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A COMPARESO’N OF THE CONTENT
OF THE RADIO AND TELEVISION
DAYTEME SERIALS

Thesis for the Degree of M. A,
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

I i] l 0., Carlson
1965

THESIS

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ABSTRACT

A COMPARISON OF THE CONTENT OF THE
RADIO AND TELEVISION DAYTIME SERIALS

by Jill O. Carlson

Problem

Daytime serials have been pOpular with American house-
wives for over three decades. Experts believe that serial
content is a-principal factor in their popularity. In l9hl
Rudolph Arnheim conducted a content analysis of the radio
soap Operas; the problem of this thesis was to determine
the extent to which the content of television's daytime
serials has changed since the days of radio and since
Arnheim's study.

This thesis includes (1) a study of the develOpment
of the radio daytime serial, (2) an analysis of the audience
studies concerning effects of the audio soap Operas, (3)
an examination of radio production techniques, (A) a brief
history of the televised daily drama, (5) a content analysis
of a representative group of video daytime serials, and
(6) a comparison of the data gathered in this contemporary
television study with the data provided in Arnheim's early

radio study.

Procedure
Background material for this thesis was gleaned from
numerous books and periodicals. To secure the necessary
data, a monitor report was completed for each television
serial episode observed. The reports served as the basis
for the content analysis of the daily television dramas.
Categories under consideration were (I) characterization,
(2) serial problems, (3) moral self-evaluations of characters.
(A) problem solutions, and (5) treatment of specific t0pics
including "women", ”experts", "learning“, "neighbors”,
“newspapers”, ”politics", “illegitimacy”, and "divorce”.
This analysis was conducted in a manner similar to that
followed by Arnheim; the results of this Study were.then

compared to his l9hl conclusions.

Conclusions

The resulting comparison disclosed a number of definite
differences between audio and video serial content treatment.
Several points remained unchanged; but more differences
than similarities were disclosed.

It was found that (l) video serial characters are no
longer clear-cut villains or heroes; good pe0ple can do evil,
and bad peeple can do good, (2) today's serials are set in

small cities; radio favored a small town locale, (3) a

majority of the main characters are professional peeple;
radio serials concentrated on housewives, (A) bad trouble-
makers are victimized more often than they were in radio,
(5) video women are less omnipotent than were their audio
sisters, (6) today's experts and formal learning are more
important than they were two decades ago, (7) the stigma
of privacy invasion by neighbors and neWSpapers has been
lessened in television,end (8) two new categories,

”illegitimacy” and ”divorce“ bring happiness to no one.

A COMPARISON OF THE CONTENT OF THE
RADIO AND TELEVISION DAYTIME SERIALS

By

Jill 0. Carlson

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Television and Radio

I965

Approved by K0451! //‘4£4

/

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my thanks to Dr. Gordon
Gray, who advised and guided the development of

this thesis.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.
Statement of Purpose .
Limitations of This Study.
Justification of This Study.
Procedure.

Plan of Organization .

CHAPTER
I History of the Radio Daytime Serial.

Early Serial DeveIOpment .
Radio Serial Authors . .
Peak of Serial Popularity.
The Death of a Serial.

II Composition and Production Of The Radio

Daytime Serial

Serial Characterization.

‘Serial Society .

Serial Problems.

Serial Setting . .

Drama in Slow Motion .
Produc-tion of the Radio SeriaIs.
Problems. of Serial Dialogists.
Studio Production. . .
Review 5‘.

III Serial Effects .

Negative Serial Effects.
Positive Serial Effects.
Psychological Effects .
Material Expressions .
Results of Professional Studies.
A Slippery Issue .

Page

CHAPTER
IV' The Daytime Television Serial.

Serial Transition from Radio to
Television . . .
Television Serial Scheduling .
Serial Production Highlights .
Chips of Soap. .

A Brief Review .

The Data. .
Characterization .
Locale. .
Social Status of Main Characters.
Leaders

Problems . .
The Role of the Problems.
Content of the Problems . .
Causes of Different Kinds of
Problems

Moral Evaluation .

Moral Evaluation of Characters .Who.

Create Troubles. .
Moral Evaluation of Sufferers
Moral Self Evaluation of Men and
Women Who Create Trouble . .
Moral Evaluation of All Men and
Women Who Suffer From Problems .

The Solutions of the Problems.

Treatment of Specific TOpics
Women . . . . . .
Experts
Learning.

Neighbors
Newspapers.
Politics. .
Illegitimacy.
Divorce .

CONCLUSION.
Summary.
Comparison of .SeriaI Data.
Recommendations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
APPENDIX.

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TABLE

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LIST OF TABLES

Locale of the Serials.

Occupational Status of Main
Characters .

Leaders in Communities of Different
Sizes.

Distribution of Kinds of Problems.

Causes of Different Kinds of Problems.

Moral Self Evaluation of Characters
Who Create Troubles. .

Moral Self Evaluation of All
Sufferers. . . . . . .

Moral Self Evaluation of Men and
Women Who Create Trouble .

Moral Self Evaluation of Men and
Women Who Suffer From Problems .

Video Experts.

Page
73

76

79
83
86

9O

92

9h

96
IO9

INTRODUCTION

Statement of Purpose

For over thirty-five years, the daytime serial has
been an integral part of the lives of American housewives;
its appeal is unquestionable. But over the years, these
daily dramas seem to have undergone a number of gradual
changes. In l9hl, Rudolph Arnheim conducted a content
analysis of forty-two pOpular daytime serials. The results
of his study are interesting, but are they indicative of
the content of today's television serials?

The writer hypothesized that alterations in serial
content have occured during the transition of soap Opera
from the audio medium to the video. Therefore, the major
purposes of this study were (I) to examine the develOpment
of the American daytime serial, and (2) to compare the
content of the radio and television serials using Arnheim's
l94l study and a contemporary parallel study Of the

television‘serial.

Limitations Of This Study

This study is concerned with the daytime television
serial, familiarly known as the “soap Opera".

This study is not concerned with serial production,

per se. The basic feature of this study is an analysis of

video soap opera content, using Arnheim's early radio
studies as a point of departure. Five serials, chosen
because Of their contribution to a balanced pattern, were

used for the period Of data collection.

Justification for This Study

Daytime serials are as American as apple pie, the
factory assembly line, and baseball. These daily dramas,
popularly known as ”soap Operas", have become an integral
part of the lives of hOmebOund Americans, especially women.
Two media, radio and television, have lent themselves well
to daytime serials. For almost three decades, audio serials
echoed in millions of American homes. The appeal of these
dramas was paramount; their position in daytime radio was
unshakeable. Salty tears mingled with dishwater as "Helen
Trent" waged her battle against advancing age; whirring vacuum
cleaners were hushed as ”Our Gal Sunday” sought happiness
as the wife Of one Of England'smost handsome and wealthy
lords; and cries Of joy resounded as ”Ma Perkins” bested
Rushville Center's elements of corruption. Listeners
were urged to tune in tomorrow, same time, same station,

for further adventures; and they did tune in.

In the serial transition from radio to television,
millions of radio serial addicts transferred their allegiance

from the audio dramas to the video.I

How many feminine
fingers have been burned while ironing is forgotten while
Bob and Lisa from "As The World Turns" engage in a
vociferous Spat. How many times has the dishwater grown
cold as I'The Doctors'I struggle with their life and death
battles. How many linoleum floors have-remained grimy
as viewers have watched with breathless anticipation as
the unsavory schemes of Arthur Rysdale from the ”Secret
Storm” unravel slowly and deliberately. One must agree
that the daytime serials have an unmistakable appeal to
the housewives of America.

What is the magic of the daytime serials? Its appeal
is elusive. Many factors, such-as ego involvement,
escapism, and personal fulfillment, are present; but eXperts
theorize that a definite factor in serial pOpularity is
the content of these dramas.2 A new generation with new
ideas are the primary soap opera viewers. Has the serial

content changed accordingly over the years? If so, how?

IBette Greene, ”There's NO End to Those Soap Operas”,
Coronet, III (February I965), p. I46.

2John K. Hutchens, "Are Soap Operas Only Suds?”, N York
Times Magazine, March 2h, I943, P. 36

 

Procedure

First was the establishment of the background material
of the daytime serial; then the writer concentrated on the
accumulation of data for the content analysis and comparison.

The procedure for this study was adapted from Arnheim's
observation of l94l. To Obtain the necessary material,
Arnheim assigned forty-seven student listeners to the task.
Each student listened tO a particular serial for three weeks;3
each installment and its action was noted in an individual
monitor report. From these reports, Arnheim extracted a
number of points concerning characterization, serial setting,
problem creators and victims, character morality, and treat-
ment of specific topics.4

In contrast, the writer of this present study served
as the total research team and concentrated upon five
television daytime serials for approximately two weeks.

The quintet's titles and the justification for their

selection are as follows:

3Some overlapping was evident here. Arnheim's students
were allowed to choose a specific serial presented at a
convenient time between 8:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m. Consequently,
some percentage Of ambiguity resulted.

“These tOpics included "women”, ”experts”, ”learning”,
“neighbors”, ”newspapers", and “politics”.

I. ”As The World Turns”, CBS, 1:30-2:00 p.m.: This
serial was chosen because of its unusual success

in pOpularity according to the Neilson ratings:

Season

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2. ”The Doctors”, NBC, 2:30-3:00 p.m.: A growing
trend toward medical-doctor-hospital serials is
evident in the programming schedules of the
three networks. ABC presents “General Hospital”;
CBS presents "Search For Tomorrow"; and NBC
presents ”The Doctors”. The serial under study
is representative of this medical trend; it also
has an unique feature--female doctors instead

Of housewives are presented as heroines.

3. "Moment Of Truth”, NBC, 2:00-2:30 p.m.: The main
reasons for the selection of this serial are two-

fold. First, its leading character is a clinical

SVariety, I957-I965.

psychologist; second, its setting is a small
college campus. Both of these situations are not
typical of the usual soap Opera picture; could
this have been a spin-Off from the successful

evening drama I'Mr.'Novak"?

A. ”Edge Of Night”, CBS, 3:30-4:00 p.m.: This drama
deals substantially with the life Of a criminal
lawyer. Since the hero is concerned with public
service, it is imagined that the program would
often delve into state and local political
activities. An "unmedical" format also provided
for a wider and deeper viewpoint of serial

content.

5. ”Secret Storm”, CBS, h:OO-h:30 p.m.: The problems
and the consequences of a lack of parent-child
communication anareadily noted in the ”Secret
Storm”. This is the main reason for its
appearance in this select group. A secondary
reason for its inclusion is the fact that this
serial dealt with ”the birth of a politicial
candidate”; this broadened the sc0pe of televised

serial content.

An individual monitor report was completed for each

serial segment viewed. The monitoring methodology was

divided into three major areas:

I. Pre-broadcast activity. Adjusted environmental

and technical conditions and completed the

daily informational section of the report.

2. Broadcast time. Entered the names Of the

characters as they appeared; ascribed pertinent

action and reaction into the separate categories

(conflicts, character evaluation and topics)
with an abbreviated entry.

3. Post-broadcast activity. Reread the report to

evaluate its accuracy; eliminated unimportant

information and cleared up clOudy or ambiguous

points. Transferred the information onto a

master data sheet to be used as a reference in

the video content analysis.

In the ten weeks following the period of data collection,

bi-weekly checks were conducted in order to Observe plot

develOpments and to note the direction of video trends.

This empirical study resulted in a sheaf Of monitor

reports; from these reports it was possible to create a number

Of trend conclusions which are Open to more ambitious and
SOphisticated study. To accumulate this pertinent data,
passages were extracted that referred to single conflicts

or problems that formed the plots of the serials, references
to actions and reactions of the single characters, evaluations
Of the characters given or implied during the program, and
references to specific tOpics, such as “women”, "experts",
”learning”, ”neighbors”, and "politics". Two new categories
not included in Arnheim's study are ”illegitimacy” and

”divorce”.

Plan of Organization

Chapter I contains background material concerning the
develOpment of the radio soap Opera, including (a) early
serial develOpment, (b) early serial authors, (c) the peak
of serial popularity, and (d) the decline of the daytime
serials.

Chapter II includes a description Of the composition
and production of the radio daytime serial. Covered are
(a) serial characterization, (b) serial problems, (c) serial
setting, (d) slow-plot development, (e) problems of serial
dialogists, and (f) studio production.

Chapter III deals with the audience effects Of the serials
by dividing the material into three categories: (a) negative
serial effects, (b) positive serial effects, and (c) a

conclusion.

Chapter IV contains the main portion of this study.
Presented are: (a) history of the television serial, and
(b) the data. The data is divided into five major
categories: (I) characterization, (2) problems, (3) moral
evaluations, (A) problem solutions and completions, and
(5) treatment of Specific tOpics.

Chapter V, the conclusion, includes a brief summary,
a comparison Of serial data, and a number of suggestions

for future study in this area.

CHAPTER I

HISTORY OF THE RADIO DAYTIME SERIAL

Probably no other form of radio entertainment has been
more pOpular, more scorned, and more enduring than was the
daytime serial, inelegantly defined as the soap Opera.I
These somber dramas were the most ubiquitous form of mass
entertainment ever devised.2 For nearly three decades, the
soap Operas ruled daytime radio. (See Appendix Table I)

In the era of serial supremacy, an estimated audience Of
twenty million listeners were exposed to these programs from
8 a.m. to 6 p.m., Monday through Friday. They were presented
on all four major netwOrks with NBC and CBS producing the

majority of shows.

Early Serial Development

Although the daytime serial originated in the Midwest,
.an accurate record of its inception is somewhat vague.3
One of the early develOpments in domestic programming was
“The Smith Family”, created by James and Marian Jordan and

presented over WENR in I925. Although the evening program

'Irving Settel, A Pictorial History o_f_ Radio, p. II5.
2"The Soap Operas“, Fortune, XXXIII (March l9h6), p. 119
3James Thurber, The Beast jfl_flg and Other Animals,

p. I93.

I0

II

was not an actual serial, it provided the basis for a format
which evolved around a homely situation.“ A more successful
family drama, "The Rise of the Goldbergs“, was first
presented in an evening Schedule-on November 20, I929.5
Gertrude Berg, author and star of the program, encouraged
realism and a simple family life for her radio ”relatives.“6

The develOpment ofja sequential programming technique
was initiated by a pair Of “song and chatter” entertainers,
Freeman Godsen and Charles Correll. Their daily fifteen V
minute program, ”Amos and Andy”,was introduced on August I9,
I929; it achieved great success and it proved that the
Americandaytime audience enjoyed a continued story
presented daily.7

While these programs appear to have fostered the radio
serial, a noted announcer from the early days Of radio, the

late Norman Brokenshire, claimed to have planted the seeds

of interest which sprouted into this popular form Of

hSettel, ibid.

5Rudolph Arnheim, ”The World of the Daytime Serial”,
Public Opinion and Propaganda, p. 243.

6Katherine Best, "Literature Of the Air; Radio's
Perpetual Emotion”, Saturday Review 9f Literature, XXI
(April 20, I940), D. If.

7Robert McDonou h "Radio's Heart Throbs”, Commonweal,
XXXI (January 26, l9 0), p. 299.

I2

entertainment. In the early I920's, Mr. Brokenshire was
ordered to compose a half-hour program for a free time-slot
in the evening schedule of a metrOpolitan station. Although
he had but several hours to do so, he arranged a simple show
using several actors. Air-time arrived but the performers
had not; Mr. Brokenshire ad-Iibbed for several minutes
but his cast did not appear. He noticed a book of short
stories lyingon a table in the studio; he picked it up
and began to read one of the stories aloud. In several
minutes, the actors arrived and the program began. However,
the next day hundreds of letters arrived at the station,
requesting that the story be finished on the air.8
Mr. Brokenshire therefore contended that the response to
his ingenious reading of "Fish Head" created the trend of
the continued story.9

Regardless of its specific source, the daytime serial
first appeared in Chicago. vIn an attempt to ease the
financial strain of morning musical programs and to alleviate

the lack of Midwest talent, radio producers cast about for

8Thurber, 22. cit., pp. 236-237.

9Norman Brokenshire, This is Norman Brokenshire, p. 88.

I3

an economical, interesting morning show.IO An accomplishment
of the l930's had been the develOpment of special techniques
for the adaptation Of program materials to the radio medium.
Radio, largely a synthetic medium, adOpted and adapted the
basic communication forms of the other media.

At first, radio merely imitated stage performances;
however, it was soon realized that the visual loss of drama
could be offset through the use of coordinated music, sound
effects and imaginery in production while capitalizing on

the intimacy of the medium.H

The American audience appeared
to approve of a sequential program form and appeared to
eanjoy a story concerned with domestic activities.

Dramatic scripts suitable for serialization, such as
”Real Folks” (August 9, I929); "Little Orphan Annie” (I93l);
'and "The Goldbergs” (l93l) were develOped. The first
really identifiable soap Opera on radio was lrna Phillips'
”Painted Dreams” aired by WGN in Chicago in I930. "Just
Plaianill"; ”Vic and Sade" (I932); ”Myrt and Marge”; ”Ma

Perkins” (I933); and ”The Romance of Helen Trent” (I933)

loMcDonough, 22, cit., p. 12.

IlSydney Head, BroadcastingiflAmericaI pp. I39-I40.

I4

were later scripted and most of them achieved rapid,
escalating popularity.
News Of this novel and successful program type traveled
quickly. The serial idea began in local stations, Spread
to the local networks, and soon encompassed the daytime
productions Of the national networks.‘2
New York,an entertainment mecca superior to Chicago
radio production-in financial backing and talent, was quick
to attract the producers of the new and growing daytime
serial. By the middle I930's, most of the soap Opera
pioneers were based in New York; Chicago was no longer the

center of the daytime dramas--it was simply another outlet.‘3

Radio Serial Authors

The creative individuals who first experimented with
serial narrative became the royalty of soap Opera. From
various mundane occupations, (magazine and newspaper reporting,
teaching, advertisingL evolved the infamous and lucrative
'professionof serial writing.

