onennsme STRATEGIES: Two FACTOR ANALYTIC SOLUTIONS Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY MARELYN S. GOLDMAN 1973 RETURNING MATERIALS: }V1531_} Place in book drop to remove this checkout from w your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. ABSTRACT ADVERTISING STRATEGIES: TWO FACTOR ANALYTIC SOLUTIONS BY Marilyn S. Goldman The concept of attitude is a vital and often discussed topic for advertising strategies. Often the different attitudinal dimensions and beliefs form the foundation for advertising strategies that can be executed in various ways. This field study was designed to explore the attitudinal dimensions of wine drinkers. Two factor analytic solutions were completed. Each analysis pro— duced a principal factor solution followed by varimax rotation. Other purposes were: (1) to identify the attitude structure of wine opinion leaders and (2) to determine what effect (if any) judgment certainty has on respondents' attitudes. Each of the 174 reSpondents rated 35 wine attitude statements on a 7-point Likert-type scale. In addition to the attitude statements, the respondents rated a 3-point scale to determine how certain they were about each attitude statement. Additional descriptive data of sample characteristics was also gathered. Marilyn S. Goldman Data analysis revealed the following results: 1. The item (3) factor solution revealed 3 factors accounting for 56 per cent of the total variance. 2. The peOple (inverted-B) factor solution revealed 6 factors accounting for 51 per cent of the total variance. 3. Thirteen high opinion leaders were identified; however, their character- istics are not explainable from this study. 4. Certainty judgments were not demonstra- ted as good predictors of attitudes, nor was sex or wine usage. Descriptions of the item (3) and peOple (inverted-3)’fa¢tor solutions are discussed as well as an integration of them for advertising strategies. The item (3) factor solution suggests reasons why people drink wine; i.e., Unexpected Pleasure. The people (inverted-3) factor solution suggests benefits derived from drinking wine; i.e., Conspicuous Consumer. This field study suggests that attitudes are stable enough for a factor analytic study to support advertising strategies. ADVERTISING STRATEGIES: TWO FACTOR ANALYTIC SOLUTIONS BY Marilyn S. Goldman A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS College of Communication Arts Department of Advertising 1973 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Advertising, College of Communication Arts, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Director of T esis ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Before venturing further into this thesis, it is appropriate to pay my deepest respect and gratitude to those who helped me develop and complete this study. My deepest thanks go to Dr. John Simpkins, who not only contributed a great deal of time and invalu- able direction and ideas, but who also gave me the Opportunity to learn more about advertising research than what is taught in the classroom. Without his help, this study would not have been possible and my experiences would not be as fruitful.- I would also like to thank Joanne Helfrich of the Communications Research Center for her cooperation in enabling my computer proqramming and analysis to be completed. Finally, to all others who have provided assistance in many diverse ways, thanks again for your help. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . Chapter I. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . Introduction . . . . . Wine . . . . . . . . Good Fortune . . . . . Diligence . . . . . . High Standards . . . . Alcoholic Beverages . . . Review of the Literature . Attitude . . . . . . . Judgment . . . . . . . Opinion Leadership . . . Factor Analysis . . Statement of the Problem . Importance of the Study . . Organization of the Study . II. METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . The Sample . . . . . . The Questionnaire . . . . Procedures . . . . . Instructions . . . . . Data Collection . . . . The Data . . . . . . . III. RESULTS . . . . . . . . Sample . . . . . . . Factor Analysis . . . . IV. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY . . . Item Factor Analysis . . . Unexpected Pleasure . . Selectivity . . . . . Experimentation . . . . iii Page ii 42 42 43 44 44 45 46 47 47 47 57 57 57 59 6O Chapter Inverted—R_Factors Conspicuous Consumer BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX A APPENDIX B "Hit" of the Party . Information Seeker The Uninspired Drinker Gift-Giver Special Occasion Drinker Implications Limitations of the Study Implications for Further Research iv Page 62 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 72 74 76 87 91 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Sex and Age of Respondents . . . . . . . 48 2. Type of Residence and Marital Status of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3. How Often Respondents Drink Wine and Where They Buy Wine . . . . . . . . . . . 48 4. Item Rotated Factor Solution . . . . . . 50 5. Invertedefi Factor Solution . . . . . . . 52 6. Percentages of Total Variance by Factor Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 CHAPTER I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The advertiser's interest in attitudes stems from his desire to predict purchase behavior on the basis of knowledge of some measurable variable. If consumers are favorably inclined toward a product or service, the advertiser may wish to institute communication strate- gies to maintain and reinforce those favorable attitudes. However, if the consumer's attitude is unfavorable, the advertiser may want to institute a strategy of attitude change, which becomes a more difficult task. For new products, the advertiser is faced with the task of creating favorable attitudes. The relationship between attitudes and behavior tends to be a positive one. The more favorable an attitude is, the higher the incidence of desired behavior. The less favorable the attitude, the lower the incidence of behavior. This link between attitudes and behavior pre— sents the advertiser with Opportunities to predict consumer behavior and to measure advertising effective- ness. In addition, information about the consumer's attitudes can be used before strategies are executed. If the advertiser knows the consumer's favorable atti— tudes, communication strategies can be designed to reinforce those attitudes. This technique of learning about consumer attitudes and fitting strategies to meet those needs is known as market segmentation. It is the primary focus of this study. Before examining the complex of attitudes, it is important to provide some insight into wine and its consumption growth in the U.S. It is also important to place the product in its product class and examine some findings about the consumption of and attitudes toward. alcoholic beverages in general as they relate to sources of influence, both social and individual. E212 The following information is from a speech by Harry Serlis, President of the Wine Institute.l Over 200 years ago, Father Junipero Serra estab- lished the first European settlement in what is now San Diego, California. With the establishment of his mission came the first American vineyards. Since then, American wineries have grown tremendously. In addition to such uncontrollable variables as weather and product demand 1Harry G. Serlis, "Wine in America," unpublished address to the Newcomen Society in North America, 1972, (Mimeographed.) from the marketplace, industry spokesmen believe that three factors have played primary roles in the industry's development: good fortune, extraordinary diligence and high standards. Good Fortune Part of the good fortune was that grapes were growing wild on this continent long before Europeans began to settle here. When Vikings landed on the shores, they saw an abundance of grapes and named the new land Vinland. When the American colonists came from EurOpe, they brought new grapes to plant; however, they could not successfully cultivate them. The Eastern conditions simply were not congenial to non-native varieties. It was not until much later that the people in the East and Midwest learned to cultivate and develop native grapes such as the Concord, the Dutchess and the Catawba, which are strictly of American origin. In the West, the story is different. The grapes that Father Serra brought from Europe grew well in the Western climate. However, the wine they made was only adequate. By no means did it measure up to the famous wines of Europe. Not until 1840 did Jean Vignis bring grapes from the Bordeaux region of France to California. These grapes were natural for the climatic conditions. Finally, California could produce wines that matched their French counterparts. Diligence Even though the wine industry was growing, it still had barriers to cross. The wine industry has survived the secularization of the missions, the gold rush, 13 years of Prohibition, 2 World Wars and state and national government regulatory agencies. High Standards Required high production standards have enabled Californians to make the claim that their wines compare to other great wines throughout the world. Maintaining the belief that popular acceptance of wine depends on assuring its quality, the Department of Viticulture and Enology at the University of California, Davis, was developed. After Prohibition, a non-profit organization known as the Wine Institute was organized. The Wine Institute represents the interests of the wine industry and serves as a lobbyist for legal problems, leadership and taxation. Today, national wine sales revenues are esti- mated at one billion dollars. Currently, wine is one of the fastest growing products in popularity in this country. California produces about three-fourths of all the wine consumed in the U.S., with imports and wine from other states sharing the remainder about equally. Wine consumption in the U.S. has been increasing on an average of 15 per cent a year.2 Most of that increase has been attributed to the rapid growth in the demand for table wines. Of the 13.7 million case increase from 1970 to 1971, 13 million was attributed to table wines.3 "Pop” wines, such as Boones Farm, Annie Green Springs and Spinada, are classified as a table wine, and they constitute about 20 per cent of the total table wine sales. Even though "pop" wines represent only one-fifth of the total table wine case sales, they did increase 92 per cent from 1970 to 1971.4 Domestic dessert wines seem to be at stable demand levels. However, imported dessert wines have increased in sales just under 20 per cent of all imported dessert wines. Dessert wines are known as the "heavy wines" with alcoholic contents over 16 per cent.5 Demand for champagne and sparkling wines has become uncertain. Until 1970, champagne and sparkling wines had been increasing at a rate of 25 per cent a year. Then, in 1971, this rate dropped to 8 per cent. 2"Outlook for the California Wine Industry,” paper by the Bank of America, Economics Department, October, 1970. (Mimeographed.) 3The Wine Marketing Handbook, 1972 (New York: Gavin-Jobson Associates), p. 84. 4 Ibid., p. 85. 51bid., p. 94. This tremendous growth rate had been accounted for by Cold Duck and pink effervescent wines. However, as "fashions" go, their use has leveled off and has left future predictions obscure.6 The wine industry appears to be in a boom. More people and companies are entering the wine business, either by starting new vineyards or reopening defunct wineries:7 The industry‘is meeting the purchase demands of the consumer. But in order to successfully market wines against competitors, either within the wine industry or across beverage industries, producers, marketers and advertisers need to know in what situations the consumer uses wine, what the consumer expects from wine and what consumer attitudes are towards wine. What is even more amazing is that the youth are quickly becoming regular wine drinkers. People under 34 years of age consume much greater quantities of wine than those in older age groups.8 In fact, per capita wine consumption for the "youth" market is two and one—half to five times that of its elders.9 61bid., p. 103. 7"Ripple Effect," Wall Street Journal, October 26, 1972, p. l. ‘ 8Wine Marketing Handbook, op.Acit., p. 62. 