day and night (Here,
254

 

 

 

 

(b) 'Everywhere or many places in or within.' Despite
the fact that a speaker may say 'all over the world' he really
means 'in many places in most parts of the world.’ Hence we
have an overstatement for two purposes: (1) effect and (2)
economy of words. The two ideas totality and partiality should
be distinguished between.
(b1) Idea of totality:
we knew where all the gasoline dumps were
throughout the hundred miles (Here, 224)
shells whine loudly throughout their flight
(Here, 264)

praises were sung throughout the whole divi-
sion (Here, 277)

 

 

(b2) Idea of partiality:

scattered in our forces throughout the world
and already (Here, 16)
what was happenlng throughout North Africa
(Here, 34) -

(0) Throughout appears compounded only in throughout all

 

1.41.23: The MnE form of the preposition 33 represents
the same form of the OE preposition with a slight modification
in pronunciation (0E [t3]> MnE [t'tl]). The preposition therefore
belongs to Composition Group I.

The preposition §3_has been traced back into antiquity

and its use probably became extensive as the inflectional sys-

~171-

tems of the Indo-European languages weakened and began to

need additional reinforcement. Originally the dative case of
these older languages seems to have denoted in a literal sense
'direction toward.' 23 was then added to reinforce the idea.
Both the accusative and the dative however by their very na-
ture indicated a goal or object to or toward which an activity
was directed. In OE there existed alongside the simple ac-
cusative also a simple dative object.

As a single object it competed with the accusa-
tive, but, as described below, it had a little
different meaning, which naturally associated it
with certain verbs where the peculiar dative
force came into play. This old dative used as
a single object has been largely displaced by
the accusative. In Old English, the accusative
represents the object - a person or a thing -
as affected by an activity especially in a
literal, material sense. The single dative in
Old English represents a person as involved or
concerned in an activity directed toward him
and intended to affect him either ln a mere
material way or more commonly in an inner sense.
If the dative object was a thing, it was felt
as having interests like a person. The dif-
ference of meaning between dative and accusa-
tive was often not great, since both objects
completed the meaning of the verb. Later, the
difference in form between the two cases an-
tirely disappeared, so that it became difficult
to distinguish a dative object from an accusa-
tive. Where an object after verbs governing
the dative, such as thank, help, injure, please,
displease, believe, threaten, oppose, serve,
advise, etc., was felt as completing the mean-
lng of the verb, the old dative has been dis-
placed by the accusative. Thus we say today
'He thanks his friend,' not 'He thanks to his
friend.‘ 'The teacher helps the beginners,‘
not 'The teachers helps to the beginners.‘

'The frost injures the plants,' not 'The frost
injures to the_p1ants.' The old dative began
to be treated as an accusative about 1200.

But the feeling for the old dative lingered

for a long while after the old native English
verbs and the new foreign verbs with the same

 

~172-

meaning, as is shown by the employment of the
new clear dative form with 33, which was in
use elsewhere...

Thus.£g / noun object became the new dative. The old simple
dative had lost its distinctive form and the older distinc-
tion of 'direction toward' had to be sacrificed to the neces-
sity of clearly indicating dative relationship of 'direction
toward in an inner sense.' Today the distinction betWeen
'preached pp_them' and 'went £p_0ran' is hardly felt.

(a) The older function of indicating 'direction toward'
in an external sense constitutes the most important function
of 33_in the writings of Pyle. The general sense is that of
approach and arrival and the governed word is the terminus.

(a1) Tg_may indicate direction toward a Specifically
named geographical location:

I came 32_Africa that way (Here, 1)

I'd be sailing pp_Africa on her (Here, 4)

some of then thought we were going 32 Russia
over the Murmansk route (Here, 5)

a few sincerely believed we were returning
32_America (Here, 5)

we were going 33 Casablanca (Here, 10)

before we got to Gibraltar (Here, 10)

was concentratEd in the approaches pp Gibral-
tar (Here, 11)

at last we came £2_the Strait of Gibraltar
(Here, 15)

to fly it to London (Here, 19)

"you'll getdfip.ltaly and lots of other
places" (Here, 21)

"whep we get ngItaly we can get us" (Here,
21

Gower came 32 Africa aboard one (Here, 22)

had shipped vast quantities of African food-
stuffs across the Mediterranean 32 France
(Here, 26)

 

 

110 Curme, Syntax, 103-104.

-175—

stopped the flow Lo Germany (HLre, 26)
transferring Lieutenant Aenney Lo Iceland for
fear (HLre, 30)

then they went Lo Oran and started (Here 31)
all of them had_ come to Africa (Here‘TZ, )

had to be flashed 32 America (Here, 34)

and had been sent Lo England two years before

(HLre, 37)

 

(a2) 23 may also indicate direction toward a general

location or place:

this

I took a taxi Lo the designated meeting place
(Here, 1)

and)hegan the long march Lo our quarters (HLre,
5

even going to the dining room, we had to take
(Here, 7)—

but had to go Lo general quarters in the hold
(Here, 8)

at last we came to the Strait of Gibraltar -
Lo lights on both sides of us (Here, 15)

drove forward Lo where the fighting (Here, 18)

and finally came Lo a small town (Here, l9)

in their jeep to a —command post several miles
to the rear There, 19)

they started bac E1 in their jeep to a command
post several miles to the rear (Here, 19)

the poldier fell heavlly'Lo the groun nd (HLre,
20

and shoved the throttle Lo the floor (Here, 20)

donated huge food stocks— Lo the city (Here 26)

they went Lo headquarters to eat (Here, ZO)

they went to a new night club (HLre, El)

and brought it Lo my room (HLre, 70)

we took the eggs _to an Army kitchen (HLre, 72)

we went Lo the village (HLre, 72)

went Lo my quarters (Here, 72)

then he went Lo whatever ward tent his type of
illness indicated (HLre, 81)

leaning slightly Lo the left (HLre, 132)

find on our troops to the rear, and generally
made pests of themselves (HLre, 263)

The only instances of intensification of pp occur with
meaning and employ the intensifier almost.
until we got almost to port (HLre, 13)

I climbed almost to the top of the cliff
(Here, 281)

 

 

-174-

(a3) More abstractly 32 may indicate motion to a condition
or category. I include this under section (a) since 'tg_war'
probably can mean either 'to the place of warfare' or 'to the
condition of war,’ or both meanings may have been intended by

the speaker.

"when they're being taken to (the) war like
galley slaves" (HLre, 12T-

we felt the sad sense...of returning Lo old
toils, and we (HLre, 13)

a packed trooper going dangerously Lo war
(HLre, 14)

after we got in the fight he transferred Lo
our forces (Here, 38)

(b) 22_may indicate 'motion toward (and arrival at) an
extent.‘ The sense here is close to that of (a3) above, yet
it conveys in some instances a partitive notion and many of
the examples seem idiomatic in structure.

a rumor 33 the effect that we were going (HLre,

10

”I like to be choked to death" (Here, 23)

the troops went around—strippedL othe waist
(Here, 32)

they Ea d been wet Lo the skin (HLre, 60)
raised the price Lo —five francs apiece (HLre,

hizlplane was shot all Lo pieces (HLre, 119)

tearing his Jacket, shirt and undershirt all
to pieces (H233, 266)

(c) 23 appears as the last element in the general prep-
ositional formula £533 --- 32 where the function of the formula
is to indicate range or measure; see also £2.22:§1-25°

(cl) The object of tg_may be different from the object of
21:22-

Time:

it would take anywhere from several weeks Lo
six months to make (HLre, 31)

 

—175-

worked from daylight to dark (Here, 43)
Location:

our convoy from England to Africa was (Here, 1)
they had come over from EEme Lo Britain (HLre,
4

Measure:

"except you give a horse from twelve Lo sixteen
times as much" (Here, 88 8)

they used anywhere from twenty Lo three hundred
men a night (Brave, I44)

they had gained* anywhere from ten Lo forty
pounds (Brave, 349)

Category:

ran the whole scale from eager cooperation to
bitter fighting to the death (HLre, 25)

met hundreds of vehicles from jeeps *Lo great
wrecker trucks (HLre, 163)

However, precisely the same idea may be conveyed by the
use of to alone. In this instance the usage is tenporal.

in our cabins we had water only twice a day -

7: 00 to 9:00 in the morning and 5: 30 Lo 6:50
in the —evening (HLre, 4)

(02) The object of 13 is often the sane as the object of
from. In this case the slight modification from / one (/ ob-
ject) / 32’/ another of the from "‘.E2 formula, is often em-
ployed.

Time:

the attack had been delayed frOIfl day Lo day
(Brave, 432)

Location:

who traveled from camp Lo camn (Here, 36)

we ran our legs off from one building Lo an-
other (HLre, 57)

moving forward from hill Lo hill (HLre, 266)

the colonel went from one battalion Lo another
(Brave, 446)

 

 

-176-

Category:

the entire fonnation changed from one pattern
£g_another like a football team (Here, 14)

(d) There are a large number of verbs, adjectives, ad-
verbs and nouns which are followed by the preposition to.
Poutsma notes that "the number of adjectives and related ad-
verbs and nouns which may be construed with to, mostly re-
presenting a dative in Old finglish, is well-nigh endless."111
The NED lists a large number of these.112

(d1) Active verbs may require being followed by 13.

some of us listened to the 9:00 D.M. news from

BBC in London (Here, 34)

and that was where correspondents met and ex-

changed dope and listened to the radio news
(Here, 37)

I could contribute to them (Here, 70)

would consent to being carried IHere, 272)

(d2) 23 very often is required by the passive construction
of certain verbs.

our party was assigned to two cabins (Here, 2)

and nurses were assignedffig the regular cabins

(Here, 4)

so he was reduced to making motions (Here, 38)

(d3) Predicate adjectives and participles serving the
function of adjectives combine with the preposition to form a
compound prepositional unit when predication is complete. "We
often bring a predicate adjective or participle and the prep-

osition usually accompanies it into relation to a verb of com-

plete predication and thus convert adjective and preposition

lll Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 772.
112 'To,' €ED,‘Vol.‘TO,’Part I, 83-90.

 

-l77-

into a compound preposition. We often indicate the preposi-

tional function of the new compound by giving the adjective

13

adverbial form by addition of the suffix gly."l Examples

 

 

from Pyle listed under compounds are according to, accredited

1:3, akin to, compared to, and unbecoming to; see §2.2.

 

 

When the verb is not completed in predication the fol-
lowing adjective is actually a predicate adjective and forms
a unit with the verb, not the preposition.
and Ned became momentarily oblivious tg_the
danger about him (Here, 20)

twenty percent was due to the (Here, 26)

the Arabic spoken around7those parts was quite
similar to what he knew (Here, 84)

”wife3s duETtg have a baby any time" (Here,
166

Jespersen notes that there are also a number of verbs
that can either take a direct object or be followed by 33 / its

object. He gives smell, approach, attain, answer, attend, lec-

 

ture, witness, attest, certify, testify, swear, confess, admit,

acknowledge(rarer), own, pretend, and stick,ll4

 

(e) E2 appears occasionally following the past tense of

get, set, and start (less frequently) with a present participle

 

as an object. The participle in this case cannot be regarded

as a terminus since it is actually a continuation of the motion

of 33.
Army Medical Corps and set to doctoring people
(Here, 88)
American officers got tg_worrying because (Here,
288)

 

113 Curme Syntax 560.
114 Jespersen, A modern English Grammar, III, 266-68.

 

-178-

a regular fighter would get Lo going too fast
(Brave, 159)

(f) 22 also serves the important function of expressing
the dative notion of 'direction toward a person' which would
have taken the dative inflection in older English (and still
does in many European languages).

they might identify us Lo lurking spies (Here,

everyone was friendly to him (Here, 8)

we'd read those rules aloud to Lieutenants
Meyer and Gillett (Here, 8')"

a major whom I did not En ow turned Lo me and
said (Here, 12)

it had aIIc come back Lo him (Here, 21)

Ralph Gower could talk. Lo theere, 21)

seemed...just like home country Lo them (Here,
27

gave much of that food to the pitiful— looking
Arab children (Here, 55)

the earmark would render it useless Lo them
(Here, 27)

at not *being able to talk Lo the local people
(Here, 29)

sent...lipsticks Lo their girls (Here, 30)

they sent perzume to their girls (Here, 30)

talking Lo a girl THere, 30)

I was positive I saw a —small Arab boy feeding
my latest dispatch to his goat (Here, 54)

I thought Lo myself (Here, 35)

I was introduced in the darkness to Major
William H. Pennington (Here, $87—-

they)"sold" their Fortress 32 an Arab (Here,
41

always believing it could happen to the other
fellow, but never to him (Here, 42)

talked Lo Sergeant John Muir (Here, 42)

 

(g) 22_may indicate simply 'in regards to.‘ This usage
carries some of the notion of 'extent’ already mentioned in
paragraph (0), but I suspect that in this case there may have
been a shortening of the phrasal sense.

but there was something more Lo it than just

that (Here, 11)
and that_ was all there was Lo it (Here, 14)

-179-

(h) 23 often replaces other prepositions.
A25 '

to wear to costume balls (EEEE’ 18)

1319.:

he would go riding to town next with a camel
(Here, 30)

Onto:

 

all entrances to the deck were shielded (Here, 7)

(1) 22 appears in a number of combinations which can be
regarded as idiomatic.

a hundred dollars tgiboot (Here, 28)

before goin :3 bed in their little tents

(Here, 44

said 33 hell with regulations (Here, 77)

the French officers put them 33 Bed (Here,
126)

(j) The preposition to appears in a large number of com—
pounds but mainly as a secondary element in compounds or as
the primary element in phrasal prepositions. It has already
compounded and formed single independent prepositions in the
case of into, onto, and up to. I have a number of examples of
further use of 33 from Pyle‘s writing.