Most noteworthy of this aggregation were the Hummerts,
Frank and Anne. Frank, a former employee of the Blackett

and Sample Advertising Agency, and Anne, his assistant and

lzBest, 22. cit., p. I2.
13Thurber, op. cit., p. 204.

I5

secretary, established a unique form of serial production
on an assembly line. The Hummerts conceived the story line
for each of their dramatic shows by defining the plot and
suggesting dialogue and characterization. This skeleton
was then sent;to a subsidiary organization, Air Features
Incorporated, where a number of anonymous dialogue writers
expanded the framework into usable scripts. The narratives
were sent to the Hummerts for a final check and then returned
to Air Features for casting and production. This efficient
”soap Opera mill" produced twelve daily serials at its
zenith.‘5 In I940, their serials included "Just Plain Bill“,
”John's Other Wife”, “David HarumU, "Lorenzo Jones", ”Young
Widder BrownU, ”Backstage Wife”, "Stella Dallas?, “The Romance
Of Helen TrentP, "Our Gal Sunday”, "Doc Barclay's Daughter”,
”Amanda Of Honeymoon Hill”, and “Ma Perkinsl'il6
The most outstanding employee of the Hummert machine
was dynamic Charles Robert Douglas Hardy Andrews, a former
'reporter on the Chicago Daily News and a former editor of
the Midwest magazine. He could develOp five serial scripts

per day; the two most illustrious soap characters of his

'5”The Hummerts Super Soaps", Newsweek, XXIII (January
IO, I944), pp. 79-80.

16Best, 23. cit., p. l3.

l6

inventive mind were ”Just Plain Bill", a masculine Pollyanna,
and ”Ma Perkins"; often described as Bill in skirts. Each
of these tenacious dramas ran approximately twenty-five
years and attracted a loyal, large following.

lrna Phillips was originally an instructor in Dayton,
Ohio, and became interested in radio production while
touring the facilities at station WMAQ in Chicago. Abandoning
her teaching, Miss Phillips achieved lasting success with her
serials ”Woman in White”, “Right to Happiness”, ”Guiding
Light”, and ”Lonely WomenU.

Another woman who found success in the world of soap
operas was Mrs. Elaine Carrington, a magazine writer whose
career had declined with the Depression. Her prime
contribution was "Pepper Young's Family”; “Rosemary" and
”When A Girl Marries” were less enduring.

Other pioneers whose success was measured by a single
series were Mrs. Gertrude Berg and Paul Rhymer. Mrs. Berg's
simple drama about Jewish family life was aired for over
twenty years;'7 Mr. Rhymer's humorous ”Vic and Sade” broke
the typical serial's cardinal rule-of ”no humor, please”

for thirteenyears.l8

'7 Thurber, op. cit., pp- I93-196-

, '8Maurice Zolotow, "Washboard Weepers”, Saturday Evening
£222, ccxv (may 29. 1943). p. I7.

l7

‘9 of the daytime serial was

Once the basic formula
discovered, the American daytime audience was deluged by a
”cloudburst of bubbles.” Advertisers were eager to sell
their products and the ubiquity of the daytimeserial
resulted in little lack of Sponsorship for the soap Operas.
In the l939-l940 broadcasting year, a peak season of serial
popularity, manufacturers Of soap and cleansing agents
presented over 49% of the programs; breakfast food makers
Sponsored almost 20% of the soap Operas; and drug producers
supported IO% of the shows. An interesting phenomenon of
block.sponsorship--the-consecutive presentation of several
serials by the same advertiser--resulted. Therefore, as the
popularity of the soap Operas increased, the number of
sponsors decreased. For example, in I936, thirty-one
advertisers bought 152 quarter hours per week; in I939,

twenty-three Sponsors purchased 249 quarter hours per-week.20

l9The soap Opera formula is simple and almost inevitable.
A character is maneuvered into trouble. The problem is to
get him out of it before submerging him in more of the same.
Frequently, the bout involved the Eternal Triangle (man plus
woman plus X): because of the feminine audience to which the
serial was addressed, the troublemaker was usually a man
and the trouble shooter was usually a woman - Hutchins,

2E. cit., p. I9.

20Merrill Denison “Soap Opera,” Harpers, CLXXX
(April I940), pp. 498-499.

IS

The biggest sponsor of radio serials was Proctor and
Gamble. In I939, Proctor and Gamble bought $8,765,l35
worth of time from NBC, CBS, and MBS.2] Lever Brothers.

was a close second.22

Peak of Serial POpuIarity
The World War Two years were indeed fruitful for the
American daytime serials. In June, I940, the four networks
provided listeners with fifty-nine and one-half daytime hours
of sponsored programs weekly. Of these, fifty-five hours
were devoted to soap Operas.23 Between two and three
hundred dramatic serials were aimed weekly at the American
housewife in l94I. Evidently the sponsor's message was
communicated effectively because $30,000,000 of the soap
companies' annual income was conceded to serial Sponsorship.zl+
Wartime rationing of gasoline and tires began to keep
peOpleat home and the daytime serial audience increased
l3% in I942. But statistics compiled by Matthew N. Chappell
of the HOOper Rating Service showed that serial listeners
Spent 20% less time following the trials and tribulations

of their favorite characters than they did in l940--perhaps

the clouds of war billowing across EurOpe stirred Americans'

lbid.

 

22Ben Gross,-i Looked and l Listened, p. l57.

 

23Charles Lindsey, Radio and Television Communication, p.80.

21+”Dream Bubbles in Soap”, Newsweek, XVII (June 2: 19“!)

l9

interests in war reports and news broadcasts.

Therefore, in late I942, CBS, in an effort to expand
its audience, began programming several of its soap Operas
into its evening schedule. For nighttime fans, CBS set
aside one half-hour weekly (Monday IO:3O - ll:OO EWT) to
display some Of its daytime wares in the hOpes Of attracting
more serial listeners. Gilbert Seldes, CBS' critic-author,
spent two weeks listening to all of its daytime network
dramas before choosing fourteen CBS serials to entice night
listeners. Included were samples of daytime classics such
as "Big Sister”, ”Second HusbandU, ”Bachelor's ChildrenUy
”Joyce Jordan, M.D.”, and ”Pepper Young's Family“.25

In I943, NBC and CBS devoted 79% Of their daytime
commercial hours to soap Operas;26 their estimated combined
income from the sale of air-time for the five-day-a-week
dramas was approximately $25,000,000 annually. It was at
this point that the Office of War Information-showed an
interest in the soap Operas. The Opportunity of reaching a
vast audience and the possibility of using the serials as

patriotic message-bearing vehicles could not be ignored.

25“Daytime Classics“, Time, XL (November 30, I942),
p. 45-46.

26"Question Of Soap”, Time, XLI (June 7, I943). P- 66-

20

The OWI'S ”allocation announcements” (special bulletins on

rationing and fuel) were broadcast regularly and successfully.

Special versions of leading serials, written and produced

particularly for OWI, were Offered outside of their regularly

scheduled time on the networks and in recorded form on

local stations. The wartime spirit even infected some of

the trouble-laden heroines--Joyce Jordan went to work in

a war plant and Stella Dallas entered a munitions factory.27
The four major networks offered a total of thirty-nine

soap Operas in I945. This represented approximately 66%

Of the daytime revenue of CBS and NBS ($30,000,000), about

22% of their total revenue, or over l5% of the gross of all

28

network broadcasting. Serials took up over half of the

daylight time of the two leading networks; NBC presented
twelve and CBS scheduled eleven.
The year I946 brought no alteration in the number Of
shows broadcast over the national networks. Serials
comprised a total of ten hours per day in comparison to
-six and one-half hours Of popular and familiar music; five
hours of children's serials and other dramas; and four and three-

29

quarter hours of cultural and religious programs.

27Hutchens, 22. cit., p. 36.

28Lindsey, 22. c t

, p. 80.
p. I48.

29Fortune, 22: cit.,

2I

With the end Of World War Two, experts theorized that
the soap Opera would fall victim to the changing times and
would be replaced by good musical programs, variety shows,
or comedians. This proved to be fallacious, and post-war
radio did its best to present ”every grief--crazed widow,
snide lawyer, and embezzler who had ever crept into the
hearts Of the pre-war public.”30

The soap Opera ”factories” were still in successful
Operation in I947 and I948. In an effort to pare
production costs to a minimum, the advertising agencies
had turned serial scipting into a "sweatshop assembly line”
operation reminiscent Of pulp magazine production.31 The
unusual technique Of serial multi-scheduling was evident
during the pre- and post-war years. For example, ”Vic and
Sade” could be heard on one station at 8:30 a.m.; by the
use Of mechanical reproductions, the identical episode
might be broadcast at 2:45 p.m. on another station. Another

unique aspect of serial production was the fact that the

30Edwin O'Connor, "The Fairly Merry Widow”, Atlantic
MOnthly, CLXXVII (June I946), p. 34.

3‘Llewellyn White, ”The Shortcomings Of Radio”, Atlantic
Monthly CLXXVIII (April I947), p. 64-65.

22

writers who Specialized in the endless Slippery dialogue
numbered less than lOO for the entire country.32 Sponsors,
producers, writers, and listeners believed that the soap
Opera's popularity would extend into infinity. But in I949,
the new medium of television appeared. Although television
did not affect the world of the daytime serial immediately,
radio executives began to experience a vague uneasiness
about the new competitor. Gradually, radio began tO lose
its glamour, its listeners, and its advertisers. Network
programming began to decline. Local stations' inexpensive
formats of recorded music, news, and sports began to attract
some of the vast audience; network time sales started to
drop drastically; and radio talent began to abandon the
audio medium for the video.33

In I950, housewives could still follow the adventures
of their favorite soap heroines in the thirty-odd network

34

serials, but by I955, fewer and fewer soap Operas were
Offered. Producers seemed to decide that the busy housewives
now had no time to listen to the serials and that the lazy

housewives were not worthy of such effort. In any case, the

ézDenison, QR. cit., p. 503.
33"The State Of Radio”, Time, LXV (May 9, I955). Po 70-

3l+Wilfred Parsons, ”Daytime Radio”, America, XCIV
(February l8, I956), p. 552.

23

attractiveness of television could not be ignored.35

The Death Of a Serial

Because of a lack of network Sponsorship, NBC discontinued
most Of its fifteen minute serials in October, I955; in
their stead were scheduled more disc-jockeys and spot

36

commercials. CBS clung tenaciously to its daytime dramas--
in I960 it was still possible to tune in every weekday
afternoon to hear ”Woman in My House”, ”Pepper Young's Family”,
”Helen Trent”, “Ma Perkins“, “Young Dr. Malone'fl and I'The
Right to Happiness”.37 Unfortunately, for the afficinado

of the daytime radio serials, the days Of these stalwarts

were numbered. On November 26, I960, after nearly thirty
years of broadcasting, the few remaining daytime serials bid

a teary and poignant farewell to their audiences--the era

of the radio soap Opera was at an end;38 the expanding
medium of television had completely absorbed the inhabitants
and problems of Rinsoville, lvorytown, Anacinburg, and

Crisco Corners.39

The life Of the soap Opera, from its birth in Chicago

during the ”roading twenties” to its demise in the ”space-

36Hugh Dickinson, "Soap Operas Down the Drain“, America,
XCIV (October 29, I955), p. l27.

37Settel, 92. cit., p. H8.

38George Willey, End Of an Era; the Daytime Radio Serial”,
Journal of Broadcasting, V (Spring l96l), p. 98.

39Thurber, 2E. cit., p. 208.

24

age sixties”, may be subdivided in a chronological manner:

I930-37:

I937-H5:

I945-49:

I949-55:

I955-60:

The Age of Experimentation. Due to a Mid-
West lack of financial resources and talent,

a basic serial formula was develOped and
popularized by pioneers such as Frank and

Anne Hummert, Elaine Carrington, lrna Phillips,
Gertrude Berg, Charles Hardy, and Paul Rhymer.

 

The Explosive Era. Soap Operas had captured
the fancy of audience and Sponsors alike;

the result of this was the rapid multiplication
of the serials and their consequent domination
of day-time radio schedules.

 

The Age of Complacency. The number of serials
had stabilized and their eternal popularity
was predicted by post-war Optimists.

 

The Era of Waning Popularity. A formidable
competitor, network television, arrived on
the scene; radio's glam diminished as
television enticed its listeners away.
Televised serials were introduced in this
era and were not unkindly received.

 

The Age of the “Bursting Bubble”. Radio

 

serials' days were limited. Their number
dwindled until the final episodes Of the few
survivors were presented on November 25,
I960. Television had absorbed and adapted
the soap Opera to fit the visual medium.

CHAPTER II
COMPOSITION AND PRODUCTION OF THE
RADIO DAYTIME SERIAL

”A Soap Opera is a kind Of a sandwich;” stated James
Thurber, ”between thick slices of advertising, spread
twelve minutes of dialogue; add predicament, villainy, and
female suffering in equal measure; throw in a dash Of nobility;
Sprinkle with tears; season with organ music; cover with a
rich announcer sauce; and serve five times a week.”1

Although this taSy definition sounds facetious, the
formula Of the typical soap Opera was not unlike this recipe.
Ardent defenders of the radio dramas granted that the serials
did not contribute to the world's greatest literature; the
soap Opera was simply a piece of storytelling for wide
pOpular consumption. In narrative form, the daily drama
was a first cousin of the eternal newspaper comic strip;
in tone and content, it was a counterpart to the ”pulp“

2 Its principal theme was trouble--its

magazine story.

prevailing sound effect was the barely repressed sob.3
Several cardinal rules formed the guidelines along

which the radio serials were develOped. Some characteristics

of the radio soap Operas were:

.lThurber, 22. cit., p. I9I.

2A periodical usually devoted to lurid and sensational
stories.
25

26

I. Characterization: A female lead who was superior
to her masculine counterpart in intelligence,
devotion, nobility of character, and capacity for
sacrifice;h a benign matron filled with free advice
and problem solutions; and a weak man who easily
succumbed to womanly wiles and did not grasp the

real meaning Of life were included.

2. A medical emphasis: The natural predilection Of
women to linger over the details of operations

and illnesses was fulfilled.5

3. Scheduling: The serial plot was dovetailed into
the unique listening habits of the American house-
wife with her unavoidable household tasks and

6

routine interruptions.

4. Dialogue: The story line was carefully constructed
to flatter the feminine egos in the audience. A

preponderance Of misery was evident, for it was

“Denison, op. cit., p. 500.
5Zolotow, QB. ci ., p. 46.

27

believed the “grief is constant; happiness is

fleeting.”7

5. Frills: An organist whose instrument set moods,
constructed bridges, and added dramatic emphasis;
and an announcer who invariably established present
serial developments and reconstructions of past

8

events were necessary .

Serial Characterization

The main characters of the radio soap Opera generally
remained constant from month to month and from year to year.
ThissIablizatiOn, this eternal permanence of unchanging
characters in a changing world, gave the audience a feeling
Of reassurance particularly during the turbulent years of
World War Two.9 These characters were of three miens--

very good, very bad, or very weak.‘0

7Max Wylie, ”Washboard Weepers“, Harper's Magazine,
I85 (November I942), p. 635.

8Thurber', gp. cit., p. 221.
9David Mackey, Drama Qfl the Air, p. 90.
IO”Soap Operas”, Fortune, XXXIII (March I946), p. l20.

28

The good peOple who dominated the serials were middle-
class, conservative, intuitive, philOSOphical, benevolent,
virtuous, sympathetic, ageless, and unaging.]l They did
most of the suffering and were usually the individuals about
whom the format evolved and developed. They created trouble
by deceiving Others for their own good, accused themselves
Of crimes in order to shield others, and usually surmounted
the unbelievable odds dealt them by life. Because Of the
housewives' identification with the herohua these ideal
women could not be develOped as human beings. These
Pollyannas were endowed with complete moral, physical, and
intellectual perfection; their greater virtues included
strong character, high fortitude, unfailing capability,
innate goodness, and impregnable chastity.‘2 They neither
smoked nor drank, for coffee and tea were the strongest
spirits required in tense situations. Two radio queens,

”Ma Perkins” and ”Helen Trent”, were excellent examples of

the typical soap heroine. “Ma“, carefully constructed to

”Thurber, QB. cit., pp. 214-216.

leelde , QB. CIt., p. ll6.

29

flatter the feminine ego, never partook of alcoholic
beverages, never contaminated her lungs with cigarette
smoke, and never indulged in affairs with men.‘3 ”Helen”,
a beautiful, poised, glamorous costume designer, was
invincibly pure, consistently humorless, modestly dressed,
relentlessly viceless, and extremely unemotional, much
to the dismay of her numerous rich, handsome, weak suitors.]4
Bad peOple were the real trouble makers. These minor
characters provided the contrast needed to define and
delineate the innate righteousness of the good peOple.IS
Drinking, smoking, and affairs with the Opposite sex were
common traits among the villains and villainesses. An
example Of this type, ”Helen Trent“'s perennial arch-rival
Daisy Parker, demonstrated her low moral stature with her

fondness for gossip and her weakness for ”martinis on the

rocks with no Olive."l6 Most of the villains came from the

‘3"Lire With Ma”, Time, LXX (August 26, 1957), p. 42.

481hHAgeleSS Heroine", Time, LXVIII, (August 6, 1956).
p. .

'5Arnheim, op. cit., p. 250.
l6Time, August 6, I956, ibid.

