A COMPUTER ASSlSTED RECHARGE EVALUATlONa OF A DREFLBEDROCK AQUEFER SYSTEM Thesis for the Degree. of 921.8. 'MECHIGAN STATE UNE‘JERSITY REWARD i. WNDLE 1975 _. fivfl‘ Mill“!!!INfllHllHlHlllHllllIIUHHIUIIIUUHIUHIUI 1293 10432 7360 *‘u- ABSTRACT A COMPUTER ASSISTED RECHARGE EVALUATION OF A DRIFT-BEDROCK AQUIFER SYSTEM By RICHARD J. HANDLE A model is proposed for the systematic evaluation of the physical properties of a glacial drift—bedrock aquifer system. The study inte- grates geophysical, geologic, hydrologic, and soils data. The data was compiled in such a manner that approximations of the recharge potential of the aquifer system might be made as the study progresses. A bedrock valley was located using drillers logs and further defined using gravity methods. A series of computer derived map overlays define subsurface physical characteristics such as: bedrock topography, bedrock lithology, drift lithology and thickness, and surface characteristics such as: infiltration capacity, soil drainage, surface gradient, location of water bofies, approximate depth to water table and location of urban areas. Combinations of the overlays indicate areas of potential recharge to the drift-bedrock system. A COMPUTER ASSISTED RECHARGE EVALUATION OF A DRIFT-BEDROCK AQUIFER SYSTEM BY RICHARD J. MANDLE A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Geology 1975 w I.-. 1 ‘E E! n 1 u ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Special thanks goes out to Stoney, my committee chairman, for his helpful guidance and endless prodding to complete this manuscript. I would also like to thank my other committee members, Dr. Bob Carmichael, for his patience in explaining the gravity method to me, and Dr. Larry Lackey for his constructive criticism. I could not have completed this thesis without the help of my field crew: Jim, Mike, Joe, Becky, my sister Donna, and my wife Carol. We enjoyed many cold weekends together drinking coffee and eating hamburgers, at my expense. This study was funded in full by my wife,Carol, to whom I will be eternally in debt. ii » TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ........................ . ........................... vi Chapter I. INTRODUCTION ............................................... 1 Scope and purpose ....................................... 1 Areal Description ........................... . ........... 2 Previous Studies ........................................ 2 II. THE MATRIX STUDY ........... ........ .... ...... .......... ... 4 Surface Factors ......................................... 6 Infiltration Capacity ........................ . .......... 7 Surface Gradient .. ..................................... . 7 Depth to Water Table and Location of Surface Water Bodies 8 Natural Drainage ........................................ 8 Subsurface Factors ...................................... 11 Weightings .............................................. 12 Method of Combination ................................... 14 III. SOURCES OF DATA .. ......................................... . 16 IV. THE GRAVITY STUDY . .................... . .......... .......... 19 Data Reduction ................. ....... .................. 19 Interpretations ........ ................................. 20 V. RESULTS ............... ....... . ...................... ....... 23 Site Evaluation .. .................. ...... ............... 23 Conclusions ........ . ............... .... ................. 32 Recommendations for Further Study ...... ................. 33 iii APPENDIX I Gravity survey and data ........ . ....... . ................ 34 APPENDIX II Well logs .......................................... ..... 49 REFERENCES ................................................... . . . . . . 58 PAPER JACKET Contains a transparent overlay for locating section lines on maps within the text of the thesis. iv Figure 1. 10. 11. LIST OF FIGURES Page Well locations ................ ... .............. ...... ..... ... l7 Bedrock elevations without gravity data added ................ 18 Bedrock elevations with gravity data added ................... 21 Drift thickness .......................... ... ...... . .......... 22 Areas of high infiltration capacity .......................... 24 Relative drift permeablility ................................ . 25 Areas of water table conditions ......... .......... ........... 26 Areas in which sandstone is overlain by sand and gravel ..... . 27 Bedrock lithology .......... . ......................... ... ..... 28 Areas of high potential recharge to drift .................... 30 Relative recharge potential of drift-bedrock aquifer system .. 31 Table l. 2. 