9 Ibid., p. 68. It is to this problem—-discovering the complex of attitudes that youth have towards wine-~that this study will be directed. After a brief look at wine in the U.S. today, examining the product class gives some insight into consumption and attitudes as they relate to social and individual influence. Alcoholic Beverages No attitudinal, motivational or personality studies were available on wine and usage habits. How- ever, a review of what is known about consuming alcoholic beverages, as a product class, gives some insights into some of the same problems and concerns which may confront the wine advertiser and his promo- tional planning. The following literature review extrapolates some relevant variables to wine drinking. It has been reported by several investigators that pressure to conform to social norms influences attitudes toward drinking (Myerson,lo Knupfer and Roon,ll 10A.Myerson, "Alcohol: A Study of Alcohol Ambivalence," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1 (l940).p. l7. llGenevieve Knupfer and Robin Roon, "Abstainers in a Metropolitan Community," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 31 (1970), p. 116. 12 13 Jellinek and Riley, Marden and Lifshitz ). Society defines drinking as a form of relaxation and conviviality. Prestige to the consumer becomes important because social acceptance granted to drinking alcoholic bever- ages allows certain behavior that is otherwise condemned. According to Jellinek,l4 the moderate drinker, in his motivation for drinking, is distinguished from the problem drinker largely in the degree of alcoholic relief that he seeks. The moderate drinker looks for an aside from the problems of the day, whereas the problem drinker wants to blot out reality. Linsky15 found that the younger and better educated people showed a greater acceptance of social drinking, which may indicate one reason why the "youth" market is turning to wine. Supportive of drinking is the moral reason for, in most cases, not drinking alcoholic beverages. 12E. M. Jellinek, "The Alcohol Problem: Founda- tions and Attitudes," Quarterly Journal oertudies on Alcohol, 4 (1943), p. 451. 13J. W. Riley, C. F. Marden, and M. Lifshitz, "The Motivational Pattern of Drinking," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 9 (1948), p. 357. 14 Jellinek, op. cit., p. 453. 15Arnold S. Linsky, "The Changing Public Views on Alcoholism," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 31 (1970). p. 693. Knupfer and Roon,l6 Skolnick17 and Ullman18 agree that' moral reasons include religious and family upbringing. The basis of Skolnick's study on religions and drinking practices was that cultural perspectives control social behavior associated with drinking._ Family background was thought to play an important role in a person's firSt drinking experience. The first drinking experience encounters a great deal of ego involvement and has greater impact and meaning to a person than drinking experiences thereafter. An additional variable related to consuming alcohol appears to be satisfaction from drinking for the person. McClelland19 labels this satisfaction as power thoughts having impact on others. He found that as some persons drink more, they tend to increase their domination of other people. Riley, Marden and Lifshitz20 reported individual reasons for drinking were: pleasurable effects, consequences and satisfaction l6Knupfer and Roon, op. cit., p. 119. 17J. H. Skolnick, "Religious Affiliation and Drinking Behavior," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 19 (1958), p. 464. 18A. E. Ullman, "The First Drinking Experience of Addictive and of 'Normal' Drinkers," Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14 (1953), p. 183. 19David C. McClelland, "The Power of Positive Drinking," Psychology Today, 4 (1971), p. 41. 20 Riley, Marden, and Lifshitz, op. cit., p. 358. 10 from drinking. Riley, et al., found that the greater the frequency of drinking, the greater the proportion of individual or personal satisfaction reasons for drinking 'were reported compared to social reasons for drinking. A study on the "Skid Row Wino“ by Peterson and. Maxwell21 revealed that Skid Row was basically a group- oriented subculture, which demonstrated the importance of group norms and roles in this "drinking community." Two roles emerged: the promoter—-i.e., one skillful in attaining money--and the runner--i.e., one trustworthy enough to buy the wine. The studies cited above identify variables which represent some of the obstacles advertisers must confront when planning advertising strategies. Group norms and roles in society may prohibit consumption of wine. However, satisfaction of experiencing the wine may be rewarding, start a learning process and once the attitude is formed, it may be resistant to atti- tude change. Knowing how peOple feel about wine may lessen or eliminate some marketing problems, and then again, the problems may only be intensified. At any rate, knowing more about the consumer as he relates to others at two levels--attitudinal and behaviora1-—should give 21W. J. Peterson and M. A. Maxwell, "The Skid Row Wino," Social Problems, 5 (1958), p. 311. 11 the advertiser a clearer picture of the situation and advertising opportunities, regardless of the problems he must confront. Review of the Literature A conceptual/theoretical framework for wine attitudes provides background and insight into under- standing results, concerns and the potential value of research knowledge for developing advertising and marketing strategies. The apprOpriate literature may vary as the nature of the behavior being investigated alters. However, for an exploratory examination, as this study is designed for, of attitudinal differences among wine consumers, attitudes, theories and concepts are major. And to place in a broader context for strategy reasons, opinion leadership and judgment con- cepts are included to provide a more precise knowledge base for understanding and using the results of this study. Attitude Attitude is central to this study. Understand- ing attitudes helps to understand other tOpics discussed and provides cohesion within the study. Because atti- tudes are central in guiding consumer action, an attempt must be made to understand why consumers behave 12 as they do.22 The best expression of consumer atti— tudes can be measured through products and services purchased.23 Robertson24 points out that attitude is probably the most prevalent concept in social psychology and has received increasing attention from marketers in recent years. Attitude is commonly thought of as 25 views an attitude a disposition to act, whereas Bauer as an intervening variable accounting for differences in responses among individuals. An attitude may also be looked at as the relatively lasting manner in which the beliefs of consumers are organized toward certain market objects, events or situations.26 Regardless of the definition of attitude used, the marketer's inter- est in attitudes stems from his desire to predict 22E. Mueller, "Effects of Consumer Attitudes on Purchases," American Economic Review, 47 (1957), p. 948. 23C. G. Walters and G. W. Paul, Consumer Behav— ior: An Integrated Framework (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1970), p. 296. 24T. S. Robertson, Consumer Behavior (Chicago, Illinois: Scott Foresman and Company, 1970), p. 45. 25R. A. Bauer, "Attitudes, Verbal Behavior and Other Behavior," in Attitude Research At Sea, ed. by L. Adler and I. Crespi (Chicago, Illinois: American Marketing Association, 1966), p. 7. 26 Walters and Paul, op. cit., p. 296. 13 purchase behavior on the basis of knowledge of some such intervening and measurable variable.27 28 states that an attitude is a set or Likert adjustment in preparation for a certain sort of overt behavior. He feels that in order to effectively pre— dict purchase behavior in one situation to behavior in another situation there must be a unity within the person that emphasizes general predispositional factors. The number of definable attitudes held by a given person at a given time will depend upon the range of stimuli to which he is subjected and will react as well as those to which he has previously been subjected. Attitudes, then, become the range within which responses vary. Katz and Stotland29 suggest that nearly every phenomena of an individual's social life which is influenced by another factor also has some influence upon that factor. It may be more valid to conceive of attitudes as an interactional system in a state of changing equilibrium but always moving toward balance. They believe that the motivational component of an atti- tude has greatest influencecniother parts of the system. 27Robertson, op. cit., p. 45. 28G. Murphy and R. Likert, Public Opinion and the Individual (New York: Russell and Russell, 1967), p. 3. 29D. Katz and E. Stotland, "A Preliminary State- ment of a Theory of Attitude Structure and Change," in Psychology: A Study of Science, ed. by S. Koch (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959), Vol. 3, p. 425. 14 The motivational component of an attitude 30 functional definition of an atti- exemplifies Katz's tude as the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some symbol or.object or aspect of his world in a favorable or unfavorable manner. In fact, following this reasoning, the most effective techniques of atti— tude change would be those aimed at particular motivational sources that support the attitude.31 It is a combination or a union of Likert's32 33 definitions of attitude that will be used and Katz's in this study. An attitude refers to an individual's predisposition or set to evaluate an object in a favorable or unfavorable way to satisfy needs by overt behavior. Values appear to play an important role in the determination of expressed attitudes. According to 30D. Katz, "The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes," in Perspectives in Consumer Behav- ior, ed. by H. Kassarjian and T. Robertson (Chicago: Saatt, Foresman and Company, 1968), p. 121. 31D. Katz, I. Sarnoff, and C. McClintock, "Ego- Defensive and Attitude Change," Human Relations, 9 (1956), p. 30. 32 Murphy and Likert, op. cit., p. 3. 33D. Katz, "Study of Attitudes," op. cit., p. 124. 15 Wbodruff and DiVesta34 and Katz,35 values demonstrate that attitudes are behavioral responses to something more central and more stable in the individual's mental make-up. Rosenberg36 theorizes that an attitude toward a brand is a function of (l) a buyer's beliefs about the brand's ability to satisfy or block Consumption and usage motives and (2) the relative importance, or value, of these motives to him. The attitude could be measured by accounting for the perceived instrumentality of the object and the value importance to the individual: ik Aik = attitude toward an object k_expressed in terms of an individual i's degree of like—dislike (affect) of that object. PI.. = individual ifs perceived instrumentality of the kth object toward attaining or blocking the jth goal or value. 34A. WOodruff and F. J. DiVesta, "The Relation— ship Between Values, Concepts and Attitudes," Journal of Educational and Psychological Measurement, 8 (1948), p. 652. 35 p. 125. 36Jagdish N. Sheth and W. Wayne Talarzyk, "Per— ceived Instrumentality and Value Importance as . Determinants of Attitudes." Journal of Marketing Research, 9 (1972), p. 6. D. Katz, "Study of Attitudes," op. cit.,. l6 VIij = value importance to an individual i of the jth goal or value. 37 38 Unlike Woodruff and DiVesta 39 and Katz, Rosenberg did not emphasize the value to the indi- vidual. Perceived instrumentality had greater predictive power than value importance in predicting consumer behavior. Carlson4O writes about changesin attitude in terms of an affective loading which is the combined perceived instrumentality and value importance that Rosenberg defines. He sees changes in attitude result from altering perceptions of the attitude object as leading to the attainment of the valued goals. Besides value, attitudes have been described to include cognitive, or belief elements, which describe the object of the attitude, the affective, or feeling core of liking and disliking and the behavioral compo— nent which refers to the action orientation toward the object of the attitude and the expression of affect. 37Woodruff and DiVesta, op. cit., p. 652. ————— 38 p. 125. 39Milton J. Rosenberg, "Cognitive Structure and Attitudinal Affect," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53 (November, 1956), p. 369. 40E. Carlson, "Attitude Change Through Modifi— cation of Attitude Structure," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52 (1956), p. 257. D. Katz, "Study of Attitudes," 0p. cit., 17 The cognitive aspect can vary from knowledge of some minimal cue necessary to identify the object to a full and detailed description of the object and beliefs about it. This component is described by Katz and Stotland41 by three basic characteristics--degree of differentiation (i.e., the number of cognitive elements), degree of integration (i.e., the organization of cogni- tive elements into a hierarchial pattern) and the generality or specificity of the beliefs. The complex of the cognitive elements dictate, to some degree, the situations in which the consumer will display overt behavior. Also, cognitions partially determine the certainty with which the consumer makes his judgments. The affective component of attitudes, as reviewed by Katz and Stotland,42 is the central aspect of the attitude since it is most clearly related to the evalu- ation of the object. It is the affective element which differentiates attitudinal evaluation and intellectual appraisal. 