Primary compounding:

To about.

Secondary compounding:

According to, accredited to, akin to, around to, back

 

(glmost) to, down to, next to, off to, on to, (far) out to, and

 

over to.
Primary element, phrasal prepositions:

In addition to, in close to, in contrast to, and in order
to.

 

-180-

1.42 Toward(s): OE to / weard ('having the direction

of') : toweardz>MnE toward(s). The preposition therefore be-

 

longs to Composition Group II.

The preposition toward may appear with or without the
finalng. Jespersen regards the usage as equally divided.115
Pyle only uses one form (toward) although personal feelings
lead me to believe that there exists little individual con-
sistency in the colloquial use of the preposition. One other
problem concerns the pronunciation of the prepositions.
Jespersen feels that [toTa)ci(z)] (or in terms of General
American [tord(z)])was more current in former times but that
[ta'wo'dU—fl (G.A. [to'wardsz "has been gaining favour."116

Fowler sarcastically regards the latter pronunciation as a

reflection upon the lack of education in an individual.117
(a) The general meaning of toward(s) is 'in the direction

of.'
(a1) With reference to motion:

soldiers coming toward them (Here, 167)

speeding down the low sloping plain from the
mountain base toward the oasis of Sidi-bou-
Zid. (Here, 178

a German sEell screamed toward us (Here, 261)

stretchers coming toward us (Here, 272)

(a2) With reference to specific direction (without motion):

facing East toward Mecca (Here, 46)

(b) A variation of meaning occurs when toward(s) may mean

 

115 Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, VI, 307.
116 Ibid., VI, 307.
117 Fowler, Modern English Usage, 658.

-lBl-

'with respect to' or 'as regards.’
was one of the things that made me feel so
warmly toward this battle-front hospital
(Here, 35)

(c) The only instance I have of compounding from Pyle

is out toward.

1.43 Eggggg The preposition under represents the OE form
without change and is ultimately related to L. infra, gnggg
therefore belongs in Composition Group I.

The general sense of under is 'below' or 'beneath,' or
'at a point lower than.‘ The long existence of the preposition
in English as well as inherent possibilities for extension in
application have tended to lend the word to use in analogous
comparasions and figurative senses.

(a) finger can mean 'at a position lower than.‘ In a ma-
jority of the instances of this usage there is an implication
of being covered. (The use of water following under requires no

article and since underwater often appears adjectively it is

 

doubtful whether the two words should be regarded as preposition

/ object or not.

on along the highway, among vineyards, under
a warm African sun (Here, 20)

we slept under all the Blankets we could get
(Here, 32)

livipg on the ground and under the sky (Here,
'77

under it some Yankee had inscribed (Here, 80)
foldi ing cots under mosquito bars (Here, _81)

hidden under a tree (Here, 164)

I drove our jeep under a tree (Here, 164)

weight like myself could carry a Half- mile
reel of it under his arm (Here, 263)

telephone wire under him (Here, _277)

wiggled back undex a sunken rock (Here, 277)

 

-182-

put it on my head under the covers (Here, 282)
some of the hulks were completely under water
(Here, 49)

(b) Under can mean 'controlled by.‘

under the Germans we didn't have to fight (Here,
56’

hadn't fared badly under the Germans (Here, 56)

under the Americans our leaders make us go into
the army again (Here, 57)

life for them under German control would be
milk and honey (Here, 57)

enlisted men under Him could have some (Here,
142

Knight said all the men under him were then so
well (Brave, 176)

(c) E§g££_can mean 'subject to.’ Although the phrase
'EEQEE fire' fits this meaning, the frequent occurrence of
'22322 fire' as well as the obscurity of the logic involved
tend to make me regard this as an idiom of sorts. ihe original
idea was probably that a person being fired upon in a battle
wasted little time getting to the ground. The enemy fire went
over his head, hence he was 'EEEEE the fire.‘ However the
meaning is now 'subject to (grueling or proving conditions).'

almost wholly under cultivation (Here, 44)

under our arrangements with the local govern-
ment, french pilots took (Here, 49)

they lived and worked under mighty unpleasant
conditions (Here, 62

under peacetime conditions (Here, 129)

but those under suspicion were arrested (Here,
291

nobody was under any illusion that the battle
of Dicily was over (Brave, 32)

but it was their first time under fire (Here,
23

signifying ten missions under fire (Here, 40)

we were under fire (Here, 267)

too much under fire (Here, 272)

they were pretty veteran by then, and had been
under fire a lot (Brave, 228)

 

 

 

-183-

(d) Under can mean 'beneath the cover of.' This meaning
is very closely allied to the meanings of inside and within;
cp. inside, §1.27 and within, §1.47.

one, I found later, carried two little pup—
pies under his shirt (Here, 3)

(e) Under can mean 'disguised by.’ The meaning probably
developed the sense of 'under the cover (protection) of.'

write for the magazine "story" under the name
Jean Temple (Brave, 38)

(f) Under can mean 'by means of.'

other? got down under their own power (Brave,
149

(g) Under also occurs in figurative expressions.

some of them had so many missions under their
belts (Here, 116)
thirty five missions under his belt (Here, ll8)
battle)to develop right under our chins (Here,
183

(h) Under in the conbination of under % way can no longer
be regarded as a preposition. I regard it as an inseparable
attachment to way with the meaning of 'started.‘

once under way, two canteens were opened for
the—(Here, 9)

once under way...there didn't seem to be the
(Brave, 11)

the moment the shooting began we got quickly
under way (Brave, 23)

it could pack up and be under wgy in probably
less than an hour (Brave, 420)

 

 

 

 

(i) Prepositionally compounded under occurs only in out

under and upgunder. However the combinative ability of under

 

is amply displayed in the innumerable adjectives, adverbs and

verbs which have under- as a prefix.

 

—184-

1.44 Up: OE E2 (m)>lflnE up. The preposition however
falls into Composition Group IV since the OE form was adver-
bial and prepositional function was not assumed until after
the OE period.

(a) U2 can mean motion 'to or toward a place higher than
or above' or location 'at a place higher than or above (the
speaker).' In the former the sense is kinetic and in the lat-
ter static.

(a1) Motion to or toward a phace higher than or above'
can be eXpressed by 32.

in endless numbers up the steep gangway (HLre,

2)
continued to crawl...up the back of his neck
(HLre, 29)

lizard continued to crawl up his arm (HLre, 29)

major came ER the hill (HLre, 166)

over gullies and ditches _p_the side of a rocky
hill (HLre,177)

up a slope, and over another hill (Here, 255)

rushed _p the hill (HLre, 277)

(a2) Location 'at a place higher than or above' can also
be expressed by 2p. In these instances the sense is 'higher'
than the speaker.

the army kept a lieutenant and three enlisted

men up there all the time (Here, 12)
usually “had the afternoon watc Eu up there, and

(HLre, 12)

there were soldiers in the building _p the hill
(HLre, 24)

with men sitting up there in the open (HLre,
289

it wasn't the heavy flak up above or the medium
flak on the way down (Brave, 164)

God, how we adnired those men _2 there (Brave,
436)

(b) Up can also indicate a position or direction in front

of or forward from the speaker. In referring to ER % another

-185-

preposition, Winburne notes that "its use is closely related

to that of bagk...while 2335 seeps to indicate that the speaker
has been at a place but is no longer there, 22 seems to mean a
place forward from the speaker. Its use does not imply that
the speaker is trying not necessarily planning to go there."118
I feel that this implication may be extended to the use of 22
when independent of another preposition.

the driver sat on a high box Ln front (Here,
59

in Tunisia, right up where everything was
hottest (Here, 7

who had been Ie ft Lp front (HLre, 120)

when I got Lp front —where (Here, 189)

he saw the first salvo leave the flagshipu_p
ahead (Brave, 43)

than if he Ba 5 to be Ls front killing people
himself (Brave, 48)‘

was put in the baldheaded row u front, next

to a two star general (Brave, ISO)

"it's gp_ahead about fifty feet" (Brave, ZOO)

especially when riding Lp front (Brave, 325)

(0) pp can indicate the direction north, in reference to
the Speaker. Up north is the natural attempt of a speaker to
orient himself and others in relation to the earth. "These two
expressions (down south and up north) probably result from our
feeling that north is in some strange way higher than south.
At any rate, it usually is on the maps we studied in schools."119
The following examples, particularly the first, may indicate
the direction north although there is no written indication of
levels or direction.

Marched with us Lp the strange African road
(HLre, 5)

 

 

118 Winburne, op. cit., 6.
119 Binburne, on. cit., 6.

 

-186-

for he came running up the street the moment
he jumped out of the tank (Brave, 406)

when the firing died down a little we sneaked
up the street until we were almost even with
the disabled tank (Brave, 406)

(d) Ep.(like its opposite down) combines frequently with

other prepositions. I have examples of up against, up among,

 

up at, up bx, up from, up in, up into, straight up into, up on,

 

 

 

 

 

right up on, up on top_of, up over, up to, all up to, right

up under, and up with. With up as a secondary element in a

 

compound I have only from up.

1.45 £13311: Historically OE M ,1 3n : 3939371:an gag:
We can regard this preposition as belonging to Composition
Group II since the compounding occurred before 32 assumed prep-
ositional status.

The only sense of 223p is now exactly that of 33; see
51.52. The infrequent appearance of the preposition suggests
the possibility that, in most instances, gp_has replaced upon.
In a way it is a shame that this use lingers on since the com,
pound 22.22 (see 2.2(42) below) shows great vitality but of
course will not converge until the last traces of upon have

disappeared.

up to the front line of the attacku upon saint-
Cloud (Here, 20)

were advancing upon Siberia (Here, 170)

nothing lighthearted about the Imminence of
death at the moment it is upon a man (Here,
136

I happened u on the thing wholly by accident
(Here, 155

The only instance of compounding is in down upon (I).

-187-

1.46 With: The derivation of MnE with is OE wit. with
therefore belongs in Composition Group I.
The GE meaning of wit was 'against.' For the survival of
this meaning in MnE see paragraph (a) below. In other sense
MnE with has taken over the functions of OE mid, now lost. The
general function of with in current English, running through
its various uses, is to eXpreSS association or accompaniment,
a function originally eXpressed by the instrumental case. Con-
trary to the case of b , expression of cause and instrumental-
ity seems to be only a minor function of the preposition with.
(a) With in its original meaning 'against' seems to have
‘ almost completely disappeared in MnE. I distinguish two uses
where the original meaning survives to sone extent.
(al) With can express the OE meaning 'against':
Japan had been at war with Russia for six
months (Here, 288)
played handbaIl on the deck with the officers
(Here, 8)
in dickering with the local business people
(Here, 55)
Stan made arrangements with a local hospital
(Here, 79)
The first citation represents the only really clear cut instance.
In the other instances there is some of the feeling of associa-.
tion but the primary intent, for basic purposes, is that of
reaching an and satisfactory to one. The verb fight~/ with does
retain the older meaning”O (along with to be at war / with) and

represents about the only clear instances of the meaning 'against'

although even here with is being replaced by against. The hand-

120 Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, III, 269.

 

~188-

books of course still insist that this meaning should be re—

tained despite the odas against its survival. a typical maxim:

"Use with for antagonism (the original use of this preposition):

'I am angry with (not 33) youl'”l2l Pyle however was appar-

ently not acquainted with this nicety.

ened

an odd sense of irritation at not being able
to talk (Here, 29)
madder than ever at their enemy (Here, 289)

(a2) With can eXpress contact. This represents a weak-
form of the original meaning 'against.‘

we made our rendezvous with other ships (Here,
5

we would rendezvous with a big convoy from
America (Here, 10)

direct contact with them (Here, 283)

the first contacts of our troops with pris-
oners were extremely pleasant (Here, 288)

I shook hands with scores of peopIe (Here, 37)

acquainted with a Major Fuzeav (Here, 43)

the nurses teamed up with the officers and to-
gether they (Here, I3)

(b) With can indicate accompaniment or association. Here

I indicate six various distinctions.

(bl) With can express accompaniment or association in the

sense of parallel movement, usually (not always) restricted to

animate things:

down the hill with a doughboy behind them
(Here, 273)

expected to Keep up with guys (Here, 35)

I made friends with one Ranger officer (Here,
35

chatted with the men, passed around the cig-

~ arettes (Here, 24)

small convoys, which run with heavy naval escort
(Here, 1)

 

121

House and Herman, Descriptive English Grammar, 158.

