""—— ww— PHYSEOGRAPHIC PATTERNS IN MENOMINEE COUNTY, MICHIGAN Thesis far {In Dogma 0* M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNEVERSETY Wayne T. Strand 1963 -—--—-_—_ _ I -‘. —.— ~‘_ 1 \\\\\\\\\\\\\ \\\ \\\\\\\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\| 3 1293 10463 2587 LIBRARY Michigan State University 1...“ Lt‘ii B rfim J "NW ABSTRACT Wayne T. Strand The surface configuration of Michigan can be attributed almost in its entirety to Pleistocene glaciation and subsequent fluvial activity. A great number and variety of landforms and landform patterns are the results of glacial and fluvioglacial deposition and erosion. In order to appreciate the significance of the various landforming processes, the aspects of the individual form as well as the general areal physiography must be examined. The traditional method of landform classification in which indie vidual relief features are categorized according to their origin fails many times to adequately describe the complexity of the surface config- uration. Similarly, the division of an area into physiographic regions entirely on a genetic basis does not allow for terrain variations within a region. Too large a degree of generalization may lead one to overlook smaller landform units which are giving a unique character to particular portions of a large area. This study is an attempt to describe the complexity of the physio- graphy of Menominee County, Michigan, and to show the relationships that exist between individual landform components. The nature of the terrain allows delineation of the County into both morphographic and morphogenetic regions which, in most cases, have similar boundaries. Certain glacial, fluvioglacial, and lacustrine processes have formed distinct landform patterns. The elements which create regional variations in the surface configuration are lepe, local relief, drainage patterns, and material composition. By analyzing the areal distribution of variations in each element, the extent of the different forms of morphogenesis can be recognized. The component characteristics of each region can be seen only through large scale mapping. Type sites (small areas within each land- form type which represent the terrain of each region) are used to show the t0pographic details of each homogeneous landform unit. There are many morphogenetic problems which exist in the County. The evolution of many landforms is not yet understood (e.g. eskers, drumlins) and the post-glacial history of the region has not been determined. Three of these problems are discussed in the last chapter of the thesis so that some light might be shed on both the evolution of individual landforms and the post-glacial erosion of the region. PHYSIOGRAPHIC PATTERNS IN MENOMINEE COUNTY, MICHIGAN by wayne T. Strand A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Geography 1963 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply indebted to Dr. Dieter Brunnschweiler, chairman of my thesis committee, for his guidance and help in the writing of this thesis. Dr. Brunnschweiler's enthusiasm in geomorphology motivated me to work with continuous interest on the physiography of Menominee County. I am also indebted to Mr. Robert Frost, Chief of the Photo Inter- pretation Division, USA CRREL, who suggested that I attend graduate school. I would also like to thank my wife, who made graduate school financially possible. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . List of Illustrations . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. Appendix INTRODUCTION . . . . . . MAJOR MDRPHOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS. . LANDFORM TYPES . . . . . MORAINE HILL LANDS . . . TILL PLAIN (GROUND MORAINE). . . . . ORIENTED MORAINIC HILL LANDS FLUVIOGLACIAL PLAINS . . LACUSTRINE PLAINS . . . MORPHOGENETIC ASPECTS. . Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . iii (DRUMLIN FIELD) Page ii iv 119 26 35 42 57 66 76 89 92 Plate II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Bedrock Structure . . . . Major Contours. . . . . . Movement of the Green Bay Esker Distribution . . . Major Drainage Network. . Swamp Distribution. . . . Swamp Patterns. . . . . . Local Relief . . . . . Physiographic Regions . . Type Site Cross-sections Moraine Type Site Overlay Till Plain Type Site Overlay. Drumlin Distribution . . Drumlinoid Forms. . . . . Drumlin Field Type Site Overlay Fluvioglacial Plains Type Site Overlay. Lacustrine Plains Type Site Overlay Abandoned Shorelines . . Green Bay Basin Diagram . Menominee River Valley Overlay. Major Cultural Features . T0pographic Coverage . . iv 10 11 13 15 16 21 23 24 32 39 43 44 52 62 73 8O 83 85 9O 91 Figure l. Moraine Surface Configuration . . . 2. Erratic Example . . . . . . . . . . 3. Aerial Photo (Moraine) . . . . . . . 