43 According to Katz, Sarnoff and McClintock, the affective component can serve one or more of three motivational determinants: (l) reality—testing and the search for meaning; i.e., the need to acquire 41 Katz and Stotland, op. cit., p. 446. 421bid., p. 430. 43Katz, Sarnoff and McClintock, op. cit., p. 32. 18 consistent knowledge about the external world; (2) reward and punishment, including the need for social acceptance and to avoid social disapproval; and (3) ego-defense, the need to defend themselves against inner conflict. 45 does, Himmelstrand44 also suggests, as Katz that peOple are motivated by "practical and social considerations"; i.e., by needs which are brought into focus by social pressures. The following criteria should be considered when talking of affective components: (1) existence or nonexistence of social pressure, (2) the relative direction or social pressures and attitudes and (3) the degree of dislocation of social pressures in relation to attitudes. In describing the behavioral component of an attitude, Cartwright46 writes that to induce a given action by using mass communication, this action must be seen by the person as a path to some goal that he has. Katz and Stotland47 write that the behavioral component must be expressed to an apprOpriate audience as well as 44U. Himmelstrand, "Verbal Attitudes and Behavior: A Paradigm for the Study of Message Trans- mission and Transformation," Public Opinion Quarterly, 24 (Summer, 1960), p. 224. 45 Katz, Sarnoff, and McClintock, 0p. cit., p. 35. 46D. Cartwright, "Some Principles of Mass Persua- sion," Human Relations, 2 (1949), p. 258. 47 Katz and Stotland, op. cit., p. 468. 19 to himself. Since Likert's definition of attitudes is largely behavioral, it is logical that attitudes can be treated as overt behavioral habits sufficiently compact and stable to be treated as units for testing. Likert48 explains that attitudes depend upon the extent to which our experiences meet our expectations. When they do meet expectations the attitudes are strengthened and may become more positive or negative. Dollard49 posits that there is a strain toward consis— tency between verbal expression and physical behavior; there is likewise a strong compulsion to match thoughts and overt behavior. According to Katz,50 attempts to change atti— tudes can be directed primarily at the affective component, which in turn should result in changes in other components. Robertson51 writes that by attitude change we mean a change from disposition to act in the direction of the original attitude to a disposition to act in some other direction than that of the origin. When an attitude no longer leads to satisfaction, 48R. Likert, New Patterns of Management (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Co., Inc., 1961), p. 2. 49J. Dollard, "Under What Conditions Do Opinions Predict Behavior?" Public Opinion Quarterly, 12 (1948), p. 627. 50 D. Katz, "Study of Attitudes," op. cit., p. 126. ' 51Robertson, op. cit., p. 45. 20‘ attitude change will occur. When a person's values change and hence, needs change, attitudes may also change, and if an attitude no longer provides a meaningful structure for what that person perceives, the attitude will become altered until it is again meaningful. Judgment When a person acts according to his judgments or from a change in attitudes, a judgment has been made. A judgment may be said to occur when a comparison has been made between two or more stimuli and a choice for one of these stimuli has been designated. The judgment of an item relevant to an attitude involves comparison with an appropriate reference scale; i.e., the background for a particular comparison, rather than 52 Psychological a simple comparison between two items. reference scales serve as a basis for comparison and appraisal of relevant stimulus items on subsequent encounters. They define and regulate one's relationship to other individuals, groups, social objects and insti— tutions. Social reference scales may refer to the range of positions that includes an individual's stand and other positions that he will tolerate as his lati— tude of acceptance. Beyond this acceptance is his 52M. Sherif and C. I. Hovland, Social Judgment (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961), p. 9. 21 latitude of rejection, and between these latitudes, judgments are made.53 The literature (Feather,54 Jessor and Readio,55 56 57 Marks, Atkinson, and Rettig and Rawson58) regarding judgment covers a wide range of topics. Nevertheless, the studies do reveal similarities. Value appears to be an important factor when discussing judgment. Desirability of the outcome of an event and the satisfaction obtained from making the judgment suggests that motivational or affective factors 59 influence judgment. Woodruff and DiVesta say that values demonstrate that attitudes are behavioral responses 53Ibid., p. 13. 54N. T. Feather, "Success Probability and Choice Behavior," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58 (1959), p. 260. 55R. Jessor and J. Readio, "The Influence of the Value of an Event Upon the Expectancy of Its Occurrence," Journal of General Psychology, 56 (1957), p. 223. 56R. W. Marks, "The Effect of Probability, Desirability and Privileges on the Stated Expectations of Children," Journal of Personality, 19 (1951), p. 332. 57J. W. Atkinson, "Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior." Psychological Review, 64 (1957), p. 364. 58 S. Rettig and H. E. Rawson, "The Risk Hypothesis in Predictive Judgments of Unethical Behav— ior," Journal of Abnormal and Social PsycholoQY: 66 (1963), p. 243. 59 Woodruff and DiVesta, op. cit., p. 652. 22 to an individual's mental make-up. A change in values alters judgments in accord with the self-concept.60 Another factor relevant to judgments is the structure and complexity of cognitions. Achieving success and avoiding failure serve as.a payoff for making the "correct" judgments. Edwards61 says the study of the decision making process is dynamic and depends upon the amount of information available. The environment may be unchanging, but the decision maker's information changes as a result of successive decisions, other events, or both. However, the environment may change its characteristics while the decision maker is obtaining information about it. According to Marks,62 socioeconomicystatus determines how a person makes judgments. Judgments that regard social norms serve the same ego—defensive func— tion that attitudes provide. As long as the judgments conform to society to the degree of acceptance, status is conferred and rewarded. Group norms, and quite often individuals, exert enough influence to change people's judgments and attitudes. In the present study, judgments are recognized as two stages. The first stage involves the respondent 60Robertson, op. cit., p. 62. 61W. Edwards, "Behavioral Decision Theory," Annual Review of Psychology, 12 (1961), p. 475. 62Marks, op. cit., p. 333. 23 agreeing or disagreeing with a statement. The second stage in the judgment process involves the certainty with which the subject reSponded to the attitude state- ment. After the respondent indicates his attitude, he also indicates how sure he is of that attitude. The, concern for measuring certainty Of judgments involves how much information the subject thinks he has regarding wine and in making judgments as an ego-defensive function. The subject will be more certain Of his judgments Of the attitude statement if it is something that he can. accept than if the statement extends into the latitude Of rejection. Opinion Leadership Social pressure from either individuals or groups influences people's attitudes and judgments toward wine. Within the social group, people perform certain 63 described in their roles as Peterson and Maxwell study Of the "Skid Row Wino." Some of the people in the group will exert more influence on judgments and attitudes than others. These peOple are commonly called Opinion leaders. The purpose Of this review section is to trace the development Of the concept Of Opinion leadership in the communication flow models, to discuss methods Of 63Peterson and Maxwell, Op. cit., p. 311. 24 measuring Opinion leadership, to discuss the functions Of Opinion leadership, and tO relate the concepts of monomorphism and polymorphism to Opinion leadership. In this study Opinon leadership is defined as the degree tO which an individual is able to informally influence other individuals' attitudes or overt behavior in a desired way with relative frequency. Opinion leaders serve three purposes for the receiver-user: he provides (1) information, (2) a standard to follow and (3) social support for the adoption Of products, services or ideas. The concept of Opinion leadership developed by Lazarsfeld and others64 suggested that the flow Of mass communication may be less direct than was commonly sup- posed. The belief during the 1930's and 1940's was that the mass media had direct, immediate and powerful effects on the mass audience. However, the data from Lazarsfeld's 1940 Presidential election study seemed to indicate that ideas flowed from the mass media to Opinion leaders and these people transferred the information to the rest Of the population. Rogers65 explains the coined phrase "2-Step Flow" as a transfer 64P. F. Lazarsfeld, B. Berelson, and H. Gaudet, The People's Choice (2nd ed.; New York: Columbia Uni- versity Press, 1948), p. 63. 65E. M. Rogers and F. F. Shoemaker, Communica- tion Of Innovations (New York: The Free Press, 1971), p. 205. 25 Of information, the first step, and the spread of influence, the second step. The two-step flow model views the population as interacting individuals rather than independent units. The PeOple's Choice study intro— duced three areas Of studying the two-step flow and the interaction Of Opinion leadership: (1) the impact Of personal influence, (2) the flow Of personal influence and (3) Opinion leaders and the mass media.66 From the 1940 Presidential study, it was found that personal contacts appear to be both more frequent and more effec- tive than contacts with the mass media. Katz67 found Opinion leaders on every level of society, and that these Opinion leaders are very much like the people whom they influence. Finally, Katz68 found that Opinion leaders are eXposed more tO the mass media than non-Opinion leaders. However, there are limitations to the two—step flow model. Basically, the model is tOO general. It does not tell us enough about the communication process. The model implies that Opinion leaders are active in information seeking and that the remainder of the mass audience does not seek any information. The activity Of the Opinion leaders was thought to provide the main 66E. Katz, "The Two-Step Flow Of Communication: An Up-to—Date Report on an Hypothesis," Public Opinion Quarterly, 21 (1957), p. 63. 67Ibid., p. 64. 68 Ibid. 26 thrust to initiate the communication flow. The view. that the mass communication process consists essentially Of two-steps limits analysis of the process. This model implies a reliance on mass media channels; i.e., Opinion leaders Obtain their information from mass media channels because they are exposed to the mass media more, whereas Opinion leaders' sources Of information are those most relevant-for initiation Of the communi- cation and influential flow, and they may not necessarily be found in mass media channels. Lazarsfeld, et al.,69 did not realize that different channels or combinations of channels appear to function at different stages in the receiver's innovation decision process. A dichotomy Of Opinion leaders and followers was implied by the two-step flow model instead Of the possibility Of an Opinion leader with varying degrees of influence depending upon the product, service or idea and the social context of the situation. From the two—step flow model, a multi-step flow model has developed. The multi-step flow model is'1 based on a sequential relaying function that seems to occur in most communication situations. The model suggests that there are a variable number Of relays and relayers in the communication flow from a source to 69Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet, Op. cit., 27 a large audience.