30

cities; gangsters, white collar criminals, designing women,
unnatural mothers, cold wives, and ruthless millionaires
made up the tourist trade of Rushville Center or Hartville.
Their prime goal appeared to be the destruction of Soapland's
serene world; they acted without motive but rarely fell
victim to their own plots° These unsavory individuals
were usually confronted by the good characters whose innate
shrewdness deleted them or whose kindness transformed them
into useful citizens.17

A third group Of characters also existed. They were
the weak peOple whoexcelled in unpleasant qualities such
as jealousy, vindictiveness, lack of balance, deceitfulness,
and selfishness.l8 Their will was atrophied; torn by
indecision, they were at the mercy of events. Although
their actions were Often violent, they acted out Of weakness,
not strength. Since these weaknesses were the result of
bad experiences or lack of control and Since the individual's
nature was not of an inborn evilness, he was usually shown
the harmfulness Of his actions and led from darkness into day

by the heroine.]9

'7Thurber, op. cit., p. 210.

l8ArnheIm, ibid.
'992. 213., p. 247.

3I

Serial Society

The leading roles in the serials were dominated by
professional people and housewives. Businessmen, local
governmental officials, and society leaders were Often
represented, but mundane wage earners in the form of factory
workers, miners, and unskilled laborers were never develOped
as leading characters. Although few heroes ever appeared to
work at their professions, a lack of financial security
seldom occurred. Character social stratification contained
doctors, nurses, homely philosophers, attractive women
dedicated to the art of discouraging marriage-minded suitors,
and ”Cinderellas" (young matrons whose husbands were

financially and socially above them).20

Serial Problems
The basic plot of the daytime serial was simple to
the extreme. Weak peOple, invariably trouble-laden because

of the machinations of the bad ones, were eventually saved

by the good characters.2]

20Thurber, 2E. cit., pp. 2I4-220.

2'93. cit., p. 213.

32

Several types of plot arrangement were evident. One
form consisted of guidance by a male or female leader
chosen because of his admirable personal characteristics.

In this case, the unruly individuals, as well as their
Specific type of difficulty, varied from episode to episode.
The second form of arrangement was concerned with a group
situation. A number of peOple, usually a family, faced
disaster after disaster. If the family were expanded to
include friends, relatives, and fiances, new victims fOr
new troubles were never lacking.

The problems faced by the characters included
difficulties concerned with courtship, marriage, family,
friends, crime, occupations, accidents, and public affairs.22
Special illnesses affected the inhabitants of Soapland.
Amnesia, paralysis, strange fevers, temporary blindness,
dizzy spells, severe headaches, pneumonia, and gland
maladies struck with some regularity.23 These difficult

situations were governed by a perfect type Of justice found

22Arnheim, 92, cit., pp. 252-253.
23Thurber, 92,cit., p. 208.

33

only in the world of the soap Opera. NO specific principles
of jurisprudence were evident in the narrative, but all
characters received their just rewards; unfortunately,
the supreme authority from whom these happy endings evolved

remained a mystery to the listening audience.24

Serial Setting

Most Of the serials were set in misty, unreal middle-
sized and small towns; since a majority of the audience
did not reside in an urban locale, the serial producers
favored good, clean, little communities over the cold, cruel
metrOpOlitan centers--small towns were moral; cities were
immoral. Although the audience was permitted to realize
that all sudsy action took place somewhere in the United
States, specific states in which High Falls or Hartville
were located were conveniently anonymous,25 with the
exception of Black Swan Hall Estate, Virginia, the abode

of ”Our Gal Sunday” and spouse.26

2L‘Arnheim, ibid.

25Thurber, 23. cit., p. 208.
26

64 ”The End of Our Gal”, Newsweek, LIII (January 5, 1959).
p. .

34

The characters' homes were set in a sterile environ-
ment. Rarely did neighbors, community workers (mailmen,
policemen, and milkmen), or door-tO-door salesmen enter
the serials' sphere Of action. A majority of the inter-
minable serial action took place in the living room of the
principal chamacter's house where no sounds of community
life (automobile horns, shouting children, or barking dogs)
penetrated.27

Soapland was indeed a peaceful world. Although it was
filled with dastardly deeds and abusive actions, it was a
politicial and economic Utopia. Crisco Corners or Rinso-
ville was a typical American small town without inter-
national unrest, menace of fission, threats Of inflation

28

or deflation, unemployment, Communism, and racism.

Drama In Slow Motion
The whole idea of the daytime serial was predicated
upon the knowledge that listeners could not attend to them

exclusively. Housewives, the majority of serial addicts,

27Thurber, QB. cit., p. ZIO.
2899. cit., p. 2l3.

35

had work to do. They could not concentrate on work and
listen simultaneously, so radio broadcasters designed this
type of dramatic fare so that the action could be followed
even if predispositions occurred. This concept was the
basis Of everything that was produced in the serial vein.29
Busy, yet devoted, serial followers tuned into their
favorite programs approximately three days out of five.
At first, the characters' dialogue related the things
that actually happened to them that day, but dissention
from the audience showed that the plot advanced too
rapidly.30
TO rectify this unhappy situation, the dramas' writers
slowed movement to a glacier-like flow.31 The immediate
and not-so-immediate past was reconstructed regularly;
each event was sub-divided so that the thread of events

32 Little

could be replucked with a minimum Of effort.
conversation took place, musical bridges flowed effort-
lessly, commercials were frequent, and plot recapitulation

was eternal.33 Nothing was left to the imagination; no

29Albert Crew, Radio Production Direction, pp. 467-47l.
30Thurber, Op. cit., p. 2I2.
3'Ibid.

32Seldes, QB. cit., p. II4.
3392. cit., p. 116.

36

implications to hurry action and to add depth were evident.
Telephones, telegrams, and office intercoms extended the
actionless variety and gave some plausibility to the
numerous repetitions. But such recapitulations often
bordered on the ludicrous and strained the surface plausi-

bility of the Story. Hugh Dickson's caricature Of a section

 

of dialogue from “Lorenzo Jones” illustrates this point:
Dennis Scott: ”Belle Jones, do you see that house?”
Belle Jones: “Yes, I see that large, grey stone

 

house standing on a cliff, with a
fifty-foot drOp to jagged rocks below,
and surrounded by impenetrable forests
with not another house for miles and
miles around. This is not the road to
the church where I am to remarry my
husband, Lorenzo Jones. Why have you
brought me here, Dennis Scott?"

The static situations that resulted from talking a subject
to death deleted two important dramatic ingredients--humor
and suspense--from the typical serial's composition. It
was the peculiar triumph of soap Opera that make all action
”past action.”3h This feature was a prime target for

anti-serial criticism; an excerpt from Hamlet, Act III,

BhDickinson, op. cit., pp. 128-129.

37

Scene II, is applicable here: ”Suit the action to the word,
the word to the action....Now this overdone or come tardy
off, though it make the unskillful laugh, cannot but make
the judicious grieve.”35

Nothing happened between acts; nothing was compressed,
inferred, or foreshortened. The interminableness gave the
serials a strange kind of realims; long pauses, Speech
hesitations, repetitions, flashbacks, and irrelevances
to permit procrastination contributed to the postponement
Of forward progress. The characters were supposed to be
recognized as old friends by the audience. Old friends
were not expected to be dramatic or amusing at every
encounter; their mere presence provided contentment. If
Old friends were not seen for several days, one was eager
to hear about his most recent activities. If he were a

36

little repetitious, it was perfectly acceptable and natural.

Production Of the Radio Serials
It is believed that machine-made popular art forms,

(television, radio, cinema, the press), reflect the very

35Peter Alexander, William Shakespeare, The Complete
Works, p. I048.

36SeIdes, op. _ci_t., p. 114-115.

38

society that created it; this feature adds to its popularity
the asset of a mass audience. If this is so, none were more
machine-made, standardized, and pOpular than the daytime
soap operas.37 Like most successful mass production
businesses, serial develOpment was conducted along methodical
lines. The majority Of these programs were created, written,
and produced by advertising agencies and delivered to the

38

broadcasters for presentation.

Problems Of Serial Dialogists

Soap Operas were prepared by shrewd craftsmen. The

5

first desideratum was a good story line,39 charted six

d

to eight months in advance and later dissected into small
Segments.“0 From this birth Of a bubble evolved scripts

which were a deft merger of soothing syrup, folksiness and

heartbreak.hl

37Dickinson, ibid.

3392.33” p. 127.

39Some serials were inventions; some came from adaptations
of comic strips, continuous books, or plays...Hutchens, 22.

241:” p. 19.
holbld., p. 36.
I"lGross,gE. cit., p. l57.

39

Several problems and taboos confronted the serial
writers:
I. Names for the hundreds Of serial characters were
necessary. Frank Hummert, head of the gargantuan
Hummert Radio Productions, stated that the
material for his characters' baptisms followed
this syStem: ”I just go out and COpy names from

shOp signs.“

2. Keeping the dialogue from becoming stale was
another difficulty. A soap writer, exuding nearly
half a million words per year (theequivalent of
twenty full-length stage plays) was apt to I'slip
out of the grooveand into a rut.” When a writer
reached a point of redundancy, he was shifted to

a new story or released.

3. The endless stories could not end. Once an
insolubleconflict was established, it was
stretched as far as its snap would allow.
Unfortunately, this was sometimes impossible. For
example, an early Hummert vehicle, ”Betty and Bob”,

depended on an unsteady, jealous relationship

40

between the-main chanacters. The story reached

a climax when the couple had a baby, but it ended
when listeners would not longer accept the
fluctuating relationship between a married couple

with a child."2

4. Sex had to be handled delicately. The strict
daytime morality of the heroines, therefore,
featured the good women as coy, impregnably
chaste, and nobly aided by a Freudian censor who
would knock at doors or send telegrams at crucial
moments.73 Normal marital relationships were
impossible; convenient cases of amnesia, jobs,
errands, telephone calls, and ailing relatives
led to marriages presented as pure social

44

arrangements.

5. Any mention of tobacco or alcoholic consumption
~could not be associated with the heroine--this
showed moral depravity and was reserved for evil

characters only.

l'ZNI-aIIsweek, January ID, 1944, ibid.
hBSeIdes, 2p. cit., p. 2l8.
7793. cit., p. ll7.

4l

The patternof the daytime serial was an endless
sequence of narratives, the cohesive element of which was
the eternal pressures upon its principal characters. A
Story sequence extended from eight weeks to several months.h5
The script writer worked only two or three weeks in advance
Of the performance Of his narrative so the plot could be

“6 His ingenious dexterity was constantly

altered if necessary.
taxed to move the serial logically and to permit the basic
denouement to provide the longest suspense. Scripts were
fashioned so Friday's chapter left the listener in,a state
Of excited anticipation over the weekend while awaiting

Monday's episode.“7

Studio Production

Serial production and direction were Simple. The
‘same director handled the daily Show; the-script writers
were conStant; the same crew was assigned; and the

program was broadcast from the same studio.

22.9 209
it. , p. 36.

hsThurber, 22.
h6Hutchens, 22.
“7Ibid.

42

Little script editing was necessary. First, the writer
was a highly skilled craftsman who knew the medium intimately
so that the common erras found in a free-lance script were mainly
absent. Second, the-author had created the-characters and
was familiar with them as well as.with the unchanging format
of the Show. Third, because a majority of all such programs
were~agency-produced, the agency's radio executives checked
the scripts thoroughly in advance.

Since the continuous story retained a constant basic
set of characters, the same actors portrayed the same basic
parts week in and week out.v Talent was a problem only if
the agency became dissatisfied with an actor's character
interpretations or with his personal behavior. The listening
.serial audience was large, lOyal, and quick to announce their
dislike Of a plot or actor; so it was a rare but major
Operation to recast a leading character. Naturally, the
~sponsor's large investment in the programmade him rather
sensitive to negative reactions, so major auditions were
conducted with considerable thoroughness and serious
deliberation. Minor casting problems were always present.
New characters constantly introduced had to be-cast, and

the dramatized commercials had to be produced.

43

Staff needs, studio needs, and studio layout were
ialmost as constant as the cast. Special effects were few
and simple, sound effects were uncomplicated and obvious,
and music consisted Of‘a Standard theme and bridge.I+8

Time was the only real problem. If the writer were
careless in this vein, cuts or inserts were made to
standardize the program's length during rehearsal time.
Three readings took place--one for interpretation, one
for timing, and one for a dress rehearsal.

The actual playing time of the dialogue was nine to
ten minutes, with five to six minutes devoted to announce-
ments, commercials, and music.)+9 The weekly production
cost of the average fifteen minute serial was $2,000;with

radio time-costs included, the total price of a network

hookup was almost $ll,OOO per week.50

Review

‘Soap Opera was unique- Its melodramatic incidents,

its strict characterization, and its slow-motion life

‘ABA bridge is a musical span across dramatic scenes
which provides a transitional link and encourages format
continuity.

“9Crew, lbid.
50Hutchens, ibid.

44

combined to make the serials a novel and unusual art form.
Since the early days of the radio soaps, various writers
and performers have vied for the honor of serial progenitor.
Unfortunately, it appears that this distinction cannot be
bestowed upon any of these combatants. The credit belongs

to Viktorien Sardow.SI

In I895, years before the serials
were fabricated, George Bernard Shaw unknowingly described
the serial essence in this bit of ”constructive” criticism:

"Sardou's plan of playwriting is first to invest the .
action Of his piece, and then to carefully keep it Off the
-stage and have it announced merely by letters and telegrams.
The peOpIe-Open the letters whether they are addressed to
them or not,.and then talk about what the letters announce
as having occurred already or about what they intend to do
tomorrow in consequence of receiving them. When the news
is not brought by post, the characters arepressed into

service.’”52

The similarity is unmistakable and remarkable.

5IViktorien Sardou, l83l-I908, a French dramatist.

52Dickinson, 22. cit., p. 127.

CHAPTER III
SERIAL EFFECTS

”Pandering to perversity and playing out destructive
conflicts...the serials furnish the same release for the
emotionally distorted that is supplied to those who
derive satisfaction from a lynching bee, who lick their
lips at the salacious scandals of a ”crime passionnel",
who in the unregretted past cried out in ecstasy at a witch
burning," cheerfully stated Dr. Louis I. Berg, former
physician of the New York Department of Health at Welfare
Island.I _

Such vehement reaction to the radio soap Operas was
evident during most of the serials' existence--critics
raged and learned professors wrote scholarly tomes ”proving”
that this form Of entertainment was a menace. A prolonged
diet of such pap, they warned, would surely undermine the
mental health Of the American female. The soap crises of
bigamy, wife desertion, or brain surgery would produce a

race of neurotic women. Their afflictions would range from

IThurber, QB cit., p. 252.

45

46

advanced hypochondria to an irresistable impulse to escape

from reality.2
“Negative Serial Effects

Critics Stated that at its best, soap Opera was tedious
bilge; at its worst, the serials contained revolting
morbidity.3 Unfortunately, the housewives were conditioned
to demand more serial fare even as they forgot what they
had already absorbed. Gilbert Seldes, CBS critic, believed
that soap Operas were compelled by their own nature to
create works that were promptly forgotten; the work of
art.as an imperishable object was foreign to them.Ll

The infamous Dr. Berg, soap Opera's most violent
critic, presented his views in-a I942 pamphlet with the
impressive title of? "Preliminary Report; A Study Of
Certain Radio Programs and Their Effects upon the Audience,

Especially Adolescents and Women in Climacterium.”5 He

2Gross, 22. cit., p. l57.

3%, 22. cit., p. 119.

l"'DickinsonLgE. cit., p. l30.

SOneiof Dr. Berg's female patients suffered a psychologi-
cal relapse; the cause, he discovered, was the woman's
exposure to daytime serials. In order to educate and enlighten
the world, he develOped this report.

47

believed that serials such as “Women in White" and “Right
to Happiness” encouraged a breakdown Of the average woman's
nervous system. The soap Operas; he advocated, reeked with
morbid and twisted suggestions; serial authors had screened
emotional sewers and had drained emotional swamps for

much of their material.

6 if She listens to serials

“What will happen to a woman
all the time,“ said Dr. Berg, ”is that she will experience
increased blood pressure, nocturnal frights, vasomotor
instability, vertigo (dizziness), gastro-intestinal distur-
bances, profuse perspiration, tremors, and a slight touch
Of tachycardia (swift heart). It totals a very pretty
fatigue syndrome.7 The constant serial listener can become
as morbidly fond of her fantasy world as the use of Opium
brings momentary surcrease with drugged dreams. This

anxiety is similar to that encouraged by enemy propaganda;

it lays the groundwork for civilian panic in emergencies and

6To determine this, Dr. Berg listened tO-forty episodes
of ten-serials. He took notes on his pulse beats and blood
pressure before and after listening to each episode. The
-serials raised his blood pressure and increased his pulse.

7A fatigue-syndrome consisted of malaise (indefinite
body discomflort), insomnia, inability to concentrate, emotional
instability, depression,and all sorts Of phobias...ZOlotow,

‘22. cit., p. l6

48

saps the productive energies Of the afflicted individuals
in their essential efforts.”8

Gilbert Seldes inveighed against the myth world of
the soap Operas--he feared that the unrealistic adults
in the audience would find consolation in the low pitched,
agonized falsifications of the daytime serials. They
appeared to render the fans unable to facereality, which
was unlike and less attractive than the imaginary soap
vvorld. Facing reality was a shocking experience and was,
therefore, avoided. He believed that the serials diverted,
deceived, and prevented the development Of mature,
responsible citizens.9

In the area of serial programming, Edgar A. Grunwald,
American trade journalist, conducted a series of national
interviews with over three hundred regional station
executives. He reported that these executives believed
that the serials ruined the initiative Of the local production

staffs, alienated the more intelligent class of listeners,

8Hutchens, 22. cit., p. 36.

9Joseph Klapper, The Effects 22 Mass Communication,
pp. l69-l75.