4. Deflation in the Till Plain. . . . . 5. Till Plain Form . . . . . . . . . . 6. Aerial Photo (Till Plain) . . . . . 7. Undissected Drumlin . . . . . . . . 8. Narrow Drumlin . . . . . . . . . . . 9. Material Composition . . . . . . . . 10. Gully Development . . . . . . . . . 11. Esker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. Floodplain Cross-section . . . . . . 13. Aerial Photo (Drumlin Field) . . . . l4. Delta-Kame (Slumping) . . . . . . . 15. Delta-Kame (No Evidence of Slumping) l6. Aerial Photo (Fluvioglacial Plains). l7. Dune Cross-section . . . . . . . . . 18. Abandoned Beach Ridge Cross-section l9. Swamp Vegetation Types . . . . . . . 20. Swamp Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . 21. Aerial Photo (Lacustrine Plains) . . 22. Aerial Photo (Menominee River Valley). 33 37 37 4O 46 46 48 48 50 50 53 6O 60 63 69 69 71 71 74 86 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In spite of the wide variety of interesting features, the physiography of Michigan is a neglected field of study. The previous geomorphic inves- tigations are primarily of the Southern Peninsula and concerned with the genetic aspects of the surface configuration. Consequently, little is known of the physiography of the Northern Peninsula. Personal observation of the many landform types in Menominee County led to the selection of this area for my thesis. Although there have been some previous geomorphic studies of the County, they were primarily designed to analyze the characteristics of certain types of glacially formed features. The large-scale physiographic aspects of the County have not been described. Statement of Problem - This study is an attempt to delineate landform regions on the basis of descriptive (morphographic) and quantitative (morphometric) methods. The main objective is the typification of homo- geneous landform units within the County by means of detailed descriptions of small areas. The areas or type sites selected for the detailed analysis were those that best express the characteristics of the regions. In order to delineate homogeneous landform units, the major physical characteristics of the topography must be examined. These components. (form, material, structure, and drainage) vary greatly in different areas and form distinct patterns in the surface configuration. There is a close relationship between the boundary locations of the aforementioned charac- teristics which allows an accurate delineation of the terrain into landform types. These boundaries coincide closely with those which have been established for the different morphogenetic regions (Martin, 1957). Landform types are usually classified according to mode of origin (e.g. fluviatile, glacial, solutional). The division of Menominee County into landform types is in essence such a classification. How- ever, within each homogeneous terrain unit there are a number of smaller features which have a different origin than that of the predominant landform type. This study is therefore designed to show, through the description of regional type sites, the complex of features which may be found in a landform region. Techniques - The morphographic and morphometric information used in this study was derived primarily from four sources. The quantitative data of the surface configuration were derived from examination of the topographic quadrangles of the County (Plate XXII). The large scale of the quandrangles (l:24,000) allowed a detailed investigation. Accuracy of the maps is very high because of the photogrammetric method used in the compilation of the data and the recent date of publication (1962). The landform patterns are most conspicuous on the aerial photo mosaics. Individual aerial photographs which best expressed the character of the landform regions were selected to be used as examples for the type site studies. The soil map, although highly generalized, was used for investigating the areal distribution of soil types. The composition of parent material in the different regions could be interpreted from the soil types. The drainage and swamp patterns were also derived from the soil map. Field investigations were carried out in the summer of 1962. The purpose of the field work was to examine details of the surface configu- ration that could not be seen on the aerial photos or topographic quadrangles. Individual features that could not be recognized by any other method were checked by field studies. Traverses of the County were made to study glacial drift color and composition. Ground and aerial photographs were taken to illustrate the structure and form of individual landform features. Previous Studies - The most important geomorphic studies of the south-central part of the Northern Peninsula are by Israel C. Russell (1907) and Walter