17" W'— - w w A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF POLICE DOGS IN CITIES OF 250,000 AND OVER Thesis for the Degree of M. S. f MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Robert William Hocken 1966 ”WE LIBRARY IIIIIIIIIIIIZIIIIIlIIIIlIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIL Michigan C are 293 10459 9158 j Umv varsity PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINE return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE r-n a (V‘ “V V V" NOV 2 6 2004 IIEI: fl 9 2991 4 [I L“. I 1 ~u— 6",", I‘V’" — 2.2-,“ ‘ .. 1 T . A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF POLICE DOGS IN CITIES OF 250,000 AND OVER BY Robert William Hocken AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Police Administration and Public Safety 1966 APPROVED *7) QSJQQ, 34C.) (/17 (meg-Wt (Chairman)d ‘6) ._ / ,~«~~~L >L(ZL( //(/;§Z:;/¢z::;r (Member) ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF POLICE DOGS IN CITIES OF 250,000 AND OVER by Robert William Hocken During the past ten years, a new innovation in police operations has been developed with apparent success. Use of the police dog as a new Operational technique has caused a great deal of consternation among police adminis— trators due to its animation. The myriad of problems associated with the proper application, training, and care of police dogs caused many failures in the early stages of development. Despite these early failures, the use of dogs spread throughout the United States in a relatively short period of time. Today, virtually every police department of any size has, at one time or another, at least superficially evaluated the use of dogs. In some instances the fascination of using an animal to extend the capabilities of a policeman incited police administrators to initiate dog programs without proper planning. Planning has proven to be the prime de- termining factor in the success or failure in the use of police dogs. Robert William Hocken This study was conducted with the police planner in mind, to aid him in determining exactly how dogs may be em- ployed in police work. Its primary objective is to identify those purposes and tasks which have proven to be the most successful in the larger police departments of the United States. A survey of all police departments in cities with a population exceeding 250,000 was made to determine how police dogs were actually being utilized. A mailed standard— ized questionnaire was utilized for data collection. Each police chief surveyed was requested to indicate the various purposes for which his police dogs are used. A four point sliding scale was utilized to rate the frequency of use and the effectiveness of each purpose. A total of fifty-one questionnaires were mailed to police departments and forty-nine were returned. Question- naire returns indicated that twenty-eight police agencies are presently using dogs. Four of the agencies reported that dogs had been used in the past, but had been abandoned for various reasons. The study revealed that seventeen police departments have never used police dogs. The study concluded that 57 per cent of the larger police departments have found dOgs to be effective in law enforcement, and frequently use them for general police patrol, a psychological deterrent against crime, searching Robert William Hocken buildings, assisting in apprehension and arrest, protection of the handler, demonstrations for public relations, and searching open areas. A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVE UTILIZATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF POLICE DOGS IN CITIES OF 250,000 AND OVER BY Robert William Hocken A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Police Administration and Public Safety 1966 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreci— ation to the United States Air Force, who made this advanced study possible by providing the necessary time, funds, and incentives. A warm expression of gratitude is extended to the many Dutch police officials who provided the necessary back- ground for the develOpment of this study. I wish to thank Senior Master Sergeant Henry Sanders, who so patiently pro- vided his expert assistance in Europe as a translator and interpreter during the early phase of this study. A special note of thanks is extended to my wife for her constant encouragement and assistance throughout this course of advanced study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Statement of the problem . . . . . . . 3 Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . 3 Limitations of the Study 4 Definitions of Terms Used . . . . . . . . 4 Canine 4 Police dog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Quartering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Organization of the Remainder of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 II. THE METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 DevelOping the Hypothesis . . . . . . . . 8 Hypothesis to be Tested . . . . . . . . . ll Criteria for Development of the Study . . ll Selection of Data Collection Technique . . 12 DevelOpment of the Questionnaire . . . . . 12 Selection of Police Departments to be Studied . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 iii Chapter Page III. HISTORICAL, PRESENT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS . 16 Historical Use of Dogs . . . . . . . . . . 16 Domestic Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . l7 Hunting dogs . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Work dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Tracking dogs . . . . . . . . . . 20 Guide dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 The dog as a companion . . . . . . 21 War Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Historical use in conflict . . . . 22 During WOrld War I . . . . . . . . 24 During WOrld war II . . . . . . . 26 American military use today . . . 28 History of Dogs in Police WOrk . . . . 29 Formal adOption of dogs in police service . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 AdOption by the United States~ . . 33 Modern era . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Present Use of Police Dogs . . . . 42 Future Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 IV. REVIEW OF LITERATURE IN THE FIELD' . . . . . . 46 Dogs in Police WOrk, Samuel G. Chapman . . 46 Dogs for Police Service, Sam D. watson, Jr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 iv Chapter How to Use Dogs Effectively in Modern Police Work, Irvin E. Marders Police Dogs, Home Office (London) V. MODEL UTILIZATION OF POLICE DOGS I General Police Duties Police Patrol Psychological value Protection of the Handler Guarding Persons and Objects Assisting in Apprehension and Arrest Crowd and Riot Control Searching Tracking Specialized Duties . . Rescue Scent Discrimination Demonstrations for Public Relations Summary VI. PRESENTATION OF DATA . The Use of Police Dogs . . . . . . VII. ANALYSIS OF DATA . VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS- . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions Page 51 54 6O 60 60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 7O 7O 73 74 76 78 91 100 100 101 Chapter Page Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 vi LIST OF TABLES Table I. Rating Data Quantified According to Purpose as Received from Cities of 250,000 or Over Using Dogs II. Relative Numerical Weights Assigned to the Selected Ratings III. Relationship Between Frequency of Use and Effectiveness of Police Dogs as Rated by Dog Users in Cities of 250,000 and Over vii Page 83 92 94 Figure LIST OF FIGURES Development of the Use of Police Dogs in the United States The Genesis of Scent Detected by the Police DOg . . . . Distribution of the Present Use of Police Dogs in All Cities of 250,000 PeOple or More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Growth Rate of the Use of Police Dogs in Cities of 250,000 or Over Total Number of Ratings Received From 28 Police Departments Using Dogs in Cities 250,000 or Over Total Number of Ratings Received From 28 Police Departments Using Dogs in Cities 250,000 or Over Total Number of Ratings Received From 28 Police Departments Using DOgs in Cities 250,000 or Over . . . . . . . . . . . Total Number of Ratings Received From 28 Police Departments Using Dogs in Cities 250,000 or Over . . . . . . . . . . . viii -of of -of Page 43 58 79 80 85 86 87 88 Figure Page 9. Frequency of Use of the Police Dog in Per- forming Specific Tasks as Rated by 28 Police Departments in Cities of 250,000 or Over . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 10. Effectiveness of the Police Dog Performing Specific Tasks as Rated by 28 Police De- partments in Cities of 250,000 or Over . . . 9O ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In the affairs of mankind some slogan, phrase or movement occasionally catches the fancy of the public and spreads with epidemic haste. Police administrators are not immune to being bitten by bugs of enthusiasm. They often feel a compulsion to try out new Operational techniques or gadgets merely because they have a certain vogue. These developments are not always ephemeral passing fancies: in many cases, they are substantive and enduring. After nearly a decade of exploration, the use of dogs has been firmly established in police work. Nevertheless, the establishment of police dog sections within police departments seemed to spread at such a rate in the late fifties and early sixties as to suggest that it may have been partially due to the dictates of fashion. The use of dogs in law enforcement has now grown to such proportions in the United States that it has demanded the attention and interest of police chiefs in cities of all sizes. The dog's ready acceptance into the police arsenal may be traced to an aroused citizenry demanding more ef— fective police action to suppress the rising crime rate. The technical appeal or the prestige enjoyed by those de- partments using dogs may also account for its favorable re- ception. Regardless of the source, few police chiefs have escaped the pressure to consider this new technique. Some police chiefs have been prompted to initiate a dog program which later proved to be unwarranted and ill— advised. Often this was due to police planners' being un- aware of the tasks dogs could perform effectively in police work. The expectations of police officials were in many instances greatly inflated by the overzealous proponents of the dog concept and dOg lovers overselling their desire to see the animals in operation at a specific time and place. Therefore, today, the enthusiasm for enlisting the service of dogs in police work is leveling off and is now