49

and made the presentation of regional educational and
cultural programs virtually impossible.'0

In view of these facts, the daytime serials indeed
appeared to be despicable with their depressing stories,
tedious plot develOpment, schedule domination-and mental

health hazards.ll

Where, critics demanded, would these
maudlin epics and their detrimental effects lead? When

would the serial audience abandon their "washboard weepers“?

Positive Serial Effects

Psychological Effects

Curiously enough, the American housewives turned a
deaf ear to the gloomy warnings of the critics and appeared
unconcerned about their mental balance despite the doleful
syndromes supposedly produced. Apparently impervious to
nocturnal frights and vascomotor instability, they continued
to buy the sponsors' products and to listen to the daily

immersions into soap.‘2

IOMcDonough, 22. cit., p. 300.
cit., pp. 633-634.

”Wyl ie, 22.

IZZOIOtOW, 22. cit., p. l6.

50

Serials made the listener feel at home by offering
her a world which outwardly resembled her own and in which
peOple made themselves and others suffer by committing
familiar mistakes and by di5playing familiar shortcomings
Of character. She was encouraged to view failure as
happening only to other peOple and was confirmed in her
belief that her suffering was not caused by herself, but
by the imperfections and villainy of Others.13

The typical soap fan usually identified herself with
at least one of her favorite serial characters. Her
reaction to the three basic types of peOple presented in
the serial was as follows: I

l. Ih2_2225 Character had a large share of guilt

in the uninterrupted series of life's daily
catastrophes, but was not inherently evil. The
portrait offered by the weak character was an
unpleasant one with which the housewife did not
desire identification. Resonance, a form of
sympathy, was the usual reaction provoked by the
weaklings; to enjoy this resonance, it was necessary
for the housewife to disassociate herself with the
weak people.

l3Arnheim, 22. cit., pp. 253-254.

5]

The Good People fulfilled the housewives' need

for identification. It provided a safe platform
from which she looked down upon the weak character's
unfortunate experiences with aloofness and
complacency. It allowed her to associate herself
with a woman who was always good, right, virtuous,
energetic, helpful, and authoritative. The heroine
appeared as a wOman desired by handsome suitors,

a wife, a mother, a friend, or a professional
woman. Consequently, this identification provided
reparation for the “passive and subordinate role”

that the housewife played in real life.

122_§22 Peogle threatened the security of the
characters with whom the listener was linked with
resonance and identification. The good woman

'would help her weak associates, but the bad peOple,
her devout enemies, received the brunt of her

shrewd, adaptable battle tactics. NO identification
existed between the bad characters and the listeners;
no understanding for the villain's motives existed
or was desired. They were evil; they provoked fear

and resentment and attacked innocent victims

52

because Of their inherently evil nature. This
personification of evil often confirmed the

housewife's personal attitude toward her own

l4

serious threats or adversaries.

Material Expressions

‘Millions of listeners took the anguished lives Of
their favorite characters to heart and wrote them letters
of advice and encouragement and sent them gifts when births,
weddings, and other happy occasions in the-Story warranted
them.15

Most listeners had sharp ears. If a performer were
granted a temporary or permanent vacation, many housewives

were quick to note any change in the voice quality of the

1792.I2lt., pp. 256-258.

lSSetteI, 22, 213., p. 117. When Ruth and John Wayne
Of “Big Sister” were married on the air, three delivery
trucks of wedding gifts (ties, cufflinks, handkerchiefs,
china, lingerie, end tables, slippers, cigarette cases,
floor lamps, a portable radio, and three carving sets) were
-sent to the studio by unknown admirers who evidently visualized
the newly weds as real peOple. The networks could not return
or keep the gifts, so they sent them to the Red Cross,
hos?:tals, orphanages, and other charties..Best, 22, 212.,
p. .

53

'6 In one case, the hero of "Pepper Young's

character.
Family” was replaced by a man with a remarkably'similar voice.
Unfortunately, the resemblance was not perfect; a number
of indignant letters questioning the moral turpitude of
the Youngs' personal life were received by the show's

producers.l7

Results of Professional Studies

The nature of the soap Operas was subject to more
flattering analyses than those previously noted. Columbia
University's staff psychologist Herta Herzog was subsidized
by the Rockefeller FoundatiOn tocktermine the “lure of the
serials“. Surveying the reaction of New York women,
Herzog discovered that the audience appetite for the soap
Operas was enormous. The average number of serials followed
was 6.6, but an interesting correlation was evident--if a
listener's problems became more complex, she listened to

more-programs. The extremes ranged from a woman who needed

l6Thurber, ibid.
'7Ibid.

54

only two Shows per day to a domestic on a twenty-two per

day diet. Herzog believed that the daily theme of ”in trouble
and out again” appealed to the dialers' insecurity and
provided them with solutions to their own problems.'8

Paul Lazarsfeld, director of the Office Of Radio
Research at Columbia University, reached remarkably similar
conclusions. His study revealed that women apparently
received two gratifications from listening; first, an
escape or day-dreaming that carried them away from their
daily lives,'9 and second, a source of guidance in/their
private lives.

A study compiled by the Women's Institute of Audience
Reaction revealed more specific positive factors. The women-
questioned stated that they listened to the serials because
the daily dramas:

I. Made work seem lighter.

2. Provided guidance, helpful phiIOSOphy, and

inspiration.

3. Supplanted reading and saved time and eyes.

Provided pleasant escape from personal troubles.

l8"Dream Bubbles in Soap“, Newsweek, XVII (June 2'
l94l),’p. 3l.

l9Hutchens, 22. cit., p. 36.

 

55

5. Created pleasant anticipation and suspense.
6. Satisfied a natural appetite for entertainment,
particularly dramatic.

7. Helped dispel loneliness.20

Professors W. Lloyd Warner and William E. Henry delved
deeply into the elusive quality of serial identification
for CBS. They studied ”Big Sister”, Robert Newman and
Julian Flint's serial, which dealt with a trianglecomposed
of Ruth Wayne, the big sister; Dr. John Wayne, her husband;
and Dr. Reed Bannister, the disquieting factor. A number
Of interesting conclusions were noted. The serial:

I. Aroused normal adaptive anxiety in its female

listeners.

2. Condemned neurotic and non-adaptive anxiety and

functioned to curb such feelings in the audience.

3. Provided moral beliefs, values, and techniques

for solving emotional and interpersonal problems
for its audience.

4. Directed the private reveries and fantasies of

the listener into socially approved channels of
action.

20I'bid.

56

5. Increased the women's sense of security in the
world they felt was Often-threatening by
reaffirming the security Of the marriage ties
and accentuating the security of the husband's
position.

6. Demonstrated that those who behaved prOperly
exercised moral control over those who did not.

7. Showed that iniquitous behavior was punished.~

8. Dramatized the significance of the woman's role
in basic human affairs.

9. Increased the woman's feeling of importance by
emphasizing her role in family affairs.

IO. Showed that the listener had control over the

vicissitudes of family life.

In short, the serial decreased the feeling of feminine
futility and made women feel essential and desirable through

2]

'their identification with the heroine Ruth. Was this

harmful?

2lThurIper, gp. cit., pp. 254-255-

57
A Slippery Issue

The virtues and vices of the daytime serials were a
moot question. Individuals unassociated with radio pro-
duction criticized the shows; radio's executives, writers,
and sponsors defended the serials. To educators and
intellectuals, the number and nature of the serials served
as examples of the social irresponsibility Of commercial

Sponsorship. To critics,. soap opera was a waste of the

mediumzz; radio should have been educational and

23

enlightening.

22Although the soap Operas were ridiculed for their
plots, characters, and slow pace, a number of these
narratives were very good. Gertrude Berg's "The Goldbergs“
contained well-delineated characters depicting warmth and
humor; Paul Rhymer's ”Vic and Sade”, once called the best
American humor Of its day by Edgar Lee Masters, was filled
with humorous, shrewd and unpretentious dialo ue..."Vic
and Sade”, Time, XLII (December 27, I943), p. 2; Sandra
Michael's literate and-war-conscious "Against the Storm”
won the I942 Peabody Award for radio excellence from-the
University of Georgia...”Scented Soap", Newsweek, XXII
(July 5, I943), p. llO; and Carleton E. MOrse's venerable
"One Man's Family” saga about the Barbour family was natural
and realistic...”Life in 'One Man's Family' Will Continue
Over Air Waves for Seven More Years”; Newsweek, XIII
(February 6, I939), pp. 32-33.

23Denison,22. cit., p. 5l2.

58

Radio executives staunchly defended serial presentation.
Storrs Haynes, radio dirdctor Of the Compton Advertising
Agency, stated: ”What the critics of daytime radio don't
seem tO grasp is that we've tried other forms of enter-
tainment, and women don't want them. We've had shows like
Dr. Dafoe giving hints on raising children, Beatrice Fairfax
with advice to the lovelorn, book reviews, astrologers, and
George Rector with kitchen suggestions. The best of these

24 of one or two, whereas

shows can achieve a Crossley rating
at least fifteen of the serials have a similar rating of
eight or better."25

It was the ethical versus the mercenary; it was either
rinse the suds down the drain or whip them to a froth.
Both viewpoints were logically and earnestly presented--it
was impossible to declare impartially which side was right.
To listen Or not to listen; this depended on the personal
desires and tastes of the American housewife.

Never before did a mass communication entertainment

form follow such a meteoric career. The effects Of the soap

24A Crossley was the pOpularity average Of a radio Show
based on-a survey of telephone calls made at random. If a
program had a Crossley of nine, 9% of the radio sets in Operation
were tuned to that program.

25Zolotow,22. cit., p. l7.

59

operas never appeared to be acute, since the female suicide
rate did not rise alarmingly during the serials' life. These
programs simply combined and multiplied the number Of
fictions about life in the United States. The major moral

of the serials was to worry about one's private life and to
leave inflation, atomic bombs, and school bond issues to

the experts. Although the serials were well received in
their transition to television, their pOpularity and

audience size have never reached the stature Of the radio

soap Operas.26.

26Harold Mehling, The Great Time Killer, pp. 96-98.

Radio boasted of a serial audience oftwenty million

listeners;television's serial addicts range from eight to
nine million viewers.

CHAPTER IV
THE DAYTIME TELEVISION SERIAL

While the man Of the house is busy at his daily
occupation, his abode Often becomes a "hotbed” Of intrigue,
marital infidelity, and financial chicanery. Clandestine
love affairs are carried on in his living room; nefarious
plots to defraud widows of their inheritances are hatched
under his rooftree; and the anguished cries of unwed mothers
reverberate against the knotty pine panels of his recreation
room. The daytime serials have passed successfully from

radio to television.]

Serial Transition from Radio to Television

During the transition era from radio to television, the
serial Sponsors and producers questioned the listeners'
reaction to the new medium. Radio, an audio medium,
permitted a free sense Of identification and imagery--
how would the daytime viewers respond to the video medium
of television in which their favorite characters could be

seen as well as heard?2

IWeare Holbrook, "The Wring Cycle," Detroit Athletjc
Club News, January I963, p. I89.

2Thurber, 22. cit., pp. 257-259.

60

6i

In the days of radio, the housewife could do housework
for her real family while listening, with one ear, to the
complicated and cluttered lives Of her radio families.

With the advent of television, the variety of problems

faced by the characters could Often be expressed by a simple
facial gesture or shoulder shrug. Attentiveness as well as
involvement would be necessary to the understanding Of
television's soap heroes, heroines, and antagonists.3 It
appeared that difficulty would arise in the capture and
retention Of serial viewers; work would keep the women out
of the range of the television set and the dual process of
housework; watching the daytime serials seemed to be quite

problematic.“

Television Serial Scheduling

Nevertheless, on December ll, I950, Proctor and Gamble
unveiled its contribution to CBS network daytime television,
”The First Hundred YearS'. 5 The serial, concerned with the
trials and tribulations of Chris and Connie Thayer, over-

estimated itself fifty times--it left the air after two seasons.6

3Greene, ibid.
uLeo Bogart, The Age 22 Television, p. 74.

5“Bigger Suds”, Newsweek, XXXVI (December l8, I950), p. 54.

6Gilbert Seldes, ”Darkness Before Noon“, Saturday Review,

xxxv1 (December 5, 1953), p. 53.

   

62

To meet the challenge, in l95l, NBC presented
“Martinsville, U.S.A.”, and ”Hawkins Falls“7 for the house-
wives' enjoyment. But these serials, tOO, did not achieve
the degree of success anticipated by early television
executives.

Undaunted by these minor details, producers refused
to admit defeat.8 The year I952 brought an unusual develop-
ment. One of CBS' top radio serials, ”The Guiding Light",
was transferred to the “young giant of entertainment.“9 The
radio and video episodes were identical; the producers, actors,
scripts, and even the organ music were the same.‘0 Other
l952-I953 soap Operas included CBS' ”Love Of Life” and
“Search for Tomorrow'I and NBC's ”Hawkins Falls”.

.Six was the magic number in I953. Additions to the

daytime schedules of network television were “Three Steps

7"Hawkins Falls” was not a typical soap Opera. Gordon
Gray, drawing on his personal contacts with the producers,
informed the writer that the producers Of this serial
sought to elevate it above the usual daytime serial.
Realistic plots, natural characters, and interesting dialogue
combined to dissolve the soap in this soap Opera in its
first several seasons.

'8“Televlsed Suds”, Newsweek, XXXVI (July 30, I951), P- 60°
9

i.e., television

'0”Same Old Story”, Newsweek, XL (July I“, I952). P- 85-

63

to Heaven” (NBC) and televised episodes of radio's l'Portia
Faces Life” (CBS)."

A cloudburst of weepers descended upon the serial
eaudience during the l95h-l955 season. Fifteen serials
were scheduled to fill the daytime programming schedules.
Several more radio serials, such as ”One Man's Family”,
had little script alterations in their switch to television.
They brought before the cameras the same collection of woes
which had benumbed the radio listener of two or three decades

'2 The ”serial score'I at thB.point: NBC-Seven,

previously.

CBS-eight.
It appeared that such a large number of serials was

not the best possible plan of action to follow in daytime

programming; in the l955-l956 season, the number of serials

had lessened. Although soap Opera did not have quiteas firm

a hold on television's daytime hours as they did during the

prior season, there were nine serials available to the

housewives.

IlGilbert Seldes, ”New Bubbles for Soap Opera”, New
Xork Times Magazine, September 12, l95h, p. 25.

12Gross,gp. cit., p. l58.

6h

The l956-l957 season brought eight daytime dramas;
I957-I958 and l958-l959 daytime scheduling included nine
soap Operas. An even dozen serials were presented during
the seasons encompassing l959-l96l.

The number of daytime network serials remained unstable
as the seasons progressed. The l961-l962 season brought
eleven dramas; I962-I963 produced nine serials; l963-l96h
dropped to eight soap Operas; and eleven such dramas are

on the air in l964-l965. (See Appendix, Table 2, page 2.)]3

Serial Production Highlights

New York is the center for the televised soap operas.
The series, each resembling a never ending drama with an
average of 250 installments, cost approximately $3h,000 per
week, as compared to radio's $2,000 (network time not
included.)lh Although the serials are performed live, these
descendents of radio's soap Operas are most commonly

presented on video tape for reasons of economy.‘5 Sponsors

I3New York Times, l9SO-l965.

lL'Greene, QB. cit., p. lh8.

'5Edward Stasheff and Rudy Bretz, The Television
Program, p. Ah.

65

of the daytime serials have remained relatively loyal.
Proctor and Gamble is the undisputed ”king of the advertisers”,-
with Lever Brothers, Standard Brands, and American Home
Products contributing lesser shares. A recent trend in
sponsorship has been that of participation (multi-sponsorship)
because of increased production costs due to program lengthen-
ing and continuing format complexity.‘6
The daytime television audience has yet to equal the

number of the radio serial listeners reached during the peak
World War Two years. Although the daily soap Opera attracts
an average audience of eight million viewers,‘7 radio boasted‘

of approximately twenty million listeners per averagepopular

serial.

Chips of Soap
Several spin-offs have been released by the daytime
televised soaps. ABC's night-time "Peyton Place", based

on Grace Metalious' controversial novel of life in a typical

'6Variety, July 1964.

17Greene, ibid.

66

New England town, is a bi-weekly serial achieving astounding
success...(Nielson Rating: 25.4). This ”hothouse mock
passion flower of pseudo sex and romance"'8 blossomed forth
so profusely that its seeds were blown into the other networks
and are consequently sprouting there. CBS has recently
presented initial episodes of I'Our Private World”, a spinoff
from the pOpular daytime show "As the World Turns“. The
quasi-villainess of the afternoon drama will now be able
to sthulate the emotions of her evening viewers.‘9

Not to be outdone, NBC is now developing a night-time
soap Opera, I'The Duffield Story", which will deal with the
activities of a famous stage actress and her eighteen-year-

old son in Manhattan and Connecticut.20

Other, more racy, serials under consideration for future

evening programming include: ”West Wind”, the tale of two

18A title bestowed upon "Peyton Place” by New York
Herald Tribune critic John Horn.

l9Frank Judge, “New Soap Opera Trend Puts Daytime Star
on Night Shift”, The Detroit News Television Magazine,
March 21, I965, p. 2.

 

20Larry Wolters, ”Peyton Place Sets Pace for New
Shows”, Chicago Tribune, January 27, I965.

67

small town families intertwined in illustrious illicitness;
I'Days of Our Lives", a ”Peyton Place” styled drama; and

''The Long, Hot Summer”, a sex saga of the deep South.2]
These programs will no doubt raise literate, uncomplimentary,

and profuse criticism.