~ Katz70 writes that considerably longer chains Of person-to—person influence than the dyad may be traced before any decisive influence comes from the mass media. This study concerns itself with the influence function Of an Opinion leader rather than the information flow. - When measuring Opinion leader influence, there are basically three methods to consider. The sociometric technique defines people who others seek for information or advice. A large sample is needed when using this technique, but Opinion leadership is measured through the eyes Of the person seeking leadership. The second method is through a selection Of judges or key inform- ants. These are peOple who are knowledgeable about the patterns Of influence in a social-system. These people are asked tO designate Opinion leaders. It is usually a cost—saving though time-consuming procedure, because less people are interviewed, but in greater depth.71 The final method of measuring Opinion leadership is termed self-designation. Self-designation is the degree to which a person perceives himself tO be an Opinion leader. It is the method used in this study. Self-designation measures the individual's perception of Opinion leadership which is actually what 70E. Katz, Op. cit., p. 75. 71Rogers and Shoemaker, Op. cit., p. 216. 28 is most likely to affect his behavior.72 Abelson and 73 Rugg explored attitudes toward political and economic problems Of national scope and ascertained the extent Of the respondents' activities in connection with these issues. He used the self-designation technique and found a consistent relationship. Nicosia74 argues that besides the known interview biases, the use of self-designation alone does not permit control of the respondent's self-perception. A person may view his influence power for one product quite differently than his influence for another product. In his study Of opinion leadership in auto insurance, Nicosia measured exposure to mass media, factual aware- ness about the particular product and general awareness Of events. The self-designated leaders scored higher than non-leaders on all measures; however, he concludes by suggesting that the standard self-designation ques— tions do not collect data concerning how the non-leader uses the information and influence that he receives. 72E. M. Rogers and D. G. Cartano, "Methods of Measuring Opinion Leadership," Public Opinion Quarterly, 26 (1962), p. 436. 73Herbert I. Abelson and W. Donald Rugg, "Self— Designated Influentiality and Activity," Public Opinion Quarterly, 22 (1958), p. 566. 74Francesco M. Nicosia, "Opinion Leadership and the Flow Of Communication: Some Problems and Prospects," Proceedings, Fall Conference, American Marketing Associ- ation, 1964, p. 346. 29 That judgment and attitudes are influenced by the social environment is readily accepted by social psy- chology. People have some tendency to conform, but not blindly. People are distinctively selective in their acceptance of the opinion of others, and their selec- tivity is based largely on prior experience and background with the person. The more loosely structured that the social system is, the more important is the role Of Opinion leadership. Lewin75 says that the decision of the Opinion leader depends partly on their ideology (i.e., the sys- tem Of values and beliefs which determines what they consider to be "good" or "bad"), partly in the way we perceive the particular situation.- Katz76 and Rogers77 agree that influence is related to the personification Of certain values, to competence and to strategic social location. An individual may be influential not only because people within his group look to him for advice, but also because of whom he knows outside his group. The influence Of the Opinion leader may speed up or inhibit the adoption of an innovation. In marketing, the Opinion leader can be helpful in promoting products 75K. Lewin, "Group Decision and Social Change," in Readings in Social Psychology, ed. by G. E. Swanson (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1952), p. 461. 76 E. Katz, Op. cit., p. 70. 77Rogers and Shoemaker, Op. cit., p. 218. 30 and services. If the marketer knows what is important to the Opinion leader, concerning a certain product or service, the marketer can emphasize these aspects Of the produCttx>try to maximize influence. Granovetler78 argues that whatever is to be dif- fused can reach a larger number Of people, and traverse greater social distance when passed through moderate influential leaders rather than through people with strong influence. When the item tO be diffused moves through strong influential leaders it is much more likely to be limited to a few cliques than that going via weaker influentials. Granovetler suggests that the information to be diffused will move horizontally and not vertically; i.e., only passing through a small number Of social strata. Myers79 has concluded that the exercise Of Opinion leadership in the interaction process is reflec- ted in likeness Of innovative activity patterns among group members. In another study testing opinion leader- ship On topics of interest to housewives, Myers and Robertson80 found not only that Opinion leaders are more 78M. Granovetler, "The Strength Of Weak Ties," American Journal Of Sociology, 78 (1973), p. 1372. 79John G. Myers, "Patterns Of Interpersonal Influence in the Adoption Of New Products," Proceedings, American Marketing Association, 1966, p. 751. 80James H. Myers and Thomas S. Robertson, "Dimen- sions Of Opinion Leadership," Journal of Marketing Research, 9 (1972), p. 42. 31 innovative, but they also talk more about the product, they feel they know more and are more interested. They also found Opinion leadership to be pOsitively related to overall social leadership and social activity. Granovetler,81 Myers and Robertson82 and Cox83 agree that the concept Of Opinion leadership should be treated more as a two—way flow of influence rather than one-way communication as it is now treated. Cox cites findings that indicate up to 50 per cent of the word— Of-mouth conversations appear to be initiated not by "influentials" volunteering product information downward to members of a group, but by non-leaders requesting information from the "influentials," who in turn respond to complete the two-way process. Much contradictory information exists regarding whether Opinion leaders are more likely tO be monomorphic or polymorphic. Monomorphism is the tendency for an individual to act as an Opinion leader for only one topic; polymorphism refers tO multiple topic leadership.84 Rogers suggests that when the social system is modern and Opinion leadership tends to rely on competence and 81Granovetler, Op. cit., p. 1366. 82Myers and Robertson, Op. cit., p. 45. 83D. F. Cox, "The Audience as Communicators," in Toward Scientific Marketing, ed. by Stephen Greyser - (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1963), p. 63. 84 . Rogers and Shoemaker, Op. cit., p. 223. 32 skill rather than how well a person fits into the social system, Opinion leaders are more likely to be mono- morphic. When the social system is traditional and Opinion leadership depends upon gregariousness and how well a person fits into the society, Opinion leadership tends to be polymorphic. 85 Offers the hypothesis that, "The Lionberger more secular the action and thinking Of the people, the more likely influence is to be exercised on a monomorphic basis.” Merton86 has suggested along with Rogers that monomorphic influence occurs where there is high specialization and little public recognition. He out- lines three dimensions in which Opinion leadership may be generalized: (1) the breadth dimension of influence; i.e., the number and similarity Of areas or issues; (2) the number Of peOple influenced; and (3) the length Of time it takes for the innovation to diffuse. Marcus and Bauer87 concluded, after reexamining Katz's data on fashion, marketing and public affairs, that leadership in one area is not independent Of being 85H. F. Lionberger, AdOption of New Ideas and Practices (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1960), p. 65. 86R. K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Struc- ture (rev. ed.; Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1957), p. 371. 87A. S. Marcus and R. A. Bauer, "Yes: There Are Generalized Opinion Leaders," Public Opinion Quarterly, 28 (1964), p. 629. 33 a leader in another area. Opinion leadership tends to be an all-or-nothing phenomenon. After examining the major concepts around which this study lies, a look at the methodology used will add to the understanding Of the development of this study. Factor Analysis Instead of discussing the mechanics, assumptions and hypotheses behind the statistics Of factor analysis, descriptions Of how factor analysis have been used in the fields of communication and marketing are presented below.‘ Citing examples Of factor analysis show the breadth and applicability factor analysis can have in exploratory research where no a priori hypotheses have been established. (For a statistical analysis and discussion Of factor analysis refer to Introduction to Factor Analysis by B. Fruchter.) 88 Ekeblad and Stasch believe that factor analysis should be used in a continuing process which selects, evaluates and eliminates until one arrives at a pattern that displays simple structures which are explicit enough for interpretation. In the area of communication, factor analysis has been used to explore the motivations 88F. A. Ekeblad and S. F. Stasch, "Criteria in Factor Analysis," Journal of Advertising Research, 7 (1967), p. 50. 34 Of people in using television and radio. Factor analy- sis has also focused on what types of programs or patterns Of programs were liked most.. Greenberg89 used factor analysis to describe reasons why British children five to nineteen years Old watch television. He isolated seven basic motivations for watching television as passing time, enjoyment, companionship, arousal, learning, relaxation and as a source Of refuge. Greenberg writes that these major sets Of responses are reasons or motivations for going to the medium, but that it would be just as easy to argue that these factors are gratifications Obtained from having gone to the medium. Greenberg posits that the answer probably lies somewhere between motivations and gratification. Nevertheless, the overt behavior is the same. 90 report that radio today Troldahl and Skolnik is very different than radio in the pre-television era. Their study was designed to increase insight into the functions and images Of radio as perceived by today's audiences. Through the use of factor analysis, 89B. S. Greenberg, "Mass Communication and Social Behavior," in Communication and Behavior, ed. by G. Hanneman and W. McEwen (AddISOn-Wesley, pending publication, 1973). 90V. C. Troldahl and R. Skolnik, "The Meanings People Have for Radio Today," unpublished paper, Department Of Communications, Michigan State University, 1967. ' 35 Troldahl and Skolnik found six patterns that emerged from 27 Likert-type statements. As used in this study, these general patterns could be considered attitudes towards different roles of radio, or general meanings that peOple have for radio. Frank, Becknell and Clokey91 tried to determine which types of programs people liked the best by using TvQ preference data. TvQ is a research organization that collects data on television viewership. They controlled for differences in program content and char- acteristics of the person interviewed by five different stages: (1) raw factor analysis; i.e., program types by using the original TvQ preference data; (2) program- specific multiple regression analysis which dealt with respondent characteristics; (3) program—Specific residual factor analysis that adjusted for respondent characteristics; (4) person-specific multiple regres- sion analysis—~adjusting for effects Of the program characteristics; and (5) person-specific factor analysis which adjusted for both individual and program charac- teristics. The raw factor analysis and the program- specific factor analysis both resulted in 11 factors accounting for 93 per cent Of the total variance. The person-specific factor analysis describes 26 factors 91R. E. Frank, J. C. Becknell, and J. D. ClOkey, "Television Program Types," Journal of Marketing Research, 8 (1971), p. 207. 36 accounting for 69 per cent of the variance. Frank, et al.,92 concluded that program scheduling character- istics have a major influence on results Of the raw TvQ preference scores and the program factor analysis. Ehrenberg93 maintains that factor analysis does not reveal TV program characteristic factors. In the factor analysis that he performed, 12 factors emerged, consisting Of different program titles. Ehrenberg felt the factors should be used in predicting viewing pat- terns for media planning, but that a major difficulty lies in interpreting how those factors are to be used. Besides the use Of factor analysis in study areas associated with mass communication theory and effects, marketers, tOO, have used the technique to investigate pricing, motivation, brand loyalty and market segmentation problems. Meyer94 used factor analysis to determine ways in which business executives are motivated. Five factors emerged as behavioral patterns or policy Objectives: (1) keep or maintain pace with competitors in sharing any general growth in industry sales, 92Ibid., p. 209. 