beginning to be tempered with caution. Many police departments, both in the United States and abroad, have developed effective canine programs and found the use of dogs to be an effective tool in their never-ending fight against crime. Published evidence of research pertaining to the effectiveness of police dogs is extremely limited. Therefore, any police chief contemplating the use of dogs must rely on his own re- search staff to provide the necessary data for making this important decision. The Problem Dogs have been adopted by many police departments to- day as an effective method to correct.specific problems facing the department. When a police organization must de- cide whether or not to implement or maintain a dog program, the following questions must be answered: (1) How can dOgs be employed in police work; (2) How effective are they in each function that they are required to perform; and, (3) How often would dogs be called upon to perform these functions? Many other factors and variables must be considered; however, these are believed to be the core questions which must be answered first. Statement of the problem. This investigation pro- poses to determine the utilization amdeffectiveness of dogs in police work in the larger metrOpolitan cities in the United States. The primary objective of this research is to identify the various tasks which dogs have been called upon to perform in police work and to determine their effective- ness in each purpose. The degree of effectiveness for each purpose will be determined by a consensus of agreement by police chiefs in large police departments which are now using dogs for police work. Importance of the Study The effectiveness of a police dog unit must be based on what jobs it can perform or the total contribution it can make toward accomplishment of the police department goals. To the extent it enhances or contributes toward these goals, it may be considered successful. To the extent it hinders or fails to contribute toward the desired goals, it is unsuccessful. It is anticipated that this research will develop a set of practical and effective tasks which dogs may be ex- pected to perform in police work, and further identify those uses that are additional, special, and sometimes superfluous. Full consideration will be given to what a police department may expect to gain by the use of police dogs. It is the premise of the investigator that this information is a prime requisite when a police chief is considering the use of dogs in the suppression of crime. Limitations 9; the Study This study is limited, primarily, to the use of police dOgs in the larger metropolitan areas of the United States. Occasional reference is made to smaller cities in the United States and cities of all sizes in Europe when such is needed to establish a background, to clarify a position, or to substantiate an assertion. Definition of Terms Used Canine. Canine, as used in this study, refers ex- clusively to various types of dogs used in police work. Police dog. Police dog denotes a dog of any breed specifically trained for, and used exclusively in, public law enforcement. .Although the German shepherd breed is commonly referred to as a police dog, it is not considered as such in this study unless it meets the above criteria. The term "police dog" excludes those dOgs trained for se- curity and private law enforcement, although in some cases, reference to the police dog may also apply to these uses. , Handler. The handler is a policeman assigned to train and work with an assigned police dog. He may be re- ferred to as the dog's master in all activities. Tracking. Tracking refers to using the dog's acute sense of smell to follow the scent of a trail left by a spe— cific person. The dog depends almost entirely on ground scent for tracking. Quartering. Quartering refers to searching an area for persons or property in a controlled and systematic manner with the use of the dog's olfactory sense and air- borne scent. Organization of the Remainder _9f the Thesis The remainder of this thesis is divided into seven chapters. Chapters II, III, IV, and V outline the develOp- rment of the study, and Chapters VI and VII contain a report of the study. Chapter VIII summarizes and draws conclusions from the report. Chapter Two outlines the methodology used to develOp the study. .It establishes the sources of data, the research methods used, and the method of data analysis. The historical, present andIfuture development of the police dog is discussed in Chapter Three, which establishes the necessary background. The earliest known uses, present employment, and future developments of the police dog are discussed in broad terms. Chapter Four reviews selected writings in the field which are pertinent and directly related to the problem. The review of literature is limited to those books dealing with the various uses of dogs in police work. In Chapter Five, a model utilization of the police dog is develOped. The model establishes what is hypothe- sized to be the most practical and efficient uses of the dog in police work. It was developed from an exploratory study conducted in EurOpe and a review of current literature. Each use is described in some detail in order that each task may be well delimited and definitive. The presentation of data in Chapter Six describes the contents of the