A Brief Review

At the beginning of the transition to the video medium,
soap Opera was given a slim chance fOr survival. Experts
cbubted that conversational plots heavily laden with disaster,
despair, and dauntlessness could be tranSplanted from their
native radio to the new medium and hold an audience. House-
wives would not leave their vacuum cleaners to watch Portia
face life and her problems. But the experts were wrong--
-women do look at television in the daytime and they do want
their ”washboard weepers.”22

Evening spinoffs are being well received by the night-
time audience thus far--their length of life appears to
depend upon the point of serial saturation and the uniqueness
of plot. The success of the evening soap operas will be

interesting to watch.

2'Gail Cameron, ”Soapy Sex Moves to Prime Time”, Life,
LVII (December 4, l96h), p. l7.

22mgoafi in Your Eyes”, Newsweek, XLIII (February l,
1954), p‘ 7 ‘

68
The Data

The content analysis data, covering five daytime serials,
was gathered from April 22 to May 7, I965. For each daily
episode viewed, a monitor report sheet was completed. A
sample of a typical monitor report is presented in the
Appendix, page 3.

To complete one of these forms, the following procedure
was utilized:

l. Pre-broadcast activity. First, the monitor entered
the daily information required, such as title, date,
network, program length, and air time. Second,
technical accuracy was assured by adjusting the
picture and sound to the best degree possible. A
favorable environment was encouraged by deleting
all forms of ”noise.ll

2. Broadcast time. Names of the characters involved

 

in the daily episode were entered as they occurred.
Pertinent information was entered in the categories
on the monitor reports, such as ”conflicts,”
"character evaluations“ (female or male), and
”tOpics” (verbal expressions and behavioral

expressions). Complete sentences were not used

69

in these reports; a clear personal type of speed
writing or phraseology was used to insure complete
coverage.

Post-broadcast Activity. The report was reviewed
immediately to evaluate its clarity and accuracy,
to eliminate unimportant data,and to develop any
related ideas. Specific pertinent information was
transferred from the monitor reports to a master
data sheet; see Appendix, page 5, for a sample of

this master report.

The quintet of serials studied were chosen-after

thorough deliberation; each helped contribute to a balanced

pattern Of data collection. The following programs were

covered in the survey:

d
O

U'IJT'UJN

"As The World Turns“
”Moment of Truth”
”The Doctors'I

”Edge of Night”

“Secret Storm”

Normally, television's daytime serials are presented in

either fifteen or thirty minute installments every weekday

except Saturday. The serials in this study all fell into the

70

half-hour category. Within the test period, twelve episodes
of each serial could have been viewed. Network pre~emptions
did occur, so this goal was not reached. 0n the average,
ll.6 installments were viewed. The total number of episodes
covered was fifty-eight.

Although a much large sample mightprove more conclusive,
this small samplewas thought to be sufficient for the creation
of trend conclusions and for the creation of sound hypotheses
for more ambitious and SOphisticated study. Also, there is
one distinct advantage. The single monitor situation redUces
to: zero the problem of adjusting for monitor bias; the
multi-monitor situation which prevails in the more SOphis-
ticatedstudy requires carefully controlled monitor training
and supervision.

However, it was possible to extract from the monitor
reports passages referring-to:

l. Conflicts or problems that formed the plot of

the serials.

2. Actions and reactions of single characters presented

or implied during the program.

3. Specific tOpics, such as ”women,” ”experts,"

“learning," “neighbors," ”newspapers,” ”politics,”

”illegitimacy," and I'divorce."

71

In the time following the period of data collection,
bi-weekly checks were conducted in order to observe plot
develOpments and to note the direction of video trends.

These checks were conducted on Mondays and Wednesdays
for ten ensuing post-study weeks. These days were chosen for
Specific reasons. First, Monday was selected because of its
position in the week. Some form of plot recapitulation was
usually evident in the quintet-and a hint of the week's
dramatic trend was occasionally presented. Wednesday was
also selected because of its position in the week. It
appeared that this mid-week segment was usually concerned
Mllth the evolution of the basic plot; the characters were
‘often-in the midst of some type Of action related to the
basic problem. In some serials this occurred; in other
serials it did not.

At various points throughout the succeeding data,
occasional revised references are made in specific

situations.
Characterization

Locale
One's place of resident is very important in the

develOpment of the fictional serial character. An urban

72

locale seems to denote a-SOphisticated character; a rural
locale seems to denote an unpretentious individual. For
a rought classification of soap Opera settings, see Table l,
page 73. A majority of small towns were evident in the
radio serials; this does not hold true for the televised
daily dramas. Small cities predominate over towns and rural
areas; large cities and their suburbs are new classifications
not recognized on radio. The trend to urbanization has been
reflected in the daytime serials. Two or three decades ago,
small towns contained the majority of the radio audience,
and the radio serial was set in the small town. Today's
television:serial focuses on the small city. Producers
seem to Operate on the assumption that viewers prefer dramas
which reproduce the framework of their own life, rather
than permitting access to a less urban way of life.

One category of serial locale seems to be very unusual.
A relatively large percentage of resort settings was evident
in the serials studied, with a particular preference for
Florida. This indeed is odd because television producers

generally adhere tO*a small number of inexpensivesets.23

23This is done in order to lower costs; the resort
settings in the serials observed did not show action occuring
on the beach or in a swimming pool. The primary features of
such sets were several canvas lawn chairs, a small round
table,.and a branh or two of a palm tree.

TABLE I
LOCALE or SERlALS
RADIO-1941*

Locale
Large cities
Towns, medium and small
Rural corrmun i tes
Combinations
Other cases

Doubtful

TELEVISION-l965**

Large'cities
Small cities
Suburbia

Towns

Rural Communities
Doubtful
Combinations

Resorts

*Arnheim Radio Study.

**Carlson Television Study

73

Percentage of
Settings

27%

h2.l%
10.3%
10.3%

7h

Two possible reasons for this representation may be ventured:
First, the serial citizenry mayhave-responded to the
beckoning call "Comaon Down to the Sunshine Statel"; second,
the period of data collection may have been an atypical
cycle. Further study of this area would be necessary in
order to present any definite conclusions.

The serials of tody and yesterday both encourage the
patriotic phrase ”See America First." All video and audio
episodes were set in the United States. This again indicates
theproducers' assumptions that the serial audience enjoys
a familiar environment, rather than one which permits or
demands that the viewer imagine what could happen in a
foreign~setting.

Specific states in which video action took place were
usually unnamed; the anonymous State-was also a charactersitic
of the earlier radio serial. However, one difference is
evident. Discussions of past, present, or future events in
today's serials did mention particular states. The suffering
heroine of "The Doctors" plans to return horneto Montana; the
quasi-villainess of ”As the World Turns“_left Oakdale to seek
work in Chicago. But, as in radio, the states in which the
residents of Monticello, Oakdale, and Carlisle lived and worked

were-conveniently anonymous.

75

Social Status of the Main Characters

Table 2‘ shows the occupations of the central, plot-

sustaining groups of chanacters. Arnheim's categories were

left unexplained; for the purposes of this current study,
the following Operational definitions were used:

Society peOple:

Big busl ness :

Public servants:

Professionals:

Houseines:

College students:

Small business:

(An individual with an income or
“inheritance that removes the need to

work for a living, and a person who ,
belongs to the "elite” of his
community.

An individual who delves into the

~art of high finance; he may be the

head of a corporation, the owner of
a number of small businesses, or a.
stock market investors

High officials included a mayor, a

governor, or a state-representafive;
lesser officials included a justice
of the peace, or a member of a law

enforcement.agency.

~An individual whose college education
*5pecifically prepared him for his

occupation, such as a doctor, lawyer,

_nurse, teacher, or editor; and some

others, such as a public relations
director, who might not always be
included in such a category.

A wife and/or mother whose primary
career is the home.

An individual presently attending a
college or university.

The owner or manager of a small local
business establishment, such as a
book store or a gas station.

76

TABLE 2

'OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF MAIN CHARACTERS

Occupational
Status

Society peOple
High officials
Big business
Professionals
Housewives
Small business
Wage earners

Destitute-people

Society people

Big business

Public,servants
High officials
Low officials

Professionals

Housewives

Col lege students
Small business
Wage earners
\e‘cired peOple
Chi ldren
Destitute:people

*‘Arn heim Radio Study

RADIO-l9hl*

TELEVISION-l965**

**Ca rlson Television Study

Percentage‘of
Settings

8%
8%
12%
21%
26%
13%
8%
5%

0

l0%
6%
3%
2%
32%
16%
8%
7%
8%
2%
5%
1%

77

Wage earners: ”White“ or "blue collar” workers
who are employed but who are not
concerned with the executive segment
of their occupation.

Retired peOple: An individual of sixty-five or over
*who is no longer occupied with his
business or profession.

Children: The off-spring of the serial
couples.

Destitute peOple: An individual totally bereft
of financial means or resources.

In the radio serials, the status of the main characters
clustered at the middle of the social scale with professionals
and housewives most frequently represented- The regular
appearance of housewives wasrationalized by the predominance
of these women in the audienceu The large percentage of
professional peOple was justified by the speculation that
-such individuals were indispensable in the plot's trials
and tribulations.

Like radio, the majority of the video characters cluster
at the middle of the status scale, with professional peOple
more frequent,and housewives less frequent. The importance
of specialists trained to aid or promote life in contemporary
America may be the reason for their serial domination. House-
‘wives-are presented less frequently; perhaps producers believe

that the women in the audience do not wish to watch feminine

78

characters clean their homes since they need only look about
them to be reminded that the linoleum needsscrubbing or that
the walls need washing.

Arnheim noted that the 1941 radio serials ignored the
working class prOper; there was a complete absence of factory
workers, miners, or laborers. As in the radio era, a lack
of working class characterization is evident in today's
soap Operas. Although Arnheim made no reference to race
in his study, the writer did note that there is a preponderance
of Caucasians in the televised serials--no Orientals were
presented during the study, and the only Negro introduced
was a minor elementary instructoron "The Edge of Night".

In conclusion, the major difference between radio
and television is the reversal of the status of housewives
and professionals. Perhaps the importance of trained

specialists in today's world prompted the swtich.

Leaders

Radio serials in 19h1 greatly stressed the qualities
ofleadership. This leadership was due equally to personal
cpalities or to a professional position. For this distribution
of importance, see Table 3. In large cities, professional

leaders prevailed; in small towns, individuals influential

LEADERS IN COMMUNITIES OF DIFFERENT

Type of LeaderShip
Professional
Personal

In community
In private groups

Type of Leadership
Professional
Personal

In community
In private groups

*Arnheim Radio Study

TABLE 3

 

RADIO-l9h1*‘
Locale

Large Towns, small
cities and large
85% 61+%

15% 36%
(-- ) ( 7%)
(15%) (29%)
100% 100%

TELEVISION-l965**

Small'cities

h8%
52%

(23%)
(29%)

100%

** Carlson Television Study

79

Locale

SIZES

Rural

community Others

15%
85%

(71%)
(111%)

W

Suburbia

 

60%
AO%

(20%)
(20%)

100%-

33%
67%

(-- )
(67%)

W

80

in local schools, business, or government were deemed
leaders; in rural areas; characters possessing personal
efficiency and helpfulness were leaders in their community.
Often individuals of low social standing but great personal
merit were better leaders than were those upon whom-society
; had conferred the prestige of official leadership.

Two video differences are evident. First, unlike
radio, the television serials developed no leaders in the
rural communities and small towns because these settings
are not presented. Second, little importance appears to
be placed on the merit of society's leaders on today's daytime
dramas; much emphasis was given these characters in radio.
But regardless of their muted state, video leaders are
present. The influential individuals from the small cities
and ”suburbia” are evenly divided between the professional
and the personal. Interestingly enough, personal leaders
are often the same individuals who achieve professional
leaderShip. This seems to emphasize the value of learning;
education can help one with both his public.and private
problems.

It also appears that an emphasis on independent
thinking may have decreased the necessity for leaders who

solve the characters' problems. Much of this independent

81

thinking seems to be absent in the radio serials studied

by Arnheim.

The Problems

The Role of the Problems

‘ Radio serial difficulties in 1941 stemmed from dis-
turbances of static life-situations, rather than from
'Obstacles to the accomplishment of goals. The attitude

of the serial characters was essentially passive and
vconservative; human existence was pictured as being continually
threatened by catastrOphe. 'Approximately one problem for

every four installments was presented on radio.

Two basic types of serial composition were distinguish-
able. In one, a leader guided the other characters through
their personal troubles. The ”conflict-carrier,” as well
as the type of problem, varied from episode to episode. In
the second category, a group of peOple, generally a famiTy,
was confronted by diaster after disaster.

Unlike the static radio situation, the television serial
plot may be compared to a stream hampered by a dam; obstacles
to goal attainments such as a happy marriage (”As the World

Turns"), a college education (”Secret Storm” and “Moment of

82

Truth”), or a successful career (”The Edge of Night“) are
evident. As in radio, the attitude of the serial characters
is rather passive and conservative; ”When in doubt, say
nothing,” stated Phil Capice of "The Edge of Night". One
basic problem appears to be the nucleus of the serial plots;
subordinate ”stretcher” difficulties revolve about it
constantly. Approximately one video problem for every three
~segments was presented in comparison to one audio problem
for every four installments.

Only one basic type of television serial composition is
evident--the situation based on a group situation. Life's
problems deluge the Hughes family (”As the World Turns”),
the Wallaces ("Moment of Truth"), the compatible staff of
Hope Memorial Hospital (”The Doctors“), the Karr family
("The Edge of Night"), and the Ames family ("The Secret

Storm”).

Content of the Problems

Constant problems were the main ingredients of the radio
serial. See Table-h. for a classification Of these basic
difficulties. Radio's problems were predominantly concerned
with personal relations; they concentrated on marriage,

(sourtship, family, and friends. The economic and professional

TABLE #
DISTRIBUTION OF KINDS OF PROBLEMS

 

 

 

 

RADIO-l9hl*
Percent of all
Kind of Problem 159 Problems
Personal Relations 47%

Courtship (16%)

Marriage (l8%)

Family (10%)‘

Friends ( 3%)
Economic and Professional 22%
Crime 9%
Illness, accidents 9%
Public Affairs 10%
Others ‘ 3%

TELEVISION-l965**

H' I L; . Percent of all
Kind of Problem 76 Problems
Personal Relations 55%

Courtship ( h%)

Marriage (17%)

Family (2#%)

Friends (10%)
Economic and Professional 18%
Crime 7%
Illness, accidents 17%
Public Affairs 3%

*Arnheim Radio Study
** Carlson Television Study

83

8A

problems dealt with the occupational or financial
difficulties Of individuals; and the corrupt officials who
dominated the public affairs category were shown damaging
sfingle persons, not society in general. Therefore, Arnheim
<:oncluded, the world of the radio serial was clearly a
private world in which the interests Of the community
faded into insignificance.’

This feature of the radio serial has made the transition
to television with no apparent modifications. Problems
presented in the televised soap Operas are still mainly
<:oncerned.with personal relations. Only minor alterations
(are present. An interesting note is the reversal of the
emphasis placed on marriage and family, i.e. radio dramas
dealt more heavily with marriage and the present television

2h

-serials emphasize family difficulties. This may be the

result of the present trend toward ”family fractionization”;

for example, Mother goes to club meetings, Father belongs to

2liThe-writer distinguishes “marital” and ”family“
difficulties in this manner. Marital difficulties are
concerned largel with husband-wife relations; family
difficulties evolve from parent-child conflicts.

85

a bowling league or two, Junior is on the varsity basketball
team and must practice very evening, and the youngsters
are with members of their peer group. The disintegration
of the family unit due to a diversification of interests
and a lack of communication is presented with some regularity.
Economic and professional problems have lessened with
serial evolution. A greater emphasis is presently placed
on illnesses and accidents in conjunction with increasing
numbers of medical characters. Crime rates and public
affairs scandals have remained stationary over the years.
_One final basic feature of radio problems has remained
unchanged in serial transition to television. To paraphrase
Arnheim's conclusion: Individual difficulties are more

important than the public welfare.

Causes of Different Kinds of Problems

Radio problems in l9hl were more Often created by the
very people who had to suffer from them, rather than by other
.persons, or by any general social, economic, or political
conditions. To note this distribution, see Table 5.
Disturbances Of a personal relationship were usually
created by members of the group concerned; disturbances of

a public nature were usually created by an outsider; socially

C TABLE 5

CAUSES OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROBLEMS

 

 

RADIO-l9h1*
Kind of Problem PeOple Non-personal
Presented Themselves Others 'Forces

Personal Relations

Courtship 73% 19% A%

Marriage 86% 11% --

Family 50% hh% --

Friends 20% 80% --
Economic,Professional 23% h5% 20%
Crime 13% 67% --
Illness, Accidents 7% -- 93%
Public Affairs l3-l/2%- 69% 12-1/2%
Others 50% 25% 25%

TELEVISION-1965**

 

 

Kind Of Problem PeOple 'Non-personal
Presented ’ Themselves Others "Force5'”‘
Personal Relations 6
Courtship 78% 22% --
Marriage 73% 20% 7%
Family 80% 13% 7%
Friends 100% -- --
Economic,Professiona1 hh% hh% 22%
Crime 50% 50% --
Illness, Accidents 57% -- h3%
Public Affairs -- -- --
Others 100% -- --

*Arnheim Radio Study

**Carlson Television Study

86

Doubtful

4%
3%
6%

12%
20%

Total

100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%

100%

100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%
100%

{00%

87

unapproved relationships were usually caused by the
individuals involved; and illnesses or accidents were usually
caused by non-personal forces.

As in radio, television's problems of life are caused
largely by the shortcomings or corruption of individuals.