93A. S. C. Ehrenberg, "The Factor Analytic Search for Program Types," Journal Of Advertising Research, 8 (1968)! p- 57. 94J. K. Meyer, "An Experiment in the Measurement Of Business Motivation," Review of Economics and Statis- tics, 49 (1967), p. 310. 37 (2) seek fuller use Of productive facilities already in place, (3) hoard financial resources, (4) keep market share or maintain sales under all circumstances and (5) eliminate positions of financial embarrassment. The data was Obtained from business income statements and balance sheets and used as investment decisions by manu- facturing corporations. These patterns could be considered positions that a company may take in relation to its competitors. The motivational patterns that Meyer95 describes involves how a company looks at itself. Farley96 used factor analysis to relate the company to the consumer in trying to find dimensions of shopping behavior. Farley used principal component factor analysis with a varimax rotation, ending up with a 3 factor solution. However, he concluded that the make-up Of the factors indicated that market segmentation analysis would face difficulty with the 3 factors and suggested further research. Brand switching is a concern to most manufac— 97 turers. Sheth used factor analysis to estimate a 95Ibia. 96J. U. Farley, "Dimensions Of Supermarket Choice Patterns," Journal Of Marketing Research, 5 (1968), p. 206. 97J. N. Sheth, "A Factor Analytical Model of Brand Loyalty," Journal Of Marketing Research, 5 (1968), p. 396. 38 consumer's brand loyalty. Sheth's98 basic hypothesis was that development Of brand preference is a function Of learning about the brands and their potential to satisfy a buyer's motives. The factors were rotated using simple structure principles Of varimax rotation Of each consumer on the trial of the purchase decision. Three factors accounted for 90 per cent Of the variance. Each factor showed a brand state and the extent Of brand switching. Vavara99 used factor analysis to describe changes in subjects' perceptions Of a product after exposure to an advertisement.thhe subjects responded to a 31—item semantic differential questionnaire on automobiles, then listened tO a radio commercial and rated the same items again. The 5 factors described the effects Of a per- suasive message and could provide feedback as the attainment Of goals and communication Of ideas. Each Of these studies has looked for structures and patterns among responses that could be interpreted in some meaningful way. Butler and others100 note that 98J. N. Sheth, "Measurement Of Multidimensional Brand Loyalty Of a Consumer,“ Journal of Marketing Research, 7 (1970), p. 351. 99T. G. Vavara, "Factor Analysis Of Perceptual Change," Journal of Marketing Research, 9 (1972), p. 198. 100D. C. Butler, E. F. Gocka, J. A. Hartley, and S. R. Pinneau, "Analysis Of Factor Variance: Two Cases," Psychological Reports, 31 (1972), p. 267. 39 factor analysis is applicable (1) when the number of variables is large, (2) when the reliabilities Of some measure are questionable, (3) when nO‘a priori combina— tions Of measures exist and (4) when a search for structure among measures is a partial Objective of the study. Factor analysis is a valuable tool for seg- menting peOple, products or ideas into groups with common characteristics. It is an exploratory device, useful insofar as the analyst uses the information in support Of other research rather than as an "end-all" solution. Factor analysis has been used in this study to search for patterns Of response among a large number Of variables. Two factor analysis solutions were per- formed. One involved a search for structure among 35 attitude statements, and the other factor solution was to determine patterns Of peOple who responded similarly to the questionnaire. On the basis Of the preceding literature Of theory and technique, the following problem emerges. Statement Of Problem This study is exploratory in nature. Its pur- pose is tO develOp some insights for marketing and advertising strategies into how college-age people feel about wine. This study will try to explain an array Of attitudinal patterns that emerge from responses to statements. 40 A secondary purpose Of this study is to explore the possibility Of identifying the nature Of Opinion leaders for wine. It is useful to knOw who the influ— entials are and what channels of communication they use tO relay information or change attitudes necessary in order tO establish wine preference among consumer groups. A final purpose Of this study is to see if Opinion leadership, sex, wine usage and size Of the area in which the subject went to high school (i.e., as a family upbringing) have any effect on a person's atti— tudes and judgments. Importance Of the Study Marketers, advertisers and producers need tO know the consumer's attitudes on wine in order to adver- tise wine successfully. They need tO know what communication channels are used to develop media plans. The knowledge that the advertiser/marketer can gain will give him ideas to promote wine and wine products. Knowing about the consumer and what he thinks about wine enables the advertiser to develOp creative, media, promotional and marketing strategies. The situation becomes one Of segmentation, fitting marketing efforts to existing attitudes and behavior. 41 Organization of the Study This study is divided into four chapters. The four chapters deal with reviewing the appr0priate literature and knowledge about consumer theory, data collection, procedures and methodology, data analysis and, finally, a discussion Of the results as they relate to wine and its implications for marketing and adver- tising strategies. In Chapter I an extensive literature review providing reference and perspective about what is already known about the goals and purposes of this study is pre- sented. Specifically, topics to be discussed include attitudes, judgment, Opinion leadership, alcoholic beverages and factor analysis. In Chapter II a detailed description Of how the sample was selected and how the data was collected will be discussed. In Chapter III an analysis Of the data is pre— sented. The material will comprise, largely, the results of the factor analysis. Additionally, results Of analysis Of Opinion leadership and judgment variables will be presented. In Chapter IV a discussion-interpretation Of the findings and implications are presented with a final summary. CHAPTER II METHODS AND PROCEDURES The Operations of this research were carried out in two steps: in-depth interviews and a large sample field study. A questionnaire was developed, in part, from the interviews and with it the large sample field study was executed. The questionnaire is divided into two parts. Part I contains demographic and Opinion leader questions. Part II consists of the attitude statements and certainty judgments. The Sample Eleven in—depth interviews were conducted. The peOple were chosen to cover as many usage patterns and attitude positions as possible. In—depth interviews were conducted until duplication and nO new material was Obtained. Each interview took about two hours. The initial sample for the field survey consisted of 350 students randomly selected from the Michigan State University 1972-73 student directory. All on-campus and foreign students were eliminated from the sample. On-campus students were eliminated because they do not have proper cooking facilities, and laws prohibiting use 42 43 make it difficult for students to display wine usage patterns they may normally observe. Foreign students were eliminated from the sample due to their different beliefs, customs and habits relating to wine which were likely to represent substantially divergent views from those of U.S. university students. The Questionnaire Demographic questions (Part I) Of age, sex, marital status and type Of residence, size Of metro- politan area in which they went to high school and wine usage questions as where they buy wine and how Often they drink wine were included in the final questionnaire. QuestiOns cur Opinion leadership were adapted from . Troldahl's device for measuring Opinion leadership.l From the in—depth interviews, the attitude measurement instrument was developed (Part II). Dupli— cation and ambiguities were eliminated to develop the attitude statements. From these statements, 68 statements were pretested using a Spring 1973 introductory adver- tising class. Consensus items were eliminated from the 68 statements to Obtain 35 Likert-type statements for the final questionnaire. In addition to the attitude statements, included in Part II Of the questionnaire, is 1Department Of Communication, Michigan State University. Untitled, unpublished paper. 44 a 3-pOint scale for measuring certainty judgments as they relate to the judgment Of each of the attitude statements. Procedures Sixteen students from the Spring 1973 advertis- ing research class at Michigan State University helped conduct personal interviews. Each student attended a training session for approximately one hour. The students had two weeks to complete the interviews, with unlimited callbacks. Of the original 350 students, 174 interviews were completed, 93 students had moved, 58 were unable to be contacted and 25 refused. All the interviews were conducted in the Lansing/East Lansing area. The inter— views were arranged, when possible, by telephone and appointments for personal interviews were set. Each interview took approximately ten minutes. Instructions Instructions for the interviewers for the first part Of the questionnaire (the demographic and Opinion leader questions) were the following:‘ The following questions. you are to personally ._ ask the person being interviewed. Read the ques- tions and the answers given and let the interviewee respondT_ Where answers are not provided, fill in the blank space provided with the interviewee's answer. The first 3 questions need not be asked, because you, as the—interviewer, can respond and score the appropriate answer. 45 Instructions for Part II Of the questionnaire (attitude and certainty statements) were for the person being interviewed. The second part was handed to the person being interviewed for self—administering. The instruc- tions were as follows: On the following pages are statements about pos- sible attitudes Of wine. All Of these statements are only attitudes not facts, so there is no right or wrong answer. Following each item is a seven point scale. After reading each item indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with the statement, simply by placing an "X" on the line. For example: Wines are far more important to a person's social life than how gOOd the wine tastes to that person. Strongly Strongly Agree Disagree If you strongly agreed with the statement, you would place an X in the space on the extreme left. After you have indicated how strongly you agree or disagree with the statement, indicate how certain you are about your answer, by placing a check mark by your choice. Highly certain Certain Uncertain When you have finished, please check tO be sure you have completed each item. Data Collection The first part Of the interview was administered by the interviewer. The subject was asked demographic and wine usage questions Of age, sex, marital status and type Of residence, size Of metropolitan area in which they went tO high school, where they buy wine and how 46 Often they drink wine. The interviewer also administered the questions on Opinion leadership (see Appendix A). The Data The data collected is Of four types. The first measures are the demographic-usage variables described above. Secondly, there are the opinion leadership questions that are additive, in that the greater the total Of the six questions, the more likely that person would be an Opinion leader. The method Of measuring Opinion leadership is self designation (see Appendix A, questions 10-15). The third type Of data is the responses to Likert-scale items from each respondent, measuring his attitude toward wine. The final data collected is a measurement Of how certain each subject feels about his judgment on each attitude statement. CHAPTER III RESULTS In conjunction with the literature review and methods and procedures presented earlier, two factor analysis solutions are presented. The results Of five chi-square analyses and five Pearson correlations are also included to determine if there were differences among different demographic subsets of the sample. Sample Tables 1, 2 and 3 exemplify selected demographic characteristics Of the sample measured in this study. The tables are reported in frequencies. Factor Analysis As a basis for the factor analyses reported below, the second part of the questionnaire, containing 35 wine attitude statements, were used. Respondent reactions to the statements were scored on a 7—point Likert—type scale to determine the major attitudinal dimensions for wine. The data reported below was generated by two factor analyses: a conventional "R" factor analysis Of the 35 attitude items, and an inverted-R_analysis tO determine the simple structure Of 47 48 TABLE 1.