 

 

-189-

two little puppies from England marched with
us up (HLre, 3)
I shared a cabin with the two lieutenants (HLre,
8
wasn't permitted to share cabin space with us,
but (Here, 8)
in one of the two cabins with us, ate with us
(HLre, 8)
and had a last dinner with me (HLre, 10)
"I was lying over by the rail w:th a stack of
dead men" (HLre, 23)
soldiers who were with the first party (HLre,
26
walking arm in arm with Frenchmen of the For-
eign Legion (P are, 30) '
sitting at a cafe table with two French girls
(Here, 50)
den )3 fraternization with his fellow man (HLre,
30
I always like to hang around with navy men,
they (HLre, 51)
he came ashore here, the morning of the American
landing, with eight men, and (Here, 31)
being with the troops in Africa was, in many
ways—UHEre, 37)
I tried Iunch with some general (Here 42)
we had lunch with some general (HLre, 2)
and sat with Him for an hour (Here, #43)
down on the same boat with us (HLre, 43)
stood off the North African coast with the
great overwhelming convoy (Here, 77)
they kept on thh him anyhow (HLre, 281)
started back to an aid station thh him (HLre,
281
direct contact Lith them (Here, 283)
I mingled Lith them all day (H LHre, 283)
very little fraternizing Lith— prisoners (HLre,
283
a little association with a German prisoner...
was a bad thing (Here, —288)
had a talk with an Eninsh-speaking prisoner
(Here, 288)
the first contacts of our troops with prisoners
were extremely pleasant (Here, 2H8)
Clark was liason officer Lit t5 the British army
(HLre, 71)

 

 

(b2) With can express accompaniment or association in the

sense of carrying or contacting, usually an aninate / inanimate

thing:

 

-190-

he must carry it [luggage] with hin and he
can't (Here, 38)

on the street with an English-:rench dictionary
(HLre, 30)

went around for hours wit1 lipstick all over
his face (Here, 25)

came ashOre with only canned field rations
(HLre, 26)

they went up the rocky hillside with their
heavy burden (Here, 294)

a nurse came on deck with a brilliant flash-
light guiding her (HLre, 7)

twenty-nine eggs at one sitting with nothing
else whatever to go with them ZHLre, 72)

monkeying with his revolver in his cabin (Here,
12

 

(b3) With can exaress accompaniment or association in the
sense of one thing being a part of the other:

restaurants thh soft colored lighting (HLre,

28

an apartment with elevators (Here, 28)

two seater with a rear motor (HLre, 284)

they had big tw wo- wheeler troop— carriers with
seats running crosswise (Here, 289)

I saw one cart with fourteen oxen (HLre, 291)

they)were macadamized with banked curves (Here,
44

were ordered to wear our web pistol vest, thh
water canteen attached (Here, 7)

singers and dancers with the very un- French
name (Here, 36)

a miserable English day, cold, thh a driving
rain (Here, 4)

thh the carriage' 3 red wheels and the driver's
red coat for color, the scene looked exactly
like a Currier & Ives print (Here, 59)

 

 

 

(b4) With can eXpress an accompanying condition or aspect:

a young fellow...with a gentle manner (Here,
272)
“I woke up at three o'clock in the morning thh
a splitting headache" (HLre, 60)
woke up...with a historic stomach-ache (HLre,
72)
with quick decision, he stuck the gun (Here, 24)
the regulations which said that we must
treated with "courtesy and consideration" by

the army (Here, 8

 

-191-

we marched but always with the feeling that at
last we were (Here, 16)

we marched at first gaily and finally with great
weariness (Here, 16)

he Just said things with an odd twist (Here, 22)

Americans hadn't learned to drink wine with
relish (Here, 29)

whamming...shells into a hillside with such
rhythmic fury (Here, 271)

the fourth [bullet] went into the ground with
a squish (Here, 279)

(b5) With can be used to mean 'for' or 'toward' in the
sense of an alliance of some sort:

I felt a little kinship with our vessel (Here,
4

simple compliance with whatever was asked of
them (Here, 259) .

my friendship with those two fighters (Here, 70)

 

(b6) With can express a simultaneousness of two functions:

they slept on folding cots under mosquito bars,
with the tent flaps open (Here, 81)

dying down with the coming of dusk (Here, 171)

we could drIVE’with headlights on (H3567 44)

riding to town next with a camel on His handle-
bars (Here, 30)

came home from a mission with the corner of his
pants pocket torn (Here, 65),

we sat with life preservers on and water canteens
at our belts (Here, 12)

Nat had dinner with the lizard still poised (Here,
29

 

(0) With can express the means or instrument by which
something is accomplished, exists, etc. The meaning of with
would be 'by means of' or 'through the use of,' etc.

play loud tunes on their glasses with their
forks (Here, 9)

and serve themselves with bread (Here, 9)

and three enlisted men up there all the time,
on lookout with binoculars (Here, 12)

soldiers who fight tith camers instead of guns
(Here, 16)

and round away at them with his camera (Here,
19

 

-192—

captured eight French soldiers with a pack of
cigarettes (Here, 24)

the hillsides around Oran hissed with the con-
stantly whispered password (Here, 24)

ringed the city with smoke pots (Here, 28)

then)he poked it with his gloved hand (Here,
29

poked it gingerly with his shoe (Here, 29)

to supply itself with roundtrip tickets (Here,
40

five hundred miles with only three motors
(Here, 40)

camouflaged it by covering it with limbs (Here,
164

covered with little bushes (Here, 164)

it has little with which to fight back (Here,
167

attacked with bayonets (Here, 277)

littered for miles at a stretch with wrecked
and burned out vehicles (Here, 295)

and pastures were hideous with thousands of
hidden mines (Here, 254)

dangerous motions with his bayonet (Here, 273)

butcher them with their machine gunSp ere,
276

killed as many of his men with their sneaking
mines (Here, 284}

brushed the common herd aside with both hands
(Here, 292)

had him pinned down a few days before with bul-
lets (Here, 284)

but)the ship was lousy with army doctors (Here,
9

we were honored with the divine right of get-
ting ourselves shot (Here, 5)

were shielded with two sets of heavy black
curtains (Here, 7)

"we were so consumed with what we were doing"
(Here, 17) "'"

my special spot on the rock was on the front
side and consequently afflicted with bullets
(Here, 278)

bored with the everlasting clamor (Here, 276)

was struck with the vast amount of sheeting,
swabs, (Here, 82)

on ground covered with sagebrush exactly like
hillsides (Here, 43}

equipped with foreign-issue American money
(Here, 26)

Nat, crowned with this dragon (Here, 29)

simple compliance with whatever was asked of

them (Here, 259)

 

 

 

-195—

each outfit was provided with the password
(Here, 24)

each compartment was filled with long wooden
tables (HLre, 4)

world are filled with heroes (Here, 40)

filled their mattress covers with straw (Here,
3

and the bags weren't filled with food or
ammunition (Here, 181

each compartment was filled with long tables
(HLre, 4)

they were filled with extra film (HLre, 18)

dirt)wa1k lined—With whitewashed rooks (Here,
80

laboratory filled with basins and test tubes
(Here, 82)

air above us was filled with the intermixed
rusgle and whine of travelling shells (HLre,
264

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(d) With can indicate an object used for comparison:

compared in many ways with El Paso (Here, 28)
their flying feet almost level with he Ir
noses (HLre, 59) .

(e) With can indicate the cause of an action, state, con-
dition, etc. Here the meaning of with would be 'because of'

or 'by reason of.'

was struck with the vast amount of sheeting,
swabs (HLre, 82)

but with the _shortage of sports in the camps...
life was considerably different from (HLre,

36)
and with the different customs...life was con-
siderably different from (Here, 36)
The frequent appearance of with after verb ¥ up (adv.)
combinations is interesting and would bear further investiga-

tion. Jespersen gives a number of examples of this combination

including meet up with (meet with), put up with, and catch up

with.128

122 Jespersen, A.Modern English Grammar, III, 269-72.

-194-

There are a large number of verbs and adjectives which
are normally followed by witt, A great deal of confusion has
resulted from instances where there is apparently no deducible
logic involved. Frequently either E123 or t3 are interchane-
able. I include a number of these combinations, some very

questionable, from a handbookzlz:5 agree with, coincident with,

 

collide with, compare with, to examine qualities, concerned

with, involved, concur with, agree with a person, contend with,

 

Opposition, differ with, a person, identical with, part from

 

or with, reconcile to or with, rewarded for or with or tz,

sympathize with, tamper with, treat of or with, variance with,

 

 

vexed at or with, and vie with.

 

flitt also appears in a large number of compound formations.
It appears as a suffix as well as a prefix in a large number of
nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs. Prepositional it is the
primary element in the compound with about. I have examples of
witg as the last element in along with, away_with, back with,
clear back with, down with, in with, out with, through with,

and Up with; see §2.2(50).

1.47 Within: The MnE form is the OE wit / innan :

withinnan with the exception of the final -an. The preposi-

 

tion therefore belongs to Composition Group III.
(a) The general sense of within is now more frequently ex-

pressed by inside of or merely inside. With one exception (a

 

 

123 Kierzek, Ihe Macmillan Handbook of English, 275-76.

-195-

formula) all of the examples fall under the meaning 'in the
compass or limits of.'
(b) Within may be used temporally. In this case the ob-
ject will provide the limit which will contain within.
within a week he had exactly tripled his goal
(Here, 48)

two egg orgies within a week (Here, 71)

and within a few hours after the last German
(Here, 278)

(c) Within may also be used spatially. Here the object
provides the boundaries inside of which within is contained.
Intensification occurs with almost. It is very interesting to
note the very unscientific measuring sticks employed following
within in the Spatial meaning (i.e., earshot, shouting dis-
tance, arm's reach, one-jump distance). Since within repre-
sents such an old form, it would be interesting to investigate

these forms of measure to see if they survive only following

this preposition and inside (of) takes newer, more scientific

 

measures 0

beside every tent, almost within one-jump
distance (mere, 130)

friends of mine never knew there was a plane
within miles until one swooped overhead
(Here, 162)

I got)within earshot of another officer (Here,
174

while the Germans hunted within a few yards of
them (Here, 174)

bivouacked all over the hillside, living within
a few feet of them (Here, 263)

those landing within a Hundred yards are heard
(Here, 275)

landed within ten feet of him (Here, 271)

there within a foot of his head (Here, 279)

Toug Allunbaugh was lying within shouting dis-
tance of where Jack was pinned down (Brave,

186)

 

-196-

there on the ground within arm's reach was a
dead German (Brave, 372)

(d) Within used with the older meaning 'the inner part'

or 'interior' has been largely replaced by it and inside (of).

 

I have only one example which I believe falls into a general
formula (one) / within / (a larger one of the same).

was a tent within a tent (@232, 82)

(e) The only multiplying of this preposition occurs in

within a matter of.

 

1.48 without: OE withUtan:>MnE without. The combination

 

of two prepositions places it in Composition Group III.

(a) The only examples of without I have from the writings
of Pyle are used as a negation of with and the sense is simply
'not with' or 'with me.’ As with within, the Spatial meaning
('out of the limits of' or 'beyond') of without has apaarently
been largely replaced, in this case by outside or outside of.
I shall attempt to classify without by means of the type of
object which follows the preposition.

(b) Without can take a siaple object. The only interest-
ing occurrence in this group is the idiom without cease in the
last exanple. Cease represents the survival of an older form,
the newer form being cessation.

our ship seened to mill around without purpose

(Here, 5)

and consultations, all without charge (Here, 9)

who expected the night to pass without an
attack (Here, ll)
the days were purposeless and without duties

(Here, 13)
they had come asnore without blankets (Here,

18)

 

-197-

without exce3tion they adnitted (Here, 23)

catching many officers without the insignia of
their new rank (Here, 52)

ticklish enough without our coiments (Here, 54)

being without any deep love of the country
(Here, 56)

solaier went without eggs for a long tine (Here,
71

I didn't know what the boys would do without
him when he left (Here, 87)

they walked and fought all night without sleep
(Here, 158) ‘—’"""‘

without any insignia at all (Here, 168)

accomplished without too much opposition (Here,
185

were the guys without whom the Battle of Africa
(Here, 255)

we had then been without sleep for twenty-four
hours (Here, 26I)

it was a battle without let up (Here, 268)

their)job was deadly, and without respite (Here,
374

found a sloping place without bumps (Here, 281)

worked day and night without cease (Here, 267)

 

 

 

(0) Without may also be followed by a present participle.
The number of examples from the Pyle text indicate the common
usage of this construction.. In older English this construction

was often introduced by without that. Curme notes that "a

 

clause introduced by that--not, bit, but that or without is

 

 

quite freely abridged to the gerundal construction with With-
out, whether its subject is identical with that of the prin-
cipal preposition or not: 'He never passed people without

greeting them' and 'He never passed people without their greet-

 

 

him.‘ Though without is now avoided in the literary language

in the full clause, it is common in the gerundal clause."]"‘34

The observation concerning the infrequent appearance of without

 

124 Curme, Syntax, 285.

 

~198-

preceding a full clause is accurate in the case of Pyle's
usage since I have no examples of the latter.

they had been on the go all day without
stOpping (Here, 18)

the men jumped off without even getting their
feet wet (Here, 2

in wartime onpIe leave without saying goodhye
(Here, 38)

had often captured many times that much stuff
without stopping the fight (Here, 47)

they)took them all without firing a shot (Here,
55

we couldn't walk down the road without being
walled in by a singing aelody f hundreds of
”Okeys" (Here, 58)

but you don't know - can never know, without
experiencing it (Here, 162)

they never let a plane pass without giving it
a (Here,-l62)

ever parhed a jeep without putting it (Here,
162 “—‘_‘

couldn't hear even a motor without jumping
(Here, 164)

we couIdn't get the gunners out without prac-
ticglly tearing the rocks out By hana (Here,
264

two years without getting hurt (Here, 264)

past German machine-gun nests without knowing
it (Here, 275) _—

(d) The infinitive may also occur in the object of with-
out125 although it apparently is very unconnon nowadays.

so our meeting was not without a certain rare
delicacy to put in our mouths (Here, 74)

 

125 See Jespersen, A Modern English Grammar, V, 228.

 

~199-

II
PRnPosITIomiL COMPOUNDS

2. A prepositional compound expresses a complex rela-
tionship and is a combination of two elements. Since I gave
the historical development of the single prepositions in
Chapter I and classified those prepositions according to their
various Composition Groups, it is unnecessary to give the data
on the historical developments of compound prepositions. There
are two principle patterns for prepositional compounds: (1)

a combination of two single prepositions, and (2) an adjective,
adverb, or conjunction ¥ a single preposition which is regarded
as a unit and can occur independently of a copulative verb.
Combinations spelled as one word are not compound prepositions
but single prepositions belonging to Composition Group III
(treated fully in Chapter I). Two prepositions occuring to-
gether which express but a single relationship, although spel-
led as two separate words, can be regarded as single preposi-
tions (see out of, §1.35).