A. Ver Wiebe (1926). Russell described the surface geology of parts of Menominee, Dickinson, and Iron Counties. A major part of his text is devoted to the discussion of glacial landforms. The form and structure of the various glacially formed features are described and conclusions concerning the mode of formation are made. Russell also describes the color and texture of the drift in the different landforms. He was the first to record the presence of red till in Menominee County. Ver Wiebe studied individual landform features in Menominee County. He was concerned primarily with the structure and genesis of the various landforms and cited examples in his discussion. Dimensions of individual structures were included as well as the distribution and number of the various features. Ver Wiebe located his examples by the township and range method, thus enabling possible further field checks. Other studies of limited scope have been done in the south-central part of the Northern Peninsula. Goldthwait (1907) made reference to the location and elevation of the major abandoned beach ridge systems in the southern part of the County. Leverett and Taylor (1915) briefly described the lacustrine landforms and major lake fluctuations in the Northern Peninsula. The Department of Agriculture (1925) published a soil map with an accompanying text of Menominee County. Leverett (1929) described the location and genesis of lacustrine formations of the Northern Peninsula. Martin (1957) mapped the distribution of landform types in the state. However, none of these studies integrate all of the elements forming the surface configuration and therefore do not fully describe the physiography. CHAPTER II MAJOR MORPHOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS Structure - There are two types of structure in Menominee County (Plate I). The extreme western part of the County contains an igneous and a metamorphic complex. ‘The central and eastern parts are underlain by a series of sedimentary strata. The structural arrangement has an important bearing on the surface configuration of the County. A more or less uniformly inclined surface has been formed from the resistant igneous and metamorphic complex in the west on the slope of the sedimentary strata towards the center of the ‘Michigan Basin in the east (Plate II). Structural influence is evident in the orientation of the topography. The major landform features in the central and eastern parts of the County form a linear pattern oriented in a northeast-southwest direction. The linear topography of the County is primarily caused by the strike and dip orientation of the sedimentary strata. The varying resistance of the strata to erosive processes has formed a series of cuestas along the strike of the structure. These cuestas and their intervening lowlands form a series of topographic highs and lows in the area. The major direc- tion of glacial movement was obviously influenced by the strike of the strata resulting in a superimposed linear pattern in the glacial drift. In contrast to the oriented topography of the sedimentary regions, that of the igneous and metamorphic complex exhibits no particular trend. ’4.“ I". o'c- STRUCTURE OF WESTERN UPPER MICHIGAN \ / 17/ ' SCALE ‘7 ‘/ IO 0 IO 20 30 40 ‘7... MILES \fi/\ \ \/\ /\/\ /\/\/\ E\/\/\/ Q /\/\/ 7xK\/\/\ . / /\/\/\ KALV . /\/ <\/\ /\/ \/ \ , l M. \\< ”\{1 IGNEOUS-METAMORPHIC g4\\ “3*" PRE-CAMBRIAN ssomenrs . 1 & cmamm sEOIIIIEIITs 5?: ORDOVIOIAN ssomsu'rs " 4 4' SILURIAN SEDIMENTS \ l GROSS-SECTION A-A' - LAVA-TRAP \ l\" _ I, / \//\\‘/ Mid-Tl .. .94'. (- BASEMENT COMPLEX PRE- CAMBRIAN SS-SH /\\ T I 87‘ 86° 48“ CAMBRIAN SS ORDOVIOIAN SH-LS E SILURIAN LS-RS WTS PLATE I SOURCE: MICHIGAN GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, I957 I MAJOR CONTOURS MENOMINEE COUNTY '.‘.;. ...... I M" I 'I' “In, K; 9’ ’I ’r (A ’ I ” C" “I 5' n ,3! ’ )‘M J p ’ ,fi so FOOT { . CONTOUR . *7/91 s / (,3! ,'.,' 580-599 FEET I I v ) Ir / ,~’ $.51"! [:I 600-699 " I I ’I C] 700-799 " 9”" ‘4 ii? I 7 - 900- 899 " - 900- 999 - I000. I099 WTS PLATE II The structure of the County is buried under varying thicknesses of glacial drift. The valley of the Menominee River in the igneous and metamorphic area is marked by numerous outcrops where the drift has been removed. A series of waterfalls and rapids have formed where the river has cut down to the basement complex. The drift cover on the cuestas in the central part of the County is thin and in several places bedrock is exposed. The structure in the eastern part is completely buried by drift and lacustrine sediments. The most extensive bedrock outcrops are in the Green Bay basin. A cuesta remnant extends from Chambers Island north to Whaleback Shoal in the center of the basin. The Niagara Escarpment, the most prominent