--Sex and Age of Respondents. Sex . Age Male 87 M 10-19 9 Female 87 20-29 146 30-39 13 40-49 5 50-59 1 TABLE 2.--Type Of Residence and Marital Status Of Respon- dent. Type Of Residence Marital Status Room 8 Married 34 Apartment 76 Single 137 House 67 Other 3 Duplex 7 Other 20 TABLE 3.--How Often Respondents Drink Wine and Where They Buy Wine. Wine Usage Where Buy Wine 3-4 times a week 13 Liquor store 36 Once a week 39 Supermarket 42 3-4 times a month 42 Party store 50 Once a month 37 Quick Service Store 26 Less than onceaamonth 34 Other 20 Never 9 49 the respondents. Each analysis produced a principal factor solution followed by varimax rotation. Factoring for the items was extended to a five factor solution, but for Optimum understanding a three factor solution was interpreted. A three factor solution gave fewer con- founded factor loadings and greater interpretive clarity. The inverted matrix factor solution was extended to a fourteen factor solution. However, a six factor solu- tion was used for the same reasons as applied to the item factor solution. Table 4 presents the factor solu- tions Of the rotated matrix listing the 18 "meaningful" statements. Table 5 presents the factor solutions Of the rotated matrix for a random sample of 100 Of the total 174 subjects. Of the random sample Of 100 sub- jects, 35 respondents were "meaningful." The number of subjects was reduced to 100 to comply with the maximum number Of variables acceptable for the computer program. The percentages of total variance accounted for by each Of the factor solutions are given in Table 6. 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Next Highest 'Loading Loading Conspicuous Consumer (Factor 1) 1. var. 2 .6298 .4906 2. var. 11 .7295 .3341 3. var. 13 .6509 -.3295 4. var. 16 .6707 .2613 5. var. 21 .6453 .3068 6. var. 33 .7532 p .3230 7. var. 46 .6247 .3758 8. var. 57 .6031 .2420 9. var. 60 .6545 .1833 10. var. 61 .4626 .0855 11. var. 62 .6102 .2278 12. var. 77 .5432 .3125 13. var. 91 .6229 .3664 "Hit" Of the Party (Factor 2) 1. var. 12 .6165 .3142 2. var. l4 ‘ ' ”“ .7489 .1672 3. var. 19 .6447 .1075 4. var. 32 .7271 .2680 5. var. 34 .6774 .3054 6. var. 42 .6516 .2538 7. var. 84 .5387 .2052 Information Seeker (Factor 3) 1. var. ”1 .7195 .1528 2. var. 8 .6758 .1520 3. var. 24 .6486 .2760 4. var. 49 .6099 .3456 5. var. 78 .5928 .3430 The Uninspired Drinker (Factor 4) 1. var. .5 .6407 .2764 2. var. 45 .6762 .2330 3. var. 52 .6706 .2727 4. var. 75 .7834 .1672 53 Table 5 . --Continued . _Factor Next Highest Loading Loading Gift-Giver (Factor 5) 1. var. 23 .6674 -.1694_ 2. var. 68 .6768 . .2032 3. var. 70 .6525 -.2840 Special Occasion Drinker (Factor 6) 1. var. 5 .4664 .2953 2. var. 30 - .6709 .2568 3. var. 31 .7194 -.1498 4. var. 68 .6481 .3209 5. var. 85 .5483 .3703 TABLE 6.--Percentages of Total Variance by Factor Solutions. ‘ Per Cent Of Total Variance Statement (R) Solution Factors Unexpected pleasure . 20.16 Selectivity 18.74 Experimentation 17.35 4th factor 7.73 People (Inverted-R) Solution Factors Conspicuous consumer 10.36 "Hit" Of the party 9.49 Information seeker 8.28 The uninspired drinker 7.23 Gift—giver 8.76 Special occasion drinker 6.84 7th factor 6.73 54 reasons. For the R_factor analysis the lowest value to achieve statistical significance (p<.05) was .3991, but for interpretation the lowest factor loading used was .5034. The lowest statistically significant factor loading for the inverted-R analysis was .2897; the lowest factor loading used was .4626. In the present study, the three factor item solution accounts for a total Of 56.25 per cent Of the variance Of the 35 attitude statements. In the people solution, 50.96 per cent Of the total variance Of the respondents is accounted for by the six factor solution. A second criterion used to identify usable fac- tors is the number Of items which "belong" on a given factor. When determining whether an item "belongs" on a factor, the significant factor loading had to be approximately twice as high as the next highest loading on other defined factors, regardless of the sign Of the loading. In addition, the items on the factors had "to make sense" along with the other items; i.e., add to the meaning. The lowest statistically significant load— ing for the item and peole factors used was .5034 and .4626, respectively. In the item solution, there are six statements comprising the Unexpected Pleasure dimension, all Of which seem tO be related by content to one another. The Selectivity factor has eight statements comprising 55 the factor; the Experimentation factor consists Of four "meaningful" items. In the peOple solution, the COnspicuous Consumer factor consists of thirteen respondents; the "Hit" of the Party factor contains seven respondents; Information Seeker comprises five peOple, and the Uninspired Drinker factor had a cluster Of four people. The fifth and sixth factors, Gift-giver and Special Occasion, con- tain three and five peOple, respectively. A third criterion for identifying patterns Of response concerns the choosing Of names for all the definable factors. Key words and concepts are crucial in naming the factors to give some insight into both items and people factor solutions, which represent reasons why people drink wine and benefits Obtained from wine drinking, respectively. In addition to the R and inverted-R analyses, five chi-square analyses were completed. The relation- ship between the following variable pairs was examined: Opinion leader and sex; wine use level and sex; wine use level and mean attitude scores; population Size of home area and sex; and population Of home area and judgment certainty scores. None Of these five analyses were statistically significant. In each case, the two groups do not differ in the relative frequency distribu- tions Of people among the categories. 56 A Pearson correlation coefficient between mean attitude scores and mean certainty scores for the total sample was calculated. The value of the correlation coefficient is .15 with a significance level Of .02. In addition to the total sample, subsets of light and heavy users and males and females had correlation coefficients calculated. The following shows the coefficient and the significance level: 8233232: Light user -.01 :47 Heavy user - .18 -09 Females .09 ~19 Males .‘19 .03 CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY The following discussion provides the inter— pretation Of the findings from the preceding chapter. Each Of the factors in the item (3) and people (inverted- 3) solutions are discussed separately. An integration Of the two solutions is also included to show how factor analysis can be used in segmentation problems. Item Factor Analysis Based on the findings in the previous chapter, three factors emerged accounting for more than 56 per cent Of the total variance. The interpretations suggest factor labels and are used in the implications section that integrates the two factor solutions. These three item factors suggest reasons why peOple drink wine. Unexpected Pleasure This first factor emerged as the strongest Of the three factors, accounting for 20 per cent of the total variance. "Buying wine on impulse for some unex- pected situation" suggests that wine is not usually kept in the home, not a planned purchase. This statement implies an event that just "happens." For example, some 57 58 people may stOp to visit a friend and during the course Of conversation, they may all decide to go horseback riding. While on their way to the riding stables, they'd see a store or an ad and that would remind them Of wine, and they may stop tO buy some. This may well be the beginning Of an adventure that started quite unexpectedly, but welcomed. Statements like "I like wine to have some effect on me" imply a desire to become somewhat intoxicated by drinking wine. The reason someone drinks wine may be to get "high." It may be to enable the person to act differently than if he had not had anything alcoholic to drink, because society does tolerate some behavior that is usually not acceptable under "normal" circumstances. "A good wine should taste good to everyone" substantiates the idea Of drinking wine with peOple for good times. This Unexpected Pleasure factor suggests a fun-loving situation in which drinking wine is part Of that fun or helps create that fun. The items in this factor imply a desire for the absence Of food or other tastes. However, in lieu Of the other statements it seems more logical that drinking wine is used to enhance a situation rather than being concerned about the taste or the effect. The impulsive buying and drinking Of wine may be the expression Of reasons why people drink wine. Wine may act as a facilitator tO enable a person 59 to have a good time. Drinking wine is an addition to the unexpected, out-Of-the-Ordinary situation. In fact, drinking wine may make the situation different and because the peOple involved want this unexpected pleasure, they will drink wine. Selectivity The second factor which defines why persons "go to" wine accounts for 19 per cent Of the total variance. This attitudinal dimension centers around discriminating and choosing among wines, the way wines are drunk and the situations in which they are drunk. This factor suggests that people drink wine because they want to be selective and they want tO show that selectivity manifested in a number Of ways to identify with certain peOple and groups. Selectivity implies a traditional approach to wine in that "a good wine deserves a handsome bottle" and that "the appearance Of the glass adds to the taste Of the wine." The selectivity is expressed in the formal usage Of wine because there are "proper times and places for drinking wine, and, even, in.proper amounts." People may be selective in choosing and serving wine because they want to earn prestige in showing that they know something about wine. Then again, there are parents who raise their children according to "accepted etiquette,’ and their reasons 60 for drinking and serving wine are because it is an expression of selectivity, and it is the "correct and prOper" thing to do. 4 Another expression Of why people may want to be selective is to impress another person or persons in addition tO themselves in order to be accepted and liked. This Selectivity factor suggests that wine is not a group activity, but fora more personal situation to share with only a few people. This reason for being selective can best be explained by an example. Suppose a guy wants to impress some girl. He may very well impress her by showing his charm in wine drinking, by what and how he serves the wine. In this situation, Selectivity suggests a personal sharing in a leisurely manner, "savoring the wine rather than gulping it down." This situation demands that the taste, as well as the situation be enjoyed and let the man take over for the effect. It is a romantic, fireside situation, in which Selectivity may be a factor in the outcome. Experimentation The last factor accounts for 17 per cent Of the total variance. This factor may be looked at as a motivation for drinking wine or as a gratification Obtained from having drunk it. Experimentation may suggest a learning situation which centers around "developing a new taste" to broaden a person's range Of 61 experiences. Learning may be enhanced by experiencing wine first-hand rather than going to other sources Of information. Ideas and Opinions about wine are devel— oped; people learn more about what kinds Of wine they like and dislike and can become more discriminating in their choices. This ability to discriminate is self- enhancing and may allow the person tO be proud that he knows what he wants. These peOple are seen as being in a transitive state and as their tastes mature and they can discriminate better, their reasons for and value satisfaction gained from drinking wine may also change. .. As a gratification, reasons for drinking wine may be expressed in enjoying uncertain things, "to satisfy my curiosity." This suggests another self- enhancing value. "Drinking wines Often—-different wines at different times in different situations" may rein- force experimenting rather than creating preferences for different wines. Good experiences from drinking wine may encourage drinking more Often and with a wider variety Of types Of wines in different situations. Some people may be pleased with their ability to diversify their choices as a knowledge gratification and/ or an ego—defensive function; i.e., to avoid or enhance a situation. The latter reason would be manifested when other peOple are involved in the situation in order to impress them. 