Although no historical study has been made specifically
of prepositional compounding it is known that the combining of
two prepositions occurred even in the OE period. The NED
gives citations from the tenth century where the combination
of l2.{.£2: though spelled as two words until sometime later,

seems to have unityl (see into,§ 1.28). Apparently the ad-

 

1 'Into,' NED, Vol. 5, 1.

 

~200-

vantages of eXpression of grammatical relationships by means

of prepositions rather than by inflectional endings led to the
desire for more and better means of eXpressing relationships.
This in turn, as I have already said, led to the development

of more and more prepositions. Along with the develOpment of
new prepositions came the combining of two prepositions. It

is of course not possible to say exactly what was the cause of
this linguistic development but in some instances it seems
probable that a particular meaning of a preposition had become
weakened to an extent where the addition of another preposition
for reinforcement was necessary. Conversely compounding may
have been a result of a desire to express a relationship even
more complicated than that expressed by either of the preposi-
tions individually. Further compounding of prepositions has
develOped until today we hardly hesitate to use three or even
four prepositions in combination. Fries notes that the appear-
ance of two prepositions together is especially frequent in
Vulger English. "Unlike the 'expansion' pattern..., which was
especially characteristic of Standard English, this 'addition'
of function words [preposition / preposition] seems to be es-
pecially frequent in the Vulgar English materials."2 One result
of this development is that we can express fine shadings of
complex relationships which would have been difficult or per-
haps impossible to express by means of substantive inflection.

There are today several schools of thought regarding com-

2 Fries, American English Grammar, 117.

-201-

pound prepositions. There are many who regard such combina-
tions categorically either as (1) consisting of "an adjective
or an adverb with a urinary preposition, mostly gt or t3,
which in some phrases is apt to be suppressed,"3 such as
abreast of, ahead of, alongside of, upwards of, etc., or (2)
Consisting of ”a primary adverb and a primary preposition be-
longing, strictly, to different elements of the sentence, but
so closely connected as to form a kind of unit,”4 such as gwgw
‘3223: down to, into, up at, up to, etc. This analysis of such
compounds as wp_t3, down to, etc. is irobably the most pop-
ular method of treatment, but seems to me to be somewhat in-
adequate. This analysis probably results from the observation
of a large number of verb-adverb combinations, as hold up, 223
.22: take out, etc., where the particle forms a unit with the
verb and is thus regarded as an adverb.~ It is possible that
prepositional compounding came into use in English as a re-
sult of its use of prepositions in connection with such verb-
adverb combinations. Thus prepositional combinations (such

as out of) may have been a development of the use of a verb-
adverb combination (such as 'he stands out') in conjunction
with a preposition ('he stands out 23 the crowd'). The par-
ticle attached to the verb however probably in many instances
develOped an attraction for the following preposition and the

combination began occurring first after copulative verbs (as

 

5 Poutsma, A Grammar of Late Modern English, 717.
4 Ibid., 718.

 

-202-

in ’he is out of town') and finally independently of the verb

 

(as in 'time out of mind' or 'he rolled, out of control' (3352,
302); see§l.35). In the case of into, onto, out of, through-
out, within, etc., the relationship eXpressed by the combina-
tion became a single one, not separable, and the combinations
can now be regarded as single prepositions. When a combina-
tion of two prepositions occurs independently of the verb it
seems unrealistic to construe the first element as adverbial
and'belonging "strictly, to different elements of the sen-
tence." When a combination of two prepositions occurs imme-
diately following the verb, analysis is sometimes exceedingly
difficult. In 'and wouldn't venture out at night' (Eggs, 55)

and 'I myself came down with one of the Ten Best Colds' (Here,

 

8) it seems to be fairly clear that the particle following the
verb is not to be regarded as forming a unit with the preposi-
tion.- In 'compared to the way they had come 212E from home

to Britain' (@233, 4) and 'I climbed in_wijh_those fellows'
(£253, 115) the analysis is not at all clear. In 'they were
up_i§ the darkness ahead' (@333, El) and 'the tank was off to
one side burning' (E253, 176) it seems clear that two preposi-
tions are being used in combination following a verb. The fol-

lowing patters are now discernable:

l The combination may occur independently of the verb and
the combination is prepositional.

2 The combination may occur semi-independently of the
verb (i.e., following the verb but separated by a pro-
noun or an intensifier, as in 'they were having him
out to their homes for dinner' (Here, 94) and 'the rat-
t e was right down upon us' (Brave, 457); see follow-
ing 2.2) in which case the combination is usually a

-203-

prepositional compound.
3 The combination may immediately follow the verb. In
these instances the first element can be construed with

the verb or with the following preposition, depending
on the context.

Some grammarians and linguists are inclined to regard the
first element as prepositional but the second element as part

of the substantive object. Thus:

 

He has struggled to near the top .

 

 

 

"The fact that the preposition may govern a substantive idea
expressed as a prepositional phrase sometimes brings two prep-
ositions tOgether."5 It seems to me more accurate to regard
both elements concerned as prepositions and the resulting com-
bination a prepositional compound since the analysis which re-
gards the combination as preposition / substantive phrase
(preposition / object) fails to account for the frequency of
combinations of certain prepositions which sometimes result

in the formation of a single preposition. Curme notes that
"in 'a rat ran out from under the stable' £332 was originally
a preposition governing the prepositional phrase under the

stable, but we now feel from under as a compound preposition

 

in which under indicates a position and from a movement from

that position."6

In combinations of adjective, adverb, or conjunction /

preposition it can quite accurately be stated that the first

element of the compound carries most of the meaning involved

 

5 House and Harman, Descriptive English Grammar, 129.
6 Curme, Syntax, 560.

 

i+lhli. \llula
.

I ’5;

-204-

in the preposition functions of the compound. This is fur-
ther evidenced by the fact that the latter element is freq-
uently drapped (abreast of abreast, alongside of alongside,
etc.) and the remaining element becomes a single preposition
in function. In combinations of preposition / preoosition,
either one of the elements may carry more meaning than the
other, or they may share equally in giving meaning to the ex-
pressed relationship. most frequently the second element
(perhaps because of its proximity to the object) carries most
of the meaning, as in 'some German tanks has maneuvered ig
behind us' (fleas: 181) and 'they even had soldiers down in
bed' (EEEEJ 42). The first element may however carry most of
the meaning, as in 'from up there you could see' (Brave, 369)

and 'sent it away with about the same assurance' (Here, 34).

 

Both elements of the compound may however convey equally strong
meanings, as in 'I moved quickly around behind the barn'
(85313, 428) and 'had worked their way up onto a long lepe'
(M, 270)

The distinction between a single preposition and a prep-
ositional compound is sometimes not always clear. In the
analysis in Chapter I it is to be noted that I treated out of
as a single preposition (see out of.§1.35). The reason for
this is that a prepositional compound may become a single prep-
osition if the individual meanings of the two prepositions be-
come so allied as to be generally regarded as eXpressing a
single unified relationship. This necessarily implies freq-

uency of occurrence. It is immediately discernable that those

 

-205-

compounds which have as one component part, a preposition with
a large variety of meanings or without any independent mean-
ing (such as g; and £33), are more likely to become single
prepositions. The difference between a single prepositional
meaning and a complex one is quite apparent and needs little
further exnlanation; 22° 'guns and food came pouring out of
the busy hatches' (Eggg, 47) with 'heat poured over us 3522
between the discolored buildings' (83313, 17) and 'I moved

quickly around behind the barn' (Brave, 428).

-206-

2.2(1) About:
After about:

after about an hour he loosened the tourniquet
(Here,‘276)

At about:1

a locomotive puffing hard at about forty miles
an hour (Here, 265)
at about four thousand feet the pilot released

(Brave, 160)

 

 

 

For about:

”I could bu one for about two hundred dollars"
(Here, 66 -

coqu§Tt get up for about five minutes (Here,

‘ 182

side of a hill for about five hundred yards

(Here, 164)
deaf for about twenty four hours (Here, 271)
In about:

in about ten minutes, when Corporal Nikolin
came Sack (Here, 182)

or about:

spending a total of about five dollars a week
(Here, 61)

On about:

would 0 on about his slow business in the old
way Here, 245)

To about:

it happened to about one of every fifteen planes
(Here, 129

With about:

and sent it away with about the same assurance
(Here, 34)

 

1 For a complete analysis of this compound see: Fletcher,
"Lt About," American Speech, XXII, 192.

 

-20'7-

Within about:

when I got within about fifty yards he looked
up (Brave, 56)

2.8(2) According to:

they still were low according to our standards
(Here, 27)

2.2(3) Accredited to:

the only American Negro correspondent then ac-
credited to the European theater (Here, 273)

2.2(4) Across:
Back across:

and headed back across the ocean (Here, 102)

ship that took woundEd men back across the At-
lantic (Here, 274)

to move those thousands of men back across
Africa (Here, 287)

they came EacE across country in long caravans
(Here, 29”

Out across:

all the men ahead were running out across the
desert (Here, 153)

we ran out across the fields (Here, 163)

as far as we could see out across the desert
(Here, 176) _

in superlow ear and drove out across the sands
(Here, 176? ~

we dashed out across the sand (Here, 180)

when we looked out across our vaIIey (Brave, 98)

 

2.2(5) After:
After about:

after about an hour he loosened the tourniquet
(Here, 276)

-208-

2.2(6) Against:
Up against:

”ship came right up against us" (Here, 22)

2.2(7) Ahead of:

a torpedo had passed just behind us and ust
ahead of the other transport (Here, 14

our troops worked far ahead of us (here, 270)

and one was a little ahead ST—the other (Here,
59

were burning ahead of us (Here, 181)

who was severaIIhundred yafds ahead of me
(Brave 285)

the I§r force was up there ahead of us (Brave,
439

magnificently planned ahead of time (Here, 48)

vehicles ahead of us had‘worn tracks (Here, 178)

bags)that the guys ahead of us had left (Here,
39

hit the ground about thirty feet ahead of us
(Here, 266)

who was several hundred yards ahead of me (Brave,
437

they struck in orchards ahead of us (Brave, 437)

most of the French farmers evacuated ahead of
the fighting (Brave, 443)

just a few feet ahead of us was a brick-red
American tank (Brave, 452)

we were five hours ahead of schedule (Brave,
359

beach landings are always planned far ahead of
time (Brave, 362)

the Army had picked out a hotel for us ahead
gg'time (Brave, 461)

finally, ten minutes ahead of time we got into
a plane (Brave, 322) '

but thinking ahout it ahead of time almost had
‘me in the asylum (Brave, I75)

whisked away by air ten days ahead of time (Brave,
1

the schedule had all been worked out ahead of
time (Brave, 35)

 

2.2(8) Akin to:

we acquired a feeling somethin akin to family
love for our team of ships (here, [5)

 

3"- .. \t I}. if-» bl, I

I

~209-

2.2(9) Along:
Along over:

"sort)of walk us along over the pass" (Here,
133

Along with:

I went alon with a couple of security officers
Here, 12)
he was beating it to the rear across the desert,

alon with the rest of the command post's per-
sonneI (Here, 172)
so that it could move r1 tgalong with the ad-

vancing troops (Here, f—
the Navy issued me a Navy mask along with all
the sailors (Brave, 9)
bone and steel out of Dick's brain, alon with
some of the brain itself (Brave, 12$)

2.2(10) Among:
Around among:

I was wandering around among some soldiers
(Here, 865)

Down among:

now and then a bullet ricocheted down among us
(Here, 261)

Up among:

one day we saw him u amon the men who were
firing (Here, 230)

2.2(11) Around:

Around among:

I was wandering around among some soldiers
(Here, 265)

Around behind:

I moved quickly around behind the barn (Brave,
428

~210-

Around through:

a multitude of tracks, winding around through
bare wraithlike hills (Here,

Around to:

I went around to the other side of the rock
(Here,

Close around:

two 3r three dark shapes close around us (Here,
14

up around:
getting my knees 3p around my chin (Here, 282)

2.2(12),£1:
gt aboutzz

a locomotive puffing hard at about forty miles

an hour (Here, 265)

at about four thousand feet the pilot released
rave, 160)