3. LIST OF TABLES Surface factors ........... ........................ Subsurface factors Weightings ........... . ....................... . ..... . ........ vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Scope and Purpose of Study The major objective of this study is to utilize existing data in a model that offers a rapid reconnaissance of the aquifer system, and is able to incorporate additional data as it becomes available. Data used in this study is readily available and adequate for conducting a pre- liminary study, A gravity survey was conducted to supplement existing data and to verify trends in the bedrock topography. The data was then combined in a manner similar to the method proposed by Tillman and others (1974). The study area selected, Meridian Township, is located in the northwest quarter of Ingham County, which is in turn centrally located in Michigan's Lower Penninsula. The area was chosen because: I) pressing water problems dictate that a new source of ground water be developed, or that existing sources be replenished, 2) it is easily accessible, and 3) Vanlier and others (1974) have shown that a buried stream valley exists in the eastern half of Meridian Township, running north—south under Lake Lansing. This valley is of hydrogeologic importance because ancient valleys generally contain sands and gravels which make good aquifers and are easily recharged. Political boundaries outline the study area because in developing a ground water resource, a governmental unit will work within its own political boundaries without regard for the ground 1 water basin boundaries. Areal Description The study area lies in the south central portion of the Michigan Basin. The recent sediments consists primarily of unconsolidated glacial deposits of Wisconsinan age and Halocene alluvium. They overlie Penn- sylvanian sandstone and shale lenses included in the Saginaw Formation, neither of which has any great areal extent (Mencenberg, 1967). The sandstones are of great thickness, up to 300 feet, in the Lansing Metro- politan area (Mencenberg, 1967), but they become interbedded with shales in the Meridian Township area. Previous Studies Visual means of depicting hydrogeologic conditions have been limited. The use of lithofacies maps has been discussed in detail by Krumbein and 81033 (1951) and Pettyjohn and Randich (1965). Modifications of lithofacies techniques were applied in a hydrogeologic study by Kazmann (1949). Lithofacies maps using overlays for hydrogeologic studies in glaciated areas was proposed by Pettyjohn and Randich (1966). Lithofacies maps are a series of maps which show the lithologic variation in the study area. As applied to hydrogeologic studies, a series of transparent overlays depict the textural variation of the elastic sediments. Each of the overlays represents a unit thickness, which is determined by the complexity and thickness of the sedimentary section. A more complex section would require smaller units, or sampling 3 intervals, to obtain a better description of the section. The number of units is limited by the transparency of the overlays and the number of shades of color perceivable. A section which is of great thickness or complexity cannot therefore be described without using a large sampling interval, and with a forfeiture of accuracy. The use of the digital computer eliminates this problem. Any number of matrices, each representing a unit thickness, can be stored and manipulated. The matrix technique for hydrogeologic studies has not been attempted before, but has the distinct advantage over other techniques, such as that using acetate overlays as proposed by McHarg (1969), because the factors, levels, and weightings can be adjusted to manipulate the summation map to reflect more closely actual conditions where they are known,( for instance in the vicinity of a pumping well). The use of subsurface lithofacies maps with surficial geologic data in a matrix form gives a complete physical description of the drift-bedrock aquifer system, that neither surface or basement maps provide in glaciated areas. CHAPTER II THE MATRIX STUDY The technique of computer assisted data storage and manipulation of matrices for geologic evaluation in land use planning was proposed by Tillman and others (1974). Subsequent work was later done by Iverson (1974) and Tillman and others (1975). The method involves computer-storage of different types of data pertinent to the study and manipulating it as a matrix. These matrix components are referred to as factors. Each factor is divided into different factor levels. Subjective factor levels are normalized with respect to the least desirable factor level, which