62 Experimenting with wine may serve as a rein— forcer and reward for more wine drinking which may also be manifested in the situation in which the wine was drunk. Identifying with others may be the desired response. For example, if the peOple experimenting with wine have a good time at a party, the party may act as a reinforcer for experimenting with wine. The reverse may also be true. If the peOple had a bad experience, they may not want to experiment with wines any more. However, if these people continue to drink wine, when they had a bad experience, they will have other more highly valued reasons for drinking wine than merely gratifications from the experimenting. Inverted-R Factors Inverting the item matrix provides a look at how people cluster together. These people clusters serve as benefits derived from wine drinking. As reported in detail in Chapter III the inverted matrix solution revealed six patterns Of reSponse accounting for approximately 51 per cent Of the total variance. Each factor is to be discussed in detail. Conspicuous Consumer The first inverted-R factor accounts for 10 per cent Of the variance. This factor composition suggests that these people are concerned with how others see 63 them, manifest in the articles they use and possess. The expression "The clothes make the man" exemplifies these people. Statements like "A good wine deserves a handsome bottle" and the "appearance Of the glass" adds to "the taste Of the wine" suggests a person who places value on the things he possesses. The benefit derived from drinking wine comes from the "image" the person is attempting to project. Whatever is added is a matter Of perceived "added values." This factor suggests a person who "likes to Open a bottle Of wine" because Of the "loud crisp 'pOp,'" another way in which people may notice and evaluate what this person does. This factor typifies a person who gains attention for social acceptance and approval. Katz suggests that this type of an attitude is "value-expressive" and ego-defensive. This person is "other-directed" in his concern for how others perceive him. He is enculturated tO the point where this value of conspicuous consumption becomes important in his hierarchial pattern Of values. What makes a wine good to this person is the utensils used in presenting, serving and consuming wine and the way that others perceive him. "Hit" Of the Party This factor exemplifies the person who enjoys the noise and commotion Of a party and would enjoy a party almost any time. This type Of person would be 64 the first one thrown in the pool, dragging others in with him. Wine acts as a facilitator; it makes things possible. To this person wine does not have to be drunk at certain times or in certain places, it is something to drink whenever people are around with lots Of con- versation.and lots of laughter. If a party doesn't lexist, this person will make one. For example, some people are sitting around a pOOl and a guy joins them with some wine, Offering it tO everyone there. The conversation begins and before long, someone has brought some music to the pOOl area and the "clowning around" starts, hence the beginnings Of a party. Information Seeker The third factor, accounting for eight per cent Of the variance, classifies the type Of person who drinks wine tO learn about it. Some people enjoy the experience Of learning, having the satisfaction of knowing about wines. This person appears to be inter- ested in the label on the wine bottle "to read a bit Of history about the wine" and "who makes the wine and how." This person drinks wine in order to enjoy the taste Of the wine. The more he knows about wine the more he can enjoy it because he feels more sure Of what he is getting. For example, if a person knows that warmth and sustained sunshine, rather than a rainy and cold season, produce better wine grapes, he may pay more 65 attention to the year of the bottle if the wine is Of a vintage variety. If this person has learned enough about the different types of grapes and where they come from, he may be interested in the estate bottled wines. Knowing about wines may also serve as a "conver- sation" topic. This person thinks that "wine goes well with conversation and laughter" and being able to talk intelligently about wine suggests a good conversation. Katz's knowledge function and adjustment function serve this situation. The knowledge function provides meaning and order while the adjustment function represents a means for reaching a desirable goal or avoiding an undesirable goal. In the case of a conversation, knowing about wines enables participation rather than exclusion from the conversation. The Uninspired Drinker The fourth factor suggests a person who looks at wine drinking as just part Of the day's activities and doesn't want that activity disrupted. It seems this person is used to drinking wine and enjoys the easy atmosphere, unhurried way in which he lives. Drinking wine is part Of that living, and it appears that this person does not want his continuous easy-going style of living to be disturbed. This person does not drink wine "primarily for special occasions" nor is he impressed by "a handsome bottle." TO this person, 66 "wine and foods just go together." This situation brings to mind what many peOple think of when they think of Mexico, the long siestas after meals and the slow unpressured living, as if these people do not have a care in the world. This continuous day-to-day living is enhanced by drinking wine because it is simply part of it. This person may not want his daily routine disrupted because he fears inferiority or inability to live any other way. Katz suggests that attitudes used in such a way as this are ego-defensive, because they are protecting the ego from his own undesirable impulses. Gift-Giver This person type suggests concern for the people he is entertaining to make sure his guests are comforta- ble and happy. As well as enjoying the wine himself, this person gains satisfaction from seeing others enjoy the wine. The statement "Offering a wine with a meal is like giving a gift" suggests something special to top Off a meal. It shows that this person is putting forth an extra effort to make an event memorable and he uses wine as a gift to satisfy himself, in thinking that he has done the proper thing, and to satisfy his guests. Wine may serve as a way of saying "thank you" to others for accepting the gift—giver as a person or 67 for any other reason. It, too, is an ego-defensive function. This type of person differs from the Conspicu— ous Consumer because he uses wine as a way of showing gratitude whereas the Conspicuous Consumer uses wine to gain acceptance. However, they are both trying to ultimately achieve acceptance. Special Occasion Drinker This person appears to drink wine in order to enjoy a special occasion, and to him a special occasion may be a memorable event, as well as a holiday. This person likes to drink wine with other people, to have pleasant "conversation and laughter." The situation in which the person is drinking wine may not have begun as a special occasion but turns into an outstanding time. For instance, some couples have gone on a picnic and they brought lunch and some wine to drink. As the day goes on, the couples get to know each other and more lasting relationships begin to develop. Drinking wine may have served as an initiator to such relation— ships. Drinking wine may also have been done in anticipation of establishing a lasting relationship. As other people factors, this Special Occasion Drinker appears to be seeking social approval. This person may drink wine only because others are drinking wine. This person may not enjoy wine for the taste or care about any effect, but drinks wine to identify 68 with a group. At parties or on holiday gatherings, this person may be seen carrying the same half-full glass all evening. Implications These patterns Of responses for both the items and peOple solutions provide implications for marketing, advertising and media planning strategies. The factors enable the marketer/advertiser to segment peOple according to the dimensions of wine attitudes to which the subjects responded. It might be more convenient if for each item factor, a content similar people factor emerged, because this would make the interpre- tation clearer and easier to do. However, this type of parallelism is not logical because different people can think and react differently to the same thing. If there were parallel item and people factors, it would mean that each item—peOple factor set responded to the same statements the same way among the same people. This situation is highly unlikely to occur. (What we do find is that across people, six patterns emerged in which people responded to all or a subset of the attitude statements in a similar manner. Across items many of the subjects responded to certain items similarly, in three dominant ways, as well as others. As an example of what is mentioned above, the item factor, Unexpected Pleasure, contains six statements which respondents 69 scored similarly. The "Hit" of the Party factor, from the inverted-R_analysis, is comprised Of seven subjects who similarly scored across a subset Of the 35 attitude statements. The item analysis seems to suggest reasons why people drink wine. The peOple solution implies benefits derived from wine drinking. It seems logical that there would be overlap between the item and people solutions because one reason for drinking wine may result in a number Of benefits identified by the peOple factor solu- tion. This does not mean that the R and inverted—R solutions for this study provide all the reasons and all the benfits for wine drinking. This study is designed as an exploration of those reasons why and benefits. For example, as stated earlier, one of the reasons associated with drinking wine was to experiment. Two explanations for this reason was to learn about wine and experimenting with something "new" as a rewarding experience.‘ In addition to this reason for drinking wine, the peOple factor, Information Seeker, provides one benefit that may be derived from experimentation. It seems possible that the Information Seeker may drink wine for experimentation as a learning process. It is suggested that this person drinks wine in order to gain knowledge about wine. He wants and likes to "read a bit Of history about the wine and information about 70 who makes the wine and how." His attitudes appear to be anchored in gaining knowledge. In order to receive the benefit, this person seems likely to drink wine. Another reason people reported drinking wine was related to Unexpected Pleasure(s). The idea of a spur-of—the-moment event that was fun with people was a central focus of this reason for wine use. This reason suggests a spontaneous attitude. It implies a party, and, maybe, even a special occasion. The person who drinks wine for a Special Occasion feels that wine goes well with "pleasant conversation and laughter." The situation in which the person is drinking wine may not begin as a special occasion, but becomes one, possibly, because what happened was a spontaneous happy time. The reason for drinking wine may have started out as something out-of—the-ordinary, but as the situation develops, the "happening" may turn into a Special occasion. A special occasion does not necessarily mean a holiday; it may mean a memorable event. The third reason for drinking wine is selec— tivity, whether the satisfaction comes from the person picking and choosing among different wines for himself, showing other people that he knows how to pick and choose wines, or picking and choosing wines to satisfy others. The inverted-R solution provides two benefits that are imbedded in the selectivity reason for drinking wine. 71 The first benefit is the Conspicuous Consumer. This person picks and chooses wines so that other people will take notice of him and what he does. (The Conspicuous Consumer factor is concerned about the way he appears publicly. His attitudes are anchored in visual appear- ance derived from the utensils he uses, like "a handsome bottle" or "the appearance of the glass." As an example, imagine a couple dining out; the man orders wine with the meal. The wine list is fairly long with a wide range of wines of varying quality. This person may take special care in selecting the wine and how it is served, so that his dinner guest will take notice. In a larger social gathering, he/she may not be as conspicuous. Another example may serve to better illus- trate this larger situation. Someone may give a dinner party for long-time friends. He/she is likely to go through the detail of using fine China and the best stemware available to them, in hopes that when the people see the setting, are served and drink the wine, they will react to the meal, wine and setting and the person. This differs from the Gift—Giver in that the Conspicuous Consumer appears to be concerned with gratifying his own ego. It is an ego—defensive function that projects himself into certain desirable situations. The Gift- Giver receives gratifications from seeing others enjoy themselves as well as himself. It is more "other-directed" 72 than the Conspicuous Consumer. The Gift—Giver uses wine as a way of saying "thank you" for accepting him. It is a value expressive function which serves as a positive expression to the individual's self-concept. It reflects and confirms a person's notion of what kind of a person he is. These reasons why peOple drink wine and the benefits derived from having drunk the wine are explora- tory in nature. They are far from exhaustive, but serve as a beginning point for a more fully integrated and better understanding of wine consumption attitudes. Limitations Of the Study An exploratory study is helpful in giving insight into the problems and purposes of the study, but it is important to keep in mind that the study is exploratory. Even though statistical significance does exist, the researcher is the one who subjectively decides what significance and how much of the variance accounted for he will use. The interpretations of the factors in a factor analysis are also subjective as well as the state- ments used. A duplication of the study may produce very different results. Therefore it is imperative to realize that this exploratory study can be helpful in making decisions but that it does not provide us with all the possible answers. There are three major limitations to this study. All are concerned with its design. 