Back at:

compared to the claylike digging back at our
base (Here, 205)

for one df—hhe officers back at our airdrome
(Here, 207)

his very first battle, back at El Guettar (Here,
266

he had avenged the loss of his camera back at
Sidi-bou-zid (Brave, 260)

Down at:

sixteen months before down at the desert air-
drome (Brave, 316)

he had 26 hadIy wounded Germans down at the
railroad (Brave, 377)

 

2 For a complete analysis of this compound see: Fletcher,
"At About," American Speech, XXII, 192.

 

 

 

-211-

Off at:

the German shells traveled off at a tangent from
us (Brave, 202)

Out at:

it was our invasion fleet, formed there far out
21 see waiting for us (Brave, ll)

threw the small details of mIIitar discipline
out at the back door (Brave, 261)

Over at:

what's more, the waiter over at the restaurant
remembers (Brave, 85)

Up at:

there were many wars besides the big one up at
the front (Here, 49)

2.2(13) Away:

Away from:

the quartet)of stars had been away from.mmerica

Here 62

bacE wedt to get awa from the enemy (Here, 124)

pulled themselves awa from death (Here, I36)

the world that fixes ttseIT a ”home away from
home" (Here, 138)

in case we got stuck somewhere away from an army
kitchen (Here, 224)

it was after dark when we backed away from the
dock (Brave, 230)’ '

if he was awa from home (Brave, 240)

that spring I was away from the front lines
Here, 250

I sat alone away from it all (Here, 250)

a long time to e awa from home (Here, 307)
the funnel of the concussion was away from him

(Brave, 448)

Away off:

looked beautiful away off there in the future
(Here, 71)

Away out in:
in a tent way out in a field in Africa (Here, 21)

~212-

away out in the country one night I was (Here,

Awe with:

except when I was away with the troops (Brave,
417

2.2(14) Back:
Back across:

and headed back across the ocean (Here, 102)

ship that took wounded men back across the At-
lantic (Here, 274)

to move those thousands of men back across
Africa (Here, 287)

they came becE across country in long caravans
(Here, 2§IF

Back at:

compared to the claylike digging back at our
base (Here, 805)

for one 3T'the officers back at our airdrome
(Here, 207)

his very first battle, back at El Guettar (Here,
866

he had avenged the loss of his camera back at
Sidi-bou-zid (Brave, 260)

Back down:

he went back down the hill (Here, 166)
went back down the hill to our 3eep (Here, 168)

Back from:

and troops came back from the front to rest
(Here, 37)
who—Edd just got back from a mission (Here, 106)
start)coming back Iron their missions (Here,
130
dead men were miraculously back from the grave
(Here, 132)
were poming back from the front lines (Here,
163
ten miles back from the nearest known enemy
position (here, [69)
the pilot didn't come back from his run (Here,
246
one of those who never came back from a Tunis-
ian mission (Here, 194)

 

-215-

as I drove back from the lines (Here, 284)

Will and I came back from the front (Here, 303)

wounded on the waybackgfrom the lines (Brave,
45

I hadn't been back from America very long (Brave,
125

 

Back in:

they started back in their jeep to a command
post (Here,

he stuck the gun back in its holster (Here, 19)

had been chief-surgeon back in Charlotte (Here,
78

if the folks back in Charlotte could have seen
them (Here,

the soldiers back in the states (Here, 99) '

back in NasthIIe he used to be janitor (Here,

went nuts sitting back in an Oran olive grove
(Here, 197)

"bacE In the states” one of the truck drivers
saId (Here, 209) '

back in the days of desert fighting (Brave, 236)

used to be a clerk with the Aetna Life Insurance
00., back in his home town (Brave, 330)

one plane...hack in England had to make a forced
landing (Brave, 338)

he gave me something to send to That Girl back
in America (Brave, 314)

nearly every day the men of the crews back in
bivouac had a detail (Brave, 265) """""'"

back in February of 1943 (Brave, 250)

Iaughed at our inexperience and nervousness back
in_those days (Brave, 260)

even in the Army tech in America he had to be
doctors to waive the ear defect (Brave, 448

I‘m sure that back in England that nIght other
men (Brave,

would have heen houSed in a $50,000 shop back
in America (Brave, 418)

eadh one of the gun collectors back in Ohio had
a different specialty (Brave,

spoke French in their home hack in New Hampshire
(Brave, 386)

they were in camp back in America (Brave, 387)

I told them about my hath eXperience hack in
America (Brave, 111)

to see if it was a product his partner was sell-
ing back in the States (Brave, 46)

back in the States they had a number of pigs for
pets (Brave, 347)

back in AmerIca he Wmissed" a couple of trains

(Brave, 332)

-214-

I sat back in the radio compartment (Brave 323)

when we cross each other's paths back In America
(Brave, 259) '

and hIs eyes were set back in his head (Brave,
128 ' ‘ ’

he ex acts to be back in action in 1944 (Brave,
122

back in the days when I worked in Washington

rave, 108)

Back into:

were bustin to get back into the fray again
(Here, 76 '

they got back into the plane (Here, 116)

and get thEm back into the air (Here, 127)

doing it that way wouId planes get hack into
the air (Here, 128)

I had intended to work back into the war grad-
ually (Brave, 95) p

and faded hack into the darkness (Brave, 199)

 

Back of:

was busy day and night back of the lines (Here,
50
back of headquarters the tents spread out
ere, 80)
finaIIy found some back of his seat (Here 115)
ten miles back of SIdI—hou-zid (Here, )
covering severaI acres, Just bacE of the rise
Here 261
bacE of’the lines they had Post Exchanges (Herc,

hill covered thick with tall cedar trees rises
ust back of them (Brave, 234)

I s ood’with a little group of men back of the
stone farmhouse (Brave, 435)

picked a farmyard shout 800 yards back of the
kickoff line (Brave, 434)

everybody who was hack of the outer defense line
had his home underground (Brave, 256)

hospitals were usually more than eighty miles
back of the fighting (Brave, 236)

thch runs along the low-hIddks just back of the
first row of waterfront buildings (Brave, 234)

but then Italian guns opened up on the hIIls
back of the beach (Brave, 23)

had dug In a little sIo e three miles back of the
perimeter (Brave, 251

back of the 1Ines...men could dig deep into the
ground (Brave, 252)

back of each tent was a can of loo-octane gas-

oIIne (Brave, 207)

 

-215-

our planes made a big circle back of the Ger-
man lines (Brave, 162)

artillery was usually a few miles back of the
front-line infantry (Brave, 97)

Back on:

they sat far back on their horses (Here, 202)
finally somébody got the boy back on the job
(Brave, 341)

Back to:

it came back to him, as cold fact (Here, 10)

and rode hacE almost to Oran (Here,

’they hadn‘t’reportedfiback to theIr own outfit
(Here, 32)

we Iurched back to Oran (Here, 44)

had never been hack to the cIty (Here, 44)

we turned the authorIty of arrest hack to the
French (Here, 54)

and I never dId get back to sleep (Here, 60)

American broadcasters In AI iers had Broadcast
back to America (Here, 64

transferred back to America (Here, 100)

his next jump wouId be right Each to an Indiana
farm (Here, 121) ‘

I drove hack to our cactus patch (Here, 182)

and went Each to sleep (Here, 198

we fell back to the old warfare of first pul-
verising the enemy ( ere, 254)

the human mind snapped ack to the normal state
(Here, 250) """"

with a field telephone and called back to bat-
talion headquarters (Here, 263) '

ten minutes to get back to normal (Here, 265)

a mile and a half back to the rear ere 272)

waékgd the Germans Each to his sergeant (Here,

two panting litter-bearers back to the aid
station (Here, 281)

I drove bacE to camp (Here, 284)

Arabs)began IIocking back to their homes (Here,
290

try to bring it back to Inglewood sometime
(Here, 298)

Back with:

they could have got clear back with the others
(Here, 170)
eventually landed back with their own outfit
(Brave, 153)

 

-216—

2.2(15) Because of:

 

could not get off the ground because of minor
damage (Here, 185)

 

2.2(16) Behind:
Around behind:

I'movgd quickly around behind the barn (Brave,
428 ""-'

Behind on:

leaving some of us behind on every beach (Here,
315

Down behind:

duck down behind his cliff (Eggg, 270)

In behind: I

some German tanks had maneuvered in behind us
(m, 181)

2.2(17) Between:

From between:

heat poured over us from between the discolored

buildings (Brave, I7)

8.8(13) H:

Down by:

troOps in the two bottom decks, down by the water
line (Here 5)

"assembled down b the kitchen tent" (Brave, 200)

lived in the art of the house down by the water
(Brave, 246 '

Over by:
”I was lying over by the rail" (Here, 23)

2.2(19) Close:

Close around:

-218-

 

two 3r three dark shapes close around us (Here,
14 ~

Close to:
dropping shells close to where they sat (Here,
167

he picked out a point close to the expected
battle (Here, 175)

2.2(20) Compared to:

it was swell compared to the way they had come
over (Here, 4)

2.2(21),Down:
Back down:

he went back down the hill (Here, 166)
went back down the hill to our jeep (Here, 168)

Down among:

now and then a bullet ricocheted down among us
(Here, 261)

Down at:

sixteen months before down at the desert air-
drome (Brave, 316)

he had 26 hadIy wounded Germans down at the
railroad (Brave, 377)

Down behind:
duck down behind his cliff (Here, 270)

Down by:

trOOps in the two bottom decks, down by the
water line (Here, 5)

”assembled down hy the kitchen tent” (Brave,
200 -

lived in the part of the house down by the
water (Brave, 246)

Down from:

she had eight pups on the way down from England
(Here, 193)

 

-219-

slugs)came singing down from the hilltop (Here,
278
they slid him down from the mule (Brave, 154)
everytime a pacEage of crackers went down from
above, they scrambled and fought (Brave,‘226)
the colonel came down from the bridge (Brave,
357

Down in:

"we were all down in one of the compartments"
(Here, 22)

they even had soldiers down in bed after riding
(Here, 42)

he was the head of a crew down in a magazine of
big shells (Brave, 38)

down in GentraI—Tdhisia, in the village of Feriana
(Here, 231) ~

Arthur Handy of Fellows, Califorgia, down in the
oilfield district (Brave, 278)

were obviously down in the mouth over the tragic
and of their campaIgn (Here, 283)

Down into:

have hardened down into a work-weary and battle-
dirtied machIne of great effect (Here, 306)

on the third step I went down into a dItch
(Brave, 200)

swiveIed his machine gun down into the open
hole (Brave, 213)

Down off:

but finally a private was pulled down off the
boom (Here, 63)

Down on:

the man was down on his knees and elbows (Here,

46

dusk, coming down on the sandy haze (Here, 134)

happened to looE down on the ground (Here, 279)

the house was a huge rambling affair with four
stories down on the beach (Brave, 246)

down on the docE was (Brave,

3 For a complete analysis of this particular statement and
the meaning of down in see: Winburne, 22, cit., 7-8.

-220-

Down onto:

'mountains scoop cool air down onto the beachead
(gram. 42)

Down out of:

and if the folks of Charlotte, North Carolina,
could only have peeped down out of the African
sky (Here, 76)

stars showered down out of the clear African
night (Here, 51)

Down over:

they went on over the head, were pulled down
over the shoulders and chest (Here, 7)

blood splashed down over his uniform (Here, 20)

tower looking down over this scene (Here, 131)

we folded our wIndshIeId down over the hood
(Here, 162)

and a white hat cocked far down over one eye
(Brave, 39)

Down through:
to dive down through them (Here, 109)
Down to:

and then when he was down to his long GI under-
wear he swung to the front (Here, 10)

until some were down to undershIrts (Here, 25)

Lirutenant Barry'harchar flew down to IIgiers
Here, 53

but then the were down to nine hundred feet
(Here, 133

were Iike Palm Springs -- even down to the del-
icate smoke-tree bush (Here,

I felt my way from our pigshed down to where we
thought the kitchen tent was (Brave, 245)

Down upon:
the rattle was right down npon us (Brave, 437)
From down:

they called in a couple of Italian malaria
experts from down the highway (Brave, 45)

 

 

-221-

On down:

the plane rolled on down the runway (Here, 132)

2.2(22) Except for:

the same as in eacetime, except for an extra
bunk (Here, 2)

anywhere on deck they wished, except for a small
portion of one deck (Here, 5)‘

just like our regular money except for a yellow
stamp (Here, 27)

we marched In silence except for the s litting

crash of German arti ery ere, 260

2.2(23) For:
Except for:

the same as in eacetime, except for an extra
bunk (Here , 2)
anywhere on deck they wished, excgpt for a small
portion of one deck (Here, 5)*
just like our regular money except for a yellow
stamp (Here, 27)

we marched In silence exce t for the s litting
crash of German artiIIery (Here, 260

For about:

“I could bu one for about two hundred dollars”
(Here, 66 .
couItht get up for about five minutes (Here,
122
side of a hill for about five hundred yards (Here,
164
deaf for about twenty four hours (Here, 271)

8.2( 84) From:

AVG! from:

the quartet)of stars had been away from.America

Here, 62

bacE west to get awa from the enemy (Here, 124)

pulled themselves away from death (Here, I36)

the world that fixes se a ”home away from
home" (Here, 138)

in case we got stuck somewhere away from an army
kitchen (Here, 224)