is assigned a score of one. The most desirable factor level would have a score greater than one, depending on the number of factor levels. Factors are then assigned weightings which express the relative impOrtance of that factor. Data is assigned to an appropriate factor level, multiplied by the weighting and results are summed for each data station. A composite map is drawn and contoured for the summation. High summations reflect optimal conditions. By altering the factors different properties of the physical system can be enhanced or depressed for different uses. TABLE 1. Surface Factors. Factors Levels Description Infiltration Capacity* 1 Slow (.2-.8 in/hour) 3 Moderate (.8—2.5 in/hour) 4 Rapid (2.5-10.0 in/hour) 5 Very Rapid (greater than 10.0 in/hour) Surface Gradient* 1 6-12% 3 2—6% 5 0-22 Depth to Water Table* 1 0-24 inches 3 24-120 inches 5 over 60 inches Water Bodies# 1 Open Water 3 Floodplains, intermittent streams 5 No surface water Natural Drainage* 1 Very poorly drained 2 Poorly drained 3 Somewhat poorly drained 4 Moderately well drained 5 Well drained Urban Areas# 1 Within urban areas 5 Outside urban areas *Data derived from Schneider and Erickson (1972). #Data derived from aerial photographs (US Soil Conservation Service). 6 Factors Ten factors were chosen to describe the physical characteristics of the ground water system. The surface factors include: 1) infiltration capacity, 2) surface gradient, 3) depth to water table, 4) location of surface water bodies, 5) natural drainage, and 6) location of urban areas. These factors determine whether precipitation infiltrates or runs off the ground surface. The subsurface factors are: 7) drift permeability of the different intervals describing the glacial drift, 8) permeability of the drift—bedrock transition, 9) bedrock lithology, and 10) drift thickness. Each of these factors will be discussed and related to the hydrogeologic system. Infiltration Capacity Infiltration capacity is a measure of the capability of water to move through the soil. It had been previously emphasized that if rainfall intensity exceeded infiltration capacity, limited infiltration would occur, and overland flow would become the primary mode of water movement (Horton, 1945). Investigations have determined that infiltration is fre— quently not a limiting factor in well vegetated basins, if the basin as a whole is considered (Musgrave,l935),(Betson and Marius, 1969), and (Dickinson and Whitely, 1970). During an intense rainstorm, infiltration capacity will be exceeded, and local overland flow will occur. Water will also become ponded and stored on the surface until it eventually infiltrates into the soil. A rapid infiltration rate would be optimal for ground water recharge, since a slow infiltration rate would cause overland flow and evaporative loss of ponded waters. A high infiltration capacity receives a maximum factor score. Surface Gradient The surface gradient will help determine the rate of infiltration into the soil medium. A greater gradient will result in more runoff and less water infiltrating into the soil. Precipitation may enter the soil profile but will runoff as hillslope outflow or drainage (Troendle, 1970). Lower gradients will result in greater infiltration and less hillslope drainage and therefore receives the highest factor score. 8 Depth to Water Table and Location of Surface Water Bodies The depth to water table and location of surface water bodies indicate groundwater discharge and recharge areas. Natural groundwater discharge areas refer to areas in which water leaves the groundwater flow system by means of stream baseflow, springs, seepage areas, and evapotranspiration (Freeze and Witherspoon, 1967). Water movement in the groundwater flowsystem is toward the water table in these areas. Recharge areas refer to areas in which water percolates to the water table and becomes part of the groundwater system (Freeze and Wither— spoon, 1967). There groundwater moves downward from the water table. The presence of surface water bodies and high water table will depict areas of discharge from the groundwater system. These areas will be given a low factor level score, because infiltration is reduced in discharging zones. Although the data on depth to water table is not conclusive in regard to the actual position of the water table, the greatest depth to the water table will be used to indicate a groundwater recharge area. This along with the absence of surface water bodies will receive the highest factor level score. Natural Drainage The natural drainage of a soil is controlled by the depth to water table and the type of material making up the soil mass. 9 Natural Drainage as used in this study and defined by Schneider and Erickson (1972), is determined by the number of months during the year the water table is in contact with that part of the soil profile. This is determined by noting the color of the soil as viewed from aerial photographs and field observations. Because a poorly drained soil may represent a ground water discharge zone, it receives a low factor level score. Well drained soils may represent groundwater recharge areas. These soils are assigned to a high factor level. 