73 The first limitation deals with the population sampled. The fact that the subjects were all college students makes them a rather homogeneOus group on such variables as age, interests, life style, etc., as Opposed to the general "youth" market and the general public. The college market may not vary in its responses as much as the general "youth" market, and it is even more likely when compared to the general pOpulation. Replication of the study using the "youth" market or the general popula— tion may provide information for the development of broader strategies. A second limitation of this study lies in the attitude statements. Since the questionnaire was limited ‘tO 35 statements, a more exhaustive search for different and more varied attitudes may have produced different results. In-depth interviews were conducted in order to extract attitude statements. A more experienced interviewer may have been able to probe at greater depths to result in different statements. Even though the people interviewed varied in their consumption habits and attitudes towards wine, more and different peOple may have also produced more varied statements. Perhaps simply more statements would give a clearer understanding of the factors and the functions they play. The final limitation deals with the method Of collecting the data. Volunteer students contacted the 74 subjects and administered the questionnaire. Though the students did attend a training session, professional interviewers would have reduced many Of the data col— lection problems and any undetected sources Of bias. Also, a greater number of completed interviews would most likely have been Obtained. Implications for Further Research As the United States becomes more of a wine- consuming nation, it will become increasingly more important to understand the consumer and why he drinks wine. Replication of an exploratory factor analysis study may provide the marketer and advertiser with more information for segmenting markets. In addition to segmenting markets, such an exploratory study may pro- vide implications for creative strategies to improve communication from the source to the receiver. Besides marketing and creative strategies, an exploratory study can be applied to media decisions. For example, radio may serve as an excellent medium for the impulsive wine drinker. Evening drive time would be a good position to place advertising to reach people on their way home from work. Further research may provide a better framework for identifying the characteristics of Opinion leaders in the quest for using them as sources of influence. This study failed to do so. In addition to identifying 75 influentials, knowing the sources and channels Of information opinion leaders use may facilitate reaching the opinion leaders and the people they influence. Another implication would be to see if differences in wine usage and knowledge about wines affects peOple's attitudes toward wine. It seems likely that this may also have some effect on how certain a person is about his attitudes. In this study, no significant findings were established. However, it is suggested for further research. 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QUESTIONNAIRE 87 APPENDIX A id. no. PART I. (THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS YOU ARE TO PERSONALLY ASK THE PERSON BEING INTERVIEWED. READ THE QUESTIONS AND THE ANSWERS GIVEN AND LET THE INTERVIEWEE RESPOND.-_WHERE ANSWERS ARE NOT PROVIDED, FILL IN THE BLANK SPACE PRO- VIDED THE ANSWER GIVEN BY THE INTERVIEWEE. THE FIRST 3 QUESTIONS NEED NOT BE ASKED, BECAUSE YOU, AS THE INTER: VIEWER, CAN RESPOND AND SCORE THE APPROPRIATE ANSWER.) 1. Sex (1) male (2) female 2. Type Of residence (1) room (2) apartment (3) house (4) duplex (5) other PLEASE SPECIFY 3. Do they have cooking facilities? (1) yes (2) no (IF YOU ARE DOING THE INTERVIEW OTHER THAN AT THE PER- SON'S HOME, ASK QUESTIONS 2 and 3.) *********************************************************** 4. What is your age, please? 5. What is your marital status? (1) married (2) single (3) other 6. Please tell me how Often you drink wine? (1) 3—4 times a week (2) once a week (3) 3-4 times a month (4) once a month (5) less than once a month (6) never 88 10. ll. 12. l3. 14. 89 Where do you usually buy wine? (1) liquor store (2) supermarket (3) party store (4) quick-service store, like 7-11 . (5) other PLEASE SPECIFY What is the approximate population size of the city in which you spent your high school years? (IF THEY CANNOT GIVE YOU A ROUGH ESTIMATE, ASK FOR THE NAME OF THE CITY.) If you wanted ideas about wine, what sources would you most likely use? About how Often would you say peOple ask you for your Opinion on wines? (1) less than once a month (2) once or twice a month (3) about once a week (4) several times a week About how many people count on you for your Opinions on wine? (1) no one (3) l to 3 persons (5) 4 or more persons Compared with your circle Of friends ...... how likely are you to be asked for your Opinions on wine? (1) regularly (2) frequently (3) occasionally (4) seldom (5) never When you and your friends discuss wine, what part do you play? (1) mainly listen (3) both, don't know (5) try to convince them How important is it to you to be considered a person whose Opinions on wine are well-founded? (1) not at all important (2) not very important (3) fairly important (4) very important 90 15. When you need Opinions about wine, how likely are you to ask other people? (1) never (2) less likely (3) about the same as others, don't know (4) more likely APPENDIX B PART II. QUESTIONNAIRE 91 APPENDIX B PART II On the following pages are statements about possible atti- tudes of wine. All of these statements are only attitudes not facts, so there is no right or wrong answer. Following each item is a seven point scale. After reading each item indicate how strongly you agree or disagree with the statement, simply by placing an "X" on the line. For example: Wines are far more important to a person's social life than how good the wine tastes to that person. 0 Strongly Agree__ __ __ __ __ __ __ Strongly Disagree If you strongly agreed with the statement, you would place an X in the space on the extreme left. After you have indicated how strongly you agree or disa- gree with the statement, indicate how certain you are about your answer, by placing a check mark by your choice. Highly certain Certain Uncertain When you have finished, please check to be sure you have completed each item. Thank you for your cooperation. 92 93 id. no. For some persons I serve wine. For others, it just doesn't occur to me. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain To me, drinking wine is best done at leisure. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain "A loaf of bread, a jug of wine and thou." What more could you want? Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Wines are for sipping, for savoring. I don't like to see someone gulping wine. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain A good wine deserves a handsome bottle. Who wants to drink wine poured from a homely bottle? Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain I like to open a bottle Of wine. The loud crisp "pop" is a moment of pleasure in itself. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain One drinks wine for the taste, not for the effect. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly Certain ' . Certain.z Uncertain Drinking wine with meals gets one further away from many of the hard realities of everyday living. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly Certain Certain Uncertain 9. 10. ll. l2. l3. 14. 15. 16. 94 I like to experiment with wine, to satisfy my curiosity, to develop a new taste. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain" . Certain ‘ Uncertain More than other beverages, wine has class and style. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Bulk wines generally have a mediocre flavor. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain One should use wines selectively. There are times and places for wine drinking, and there are proper amounts of wine to drink. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain For me, wine is usually not a planned purchase. I'll buy it on impulse for some unexpected situation. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain For me, knowing the history of a wine enhances the mood it sets. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Wine is not for parties, not for crowds. Wine is more personal, for sharing. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain The appearance Of the glass you drink out Of adds so much to the taste of the wine. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 95 Wines and foods just go together. Wine improves the appe- tite and enhances the taste of the meal. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Within a class of wines, I can taste definite differences. Strongly Agree . Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain I like wine Often--different wines at different times in dif- ferent situations. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain At a social occasion, I Offer wine as an additional choice to liquor. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Wine relaxes me. It sometimes makes me pleasantly sleepy. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain If you have poise and grace, selecting and serving wines is likely to show it. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain There is something I dislike about "pop" wines. I'd rather they were not called wines at all. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Generally, American wines are inferior to imported wines. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 96 There is a lot of interest in the label itself. It's pleasant to read a bit of history about the wine and information about who makes the wine and how. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain . A good wine should taste good to everyone. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Offering a wine with a meal is like giving a gift. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain I like to drink wine by itself, and not with foods or other tastes. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain At times, I like wine when I am alone, perhaps listening to music. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain I enjoy drinking wine, and I like to feel it, for it to have some effect on me. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Wine goes well with pleasant conversation and laughter. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain A very good wine really shouldn't be advertised. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain 33. 34. 35. 97 To me, wine is primarily for special occasions. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain Once a bottle of wine is opened, one should finish it--not keep it around to finish later. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain I don't like a wine that's too dry. Very dry wines are bitterish, almost sour. Strongly Agree Strongly Disagree Highly certain Certain Uncertain MICHIGQN STQTE UNIV. LIBRARIES lllll III"! II Illll III III H 9 8 312 31043 9345