 

-222-

it was after dark when we backed away from the
dock (Brave, 230) ( )

if he was awa from home Brave, 240

that spring I was away from the front lines
(Here, 250) a

I sat alone away from it all (Here, 250)

a long time to be away from home (Here, 307)

the funnel of the concussion was away from him
(Brave, 448)

 

Back from:

and troops came back from the front to rest
(Here, 37)

who had just got back from a mission (Here, 106)

start)coming back from their missions (Here,
130 ---

dead men were miraculously back from the grave
(Here, 132) -

were coming back from the front lines (Here, 163)

ten miles bacE from the nearest known enemy posi-
tion (Here,

the pilot dIdn't come back from his run (Here,
246

one of those who never came back from a Tunis—
ian mission (Here, 194)

as I drove back from the lines (Here 284)

Will and I camewbadE'from the front (Here, 303)

wounded on the way back from the lines (Brave,
45

I hadn't been back from.America very long
(Brave, 125)

Down from:

she had eight pups on the way down from.England
(Here, 193)
slugs)came singing down from the hilltOp (Here,
278
they slid him down from the mule (Brave, 154)
everytime a pacEage of crackers went down from
above, they scrambled and fought (Brave, 223)
the cplonel came down from the bridge (Brave,
357

From.between:

heat poured over us from between the discolored
buildings (Brave,'I7)‘

From down:

they called in a couple of Italian malaria experts
from down the highway (Brave, 45)

~223-

From cup:

whatever was about to attack them from out there
on the water (Brave, 22)

from out of:

we could go back to shooting at the darkness from
out of the dark (Brave, 392)

From up:
from up there you could see (Brave, 369)

In from:

and the road in from the airport was rougher from
‘much convoyIng (Brave, 93)
a roup of British naval ensigns in from the sea
Brave, 134)

Indistinguishable from:

becomes indistinguishable from the faint boom
(Bere,-I32)

On from:
"now we can go on from here” (Here, 283)
Out from:

red flames began to shoot out from the glow (Here,
183

and out from it a quarter of a mile go little
corollary white splashes (Brave, 278)

he went around poking his head out from hunched
up shoulders (Brave, 332) ”""

Up from:

Major Quint Quick of Bellingham, Washington,
rose up from his bed (Here, 105)

light)American tanks came up from the rear (Here,
181

some of the correspondents up from Italy had no
(Brave, 295)

it was almost too much for soldiers up from Italy
(Brave, 343)

2.8(25) I3:
Back in:

 

-224-

they started back in their jeep to a command
post (Here,

he stuck the gun back in its holster (Here, 19)

hadebeen chief-surgeon hack in Charlotte (Here,
7

if the folks back in Charlotte could have seen
them.(Here,

the soldIers back in the states (Here, 99)

back in HasthIIe he used to be janitor (Here,

went nuts sitting back in an Oran olive grove
(Here, 197)

"bacE In the states” one of the truck drivers
saId (Here, 209)

back in the days of desert fighting (Brave, 236)

used to be a clerk with the Aetna Life Insurance
00., back in his home town (Brave, 330)

one plane...back in England had to make a forced
landing (Brave, 338)

he gave me something to send to That Girl back
;p_America (Brave, 314)

nearly every day the men of the crews back in
bivouac had a detail (Brave, 265)

back in February of 1943 (Brave, 250)

Iaughed at our inexperience and nervousness
back in those days (Brave, 260)

even In the Army back Ih—Iherica he had to be
doctors to waive the ear defect (Brave, 448

I'm.sure that back in England that nIght other
men (Brave,

a friend from back in the old Washington days
(Brave, 437)

wouId have been housed in a $50,000 shop back
in America (Brave, 418)

eadh'one of the gun collectors back in Ohio
had a different specialty (Brave, 122)

spoke French in their home badk In.New Hampshire
(Brave, 386)

they were in camp back in America (Brave, 387)

I told them about my hath experience hack in
America (Brave, 111)

to see if it was a product his partner was sell-
ing back in the States (Brave, 46)

back in the States they had a number of pigs for
pets (Brave, 347)

back in Ihdeca he "missed" a couple of trains
(Brave, 332)

I sat hack in the radio compartment (Brave, 323)

when we cross each other's paths backhIh—Imerica
(Brave, 259) ”""“"

and hIs eyes were set back in his head (Brave,
128 ' "' """

he expects to be back in action in 1944 (Brave,

 

122

~225-

back in the days when I worked in Washington
rave, 108)

Down in:

"we were all down in one of the compartments"
(Here, 22)

they even had soldiers down in bed after riding
(Here, 42)

he was the head of a crew down in a magazine
of big shells (Brave, 38

down in Central TunIsIa, in the village of
ferIana (Here, 231)

.Arthur Bandy of Fellows, California down in
the oilfield district (Brave, 278 4—""

were obviously down in the mouth over the tragic
end of their campaIgn (Here, 283)

In about:

in about ten minutes, when Corporal Nikolin
came hack (Here, 182)

In behind:

some German tanks had maneuvered ingpehind us
(Here, 181)

In from:

and the road in from the airport was rougher
from much convoyIng (Brave, 93) *

a grou of British navaI ensigns in from the
sea Brave, 134)

Off in:
far off in the dusk (Here, 131)
Over in:

‘most of us over in France don't pretend to know
the right answer (Brave, 466)

Up in:

they were u in the darkness (Here, 81)
I was up in e Ousseltia Valley ihth another

4 For a complete analysis of this particular statement and
the meaning of down in see: Iinburne, 2p, cit., 7-8.

~226-

contingent of our troops (Here, 170)

a con 1c of colonels up in the front lines (Brave,
120

send them u in the mountains to fight (Brave, 150)

Hei..came from.Byden, Kentucky, up in the hIIls
Brave 218

Red Dog dtayed up in the nose during the landing
(Brave, 325)

2.2(26) Indifferent to:

most of us just lay in our bunks, indifferent
even to the traditional last glance atIIand
(Here, 4)

2.2(27) Indistinguishable from:

becomes indistingnishable from the faint boom
(Here,-IB§)’

2.2(28) Inside of:

they should all be down with pneumonia inside
g£,a week (Brave, 253)

2.2(29) Instead of:

seemed like a peacetime tropical cruise instead

pfi’a packpd troOper going dangerously to war
ere, 14

soldiers who fight with cameras instead of guns
(Here, 16)

instead of one musette bag, they carried three
over their shoulders (Here, 18)

instead of being dumb and surly, the had a nice
spafE—Sf life about them.(Here, 58)

the heart was drawn instead of spelled out (Here,
157 'v--

he carried two canteens of water instead of the
usual one (Here, 158)

before we couId start going forward instead of
backward (Here, 188)

Antonelli, instead of staying behind his company,
pulled out hIs .15 and led the company (Here,

. 277

ran on two small caterpillar tracks instead of
wheels (Here, 289)

 

-227-

2.2(30) Into:
Back into:

were busting to get back into the fray again
(Here, 76)

they got back into the plane (Here, 116)

and get them‘badk into the air (Here, 127)

doing it that way wofiId planes get hack into
the air (Here, 128)

I had intended to work back into the war grad-
ually (Brave, 95)

and faded hacE into the darkness (Brave, 199)

Down into:

have hardened down into a work-weary and battle-
dirtied machIne of great effect (Here, 306)

on the third step I went down into a dItch
(Brave, 200)

swiveIed his machine gun down into the open hole
(Brave, 213) “‘

Off into:

the jeep drove off into eight feet of water
(Here, 24)
to Eeep them from running off into the darkness
(Here, 286)

On into:

and then on into the calmness of the Mediterra-
nean (Here, I5)

then they went on into Oran and filmed (Here, 19)

and barged on into the night (Here, 211

leave here to go on into the next battleground
(Here, 314)

Out into:

smashed and thrown out into the streets for
desert Arabs (Here, _

he was blown clear out into the grapevines (Brave,
219

Over into:

reached over into the jee and kissed Chris first
on one cheeE (here, 292

on another order we all crept over into some
grass and lay hidden (Here,

-228-

Up into:

we worked our way u into the convoy (Here 150)

went shooting straI'Bht—_g up into the eir'TB'er'e,
161

f1ame)scorched up into the dark eastern sky (Here,
183

looking straight up into the sky (Here, 228)

through forefgn‘darkness up into the unknown
Here 260

one mII; an hour in movin up into the lines was
a good speed (Here, 262)

'making a straight IIne u into the sky like a
gigantic stream (Brave, I35)

2.2(31) Next to:

I believe that next to Rangers and ParatroOpers
they are realIy the pick of the army (Here, 69)

made daytime sleeping next to impossible (Here,
159 ""“" --'

2.2(32)‘Q£:
Ahead of:

a torpedo had passed just behind us and ust
ahead of the other transport (Here, 14

our troops worked far ahead of us (Here, 270)

and pne was a little ahead of'the other (Here,
59 .

were burning ahead of us (Here, 181)

who was several hundred yards ahead of me
(Brave 285)

the IIr force was up there ahead of us (Brave,
439

magnificently planned ahead of time (Here, 48)

vehicles ahead of us had“worn tracks (Here,
178

bags)that the guys ahead of us had left (Here,
39

hit the ground about thirty feet ahead of us
(Here, 266)

who was several hundred yards ahead of me (Brave,
437

they struck in orchards ahead of us (Brave, 437)

most of the French farmers evacuated ahead of the
fighting (Brave, 443)

just a few feet ahead of us was a brick-red
American tank (Brave, 452)

we were five hours ahead of schedule (Brave, 359)

-229—

beach landings are always planned far ahead of
time (Brave, 362)

the Army had picked out a hotel for us ahead
‘3; time (Brave, 461)

finally, ten minutes ahead of time we got into
a plane (Brave, 322)—

but thinking about it ahead of time almost had
'me in the asylum (Brave, I75)

whisked awa by air ten days ahead of time
(Brave, 1

the schedule had all been worked out ahead of
time (Brave, 35)

 

Back of:

was busy day and night back of the lines (Here,
50
back of headquarters the tents spread out (Here,

finally found some back of his seat (Here 115)
ten miles back of SIdI-hou-zid (Here, I76)
coyering severaI acres, lust bach of the rise
Here 261
back—To ’the lines they had Post Exchanges (Here,

hill covered thick with tall cedar trees rises
just back of them (Brave, 234)

I stood with a little group of men back of the
stone farmhouse (Brave, 435)

picked a farmyard ahout 800 yards back of the
kickoff line (Brave, 434)

everybody who was hack of the outer defense line
had his home underground (Brave, 256)

hospitals were usually more than eighty miles
back of the fighting (Brave, 236)

thch runs along the low hIocks ust back of the
first row of waterfront buildings (Brave, 234)

but then Italian guns Opened u on the hIIls
back of the beach (Brave, 23

had dug In a little sIOpe three miles back o;
the perimeter (Brave, 251)

back of the lines...men could dig deep into the
ground (Brave, 252)

back of each tent was a can of loo-octane gas-
oIIne (Brave, 207)

our planes made a big circle back of the German
lines (Brave, 162)

artillery was usually a few miles back of the
front-line infantry (Brave, 97)

Because of:

could not get off the ground because of minor
damage (Here, 185)

-230-

Inside of:

they should all be down with pneumonia inside
25’s week (Brave, 253)

Instead of:

seemed like a peacetime tropical cruise instead

p§;a packgd troOper going dangerously to war
ere, 14

soldIers wh? fight with cameras instead of guns
Here, 16 -

instead of one musette bag, they carried three
over their shoulders (Here, 18) ,

instead of being dumb and surly, the had a nice
spark of life about them (Here, 58

the heart was drawn instead of spelled out (Here,
157

he carried two canteens of water instead of the
usual one (Here, 158)

before we couId start going forward instead of
backward (Here, 188)

Antonelli, instead of staying behind his company,
pulled out hIs .15 and led the company (Here,
277

ran on two small caterpillar tracks instead of
wheels (Here, 289)

Of about:

spending a total of about five dollars a week
(Here, 61)

Outside of:

outside of that they had little to do (Here, 6)

iho lived on a ZOO-acre farm six miles outside
of Duluth (Here, 65)

he hadn't had time to get outside of Oran and
see any farms (Here, 65)

never had cooked a meal in his life, outside of
helping his mother a little (Here, 95)

but outside of that the hotel was (Brave, 461)

 

Regardless of:

regardless of barriers, somehow our soldiers
got along—(Here, 30) -

2.2(33) Off:
Away off:

~23].-

looked beautiful away off there in the future
(Here, 71)

Down off:

but finally a private was pulled down off the
boom (Here, 63)

Off at:

the\Genman shells traveled off at a tangent from
us (Brave, 202)

Off in:
far off in the dusk (Here, 131)
Off into:

the geep drove off into eight feet of water (Here,
24

to keep them from running off into the darkness
(Here, 286)

Off on:

to keep the rear elements from straying off on
side paths (Here, 262)

we slid past of? on our mission into the unknown
(Brave, 11

Off to:

for men who were going off to war, they carried
odd things (Here, 3)

a tank was off to one side, burning (Here, 176)

the one American officer with us went off to
another part of the garrison (Here,.

then off to the left we heard German machine-gun
fire (Here, 261)

fell off to sleep (Here, 262)

"and §ropped his bo mEs off to the side' (Brave,
206

Anzio and Nettuno were in sight off to our right
(Brave, 231)

we were off to war again (Brave, 354)

8.2(34) 93:
Back on:

they sat far back on their horses (Here, 202)

~232-

finally somebody got the boy back on the Job
(Brave, 341)

Behind on:

leaving some of us behind on every beach (Here,
315

Down on:

the'man was down on his knees and elbows (Here,

46

dusk, coming down on the sandy haze (Here, 134)

happened to look down on the ground (Here, 279)

the house was a huge rambling affair with four
stories down on the beach (Brave, 246)

down on the dock was (Brave,

Off on:

to keep the rear elements from straying off on
side paths (Here, 262)

we slid past of? on our mission into the unknown
(Brave, 11

On about:

would go on about his slow business in the old
way (Here, 245!