10 TABLE 2. Subsurface Factors. Factors Level Description Drift Permeability chay Zsand %gravel 1 100 0 0 2 67 33 0 3 67 0 33 4 33 67 O 5 33 0 67 6 0 100 0 7 0 67 33 8 0 33 67 9 0 0 100 Sands and gravels overlying 1 No sandstone 9 Yes Bedrock lithology l Shale 9 Sandstone Data derived from water well logs (Michigan Geological Survey). Drift thickness obtained from water well logs and the gravity survey, is used to determine the average drift permeability. ll Subsurface Factors The subsurface factors were derived entirely from water well logs and the gravity survey. Based on descriptions from the water well logs, the drift is seen to be composed mainly of four components: clay, sand, gravel, and till. The clay category contains clay and silt, and the till category contains undifferentiated materials. The sand and gravel categories contain sand and gravel. Because of the overall complexity and thickness of the drift section, 25 foot sample intervals were chosen. Each 25 foot interval is evaluated based on the proportion of these components in that interval. The till category is arbitrarily divided equally between the clay and sand and gravel categories. Different factor levels are assigned depending on these relative proportions (see Table 2). Gravel and coarse sand deposits will have a permeability generally greater than 100 darcys. Sands have permeabilities ranging from 10 to 100 darcys, and clay-silt rich materials have a permeability less than 1 darcy and‘more commonly less than 0.1 (Davis and DeWeist, 1970). All will allow infiltration to occur. Intimate mixtures of clay and sand or gravel, or interlaminated clay and sand or gravel beds or lenses both allow infiltration. Infiltration is more likely to occur under a greater variety of hydraulic conditions through drift deposits of gravel. For this reason and because gravel deposits have a greater permeability, a factor level of 9 is assigned to these types of deposits. Deposits of clay are assigned a factor level of 1 because of their low permeabil- ity. 12 The bedrock consists of lenses of sandstone and shale. The sandstones are more permeable and will allow infiltration to occur more readily. Shales will allow infiltration to occur but only under limited hydraulic conditions. They have a lower permeability than sandstones and are assigned to a lower factor level. Weightings The different factors are assigned weightings relative to their importance in assessing the recharge potential of the drift-bedrock aquifer system. These weightings are arbitrary and are assigned by the hydrogeologist. The weightings are assigned on a relative scale, with three being assigned to the most important factor and one to the least important. Iverson (1974) found that optimal areas remained so regard- less of the change in weightings. For this reason the hydrogeologist should place more emphasis on the assigning of factor levels and not on the weightings. 13 TABLE 3. Weightings Surface factors Weightings Infiltration Capacity (I) 3 Surface Gradient (G) 1 Depth to Water Table (T) 2 Location of Water Bodies (B) 2 Natural Drainage (D) 1 Location of Urban Areas (U) 3 Subsurface factors* Drift Permeability (P) 2 * Weightings were not assigned to: Areas in which sands and gravels overlie sandstone, Bedrock lithology, or Drift thickness. The methods of combination involving these factors does not necessitate the use of weightings. 14 Method of Combination The factors, as matrices, are combined to evaluate the recharge potential of the drift-bedrock aquifer system. The recharge potential of the drift aquifer is determined by a combination of the six surface factors and one subsurface factor. The surface factors are combined in the following manner to show, on the ground surface, areas of high infiltration capacity (SA): SA = ((wa)+(wxG)+(wxD)+(wa)+(wa)+(wa))/6 (1) where: = weighting corresponding to each factor Infiltration Capacity Surface Gradient Depth to Water Table Location of Water Bodies = Location of Urban Areas ll cwr—JOHS u The purpose of dividing (SA) by six is only to reduce the magnitude of the resulting values and to make the factor (SA) easier to manipulate with reSpect to the subsurface factors. The factor (SA) is then multi- plied by a weighting to normalize this factor relative to the subsurface factors. Areas in which water table conditions (WT) are prevalent is then determined by combining areas of high infiltration capacity (SA) with permeable drift deposits (determined to be greater than a factor level of 5.0). The water table (WT) equation becomes: WT = SA+P (2) where: P = Drift Permeability (greater than 5.0) SA Infiltration Capacity (greater than 5.0) All of the areas in which (P) and (SA) have values less than 5.0 are assigned a value of 0.0 before combination. 