A majority of these video difficulties concerned with
personal relations appeared to be caused by the peOple
themselves-~categories showing increases in this area
include "friends," ”courtship," and ”family.” Many of these
unhappy situations seem to spring from a lack of communication;
in the "Edge of Night”, Mr. and Mrs. Pollock are extremely
worried about their youngest daughter. The girl is secretly
married to an “objectionable older man," and rather than
exposing the marriage, she avoids any communication with
her parents. In another representative-case, the Wallaces
on “Moment of Truth” are having serious difficulties with
their daughter Sheila, who simply ignores any sound advice
from her parents.

Causes of economic and professional problems are evenly
divided bdzween "peOple themselves" and "others." Non-personal
forces rarely enter the picture; foolishness about money
unatters or personal dissatisfaction with an occupation

created the disturbances in this area.

88

As in radio, community affairs are virtually ignored
on television; video problems confronting individuals or
small groups are of far greater frequency. Little crime
was presented on the serials observed; petty larceny and the
discussion of a distant murder case constituted the only
criminal activities.

Illnesses and accidents are caused by both personal
and non-personal forces. Accidents are usually unavoidable,
but illnesses are another story. In several cases, the ailing
individual complicated his sickness by working himself
into an unhealthy state of mind, such as Susan Dunbar in
I'The Secret Storm” and Jackie Ricardo in “The Doctors”.

The ratio of problem causers has varied only slightly
since soap Operas began. As in radio, the problems of
Soapland are caused mainly by individuals rather than by
direct economic, political, or social situations. It still
appears that the serial audience preferseeing-its favorite
characters surmount their private difficulties, rather than

‘solving the problems of society.

Moral Evaluation

Radio soap Opera characters were neatly deffned in terms

of moral evaluations--they were good, bad, or weak. It was

89

simple to discover the specific moral level of an individual;
the announcer and fellow-characters were unusually outSpOken

in their Opinion of him.

Moral Evaluation of Characters who Create Troubles

- See Table 6. for the moral self evaluation of characters
who created troubles. Weak people evidently excelled in
this art; good peOple created trouble to bring peace or joy
to others; and bad peOple often created serious trouble
for others. O

An unusual situation is present in the majority of the
television serials studied. 'Characters are no longer
cleanly cut, i.e., good peOple are capable of causing trouble,
and bad peOple are not completely devoid Of humane impulses.
In the "Secret Storm”, the hero is guilty of interfering
in the lives of his children; in ”As the World Turns”, the
quasi-villainess loves her son dearly and never deceives
him. The crisp black and white of radio characterization
has melted into a mosaic mixture of shades of gray shot
with occasional streaks of black and white.
This mottled picture may be the result of an attempt

of serial producers to ingrain realism into their dramas.
Rarely does one meet an individual who does not possess
human weaknesses such as jealousy and fabrication; therefore,

rarely does one meet a morally perfect television serial soul.

TABLE 6

MORAL SELF EVALUATION OF CHARACTERS WHO
CREATE TROUBLE

 

 

RADIO-l9hl*
Troubles Created Moral Self Evaluation of Characters
For Good* Bad’ Weak' Doubtful ’Total
Themselves 29% 13% 55% 3% 100%
Others 9% 57% 23% 11% 100%

TELEVISION-1965**

 

 

 

Troubles Created Moral Self Evaluation of Characters
‘ For Good Bad’ Tweak TDoubtful Total

Themselves 29% 25% 38% 8% 100%

Others 19% h3% 38% -- 100%

*Arnheim Radio Study

**Carlson Television Study

90

91

Nevertheless, weak characters still retain the title
of chief problem makers bestowed upon them in radio. Video
characters generally categorized as bad and those charac-
terized as good rank second and third with roughly similar
percentages. Minor television differences include an
increase in troubles created for others by "good“ people ahd
”weak' peOple”, and an increase in the troubles created by

”bad" peOple for themselves.

Moral Evaluation of All Sufferers

In the radio serials of l9hl, good and weak peOple were
-shown as doing most of the suffering--see Table 7. Conversely,
bad peOple were rarely the victims of trouble.

Although this generally holds true for television, a
tendency toward a more equal distribution of suffering is
evident. The good peOple suffer somewhat less; the bad and

weak characters suffer somewhat more.25

25The theory that evil-doing results in punishment for
the villains and villainesses is quite obvious in the
television serials. Janet Torgeson of the ”Secret Storm“
lost the only man ”she ever loved” because of her malicious
actions; Lisa Hughes, the quasi-villainess of ”As the World
Turns" lost her husband due to her unsavory ”battle
tactics.‘I

TABLE 7
MORAL SELF EVALUATION OF ALL SUFFERERS

 

 

 

 

RADIO-1941*
Moral Self Evaluation Percent of
by Character Sufferers
Good 62%
Bad 5%
Weak 27%
Doubtful 6%
W
TELEVISION-1965**
Moral Self Evaluation Percent of
by Character Sufferers
Good 46%
Bad 11%

Weak 34%
Doubtful g%

*Arnheim Radio Study

~**Carlson Television StudY

92

93

As in radio, the community is never described as the
sufferer. This deliberate omission appears to encourage
the impression of privacy in the world of the daytime
serials. The only important threats are those that touch
upon one's private worlds; difficulties confronted by society
appear to be of little concern to the residents of Oakdale

or Woodbridge.

Moral Self Evaluation of Men and Women Who Create Trouble

The radio serials of 1941 catered mainly to a female
-audience. Table 8 shows that men appeared considerably
more Often as trouble-makers than did women. This referred
particularly to the cases in which trouble was created for
others. The male trouble-makers were usually evil or weak
and were infrequently of good character. Among the women,
the weak characters' trouble-provoking tendencies exceeded
those of the good and bad females. The difference in the
sex distribution was most striking for the evil peOple;
bad trouble-makers were masculine in a ratio of approximately
2:1. .

An interesting contrast is apparent in the television
serials. A tendenCy on the part of women to distrust members

of their own sex is evident in concern with trouble-makers.

TABLE 8

MORAL SELF EVALUATION OF MEN AND WOMEN
WHO CREATE TROUBLE

 

 

RADIO-1941*
See See
Moral Self Evaluation Themselves Others:
by Characters as as
E E E .11
Good 30% ' 28% 10% '18%
Bad 11% 13% 59% 47%
Weak 56% 53% 23% 18%
Doubtful 3% 6% 8% 17%

TELEVISION-1965*f

 

 

See See
Moral Self Evaluation Themselves Others
by Characters as as
M. E. E. .2
Good 20% 36% 27% 18%
Bad 10% 36% 18% 64%
Weak 70% 28% 55% 18%

Doubtful -- -- -- --

*Arnheim Radio Study
** Carlson Television Study

94

56%
69%
59%
46%

Total

44%
31%
41%
54%

Total

42%

20%
68%

58%
80%
32%

95

Contemporary good women create more trouble than did their
audio ancestors; bad women are overwhelmingly evil; and
weak men cause twice as many problems as do weak women.

As an interesting correlation to this theory, Jane
Avery, the feminine half of the partnership who creates the
"Secret Storm“, stated her viewpoint in the February 1965
Coronet magazine; ”The reason that there~are more wicked
women than men in serials is because the audience is pre-
dominantly a female one and women tend to distrust their

own sex more than the opposite one.“

Moral Self Evaluation of All Men and Women Who Suffer From
Problems

For a distribution and moral evaluation of male and
female sufferers, see Table 9. In the radio soap Operas,
men and women were equally the victims of troublesome
situations. Good women suffered slightly more than did good
men, and bad and weak women suffered less than did their
masculine counterparts.

In the adaptation of serials to television, several
of these radio features remained stationary. Good women
still sUffer more than good men, and weak men suffer more

than weak women.

TABLE 9

MORAL SELF EVALUATION OF ALL MEN AND WOMEN
WHO SUFFER FROM PROBLEMS

 

RADIO-1941*
Moral Self Evaluation
by Characters Men nggfl
Good . 48% 52%
Bad 56% 44%
Weak 63% 37%
Doubtful 33% 67%

TELEVISION-1965**

Moral Self Evaluation

 

byCharacters Meg 'nggg
Good 40% 60%
Bad 22% 78%
Weak 67% 33%

Doubtful -- 100%

*Arnheim Radio Study
**Carlson Television Study

96

97

One striking video difference is evident. Bad women
are far more evident on television than they were on radio.
These evil females seem to enjoy making life miserable
'for their better-tempered friends and relatives; as a
result, they often experience traumatic and ego-shattering
situations. Examples of this include the rejection of the
cluasi-villainess by her ex-husband from ”As the World Turns”
and shrewish Susan Dunbar's loss of her family's patience
and affection in the “Secret Storm". Happily, these
unscrupulous females suffer approximately thrice more than

do the daytime villains.

The Solutions of the Problems

The radio serials were governed by perfect justice;
this provided the audience with reassurance and pleasant
compensation. Plans to create trouble for other peOple
or for the trouble-makers themselves were permitted to
develop, but rarely to be consummated.

The perfect justice that ruled the serials was of a
curious type. There was a reason for its existence, but
it had no sufficient cause for its being. Whether a person
was punished or rewarded was explained by the sort of ethical

evaluation of his deeds that were expected from the average

98

listener. But there was no indication of a principle that
brought about justice. Virtuous and efficient persons

were shown to help innocent sufferes and to fight male-
factors. But who provided these helpers? Who assisted
them in succeeding? Who sent a convenient paralytic stroke
to the villain? This was unexplained. God could have been
this principle, but He was seldom mentioned. There was no
casual explanation for the high correlation between what
peOple deserved and what they got. Radio serials procured
the satisfaction created by a rule of ideal justice, but
producers did not bother to explain to whom the listener
was indebted for such a perfect state of affairs.

Today's problem solutions are less elusive than they
were in radio. But, unfortunately, the television serials
studied contained problems so lengthy that many were not
consummated in the two week period. In one case, a weak
man and his estranged “strong” wife on “As the World Turns“
‘was reunited after a lengthy separation, only to be alienated
before the final embrace. Continuing problems such as
these prevent definite conclusions. The underlying problem
of "The Edge of Night" is the relationship of a secretly
married couple, but this, too, was not solved. A similar

unsolved tryst was presented on the "Secret Storm”.

99

Fortunately, two serials arrived at solutions during
the period under study. Marital troubles of a young couple
caught in a ”Moment of Truth" ended with the premature birth
of their baby. The proud new father is entirely involved
with his wife and new baby. Consequently, the present
threat of the other woman faded.

The future of a pregnant female doctor deserted by her
husband on "The Doctors” was stabilized for the present
when her father came to "fetch her for a nice long rest” to
their ranch in Montana.

God is mentioned as governing the lives of man more
frequently on television than He was on radio. The gOod
dowager of the ”Secret Storm" comforted her distraught
grand-daughter by telling her: ”God shows His doings in
many ways.”

It appears that the solutions of serial problems have
changed over the years. The perfect, enigmatic, shining
type of radio serial justice has become tarnished with the
advent of televised daytime dramas and their emphasis on
realism. An interesting tOpic for further research would
be a more involved and lengthy study of the evolution of

soap opera solutions.

100

Treatment of Specific TOpics

It was possible to extract a number of generalities
or trends concerning various specific video tOpics from
the monitor reports. Arnheim's study covered six topics;
they were"women2'experts:'1earningf"neighborsf'hewspapersf
and"politicsf The writer compared present trends to those

proffered by Arnheim and included two new tOpics, I'divorce"

and "illegitimacy", since these subjects are of contemporary
popularity.
Women

A radio woman was strong, brave, and serious. Her
importance as a leader in her family, in her circle of
friends, and in the community was constantly emphasized. Men
were fully conscious of their wives' importance and women were
eager to reform their weak or evil husbands. ”The ideal man
and the perfect husband are not always one and the same
person; but give a woman a few years, and they will be.”26

The serial writers made constant efforts to prove that
a middle-aged woman was still desirable and to present

mother and daughter pairs appearing as comrades or competitors.

26Excerpt from the Moorcroft, Wyoming, Leader.

101

The audio role of womankind sounds much like the essay

"or Marriage and Single Life” by Francis Bacon. Mr. Bacon
concluded that..”it is often seen that bad husbands have
very good wives, whether it be that it raiseth-the price

of their husbands' kindness when it comes or that the wives
.take a pride in their patience..“. Arnheim's long-suffering
heroine seems to fit this description.

Women presented on the video soap Operas are less
omnipotent than were their audio sisters. Females are now
more dependent upon their men. Penny Hughes Wade, a female
Cassius from “As the World Turns“, was reconciled with her
embittered husband, Neil Wade, by informing him that she
would never stop his world again.27 Pauline Rysdale, a
well-meaning meddler from the "Secret Storm”, sagely advised
her estranged niece, Amy, to ''try very hard to get Kip (her
husband) back again; the Rysdale men rule the lives of the

Rysdale women and nothing is worse than a home without a man.”

27Some explanation is needed to lend meaning to this
cryptic phrase. Neil was trained in medicine; he could not
face life; he became a salesman in a book store. He met
Penny and courted her; she discovered that he was a doctor
and refused to marry him until he returned to the world of
medicine. He complied with her wishes and they Were-wed;
but he was unhappy with his unchosen profession and wanted
to return to his private world of literature.

As-a doctor again, Neil faced death again during his
residency. Instead of helping the man, Neil ran away. Guilt
feelings and a shattered ego combinedln make Penny the ”Scape-
goat" in this situation. He blamed her for forcing him back
into medicine-and for smashing his private world. Hence
~Penny's vow.

102

Career women are usually admired, praised, and accepted,
but even they need a man to shoulder responsibilities.
Maggie Hansen Van Allen, a member of the staff of “The Doctors”,
is skilled, respected, and successful; but she believes
that "women are happiest in a home caring for a dozen
children,” Ellen Lowell Cole of ”As the World Turns” enjoys
her teaching career, but her Grandfather is an incorrigible
Cupid; he insists upon introducing her to numerous young
lawyers from his law office, hOping to end her widowhood.

Women are usually level headed if not astonishingly
strong. They are often presented as loving help-mates to
their husbands, such as Nancy Karr in "The Edge of Night”
and Valerie Ames in the ”Secret Storm”. Mrs. Karr stated
her position in life simply: "All women want is security,
children, and a good man.”

Good, bad, and weak television women like to gossip;
in the days of radio, this “vice“ was Often reserved for
less perfect females. Possessiveness is another quality
retained by a number Of serial females. Vince, a Carlisle
faculty member on I'Moment of Truth", bitterly voice his
feelings about the wife who will not divorce him: "Once
you admit your love for a woman, she thinks she owns you...

you lose all human traits and become an inanimate object.”

103

The home is the television heroine's native habitat.
Although the ”houses” Of these women are spotless, the video
"hausfraus" are rarely shown seriously wielding a dust mOp
or scrub brush. The most common homely duties appear to be
Ibod preparation, dish washing, and mending. Perhaps a clean-
ing woman is employed, but she is never shown and she is
rarely mentioned.

Therefore, as in radio, television-serials seem to
promote the role of wife and mother as the pinnacle of female
aspirations. Careers are fine, but caring for a home and
family are of greater importance.

Two video counter-tendencies are present. First, some
television heroines are not above using a bit of humor upon
occasion. Second, audio mothers and daughters were often
presented asicomrades or competitors. None of this was
present in the serials viewed; in no daytime drama did the
plot show a man pursued by a mother and daughter duo for

collective or individual purposes.

EXperts
Arnheim concluded that plain, intelligent peOple in the
the 1941 daytime radio serials were usually able to do almost

anything better than could trained specialists or experts.

104

Illnesses were more frequently and more correctly diagnosed
by untrained individuals than by medical personnel; private
individuals were better detectives than were the police.
Unlike radio's ineffectual specialists, video experts
are usually portrayed as competent and authoritative in their
professional lives. Physicians are-all-knowing. Doctors
Cassin, Stewart, and Hughes from ”As the World Turns” are
dedicated to the welfare of their patients; Dr. Field, a
psychiatrist on the same drama, is the man to whom hysterical
Lisa turns when her ex-husband rejects her for a second time.
The staff of ”The Doctors" is equally dedicated. Dr. Matt
Powers is "a great healer of men” as well as being
compassionate, understanding, and skillful; Dr. Steve Lloyd
shows great concern and skill in caring for a neurotic
patient; and Dr. Maggie Hansen Van Allen states that she
will ”be lost without Hope Memorial Hospital and the world
of medicine" while she awaits the birth of her baby. Dr. Bob
Wallace, a clinical psychologist from ”Moment of Truth”,
is trained to read things into other peOple's ideas. His
success is so great that only he is able to divine the true

meaning of a note written by a young wife presumably bent on

105

self-destruction..28 A distraught Carlisle co-ed, Diane
Bowen, cannot quell her amorous feelings for a married man
and pleads for maternal consent to seek professional help.
Mrs. Bowen rebels; she is one of the few serial characters
unimpressed by the title of "Doctor"--she declares that
psychiatrists tell the whole world a patient's innermost
thoughts; private problems are turned into public gossip.
Mrs. Bowen“s view that not all medical specialists
are noble and ethical is supported by the script writer.
A juvenile court psychological consultant from “Moment of
Truth” seeks revenge for his dismissal from the staff of

Carlisle College. To accomplish this, vindictive, sadistic,

28To illuminate this plot, further explanation is
necessary. Mrs. Carol Wilson was a neurotic young woman.
She was estranged from her husband; she suffered from
guilt feelings after the death of the father whom she
has always rejected. After considerable deliberation,
sshe and her husband agreed to a reconciliation. Her
husband leaves to fetch his luggage from a near-by hotel;
while he is gone, Carol leaves a note saying "I have
gone to be with Father” and departs. Everyone believes
that she plans to commit suicide except Dr. Wallace. He
surmises that she was not psychologically capable of
suicide at this moment, and he is correct. They find
Carol at the grave of her father, making her peace.