On down:

the plane rolled on down the runway (Here, 132)

On from;

”now we can go on from here“ (Here, 283)

On into:

and then on into the calmness of the Mediterra-
nean (Here,

then they went on into Oran and filmed (Here, 19)

and barged on into the night (Here, 211

leave here to go on into the next battleground
(Here, 314)

On over:

they went on over the head (Here, 7)

-233-

On through:

and continued on through Italy (Brave, 129)

 

On to:

across the Mediterranean to France and on to
Germany (Here, 26)

"I want to get on to the front" (Here, 86)

then he went on to Europe (Here,

On up:

I tried to get on up where the tanks were (Here,
' 175
"let's get on up there (Here, 178)

On up to:

and said he'd take me on up to the front (Here,
176

Out on:

too miserable to be out on deck to watch the
pier slide away (Here, I

”when I stuck my head out on deck" (Here, 23)

little shelter tents out on the field (fiere, 40)

I was standing far out on the field (Here, 59)

set in the middle of a SIg oatfield out on the
rolling plains (Here, 76)

they were out on a mIssion (Here, 105)

stood by the score, even out on the limitless
desert (Here, 145)

I went out on a shooting eXpedition that night
Here,

and the voice was no less than that of the

eneral out on an early morning inspection

Here, 2

four or five men who had to fix their own meals
out on a trip (Here, 256)

one day out on a TEETsian hillside (Here, 302)

with a brand new replacement pilot, out on his
first mission (Brave, 206)

out on deck severaI Half tracks broke their
mooring (Brave, 251)

Over on:

and let the ships ease over on their sides (Here,
49
over on the far hillside where the Germans were
rave, 199)

-234-

Up on:

with their machine guns up on the ridge (Here,
276

was over six years before, u on the coast of
the Bering Sea (Here,u 302

at times we were rm g on the edge (Brave, 24)

who was standing in a di utcE with one foot up on
the bank (Brave, 256)

2.2(35) Onto:
Down onto:

mountains scoop cool air down onto the beachead
(Brave, 42)

 

Out onto:

the ships poured us out onto the docks (Here,
16
running his ambulance out onto a battlefield
(Here, 275)

Over onto:

asked us to start shooting mortars over onto the
Germans on the face of the hill ( ere,

Up onto:
had worked their way up onto a long slope (Here,
870

wheatfield that led up onto the slope (Here, 276)

2.2(56) Out:
From out:

whatever was about to attack them from out there
on the water (Brave, 22)

Out across:

all the men ahead were running out across the
desert (Here, 153)

we ran out_ across the fields (Here, 165)

as far as we could see out across the desert
(Here, 176)

in superlow gear and drove out across the sands
(Here, 176)

~235-

we dashed out across the sand (Here, 180)
when we looked out across our vaIIey (Brave, 98)

 

 

Out at:

it was our invasion fleet, formed there far out
‘2: sea waiting for us (Brave, ll)

threw the small details of mIIitary discipline
out at the back door (Brave, 261)

Out from:

red flames began to shoot out from the glow
(Here, 183)

and out from it a quarter of a mile go little
corollary white splashes (Brave, 278)

he went around poking his head out from hunched
up shoulders (Brave, 332)

Out into:

smashed and thrown out into the streets for
desert Arabs (Here, 235)

he was blown clear out into the grapevines (Brave,
219

Out on:

too miserable to be out on deck to watch the pier
slide away (Here,

"when I stuck my Head out on deck” (Here, 23)

little shelter tents out on the field (Here, 40)

I was standing far out on the field (Here, 59)

set in the middle of a Big oatfield out on the
rolling plains (Here, 76)

they were out on a mission (Here, 103)

stood by the score, even out on the limitless
desert (Here, 145)

I rent out on a shooting expedition that night
Here,

and the voice was no less than that of the gen-
eral out on an early morning inspection (Here,
228

four or five men who had to fix their own meals
out on a trip (Here, 256)

one day out on a TEETsian hillside (Here, 302)

with a brand new replacement pilot, out on his
first mission (Brave, 206)

out on deck several Half tracks broke their
'mooring (Brave, 231)

-236-

Out onto:

the ships poured us out onto the docks (Here,
16

running his ambulance out onto a battlefield
(Here, 275)

Out over:

I stood at the rail looking out over that ar-
mada (Here, 15)

the gping was rough, out over the desert (Here,
116

Out to:

when they went out to one of our far desert
airdromes (Here,

so I went out to their plane's parking place
(Here, 1

when I started out to battle armed only with
a shovel (Here, I§§)

far out to sea the ships themselves let go at
the)groan and grind of German motors (Brave,
272

ships standing in droves out to sea (Brave, 360)

you could see far out to sea (Brave,

then suddenly a flare popped in the sky, £33.
to sea (Brave, 391)

Out toward:

the continuous line headed out toward the high-
way (Here , 18:5)

Out under:

we had a reunion out under the wing (Here, 40)

were all crazy about living out under canvas
(Here, 43)

Out with:

they would be out with shovels (Here, 138)

2.2(37) Out in:

Away out in:

in a)tent way_out in a field in Africa (Here,

21 '

swag out in the country one night I was (Here,
Y

 

-237-

2.2(38) Out of:
Down out of:

and if the folks of Charlotte, North Carolina,
could only have peeped down out of the Afri-
can sky (Here, 76)

stars showered down out of the clear African
night (Here, 81f

 

 

Prom.out of:

we could go back to shooting at the darkness
from out of the dark (Brave, 392)

 

2.2(39) Outside of:

outside of that they had little to do (Here, 6)

who lited—On a ZOO-acre farm six miles outside
of Duluth (Here, 65)

he-Eadn't had time to get outside of Oran and
see any farms (Here, 65)

never had cooked a meal in his life, outside of
helping his mother a little (Here, FE)

but outside of that the hotel was (Brave, 461)

8.2(40) Over:

Alonggover:

"sort of walk us along over the pass" (Here, 133)

Down over:

they went on over the head, were pulled down
over the shoulders and chest (Here, 7)

blood splashed down over his unitorm (Here, 20)

tower looking down over this scene (Here, 131)

we folded our windshield down over tEe Eood
(Here, 162)

and a white hat cocked far down over one eye
(Brave, 39)

On over:

they went on over the head (Here, 7)

Out over:

I stood at the rail looking out over that ar-
‘mada (Here, 15)

~238-

the gping was rough, out over the desert (Here,
116 ‘“"‘

Over at:

what's more, the waiter over at the restaurant
remembers (Brave, 85)

Over by:
"I was lying over by the rail“ (Here, 23)
Over in:

most of us over in France don't pretend to know
the right answer (Brave, 466)

Over into:

reached over into the Jee and kissed Chris first
on one cheek (Here, 292

on another order we all crept gzer into some
grass and lay hidden (Here, 261)

 

Over on:

and let the ships ease over on their sides (Here,
49

over on the far hillside where the Germans were
(Brave, 199) ‘

Over onto:

asked us to start shooting mortars over onto
the Germans on the face of the hiII (Here, 270)

Over to:

newspapermen here failed at getting the finer
points over to you (Here, 53)

they believed tEey'd bring their fifty planes
over to our field (Brave, 175)

”up, It's over to the right about thirty feet'
Brave,

Up over:

the bombing run u over Bizerte (Here, 100)
along)foot-wide goat trails, up over hills (Here,
300

-239-

2.2(41) Regardless of:

regardless of barriers, somehow our soldiers
got along (Here, 30)

2.2(48) Through:
Around through:

a multitude of tracks, winding around through
bare wraithlike hills (Here, 2557‘

Down through:

to dive down through them.(ggrg, 109)

On through:

and continued on through Italy (B3312, 129)

Through with:

and were through with combat flying for a while
(B259. W

2.2(43) 1'2:

According to:

they still were low according to our standards
(Here, 27)

égcredited to:

the only.Mmerican Negro correspondent then ac-
credited to the EurOpean theater (Here, 273)

Akin to:

we acquired a feeling something akin to family
love for our tem of ships (Here,

Around to:

I went around to the other side of the rock
(Here, 279)

Back to:

it came back to him, as cold feet (Here, 10)
and rode bacE almost to Oran (Here,

~240-

they hadn't reported back to their own outfit
(Here, 32)

we _lurched back to Oran (Here, 44)

had never been Back to the cIty (Here, 44)

we turned the autEorlty of arrest Back to the
French (Here, 54)

and I never did get back to sleep (Here, 60)

American broadcasters In Al iers had Broadcast
back to America (Here, 64

transferred back to Ifierica (Here, 100)

his next Jump would be right back to an Indiana
farm (Here, 121)

I drove Back to our cactus patch (Here, 182)

and went Back to sleep (Here, 198)

we fell back to the old warfare of first pul-
verising tEe enemy (Here, 254)

the human mind snapped Back to the normal state
(Here, 256)

witE a field telephone and called back to bat-
talion headquarters (Here, 263)

ten minutes to get back to normal (Here, 265)

a mile and a half back to the rear (Here, 272)

walked the Germans Back to his sergeant (Here,
273

two panting litterbbearers back to the aid
station (Here, 281)

I drove back to camp (Here, 284)

Arabs)began flocking back to their homes (Here,
290

try to bring it back to Inglewood sometime
(Here, 298)

Close to:

drapping shells close to where they sat (Here,
167
he picked out a point close to the expected

battle (Here, 175)

Compared to:

it was swell compared to the way they had come
over (Here, 4) .

Down to:

and then when he was down to his long GI underb
wear he swung to the front (Here, 10)

until some were down to undersEirts (Here, 25)

Lieutenant Harry'darcEar flew down to Ilgiers
(Here, 53)

but tEen the were down to nine hundred feet
(Here, 133

~241-

were like Palm Springs -- even down to the del-
icate smoke-tree bush (Here, 205)

I felt my way from our pigsEed down to where we
thought the kitchen tent was (Brave, 245)

Indifferent to:

most of us Just lay in our bunks, indifferent
even to the traditional last glance at land
(Here, 4)

Next to:

I believe that next to Rangers and Paratroopers
thpy are really tEe pick of the army (Here,
69 ---

made daytime sleeping next to impossible (Here,
159

Off to:

for men who were goin off to war, they carried
odd things (Here, 3

a tank was off to one side, burning (Here, 176)

the one Amerlcan officer with us went off to
another part of the garrison (Here,

then off to the left we heard German machine-
gun flre (Here, 261)

fell off to sleep (Here, 262)

"and dropped his bomBs off to the side” (Brave,
206

Anzio and Nettuno were in sight off to our right
(Brave, 231

we were off to war again (Brave, 354)

On to:

across the Mediterranean to France and on to
Germany (Here, 26) p

"I want to get on to the front" (Here, 86)

then he went on to Europe (Here,

Out to:

when they went out to one of our far desert air-
dromes (Here ,

so I went out t: their plane's parking place
(Here, 1

when I started out to battle armed only with a
shovel (Here,

far out to sea the ships themselves let go at
the)groan and grind of German motors (Brave,
272

-242-

ships standing in droves out to sea (Brave, 360)

you could see far out to sea (Brave, 6

then suddenly a flare popped in the sky, out to
sea (Brave, 391)

Over to:

newspapermen here failed at getting the finer
points over to you (Here, 53)

they believed tdey'd brlng their fifty planes
over to our field (Brave, 175)

"hp, It‘s over to the rlgEt about thirty feet"
Brave,

To about:

it happened to about one of every fifteen planes
(Here, 129)

 

Unbecoming to:

it a manner unbecoming to the dignity of a British
cruise-ship waiter (Here, 9)

2.2(44) Toward:

Out toward:

the continuous line headed out toward the high-
way (Here, 183)

Up toward:
bounding up toward what was (Here, 178)

2.2(45) Unbecoming to:

in a manner unbecoming to the dignity of a British
cruise-ship waiter (Here, 9)

2.2(46)'Under:

Out under:

we had a reunion out under the wing (Here, 40)

were all crazy about lfiing out under canvas
(Here, 43)

Up under:

"being right up under Jerry's nose" (Brave, 245)

2.8(47) Up:

From up:
from up there you could see (Brave, 369)

On up:

I tried to get on up where the tanks were (Here,
175
"let's get on up there” (Here, 178)

Up against:
"ship came right up against us' (Here, 22)
U’ amon :

one day we saw him up among the men who were
firing (Here, 230)

Up_around:

getting my knees upparound my chin (Here, 282)

Up at:

there were many were besides the big one up at
the front (Here, 49)

Up from:

Major Quint Quick of Bellingham, Washington,
rose u from his bed (Here, 105)

lightymmer can tanks came up from the rear (Here,
181

some of the correspondents up from Italy had no
(Brave, 295)

it was almost too much for soldiers up from
Italy (Brave, 343)

Up in:

they were u in the darkness (Here, 81)

I was u in e Ousseltia Valley with another
contingent of our troops (Here, 170)

a con 1e of colonels up in tEe front lines (Brave,
120

send them up in the mountains to fight (Brave, 150)

He...came from.Hyden, Kentucky, up in the Ellls
(Brave, 218)

Red Dog stayed up in the nose during the landing
(Brave, 325)

- 244-

Up into:

we worked our way u into the convoy (Here 150)

went shooting stralgfit up into the air (Here,
161

flame scorched up into the dark eastern sky
(Here, 183)

looElng straight up into the sky (Here, 228)

thfough fSreign darkness up into the unknown
Here, 260

one mlle an hour in moving up into the lines
was a good speed (Here, 2

making a straight line u into the sky like a
gigantic stream (Brave, ldO)

Up on:

with their machine guns up on the ridge (Here,
276

was over six years before, u on the coast of
the Bering Sea (Here, 302

at times we were rlgfit up on the edge (Brave, 24)
who was standing n a c with one foot up on
the bank (Brave, 256)

Up onto:

had worked their way up onto a long slope (Here,
270

wheatfield that led up onto the slope (Here,
276

Up over:

the bombing run up over Bizerte (Here, 100)
along)foot-wide goat trails, up over hills (Here,
300

Up toward:

bounding up toward what was (gpgg, 178)

Up under:

"being right up under Jerry's nose" (B3212, 245)

Up with:

detective magazines and comic books that had come
up with their bedrolls (Here, 257)

-245-

2.2(48) Upon:
Down upon:

the rattle was right down upon us (Brave, 437)

2.2(49) Up t :
0n up to:

and said he'd take me on up_to the front (Here,
176

Up to within:

as we caught up to within half a mile or so we
could finally see fBrave, 323)

2.2(50) With:
Alonguwith:

I Yent alon with a couple of security officers
Here, 32)

he was beating it to the rear across the desert,
along with the rest of the command post's
personnel’(Here, 172)

so that it could move ri ht along with the ad-
vancing troOps (Here, 2 T

the Navy issued me a Navy mask along with all
the sailors (Brave, 9)

bone and steel out of Dick's brain, plongwith
some of the brain itself (Brave, 12IT

Away with:

except when I was away with the troops (Brave,
417

Back with:

they could have got clear back with the others
(Here, 170) _

eventually landed back with their own outfit
(Brave, 153)

Out with:

they would be out with shovels (Here, 138)

-246-

Through with:

and were through with combat flying for a while
(Here, BBB)

Up with:

detective magazines and comic books that had
come up with their bedrolls (Here, 257)

With about:

and sent it away with about the same assurance
(Here, 34)

Up to within:

as we caught up to within half a mile or so we
could finally see (Brave, 323)

Within about:

when I got within about fifty yards he looked up
(Brave, 937'

-247-

III
COECLESION

3. It has been made quite clear by this study that in
MnE prepositions have come to express all case relationships,
with the exception of nominative, accusative, and vocative
indicated in older languages (and a few modern languages) by
inflectional endings. The old locative case case function of
indicating place or location has been replaced by a host of
Modern English prepositions, such as 33, behind, py, ip,inside,

near, pp, outside, under, within, etc., as in 'we had been in

 

school together g£_Indiana University' (EEEEJ 38), 'stuck

them behind his ear' (Eggp, 172), 'with the British Army pp
Tunisia' (§2£2: 71), 'inside that tent men worked' (Egyp, 80),
'a country schoolhouse p32; the little Algerian town' (E332,
18), 'stood in the darkness pp the hurricane deck' (@353, 17),
'French hospital Just outside Kasserine' (p233, 186), 'I drove
our Jeep gpgpg_a tree' (£352, 164), and 'was a tent within a
tent' (Here, 82). Similarly the old ablative case (denoting
separation), which occurred in languages such as Latin, Greek,
etc., has been replaced in MnE largely by the prepositions
beyond, Eggp,‘p££, out of, and pppp, as in 'the doctors feared
the scourage was beyond their ken' (3233, 84), 'freakish es-
capes Eggp death' (@235, 102), 'clear battle debris 2;; the
docks' (£352) 48), and 'the plane passed on, out of hearing'

(Here, 253). In a similar fashion the older instrumental case

-248-

denoting association, instrument, cause, and agent has been
disolaced in MnE by a number of prepositions. (1) Association
is expressed almost wholly in MnE by the preposition 2222 (as
in 'direct contact wlpp_them'), although the number of varying
kinds of association which 2232 can eXpress runs very high
(the various functions of 2232 are treated fully in.§l.46).
(2) Instrument, or means, can be eXpressed by several preposi-

tions, namely 2y, from, out of, through, and with, as in 'it

 

was reached 2y a steel ladder' (@222, 12), 'white canvas ham-
mocks slung £322 hooks Just above' (5232, 4), 'made their own
utensils out of those famous five-gallon gasoline tins' (2232,
143), 'through the interpreter, the Arab said he' (E222, 84),
and 'played loud tunes on their glasses 2222 their forks'
(£222, 9). (3) Cause, or reason, is expressed largely by the
same prepositions, 2y, from, out of, through, and 2222, and in

addition because of, and over, as in 'we were all impressed 2y

 

the neatness' (E222, 45), 'some troops got mild dysentery £522
it' (2222, 4) 'which I drank hungrily out of deep gratitude
for their thoughtfulness' (2232, 90), 'deliriously happy 2y2yp
the Americans' arrival' (E222, 26), 'artillery behind them

was completely unheard through their weariness' (E232, 257),
and 'was struck 2222 the vast amount of sheeting and swabs'
(E222, 82). (4) Agency is expressed almost entirely in MnE

by the preposition 2y, as in 'the drill was run 2y the dentist'
(@222, 82). The dative case, still inflectionally prevalent
in a number of modern languages, usually "represents a person

as involved or concerned in an activity directed toward him

-249-

and intended to affect him either in a mere material way or
more commonly in an inner sense."1 (1) The dative of refer-
ence, denoting "the person to whom the statement seems true,
or with reference to whom it holds good,"2 is eXpressed in
MnE largely by £23 and 223 as in 'the pants were too long :2;
him' and 'seemed Just like home country :2 them' (3222, 25).
(2) Likewise the dative of interest, denoting ”the person to
whose advantage or disadvantage the action results,"3 is ex-
pressed in MnE by 222 and £2_but also by £222 and 2222, as in
'had been praying and praying £23 the Americans' (2222, 84),
'he stole a watch {522 me,‘ 'everyone was friendly 22 him'
(§2£2J 8), and 'he was kind 2222 them.‘ The genetive case
which expressed an extremely wide variety of notions in older
English has come to be replaced in.MnE largely by 2: (occa-
sionally by 322 in an instance such as 'he yearned £22 praise').
It is not to be forgotten that the :2 genitive, or the in-
flectional genitive, although greatly restricted in current
usage, still survives in current English in a great number of
instances; my concern in this study is not however with the
inflectional genitive. A full treatment of genitive function
as expressed by 23 will be found in $1.30. It is thus apparent
that case functions, once eXpressed by inflectional endings,
can be expressed in MnE in a variety of ways by a large number

of prepositions. A relationship once eXpressed by a single

 

l Curme, 8 tax, 104.
2 Ibid., 6.
3 l5ld., 106.

-250-

case ending may be eXpressed by as many as ten to fifteen
prepositions, each indicating a shading of the relationship
to be eXpressed.

Perhaps as a result of bearing the chief burden of ex-
pressing case relationships in the past, a number of the

prepositions in MnE, such as 22,‘2y, for, 2:, in

, 21, and £2
(usually those with the most lengthy histories), have weak-
ened in some of their meanings. The preposition 2: for ex-
ample seems in some uses to be devoid, or almost devoid, of
meaning whatsoever and can be classified accordingly only
from context. As a result of this general inability to con—
vey specific meaning there has arisen a certain amount of
vacillation between these prepositions in a number of areas
of expression. The student is thus often puzzled as to
whether he should say 'oblivious 2E' or 'oblivious 22,‘
'coincident 2222} or 'coincident pp,‘ 'dentical‘pppp' or
'identical Ep,‘ etc. A result of this confusion there has
developed a tendency to depend on the categorical statements
of "good grammar" to be found in many of the current hand-
books of English usage. In this same connection there are

a large number of verbs, participles, etc., which are con-
strued with certain specific prepositions. There is often
apparently no logic involved in their use, and the speaker is
left to rely upon some inherent sense of "rightness" and
"wrongness." Kennedy sums up the situation as follows: "there
remain still numerous words (verbs, participles, adjectives,

nouns) in Modern English which puzzle many speakers and writers

-251-

because they must always be followed by certain special prep-
ositions; or others than can change their meanings so as to
require several different prepositions accordingly. A few of
these words are of native Anglo-Baxon origin, but for the most
part they are French or Latin in origin. sometimes the pecul-
iar meaning of the governing word shows which preposition is
needed, but often there is little to aid in the choice except
an understanding of the idiosyncrasies of the English lane
gagge."4 The study of these changes is a difficult one, lying
mostly within the province of historical grammar which I have
not attempted to deal with in the present study.

It has also become clear fron this study of prepositions
that they are very closely allied in nature to adverbs and
subordinatipg conjunctions. A preposition is close to the
adverb, as I have previously mentioned, when it limits the
force of the verb by the nature of its expressed relationship.
The same particle can function as a preposition or as an ad-
verb; op. 'he is 12' (adverb) and 'he is 22 the house' (prep-
osition). A preposition may also so resemble an adverb as to
cause confusion in analysis, as in 'one about every thirty
seconds' (3232, 181). Likewise because of its connective
function (in the sense of eXpressing relationships) a preposi-
tion sometimes resembles a subordinating conjunction. The same
particle can thus function as a preposition or a conjunction;

0p. 'surrender did more for American morale' (Here, 286) and

 

4 Kennedy, Current English, 536.

-252-

'was at Bellvue...before the war' (2222” 31) with 'that
startled me, :2; I couldn't see' (E232, 21) and 'many of them
will die behind their cameras before it is all over' (E222,
16). The prepositional phrase furthermore may function as

an adverb when it modifies the verb and as an adjective when
it modifies a noun.

As was pointed out in Chapter II the compounding of
prepositions is known to have developed as early as the tenth
century. Compounding apparently developed at the same time
that a large number of prepositions were being added to the
English language as a result of a desire for more and better
means of eXpressing grammatical relationships. There are two
fairly good explanations for this linguistic development:

(1) In some instances a particular meaning of a preposition
became weakened to an extent where addition of another prep-
osition for reinforcement of the meaning became necessary,

or (2) compounding was the natural result of a desire to ex-
press relationships even more complicated than either could
express individually. A satisfactory answer probably involves
consideration of both. At any rate, as Fries points out, the
compounding (”addition") of prepositions is particularly com-
mon,5 and today it is not uncommon to find combinations of
three or four, and sometimes even more, prepositions in suc-
cession, as in 'the corvette on out beyond us and the trans-

port' (Here, 14), 'and battalion on down to the company'

 

5 Fries, American English Grammar, 117.

-253-

(By2y2, 101), etc.

By reason of constant and varied use prepositions in MnE
have developed an independent status to such an extent that
they, in turn, have come to take modifiers. These modifiers
can usually be regarded as indicators of a degree of relation-
ship eXpressed by the preposition. These particles I have
termed intensifiers, and many of them have occurred frequently

throughout the study, as all, almost, clean, clear, far, Just,

 

 

 

right, smack, sheer, and straight. By far most frequent in

 

 

occurrence are Just and righ . A few examples will serve to

illustrate their function: 'other soldiers lay all around

 

them (Here, 18), 'and drove clear across London through the

 

blackout (Here, 2), 'managed to arrive Just at lunchtime'

(Here, 72), 'dashed to the train Jpst before departure time'

 

(Here, 72), 'well, I ran smack into that same bunch' (Here,

 

119), 'were working a three-shift day, right around the clock'

 

(Here, 47), and 'but never went right into it' (Here, 181).
Occasionally the combination intensifier / preposition can be
reversed without significant change in meaning, as in 'treated

the wounded of the other side all during the battle' (Here, 75)

 

and 'during all the time we were under fire' (Here, 267).

 

’Since I have failed to find mention of this peculiar linguistic
development in any of the works I have had occasion to consult,
it seems to me that a great deal of further study needs to be
devoted to these particles used in combination with preposi-
tions.

It has become apparent to me as a result of this study

-054-

that a great deal of further investigation of prepositional
usage in present-day English is very necessary. There exists
a great deal of misunderstanding concerning the functions of
prepositions generally. Some developments connected with
their use in English have been completely overlooked by gram-
marians and linguists. Despite some of the shortcomings in-
volved in the use of prepositions, I have in my final analysis
come to agree with Professor G. 0. Curme's statement that "the
development of prepositions brought a new and considerably

improved means of eXpression."6

 

6 Curme, Syntax, 562.

-255-

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Bishop, Morris, ”The Naughty Preposition," New Yorker, Vol.
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-256-

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1§-24e
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~257-

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