questionnaire, field reaction to the questionnaire, and a description of the data gathered. This chapter includes exposition supported by tables and graphs. Chapter Seven analyzes the data as presented in the previous chapter. It summarizes the completed observations in such a manner that they yield answers to the research problem. An attempt was made to interpret and search for broader meanings of the research findings by linking them to other available knowledge. A summary of the findings and the conclusions drawn are presented in Chapter Eight. Unanswered questions worthy of additional study have been listed as a basis for future research. CHAPTER II THE METHODOLOGY Since the validity and reliability of the findings and conclusions of a research study are dependent to a great extent upon the proper construction of a research design and awareness of its limitations, the techniques and methOdSII used in the development of this study and its rationale are disclosed for the perusal of the reader. This chapter con— tains methodological data relating to the development of a hypothesis, the criteria used for develOping the study, the method of selecting a data collection technique, and the selection of the pOpulation to be studied. Developing the Hypothesis European police canine Operations were observed periodically by the investigator for a period of four years, from 1961 to 1965. During this time, it was noted that the EurOpeans used dogs extensively for various types of police work with apparent success. An exploratory investigation was initiated in Holland and Germany to determine their method of application and similarities or dissimilarities be- tween their programs and those in the United States. The purpose of this exploratory research was to gain familiarity with the use of dogs in law enforcement, formulate a problem for more precise investigation, and develop meaningful hy- potheses for future research. Only a small proportion of the existing knowledge and experience in the application of police dogs has been put in written form. Most prOponents of dOgs in police work are not prone to record the results of their experience, thereby leaving very little literature available to an out- side investigator. Researching in a foreign country also posed a language problem that limited, to some extent, the material accessible. Due to these limitations, a survey of people who had practical and administrative experience in the use of dOgs in law enforcement in The Netherlands and Germany were studied via interviews. The objective of this experience survey was to gather and synthesize practical experience as gained in the field. Particular emphasis was placed on new or provocative methods of application. Five interviews were conducted in The Netherlands and one in Germany, with the aid of an interpreter. Qualification exercises and demonstrations were observed in both Germany and Holland. A selected sample of experienced people who could offer a significant contribution to the study were inter- viewed. An attempt was made to ensure a representation of different types of experience by contacting people at all 10 levels of the police dog Operations. A structured Open-end interview was devised to ensure that all people interviewed would respond to questions pertinent to the study; however, all interviews were administered in a flexible manner to allow the respondent to raise issues and questions not covered in the interview schedule. All interviews were re- corded on magnetic tape to ensure complete continuity. The personnel interviewed and the interview schedule used may be referred to in Appendices A and B. The exploratory study provided an excellent summary of the knowledge of skilled practitioners about the ef- fectiveness of various methods and procedures used in the application of dogs in police work. In lieu of more defini- tive knowledge, this information was of enormous value to guide the investigator to the "best" uses to which dogs may be applied in police work. The hypothesis and model usage of dogs in this thesis was developed from this exploratory study. By se— lecting those Specific uses of dogs that have proven success- ful in EurOpean application for half a century, it is the intent of the investigator to prove or disprove that the large police departments in the United States are, or are not, applying their use of dogs in accordance with the hypothesis . ll Hypothesis t2 be Tested The major police departments in the United States have found dOgs to be effective in law enforcement and free quently use them in the following ways: 1. 2. General police patrol. Protection of handler. Guarding persons and objects. Assisting in apprehension and arrest. Crowd and riot control. Searching for persons and prOperty. Tracking. Criteria for Development of the Study The criteria imposed as requisites to the study are outlined to give insight into its develOpment, its coverage, and, l. in some cases, its limitations. The police departments studied must be of sufficient size to be considered a "major police department in the United States" as stated in the hypothesis. A sufficient number of police departments must be surveyed to be considered representative of all major police departments in the United States. "Effectiveness," as stated in the hypothesis, must be measured in qualitative terms based on the capa- bility of dogs to accomplish a given task. 12 4. "Frequent use,” as stated in the hypothesis, must be measured in quantitative terms based on the number of times a dog is used to perform a specific task. 5. The model usage of dogs as outlined in the hypothe- sis must include only those tasks considered to be effective and frequently used. 6. The study must be limited in magnitude in accordance with the time and funds available for the study. 