106

paranoic Dr. Bennett29 vents his wrath on the Wallace's
young daughter by unjustly placing her on probation.
Fortunately, this type of individual is the exception,
not the rule.

Other experts are generally given an importance equal
to that of the medical profession. Chris Hughes, an
experienced lawyer from “As the World Turns”, is respected
and praised by friends and family alike. His father,.
.affectionately known as "Grandpa", observed that wherever
Chris is, he is needed. Another successful criminal lawyer
is Mike Karr from the "Edge of Night”. Although he was
not shown performing in court during the period of data
collection, his importance as a community and personal leader
'is obvious. He is the one to whom troubled individuals
hurry with their confidences.

.Ann Wicker, a local television personality on the
”Secret Storm'| is an excellent public relations executive
and a skillful political campaign writer. Her value as an

»important-cog in the local political wheel is evident.

29Thisstring of adjectives was furnished by Dr. Wallace,
the hero of the serial and the enemy of Dr. Bennett.

107

Press releases are short, crisp, and precise; campaign
slogans are explosive and effective. She is the one upon
whom the would-be candidate depends.

But a most unhappy and inconsistent feature is present.
The professional careers of the experts are placid when
compared to the turmoil and disaster that wrack their
private lives. Divorce, an illegitimate son, and the death
of a loved one are burdens laid upon the shoulders of the
medical men on ”As the World Turns”; and guilt feelings,
desertion, and more divorce face "The Doctors". Bob
Wallace, the ”white hope of Carlisle College” from "Moment
of Truth", is the father of a snippy, uncontrollable pre-
teen daughter; Russell Wingate, a department head in the
same serial, controls a staff of teachers satisfactorily
but cannot curb the financial habits of his extravagant
wife; and Ann Wicker of the “Secret Storm” finds herself
helplessly falling in love with the candidate (a married
man) for whom she is working.

Thus comes the irony. Although these experts from
”video-land" are qualified to dabble in the lives of others,
they cannot keep their private lives in order. They are
more respected than they were in radio, but their intricate

private lives are develOped more fully and disparagingly.

108

Learning

Upl upl my Friend, and quit your books;
Or surely you'll grow double.

Upl upl my Friend, and clear ygur looks;
Why all this toil and trouble? 0

...William Wordsworth, "The Tables Turned”.

The role of learning in the radio serials was an insult
to the educated. Learning was often presented as a
”whimsical hobby horse"--something in contrast to what made
the real qualities of a man or woman. On the rural level,
the hero or heroine proved their outstanding human qualities
in spite of incorrect English and poor Spelling. On higher
levels, the authors granted the listeners a feeling of
superiority over educated individuals when, for example,
.a professional writer miSSpelled common words.

Subordinate characters were often presented flaunting
bits of high education in a humorous way. When the frag-
ments of knowledge failed them, the radio character usually

showed warm insight and understanding when he relied on his

30Andrew J. George, The Complete Poetic Works 9f William
Wordsworth, p. 83. T?

109

inborn simple wisdom. It was not learning that counted in
these 1941 dramas. Why was this done? Arnheim decided

that if the average radio serial listener lacked higher
education and felt socially inferior, she would have welcomed
any devaluation of learning. When the heroine from "Vic

and Sade" indignantly Opposed a motion that the members of
her Sewing Club should study Portuguese, she was sure of

the support of the listeners.

Learning in television's serials is no longer degraded
as it was in radio. Perhaps the preponderance of trained
specialists in characterization naturally develops the
insinuation that formal schooling is necessary for a successful
career.

To illustrate the abundance of experts in the video

-serials, the following table is presented:

Table 10 - VIDEO EXPERTS

 

 

 

Profession Number of Characters Schooling Beyond
High School
Doctors 12 7 years plus
Lawyers 5 7 years
Teachers 2 4 years
Miscellaneous 5 4 years

College Graduates
(Editors, writers, etc.)
College Students 4 2 years plus

110

A medical career appears to be of Special importance.
Doctors Cassin and Stewart from ”As the World Turns" agree
that great strides have been made in medicine but
researchers have just ”scratched the surface”. The chief
of Staff of ”The Doctors” rationalized the addition of a
research laboratory to Hope Memorial Hospital to an
affluent board member by explaining that preventive medicine
is of greatest importance in illness prevention.

In another vein, several children from the serials
are-planning medical careers. One teenvage boy is planning
~to specialize in research; another eight-year-old calls
himself "Young Doctor Hughes”.

To seek knowledge is better than to have knowledge.31
More evidence of the importance of learning is the emphasis
placed on the characterizations of college Students“ (Kip
Rysdale,.a weak but brilliant young man from the ”Secret
Storm", refuses to enter the business world under the
guidance of his millionaire father; he is determined to
take up medicine and ”to make it by himselfJ' Helen Gould,
.a co~ed from the college-oriented ”Moment of Truth”,

believes that her life is shattered because she must drOp

3'David Starr Jordan

111

out of school and care for her father who was recently
strickened by a heart attack.

A neurotic young female patient cared for by ”The
Doctors” was a high school drOpout. Consequently, She now
believes that she is out of time with life because she did
not complete her education. To quote Miss Ricardo's
phiIOSOphy of life: ”The whole crummy world iS full of
losers like me...there's nothing in life for me.”
Fortunately, a determined young doctor forces her to adopt
a more Optimistic view. He tells her, for example, about
the advantages of night school; She leaves the hospital a
happier and more determined young woman.

Learning does indeed present a more flattering picture
on television than it did on radio. From this fact, a
simple deduction concerning the educational level of the
aludience may be develOped. If Arnheim is correct in
assuming that the devaluation of learning flattered the
uneducated listener, may one suppose that the elevation
of learning recognizes the rapidly increasing trend toward
higher education for more people? The television producers
seem to be reflecting the changing times in their shift of

attitude toward the well educated serial character.

112

Neighbors

On radio, a person or a family had friendly relations
with others, but this was a relationship between individuals.
However, Arnheim believed that there was little indication
of a healthy individual attitude towards the community;
the walls of the heroine's house were the borders of the
1941 serial world. When this community was present, the
neighborhood was usually described as an enemy; it was a
hostile block of people who wanted to know and publicize
oner private affairs. In the world of the daytime serial,
life was composed of a sequence of private problems, and
the community was identical with the threat of scandal.

An excerpt from G. K. Chesterton's ”The World State”
restates the good neighbor policy of the radio serial in a
more poetic fashion:

The villas and the chapels where

I learned with little labor

The way to love my fellow-man

And hate my next-door neighbor.32

The video treatment of neighbors is both like and

unlike the picture presented on radio. First, as in radio,

32G.K. Chesterton, The Collected Poems 9f G.K. Chesterton,
p. 15.

113

the community rarely enters the scene. Neighbors are
mentioned upon occasion, but these characters appear on the
screen infrequently. Second, unlike radio, neighbors are
inresented as a friendly, helpful segment of the populace
instead of a deSpicable enemy.

Fellow Oakdale residents of the Hughes family from “AS
the World Turns” are~Spoken of with some affection. Mrs.
Kopecki, an ethereal elderly “lady down the block" has
become extremely friendly with Grandpa Hughes; their dinner
meetings, coffee chats, and leisurely strolls are discussed
with someregularity. Eight-year-old Tom, a child of divorced
parents, is frequently without playmates because of his
unstable state of residency. He isencouraged to play with
children from the neighborhood because "he needs friends
his own age, and these children are so nice.”

The “Secret Storm“ is another daytime drama that deals
with neighbor relations. The girl in the adjacent apartment
or the couple next door were scripted into this serial more
frequently than in any other daily dramas Observed. Connie,
.a close friend and neighbor of a young woman facing divorce,
offers advice. In one instance,.she counsels the distraught

wife to emphasize her present platonic relationship with a

114

former beau; her estranged husband will become jealous,
according to the plan, and want her back again. Although
the feasibility of this scheme is questionable, the
suggestion to ease the situation was given in an effort
to be helpful.

In another scene, a dissatisfied wife seeks sympathy
by berating her husband's personal activities and political
aspirations to a neighbor. The neighbor has nothing but
praise for the husband and urges the woman to ”Open your
eyes and see that your husband loves youu” This advice, too,
is given in an effort to help.

Mr. and Mrs..Ames, the hero and heroine of the same
serial are planning the construction Of their new house. In
-One episode, they had just returned from the lot upon which
their bungalow will be placed. The wife was in high spirits
for two reasons. First, the sub-division was ideally
located and modestly priced. Second, the couple living next
door were ”most charming and so hospitable”. Although the
expression sounds somewhat affected, the point in question
is present.

Another brief reference to neighborhood relations is
noted in "Moment of Truth”. At 2:00 a.m., Dr. Bob Wallace

received an emergency call from one of his patients; he and

115

Nancy, his wife, had to leave their two children unattended,
so Nancy took advantage of a type Of reciprocal babysitting.
She and a neighbor watch each other's children when any
such emergency arises.

In conclusion, the lot of the serial neighbor appears
to have improved in the transition of the serial from radio
to television; this element of the population now appears

friendlier, more helpful, and "human."

Newspapers

The fear of publicity determined the-role attributed
to the press in the 1941 radio serials. .Quite Often,
Arnheim discovered, reporters and newspapers were presented
as a menace to social prestige. Reporters provoked fear and
resentment for the serial characters; once "those hounds”
were on-the scent of a story, nothing could entice them away
from their trail. A Similarly unpleasant picture resulted
when the press was described as a powerful tool in politics.
Occasional exceptions, such as the pleasant female-reporter
who wrote a series of articles on food in national defense,
were neither sufficiently frequent nor prominent to alter
this image essentially. When the newsman appeared as a good
person, his function in the play was generally not determined
by his profession, but by his personal qualities as a friend

or leader.

116

The only television serial substantially concerned
with newspapers and reporters was the ”Secret Storm";
Peter Ames, the hero, is a newspaper editor. In this
drama, the manner in which newspapers are presented depends
upon individual emotions and thoughts. This is contrary
to the audio view that presented the print medium as a threat
to everyone. Susan Dunbar, the emotionally disturbed wife
of political hOpeful Alan Dunbar, sees such publicity as
a threat to their young son. ”Petey will become over-
excited by all of this publicity; it'll be no good for him,”
she stated adamantly. Susan refuses to be interviewed,
and she is cold and stiff in campaign pictures. Her husband
Alan holds the Opposite opinion. He believes that public
acceptance of his political aspirations is largely due to
a series of favorable newspaper articles written by Editor
Ames, Naturally, the rival publication presents a less
benevolent picture, but this controversy was presented only
briefly during the period of data collection.

Brief references were given to the image of the press
in the ”Edge of Night”. A minor character owns and edits
a newSpaper ”that always tries to present both Sides of a

story," The impartiality seems fair and decent.

117

Although newspapers were not granted a prominent role
11'
in the serials studied, their influence upon society in
general appears to be more benevolent and less threatening

than it was on radio.

Politics

Arnheim discovered that references to domestic or
foreign events of general importance were rare at the time
of this study.33 When radio serials referred to politics,
they generally meant individual corruption in Congress and
municipal administration; the picture that they exhibited
on such occasions was disgraceful. Political corruption
was shown as caused by individual villains or by the
collective-villainy of politicians in general. Two prevalent
types of soap Opera politicians produced the repugnant
effects. First, was the reckless gangster who fought for
power and wealth by killing, stealing, lying, and ruining

the happiness, prestige, and careers of others. Second, was

33This seems unusual because these were the years
clouded by World War Two; perhaps foreign events were
ignored because the United States had not yet entered
the-war.

118

the honest, weak type who had made one mistake and was
consequently blackmailed by the unscrupulous into doing
more unpleasant tasks. It presented a very discouraging
picture.

Television has changed the political scene of
”Soapland“. Unlike radio, television serials ignored all
types of governmental corruption during the period of data
collection.3h The ”Secret Storm” was the sole serial
concerned with any type of political activity. Alan Dunbar,
a reformed gangster-alcoholic, is under consideration as a
candidate for the state assembly. Nothing derogatory can be
drawn from his picture. His image is favorable; he is
public-Spirited and dedicated to the improvement of society.
Most of the script concerning politics dealt with the social
amenities of political life, such as cocktail parties,
publicity photography sessions, and campaign dinners.

Short discussions of campaign strategy were occasionally
presented. Three points of ”campaign battle

tactics” were brought forth:

31+With the world situation as it is, it is remarkable
that political affairs are touched so lightly. Perhaps this
has been an atypical period in serial treatment of politics.

119

l. A nice family is a valuable asset, especially
if members of the family are attractive and
compatible.

2. The voters like a reformed character to run
for public office; it shows that good can triumph
OVer evil.

3. Domestic difficulties or a marital triangle can
-ruin a campaign; the Opposition will capitalize

on anything.

Beyond this, politics were virtually ignored; male-
female relationships appeared to be of greater video
importance.

Two catagories untouched by Arnheim's 1941 study
were "illegitimacy" and ”divorce.” The inclusion of these
two topics is justified by their frequent appearance in the
serials observed. Illegitimacy and its consequences were
dissected rather regularily on “As the World Turns" and the
”Secret Storm". Serious and lengthy discussions abOut divorce
and its effects were presented on "As the World Turns", "The

Doctors", ”Moment of Truth", and ”Secret Storm”; the sole

abstainer was "Edge of Night".

120

Illegitimacy

There can be no comparison of audio and video treatements
of this tOpic since this category was not covered by Arnheim.

Several aSpects of this socially unapproved condition
were discussed on “As the World Turns”. Neil Wade is a
confused unhappy young man. His personal life has been
shattered; his ”private world“ is out of orbit because Dr.
Doug Cassin told Neil that he is his illegitimate son. His
reaction to this disillusioning experience is four-fold. He
alienates himself from his mother, from his stepsfather,
~from his wife, and from his real father. More trouble
.evolves from this immoral act. Mrs. Cassin learns of the
Neil-Doug relationship and becomes quite perturbed. She is
jealous of Doug's involvement with his illegitimate son;
She wants to know if she is more important to Doug than is
Neil; and she tells Doug that she will leave him if he ever
tries to communicate with Neil again. However, this
situation did not arise during the period of data collection
or during the periodic Spot checks.

There is one more instance of illegitimacy in "As the

World Turns". .Ellen Lowell Cole has an illegitimate son

121

living in Oakdale.35 Ellen is in constant agony whenever
references to the boy are voiced. Although She loves her
son deeply, Mrs. Cole stated that she "will not try to see
Danny (her son) again; only unhappiness would result from
such a meeting.”

A different treatment of illegitimacy is evident in
the dialogue of the ”Secret Storm". Amy Ames Rysdale is
another serial character who had a child out of wedlock,
but she kept the baby. A former ”beau" married her and gave
the child his name, but they are now having marital troubles.
To complicate the situation, the baby‘s real father is now
divorced and has returned to Woodbridge in order to marry
Amy and adOpt Lisa.

As previously stated, illegitimacy is a serial problem
that was absent in Arnheim's audio study. Two video

treatments of this problem were evident in “As the World

35A further explanation may be of interest. Ellen had
a.son out of wedlock and made him available for adOption.
The taby's father became divorced and married her, but
it was too late to adOpt the child. Tim Cole, Ellen's
husband, soon died of leukemia. Through a series of
coincidences and circumstances, Ellen discovered that her
babyhad been adopted by an associate of her step-father;
they are living in Oakdale. From this stage, the plot
becomes more involved, but it is of little importance in
:this section.

122

Turns” and the ”Secret Storm“. In one major case, the

baby was made available for adoption; in the other two
instances, the child was kept by the mother. Both situations
caused heartache, frustration, and unhappiness; perhaps
television serial producers are trying to emphasize the

unhappy aftermaths of illegitimacy.

Divorce

Divorce is the second important television tOpic not
mentioned by Arnheim in his 1941 study. Some-aspect of the
dissolution of marriage vows was presented in 80% of the
-serials studkfl;the only forbearer was the-“Edge of Night".
During the period of data collection, ”As the World Turns”
dealt heavily with discussions of divorce. Bob and Lisa
Hughes have been divorced for a number of years; much
sorrow has resulted from this separation. Unhappily, their
son Tom is the victimized party. He believes that Bob and
Lisa will reunite, regardless of the emotions Of his parents.
Unfortunately,lany chance of a reconciliation was shattered
when Bob announced his intention to marry Sylvia Hill, his
nurse-receptionist. Lisa, in'a fit of rage-and frustration,
exploded verbally at Sylvia; now these marriage plans have
collapsed. Bob now thoroughly hates Lisa, ”even if she is

the mother of my son“; Lisa stated that she won't ever allow

123

herself to love a man again after Bob rejects her because
her “private world has stOpped”; and "Tom will suffer from
all this hatred," stated Grandpa. “Look what happened to
Ellen (Cole). She was a child of divorce and see how
unhappy She has been. She has had no real home life, even
as anadult."36

Another couple from the same serial, Neil and Penny
Wade, is experiencing marital difficulties. Penny's over-
ambition helped to drive Neil away from her;~she is now
repentant and vows ”never to stOp his world again”, but
Neil will not believe her.‘ Penny is miserable and ”the
sooner She's a wife again, the better it will be," stated
Grandpa Hughes.37

Brief references to divorce were made on "Moment of
Truth". Jack and Carol Williams were on the brink of

divorce, but the premature birth of their baby dissolved

36Perhaps no correlation exists here, but Grandpa
Hughes is the ”sage of Oakdale", and his opinion Should
be noted.

37Post-data collection checks were made on the five
serials twice a week for ten weeks. A happier situation
'is now evident; Penny and Neil resolved their difficulties
and are again man and wife. .

124

these difficulties. Their estrangement ended in~a happy
reconciliation--both realized their weaknesses and both
promised to try to make their marriage work.