15 The recharge potential of the glacial drift is determined by the following equation: RP = SA + WT + (wxP) (3) where: RP = Recharge potential of drift P = Drift permeability w = appropriate weighting for P WT = Water table conditions In order to evaluate the recharge potential of the bedrock aquifer, Equation (3) is revised to include areas in which permeable bedrock is overlain by permeable drift deposits (L). RPB = RP + (mm) (4) where: RPB = Recharge potential of the bedrock aquifer L = Areas in which sands and gravels overlie sandstone In Equation (4), sandstone is assigned a factor level of 9.0 and shale is assigned a factor level of 0.0 in determinin (L). CHAPTER III Sources of Data Aerial photographs, quadrangle topographic maps, and county soils maps (U.S. Soil Conservation Service), were used as data sources. All are easily obtainable sources of data. Data derived from these maps in- clude: soil permeability, surface gradient, natural drainage, depth to water table, location of surface water bodies and the location of urban areas. The data derived from soil maps was compiled by Erickson and Schneider (1972). Subsurface data was derived from water well logs. While it is recognized that these logs are not the best source of data, they are the only sources of subsurface data, and will have to be used with discretion. Over 500 well logs were examined and 182 were chosen based on what was considered a more complete lithologic description (see Fig. l and Appendix II). From these, lithologic variation in both the drift and the bedrock was determined. A gravity survey was conducted in areas of low well dens— ity and to verify trends in the first computer derived bedrock topographic map (Fig. 2). 16 + + + + + + + + + ++ + ++ ++ ++ ++ + + + + + + + .1. ‘+ 4. ++ + + ++ + + + + + + + + j} *‘f + + + ++ + ++ '* + 4 + + + ++ + + ++ WELL LOCRTIONS FIG.1 17 BEDROCK TOPOGRFIPHY CHAPTER IV The Gravity Study A preliminary bedrock topographic map of Meridian Township was computer derived from water well logs. Gravity traverses for further delineation of bedrock topography were laid out based on trends shown‘ on this map and the low density of well data. Station intervals of 100 feet on four traverses were chosen. The four traverses contained 281 stations, and covered a linear distance of over 29,000 feet. Each station location was surveyed in, starting at benchmarks of known elevation. Multiple gravity readings were taken at each station location, and the average used in determining the gravity value at that location. Gravity exploration was chosen because it is relatively quick and inexpensive, and it is easy to apply to actual field conditions. Methods proposed and refined by Reagan (1974) specifically apply to use in glaciated areas, and are used in this study. The only handicap in using gravity as an exploration method is that station elevations must be accu- rate, and relatively good well control is needed along a traverse (two or three wells) in order to accurately determine bedrock elevation. Data Reduction The observed gravity readings are subjected to a series of corrections to produce a true relative value of the earth's gravitational field. These 19 20 corrections are due to: l) latitude differences, 2) elevation differences, 3) instrument drift, and 4) earth tides. The corrected gravity value is called the Bouguer Gravity Value. The Bouguer Gravity Anomaly was deter- mined by reducing all values to some base level. Interpretations Upon plotting these values, there was found to be a linear increase in the Bouguer Gravity Anomaly, thought to be due to either a strong regional or an overcorrection for instrumental drift, which seems more probable. The linear trend was removed and the residuals retained. Elevations were determined using the interpolation technique. Readings were taken with the gravity meter at well locations where bedrock elevation is known. A polynomial regression curve was fit to the Bouguer Gravity Anomaly and known bedrock elevations to determine the relationship between them; bedrock elevations at other locations were determined from the curve. The gravity determined bedrock elevations were added to the computer stored data and a more complete bedrock topographic map was obtained (Fig. 3). Drift thickness (Fig. 4) was calculated and with bedrock topography become data to be used in determining some physical parameters of the ground water system. Cos... » exp ...; . .11“ ‘1‘ 0. ea ..WMO a...