7. The data used must be immediately available and ac— cessible to the investigator in East Lansing, Michigan. Selection 2; Data Collection Technique Each of the various data collecting techniques were considered and measured against the established criteria in an effort to select the most appropriate method. The following research techniques were considered as possible methods of data collection: 1. Observational Methods. 2. Personal Interviews. 3. Mailed Questionnaires. 4. Survey of the Literature. Although the observational method satisfied criteria (1), (3), (4), and (5) above, it was rejected due to its fitilure to satisfactorily meet criteria (2), (6), and (7). 13 The personal interview was found to meet criteria (1), (3), (4), and (5), but proved to be incompatible with criteria (2), (6), and (7). The mailed questionnaire was found to meet all cri- teria stated above; therefore, it was accepted as a valid research technique. Survey of the literature was proven to be acceptable to all criteria and was also accepted as a research tech- nique to provide background and a basis toward development of the study. Development 2; the “Questionnaire In developing the data collection technique, great care was given to avoid the introduction of bias and un- reliability. A standardized questionnaire was constructed with primarily closed—end questions. The questionnaire used may be referred to in Appendix C. This type of question— naire was selected primarily to ensure that the answers given would be in a frame of reference that is usable in the analy- sis of data. The mailed questionnaire was utilized due to the geographically-wide distribution of the major police de- partments in the United States. Since the respondents to the study are considered a highly select group of pro— fessional peOple, it was determined that the mailed question- ruiire would elicit an acceptable response. 14 One obvious limitation of this research technique is the reliability and validity of responses to qualitative terms such as "effectiveness." In this case reliance is placed on the subjective judgement of the individual police chiefs contacted. The possibility of errors being intro- duced by selective perception, recall, and recording must be considered. No validation of the response is possible, nor is it feasible to conduct a reliability check due to the time and expense involved in these techniques and the incon- venience to police departments of follow-up questionnaires. An attempt to limit these shortcomings was introduced into the questionnaire via highly structured and explicit questions with fixed-alternative answers. The questions were carefully worded so as not to suggest one answer over another. The set of answers for each core question is all encompassing and each alternative answer was well defined and delimited in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was pretested by three students to insure clarity and to eliminate ambiguous questions and those that failed to elicit productive information. Selection 9: Police Departments _EQ be Studied A purposive selection of all police departments in cities with a pOpulation of 250,000 or more was made to be Studied. The cut-off point was established at this census 15 figure to limit the population to a manageable size and yet meet the criteria of "major police departments" as stated in the hypothesis. The cities were identified by the 1960 United States Census taken by the United States Bureau of Census. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL, PRESENT AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS The companionship found between dog and man has been enjoyed for centuries. Their alliance is founded not on formal pacts, treaties, or doctrines, but upon mutual re— spect, trust, and faith in each other. The dog is a re- markable animal that has been a servant of man since the be- ginning of history. From all indications, the service of the dog remains in great demand today and promises to be even greater in the future as man further develops his ex- ceptional talents. I. HISTORICAL USE OF DOGS The exact origin of the dog is shrouded in obscurity in the historical writings of "Genus Canis." Many theories and stories have been advanced; however, no clear—cut origin could be determined since the relationship between dog and man started long before the beginning of recorded history. 