Vince, a college instructor in this daytime drama, has
been separated from his wife for seven years. ”It was never
a real marriage,‘I he stated, ”and it kept me from becoming
involved with another woman. I like a bachelor's life.”
Now he has fallen in love with a woman from Carlisle; he
wants to make his separation legal in order to marry her;
but his “possessive" wife refuses to free him. His wrath
is great, but he has no feasible plan of Operation to snip
the ties that bind.

”The Doctors“ is another soap Opera that deals with
divorce. Dr. Althea Davis divorced her husband Dave so
that he could marry another woman. His.second marriage
was unsuccessful and now he wishes to~remarry Althea.
Although he is in the process of obtaining his second
divorce, Althea is reluctant to rewed Dave. He vows that
he still loves her and that the children are suffering
because their parents are separated. Althea loves her children,
but she recalls their first marriage and refuses to be
pressured into repeating their vows. As of this date, this

problem is unsolved.

125

Two cases of divorce were present on the "Secret
Storm”. One concerns the Rysdales. After the birth of her
illegitimate child, AmyRysdale refused to accept her
responsibilities as a wife and mother. Kip, her husband,
sought companionship elsewhere and initiated divorce
iovertures. Amy realized her error too late; although Kip
no longer loves the "other woman," he believes he is drained
of all emotion and incapable of loving anyone. Periodic
progress checks of the problem Show that Kip and Amy have
not reconciled. He has gone to study medicine in Vienna
after telling Amy to discuss their divorce procedures
with a lawyer.

The other divorce difficulties involve Alan and Susan
~Dunbar. Susan is driving Alan away; she is cold, sarcastic,
jealous, and overprotective~of their son.38 "There is
trouble on both sides, but Sue and Alan should try to make
their marriage work for Petey's sake," stated Peter Ames,
Susan's father. They do not try. Divorce proceedings

and a custody suite are presently imminent.

38Alan then buried himself in his work and turned to
another woman; this enraged Susan even more.

126

Divorce is a prominent video problem not present in
Arnheim's study. An unusual feature of the serial divorce
action studied is present. No one seems to find happiness
after a divorce. Its consequences are varied and negative;
only bitterness, hatred, suffering, and sorrow result. It
appears that today's soap opera producers wish to present
divorce as something that solves no problems. 15 this
an effort to ”educate” the American housewives about the

seriousness of divorce?

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Summary

In the pre-television era, housewives listened with
rapt attention to the daily problems of ”Ma Perkins”, ”Our
Gal Sunday”, and "Stella Dallas“ on their wood-encased
console radios. With the advent of television, critics
predicted happily that the day of the soap opera was gone
forever. Who, they asked, would be content to watch the
unSOphisticated and over-emotional heroines go through
their endless trials and tribulations on the television
-screen? How many American women were naive enough to be
intrigued by the repetitious, drawn out story lines, the
familiar dialogue, the husbandSr with amnesia, the younger
brother who was an alcoholic, and the sister-in-law going
through a psychosomatic pregnancy? But these critics soon
got their answer, as millions of female viewers turned

from radio soap Opera to television daytime drama.39

39Edna Sullivan, ”As the Dial Turns“, Ladies' Home
Companion, 111 (August 1965), PP. 94-96.

127

128

With the advent of televised serials, the programs'

format underwent a number of content changes. To note

this alteration, the following material: is presented.

Comparison of Serial Data

A number of basic comparisons between the radio daytime

serials and their television progeny may be suggested:

1.

Small cities and suburban areas are choice
avideo serial locales; small and medium-sized
towns were prime audio settings.

The social and occupational status of the
television characters are mainly those of pro-
fessionals and housewives; the Status was
reversed in radio days,

Television serials seem to stress individual
thinking and have fewer leaders than did the

‘radio dramas- The video leaders are often those

‘who:are consideredimportant in both their

professional and private worlds; radio leaders
were rarely influential in both areas.

Televised problems deal frequently with personal
relations, principally family matters; radio
difficulties dealt with personal difficulties,
mainly marital problems. Economic and professional
difficulties on television have lessened since the

days of the radio serial.

129

Serial problems presented on television are usually
'caused by individuals, rather than directly by
economic, social, and political situations. This
is quite similar to the problems Of the radio
serial.

A striking difference is noted in the moral
evaluation of serial characters. Television roles
are no longer as Sharply defined (good, bad, weak)
as they were on radio. Viewers today find that
characterization is blended into shades of gray
with streaks of black and white.

Good, bad, and weak peOple cause approximately the
‘same-amount of trouble on television as they did
on.radio. Only minor differences occur--the good
and weak video troublemakers cause more trouble
for others, and the evil characters cause more
trouble for themselves.

Television has attempted to equalize the suffering;
radio victimization was less uniform. Today, good
peOple suffer less; bad individuals, especially
'villainesses, suffer more.

Television's chief troublemakers seem to be women;

radio's most difficult characters were men. Why?

10.

130

Perhaps today's producers believe that the
feminine audience distrusts its own sex more
than in years gone by.

Problem solutions on television attempt to be
prompted by plausible events; problem solutions
on radio relied upon an ethereal and undefined

type of perfect justice.

A number of basic comparisons between the audio and

video treatment of specific subjects are suggested:

1.

Women: .Although television heroines are less

omnipotent than were their radio Sisters, the

‘video joys Of domesticity are stressed as much as

they were on radio. Careers are acceptable, but
caring for a home and family is the pinnacle of
feminine=aSpirations.

Experts: Video experts are usually portrayed as
competent and authoritative in their professional
lives; radio experts were woefully ineffectual.

A bit of irony about these experts not noted by
Arnheim is evident in the televised soap operas.
Although these experts can bring peace or oomfort
to others, their personal lives are as calm as a

whirlpool. Family difficulties cloud their happy

131

homes, and they are drawn into a ”vortex of suds"

as plots grow more complex. This situation appears
to be purely a television trait.

Learning: Television presents education as a near-
necessity of life; radio presented learning as some-
thing unnecessary, valueless, and unimportant.
Neighbors: In both media, neighbors were rarely
scripted. But when the occasion arises, video
neighbors appear to be friendly and helpful; audio
neighbors were presented as a hostile group of nosey
peOple who wanted to publicize one's private affairs.
Newspapers: The stigma of unfavorable publicity
has lessened over the years. Television's treat-
ment of newspapers in the observed serials
encourages the view that the press need not be
treated in the negative manner evident in the
radio days.

Politics: No definite conclusions about politics
could be drawn from the television serials since
the video mediummerely touched upon politics. No
national or international government corruption
was present as was true of radio. The sole video
political indication was the launching of a new

candidate for the state assembly. Conversely,

132

radio did present some individual corruption in
state and local organizations; this produced a
-discouraging picture of political life.
Illegitimacy: No audio-video comparisons can be
presented in conjunction with this topic; Arnheim
did not include this feature in his 1941 study.
However, the television serial presents it as-an
immoral act which results in sorrow and
frustration.

Divorce: This is the second category not
mentioned by Arnheim. It appears that the video
treatment of divorce is simple to the extreme--
-a dissolution of marriage vows brings no one

happiness.

Recommendations

Some areas for future study have been noted in previous

sections of this study. These areas are incorporated with

other recommendations in the following section and are

grouped in major categories.

Content. A segment of serial locale needs further
'Study. The unusually high percentage of resort

settings (15%) was noted in the serials observed;

133

it was suggested that this denoted an atypical
period of serial scripting. A more thorough
study of this feature could illuminate this area.
Perhaps the observation period was atypical or
perhaps this is a new serial trend.

Politics is another area that needs further
work. According to Arnheim, the-radio serials
dealt quite heavily with governmental corruption;
little of this was presented in the television
dramas observed. A more ambitious and SOphis-
ticated study ofthis portion of serial content
could determine whether the video observation
-time-was atypical or whether script writers are
'placing less emphasis on politics.

A third category is concerned with the
evolution of problem solutions. Arnheim held
that an unexplained and all-powerful force
-developed the audio solutions; the plot solutions
of the five video programs seemed to be based on
vplausible actions or situations. An extensive
-study of this single serial factor could lead to

a more authoritative conclusion.

134

The Serial Audience. The first area that needs
future study is concerned with both the serial
content and the serial audience. "Education" and
”learning” were treated unfavorably in the radio
dramas; Arnheim believed that this devluation of
“learning” flattered the less educated audience
-segment. Today's video serials place "learning”
inva more elevated position. If Arnheim is correct
in deducing that the devaluation of learning was
aimed at the less educated serial audience, is the
present video trend toward the elevation of learning
aimed at the more educated serial audience? Since
mass media producers attempt to attract the
largest audiences possible, has the video serial
audience become more educated since the days of
Arnheim's Study? A thorough examination of this
relationship may lead to a positive correlation.
Audience identification with video serial
characters needs study. Audio audience identification
‘was evident, Arnheim believed, and this phenomenon
did occur with some regularity. With the advent
of television, the free imagery permitted by radio
was curtailed. Does video serial identification

occur; if so, to what extent? To reach any definite

135

conclusions in this area, the researcher would
need to conduct a study of some magnitude.

A number of radio serial studies by
individuals such as Herta Herzog_and Paul
Lazarsfeld dealt with the psychological fulfill-
ment transmitted by the audio soap Operas to its
audiences. A television study of some depth could
develOp a number of positive and/or negative
correlations in this area. Do women watch the
televised serials and receive the same gratifi-
-cations that were received bythe radio audience,
or have alterations occurred over the years?

The Evening Serials, The last category deals with
the television serials alone. The most recent
major trend in serial production is the develOpment
of the evening soap Operas, such as ”Our Private
World" and ”Peyton Place”. More programs in a
similar vein are appearing in network fall schedules.

These "spin-offs” can become a fruitful area
for a number of studies. First, a comparison of
the content of the daytime and evening serials
could be conducted to note any differences in

‘scripting for a daytime or evening audience.

136

Second, a study of the audience acceptance
and reaction to these evening dramas would illuminate
the success of these unique programs. IS the
daytime and evening audience one and the same?

Do many men watch these evening dramas; if so, how
do their reactions compare to feminine reaction?
Also, what accommodations, if any, have been made
for the male-viewer?

This area does suggest several studies of some
depth. Perhaps few alterations have been made in
the evening serial production and perhaps the
daytimeaudiences have simply enlarged their
listening habits to include the new soap Operas;
or perhaps the two dramatic types are as different

as day and night.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books

Alexander, Peter. Willaim Shakespeare, The Complete Works,
London: The English Language BOok Society and
Collins, 1964.

Bogart, Leo. The Age of Television. New York: Frederick
Ungar Publishing COmpany, T956.

 

Brokenshire, Norman. This 1; Norman Brokenshire. New York:
David McKay Company, Inc., 1954.

Chesterton, G. K. The Collected Poems of G. K. Chesterton,

New York: Dodd, Mead, and—Company, 1932.

Crews, Albert. Radio Production Directing. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1944.

George, Andrew J. The Complete Poetic Works of William
Wordsworth, New YOrk: Houghton:Miff11n,_T904.

 

Gross, Bin. .1 Looked and L Listened, New York: Random House,
195 .

Head, Sidney, Broadcasting in America, Cambridge Publishing
Company, 1962.

 

 

Klapper, Joseph. The Effects of Mass Communication.
Glencoe: The Free Press,fT964.

 

Lindsey, Charles. Radio and Television Communication. New
York: McGraw-Hill BoOk Company, 1952.

Mackey, David. Drama Qfl the Air. New York: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1951.

Mehling, Harold. The Great Time-Killer. Cleveland: World
Publishing Company, 1962.

Seldes, Gilbert. The Great Audience. New York: The Viking
Press, 1950.

137

138

Settel, Irving. A Pictorial Historygfi Radio. New York:
.David McKay COmpany, Inc., 1960.

 

Stasheff, Edward and Rudy Bretz. The Television Program.
New York: Hill and Wang, 1962. '

Thurber, James. The Beast in Me and Other Animals. New
York: Harcourt, Brace, aha Company, 1

Articles and Periodicals

”Agelgss Hegoine”. Time, Volume LXVIII, Number 6, August
, 195 .

Arnehim, Rudolph, “The World of the Daytime Serial”, Public
Opinion and Prgpaganda, New York: Henry Holt an
Company, 1954.

Best, Katherine, ”Literature of the Air; Radio's Perpetual
Emotion”, Saturday Review 2f Literature, Volume XXI,
Number 26, April 20, 1940. '

 

 

”Bigger Suds”, Newsweek, Volume XXXVI, Number 25, July 30,
1951.

Cameron, Gail, "Soapy Sex Moves to Prime Time", Life, Volume
LVII, Number 23, December 4, 1964.

”Daytime Classics”, Time, Volume XL, Number 22, November 30,
19 2.

Denison, Merrill, “Soap Opera“, Hargers, Volume CLXXX,
April 1940.

Dickinson, Hugh, IISoap Opera Down the Drain”, America,
Volume XCIV, Number 5, October 29, 1955.

”Dream Bubbles in Soap”, Newsweek, Volume XVII, Number
22, June 2, 1941.

Greene, Bette, “There's No End to Those Soap Operas”,
Coronet, Volume 111, Number 2, February 1965.

139

 

Holbrook, Weare, ”The Wring Cycle”, Detroit Athletic
Club’News, January 19 3.

 

Hutchens, John, "Are Soap Operas Only Suds?”, New York
Times MagaZine, March 25, 1943.

 

Judge, Frank, ”New Soap Operas Trend Puts Daytime Star
on Night Shift”, Detroit News Television Magazine,
March 21, 1965.

 

”Life in 'One Man's Family' Will Continue Over Air Waves
for Seven More Years”, Newsweek, Volume XIII,
Number 6, February 6, 1

”Life With Ma", Time, Volume LXX, Number 9, August 26,
1957.

McDonough, Robert, ”Radio's Heart Throbs”, Commonweal,
Volume XXXI, Number 14, January 26, 1940.

New York Times, l930--l965.

O'Connor, Edwin, ”The Fairly Merry Widow”, Atlantic Monthly,
Volume CLXXVII, Number 6, June 1946.

Parson,s Wilfred, “Daytime Radio”, America, Volume XCIV,
Number 21, February 18, 1956.

”Question of Soap”, Time, Volume XLI, Number 23, June 7, 1943

”Same 21d.Story", Newsweek, Volume XL, Number 2, July
1 , I952.

”Scentefl Soap", Newsweek, Volume XXII, Number 1, July 5,
19 3.

Seldes, Gilbert, ”Darkness Before Noon", Saturda Review,
Volume XXXVI, Number 49, December 5, 1953

”New Bubbles for Soap Opera”, New York Times
Magazine, September 12, 1954.

 

l'Soap in Your Eyes”, Newsweek, Volume XLIII, Number 5,
February 1, 1954.

140

Sullivan, Edna, “AS the Dial Turns”, Ladies' Home Companion,
Volume 111, Number 9, August 1965.

”Televised Suds”, Newsweek, Volume XXXVIII, Number 5,
July 30, 1951-

”The End of Our Gal”, Newsweek, Volume LIII, Number 1,
January 5, 1959.

”The Sozg Operas”, Fortune, Volume XXXIII, Number 3, March,
19 .

"The State of Radio", Time, Volume LXV, Number 19, May 9,
1955.

Variety, July 1964.

l'Vic anfl Sade", Time, Volume XLII, Number 26, December 27,
19 3.

White, Llewellyn, ”The Shortcomings of Radio”, Atlantic
Monthly, Volume CLXXIX, Number 4, April 1947.

Willey, George, "End of An Era; the Daytime Radio Serial",
Journal 9: Broadcasting, Volume V, Number 2, Spring
9

Wolters, Lawrence, ”Peyton Place Sets Pace for New Shows”,
Chicago Tribune, January 27, I965.

 

Wylie, Max, “Washboard Weepers”, Harper's Magazine, Volume
CLXXXV, Number 110, November 1942.

Zolotow, Maurice, ”Washboard Weepers”, Saturday Evenigg Post,
Volume CCXV, Number 48, May 29, 1943.

APPENDIX

TABLE 1 - CHRONOLOGICAL SERIAL DEVELOPMENT - RADIO

 

Season Number of Serials
1930-1931 1
1931-1932 2
1932-1933 5
1933-1934 6
1934-1935 9
1935-1936 18
1936-1937 24
1937-1938 42
1938-1939 43
1939-1940 60
1940-1941 61
1941-1942 57
1942-1943 44
1943-1944 46
1944-1945 39
1945-1946 36
1946-1947 32
1947-1948 33
1948-1949 33
1949-1950 33
*1950-1951 30
1951-1952 31
1952-1953 28
1953-1954 28
1954-1955 24
1955-1956 18
1956-1957 15
1957-1958 12
1958-1959 14
1959-1960 7

1960 6
11/25/60 0

141

TABLE 2 - CHRONOLOGICAL SERIAL DEVELOPMENT - TELEVISION

Season Number of Serials

1950-1951
1951-1952
1952-1953
1953-1954
1954-1955
1955-1956
1956-1957
1957-1958
1958-1959
1959-1960
1960-1961
1961-1962
I962-1963
1963-1964
1964-1965

 

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Serial Title

“As the World Turns”

”Secret Storm”

”Moment of Truth"

”The Doctors'I

Master Data Sheet

Reference to Experts

 

Experts
Date ByTWhom
4/26/65 Lisa Hughes
4/30/65 Alan Dunbar

4/29/65

4/30/65

Nancy
wallace

Nora
Hanson

145

To WhOm

Dr. Field, psy.

Calls him when her
husband refuses her
proposal of marriage.

Ann Wicker.

She is great in
campaign publicity
work.

Bob Wallce, psy.
He is trained to

-read things into

peOple's ideas.

Dr. Steve Lloyd
Nora tells Steve
that he is too
concerned about
his patients some-
times, but this
makes him a good
doctor.

"111111 llllllll 111 1“