“ h o OUA Ail . It»!!! If c BEDROCK TOPOGRRPHY FIG.3 .CHAPTER V Results The various factors are combined according to equations (l),(2), (3), and (4), and represented on figures 5 through 11. In determining the potential recharge to the drift-bedrock aquifer, according to equa- tion (4). One of the advantages to using this computerized matrix technique, is that the user is able to see the map being constructed as the study progresses. In order to determine areas of high recharge potential to glacial drift, figures 5,6 and 7 are combined as matrices, to form figure 10. Figures 5,6,7,8 and 9, are combined to determine areas of high potential recharge to the drift-bedrock aquifer, figure 11. Located on figure 10 are sites having the highest recharge poten- tial to the drift aquifer. The same sites are located on figure 11, with the exception of site 5, which is underlain by shale deposits. These sites are located using geologic criteria. Socio-economic constraints may be applied for further site evaluation Site Evaluation Site 1 is an abandoned gravel quarry located in section 9, east of Park Lake Road. This site has been also identified by local consultants (W.G. Keck and Associates) and the U.S.G.S. Water Resources Division as a potential recharge site. This site is presently not being developed. Site 2 is also an abandoned gravel quarry located north of site 1 23 RRERS IN WHICH SRNDSTONE IS OVERLRIN BY SRNO FIND GRRVEL DEPOSITS FIG.8 €313 SHALE SAN DSTONE .|||I 1C) BEDROCK LITHOLOGY FIG.9 28 29 on highway M—78. This site appears to be the extension of an esker running south through site 1. This site is also not being developed. Both sites, if developed as recharge lagoons might also meet the recreational and aesthetic needs of the community, being located just east and north of the city of East Lansing. Site 3 is located on the southern half of Michigan State Univer- sity, off Bennett and Hagadorn Roads. This site is located in the Michigan State University well field. A recharge reservoir located here could recharge the shrinking ground water reserves and serve the recreational needs of the university community. Site 4 deserves further consideration because it is located above a buried bedrock valley. Although this area has not been developed hydrogeologically, increasing future water needs dictate that this area be evaluated as a potential glacial drift aquifer and possibly developed at some time in the future. This area could also serve as a catchment for storm runoff. The recent flooding (April 1975), emphasized the need for this type of runoff control. Site 5, east of Lake Lansing might also be developed as runoff catchment site or as a ground water recharge reservoir for recharge of a potential glacial drift aquifer. The drift is over 120 feet thick in this area, allowing for ample storage volume, and the site is underlain by shale which acts as the bottom boundary for the drift aquifer. Each of these sites has the potential for development as storm runoff catchments or ground water recharge sites. Sites 1 and 2 serving East Lansing. Site 3 developed for Michigan State University. Site 4 for eastern Meridian Township, and site 5 for the Haslett-Lake Lansing area. U .../,2; ° fig 5:1 0 <2. 0 O 6 ..g .0990 ‘90 O iggig. 5 RRERS OF HIGH POTENTIRL RECHRRGE T0 DRIFT FIG. 10 <\. :5 (G 0.6 In . AS 0 WWJAWM .Dflw.~.@. Wye A QED... E O. RELRTIVE RECHHRGE POTENTIHL 32 Conclusion The model pr0posed uses available data in locating optimal ground water recharge sites. Data used in this study was derived from U.S.G.S. quandrangle topographic maps, U.S. Soil Conservation Service soil maps and aerial photographs, and water well logs from the Michigan Geological Survey. A gravity survey was conducted to supplement this existing data in areas of low well density and the verify trends in the bedrock topo- graphic map. Using the technique of matrix addition and multiplication by weightings, a summation map is produced and contoured. The highest sum- mations represent the most optimal locations for ground water recharge sites. Five different sites were located using this method. The selec- tion of site 1 concurs with the evaluation by a local consulting firm (W.G. Keck and Assoc. and the U.S.G.S. Water Resources Division). The confirmation of the remaining sites should be accomplished be test drill- ing and percolation tests. The advantage of this technique is that changes can be made during the course of the study by simply adjusting factors, levels and weightings, which are all a matter of simple programming changes. Additional data may be incorporated and stored as matrices, to be manipulated when needed. Approximations may be made as the study progresses, without the manual construction of new maps. Although not used for hydrogeologic purposes in the past, this study has demonstrated the applicability of this computer matrix tech- nique to reconnaissance hydrogeologic investigations. The selection of sites should not be considered absolute but rather as a first approxima- 33 tion. Further on-site evaluation becomes necessary in order to offer definite solutions to the problem at hand. Recommendations for Further Study Since the proposed model admittedly, is of use only in reconnais- sance studies further on-site evaluation is required. This would en- compass test drilling for sampling the drift material and the location of observation wells. A pump test well could be used to determine the hydraulic response of the glacial drift and bedrock aquifer. The flow paths of recharging water can then be determined and hopefully the model is verified. By changing weightings, thus changing the emphasis of different factors, the model might be made to fit the known hydraul- ic characteristics of the aquifer. This might be a method of arriving at the appropriate weightings for the different factors. The proposed model might also be used for regional evaluation of the aquifer potential of a particular formation. In order to do this, some ranges of permeabilities must be known. APPENDIX I THE GRAVITY SURVEY 34 APPENDIX I THE GRAVITY SURVEY 111251 In the presence of some massive object, any other object will experience an attractive force, directly proportional to the product of their masses, and inversely proportional to the distance between them, or; G=Am'm/ r2 where: = gravitational force of attraction G A gravitational constant m'= massive object m r attracted object distance between their centers of mass The gravitational force of attraction per unit mass produced by an object of mass M, at a distance r, is: G=AM/ r2 When measuring the gravitational attraction of the earth, this equation is used, where M is the mass of the earth, and r is the radius of the earth. The attractive force of the earth on the test mass is then measured. Data Reductions The observed gravity readings are subjected to a series of corrections 35 36 to produce a relative value of the earth's gravitational field. These corrections are due to: l) latitude differences, 2) elevation differences, 3) instrument drift, and 4) earth tides. The corrected gravity value is called the Bouguer Gravity Value. The Bouguer Gravity Value can be calculated using the following expression: Gbgv=go+ gl+ gfa+ gm+ gt where: Gbgv= Bouguer Gravity Value g0= observed gravity value gl= latitude correction gfa= free air correction m= Bouguer mass correction gt= terrain correction All corrections are applied as outlined in any applied geophysics textbook, except earth tides corrections. These are outlined in Reagan (1974). Earth Tides Correction Due to the gravitational attraction of the moon and sun on the solid and liquid mass of the earth, a bulging takes place. These are the tides. Earth tides is the bulging of the solid mass of the earth in response to this attraction. This phenomenon fluctuates diurnally and semidiurnally due to the change in postion of the earth with respect to the sun and moon. Conventionally this drift is incorporated into one correction along with instrumental drift. This correction is determined by frequent measurements at some base station. The method used by Reagan (1974) and in this study involves a theoretical determination of the earth tides. 37 RESULTS All corrections were applied to the observed gravity values measured along the traverses. A density of 2.10 gm/cm3 was used for the glacial drift. This value was obtained from a range of values published in the literature. Bedrock elevations were related to residual anomaly values by linear interpolation. The results are listed in the following tables. ”AVITV )ATT on: or i JOLLY ROAD — 1 got? 1?" r \u .. - ‘TAV _. .. _ ~‘ I :C "Furfucrrn P u 3‘.) p!.-‘f’\ ~ .‘ \- one“ "\..C' ’\ AS7 ROIJCTHJ mo HILY Ttfl F11 r. 45—! la 5— U7 pp 90W VQL'J: r-"-Arf(\s‘p at“ T? H STGIIO“ ‘1”qu 38 UL! cunt! 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