'AnthrOpologists tell us that dogs played a part in man's life as far back as the middle paleolithic era some five 1William F. Brown, "Dog," Encyclopedia Americana, IX (1 963), 222b. 17 million years ago. This partnership between man and dog is a natural one, and the reasons for its beginning are as valid today as they were then. Primitive man found the dog a beast which could be controlled, whose feral instincts could be fashioned to conform to his needs, and an animal whose natural talents complimented his own. It was fleet where man was slow; it had a highly developed scenting ability, and its auditory sense was many times sharper than man's.2 Man quickly took advantage of these outstanding characteristics to train the dog for both war and peaceful purposes. Domestic Uses Man was quick to realize the natural intelligence possessed by the dog and wasted no time in taking him into the home and family activities. With a minimum of training the dog was ready to take his place in man's society and per- form a service at his master's beck and call. In return, man protected his dog from the perils of society, gave him food and shelter, and tended to his health. Hunting dogs. It is the consensus of historians that the dOg was first used by man to aid in hunting and running down the game that was so vital to his survival. In 2William Goldbecker and Ernest H. Hart, This lg the Gelnnan Shepherd (Orange, Connecticut: The Practical Science .Rulslishing Company, 1955), p. l. 18 their early association, man learned that the dog, like him— self, had a common struggle for food and self-protection.3 With a concerted effort they found mutual satisfaction in their hunting companionship. Therefore, a pact was formed between man and dog, a partnership that was to endure from the misty beginning of time down to the present day.4 WOrk doqs. Work dogs have served man well in numerous capacities. From the very beginning, man recog— nized the dog's intelligence, endurance, and loyalty as qualities which could be used to his advantage. During the day, the dog helped man hunt; at night he provided protection for him and his family by guarding the entrance to his cave, warning of the approach of an enemy.5 Through the evolution of history the dog has continuously been a faithful guard for homes and businesses. Dogs were used by the early shepherds to herd and protect the master's flocks. It was in this work where the earliest specialized breeds known to man were developed-- 3Charles F. Sloane, "Dogs in War, Police WOrk and on Patrol,“ Journal 9f Criminal Law, Criminology and Police Science, XLVI (September—October, 1955), 385. 4Josephine Z. Rine, The WOrld_gf Dogs (New York: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1965), p. 96. 5Sloane, loc. cit. 6Samuel G. Chapman, Doginn Police WOrk (Illinois: Public Administration Service, 1960), p. l. 19 namely, shepherds and hounds.7 The Romans used dogs to carry unbelievably heavy loads of provisions across. mountains when horses foundered and died due to inclement weather and treacherous paths.8 Through the centuries, draft dogs have been used for many and varied purposes. For this type of work several types of breeds have been de— velOped, of which the milkman's dog so frequently seen in Europe is an example.9 Huskies were used to pull sleds through the frozen north where no other means of transportation was available. St. Bernard dogs were used to perform heroic missions of rescue and survival.10 Farm dogs have been called upon to perform the many chores on the farm, such as filling the wood box, churning the butter, driving cattle, herding poultry, and killing vermin, to name a few.11 Show dogs have earned valuable prizes, and race dOgs have proved to be profitable entertainment for some.12 Ex- perimental dOgs have been used quite extensively in the laboratories in an effort to help explain the phenomenon of life in the man's world.13 7Goldbecker, loc. cit. 8Sloane,2p. cit., p. 386. 9Elliott Humphrey and Lucien Warner, Working Dogs (Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins Press, 1934), p. 3. 10Chapman, loc. cit. llRine,.gp. cit., p. 122. lzgpig. l3Humphrey, pp, cit., p. 116. 20 Tracking dogs. Man was quick to realize the value of the keen senses possessed by the dOg. As far back as 5,000 years ago, the dog was used to track down game through eyesight and scent. The exact point in history man first used the dog to track criminals is now known; however, it is recorded that dogs were used for this purpose in England in the fifteenth century.14 English soldiers used tracking hounds in the 1620's,tr>fbllow the trail of highwaymen who sought refuge from justice in unsettled rural parts of the country.15 Since that time, tracking of criminals has be- come common both in EurOpe and the United States. Guide dogs. The use of guide dogs trained to lead the blind is a fairly new occupation for dOgs. This great humanitarian work was originated and developed in Germany shortly after the First WOrld War.16 At the end of the war, each war-blinded German soldier received from his government a trained guide dog with which he could better adjust to civilian life.17 The plan was so successful that other countries soon adopted the idea, and today the guide dog rnay be found in all parts of the world. The female German shepherd has been found to be peculiarly qualified for this l4Sloane, 9p. cit., p. 388. 15Chapman,gp. cit., p. 2. l6Rine, pp, cit., p. 102 l7Clifford L. Hubbard, WOrking Dogs 9f the World (ZC>;ndon: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1947), p. 9. 21 difficult and exacting work, although other breeds have been successfully trained.18 With the help of a loyal canine com— panion, the blind person finds his longed-for freedom and independence. He has a friend eager to serve day or night with exceptional loyalty and faithfulness.