cuesta in the region, forms a steep cliff along the eastern shore of Green Bay. This cuesta forms the Door Peninsula of Wisconsin (Plate XIX). The extent of structural influence on the surface configuration varies in different locations. In the Green Bay basin, the structure is the most important component of the tOpography. The orientation of the major terrain features in the central part of the County has been strongly influenced by the structure. There are areas where the surface config- uration is not conformal to the structure, however. The orientation of the landforms in the northwestern part of the County is not parallel to the strike of the cuestas. Instead, the trend of the surface features is in more of a westerly direction offset from the strike. The linear pattern of the eastern part of the County, although parallel.to the sedimentary strike, was formed by lacustrine processes rather than as a result of structural control. Glacial Landforms - Most of the topography of the County is formed from unconsolidated glacial and fluvioglacial material. The material was deposited during the various substages of the Wisconsin glaciation. Evidence of the three preceding glaciations (Nebraskan, Kansan, and Illinoian) has not been discovered. The major physical characteristics of the County are therefore directly associated only with the processes which were active during and after the Wisconsin glaciation. Menominee County was covered by the Green Bay lobe of the glacier (Plate III). The direction of major ice movement was parallel to the axis of the Green Bay basin. The orientation of the glacial landforms in the central and eastern parts of the County indicates that they were formed by ice movement which was parallel with the Green Bay axis. In the western part, however, the major topographic features give evidence that they were formed under marginal spreading of the ice. Most of the surface configuration is composed of ice-contact features. The central part of the County contains conspicuously formed till deposits. The northern half of the region is characterized by a drumlin field whereas the southern half is marked by low parallel hills in the form of a till plain. The predominant glacial features in the western part of the County are recessional moraines which were formed during phases of ice stagnation. Another small recessiOnal moraine is located in the southeastern part Of the County. Fluvioglacial features are numerous and widespread(Plate IV). Eskers are found in all but the extreme eastern part of the County. They are superimposed on every type of glacially formed feature. The eskers vary greatly in size and structure (Ver Wiebe, 1926). 'Most of the systems are oriented across the trend of the glacial landforms and consequently are often interrupted. 10 fihoveusm OF THE EGREEN BAY ‘“ LOBE PLATE III ll ESKER HINOIINII COUNTY .39 ............ WM... ........ 1. . t. .L» m I\1. W I. /_o k r \ 5 I / ICC /’ o ’- ’ I d / annifi: rt // #l/«X I . I 4.9 .. n If _v / c o .J7 . r . I 1 .r W a .. I r. .5: a an; /« ’- ESKERS COUPILED FROM COMPLETE AIR PHOTO COVERAGE ”It. £71 Dill... mu. PLATE IV 12 Fluvioglacial plains are occupying the depressions in the glacial drift. Those in the drumlin field and the recessional moraines are limited in size whereas the fluvioglacial plains in the southern part of the County adjacent to the moraines are large. All of the fluvio- glacial landforms were formed by meltwater during the last recession of the glacier. The only parts of the County that are not characterized by glacially formed features are the eastern part and the Menominee River valley. The surface configuration of the eastern region has been formed by wave erosion and deposition during the various stages of lake levels. The topography of the lacustrine plains consists of a broad, flat plain with superimposed parallel ridges and scattered dune formations. The river valley is marked by fluvially eroded and deposited features. Hydrographic Pattern - Menominee County has a poorly integrated drainage pattern (Plate V). Although there are a number of streams that penetrate the County, there are many areas which are characterized by interior drainage. 'Most of the depressions in the recessional moraines and the drumlin field are collecting basins for run-off waters from the surrounding slopes. The distribution of landforms greatly restricts the development of.a well-integrated pattern. Most stream gradients are low and consequently the waters do not have enough power to cut through the uplands and are confined to the depressions. There are two major drainage networks in the County. The larger of the two, that of the Menominee River, drains most of the western part of the County. This system is fed by a series of tributary streams which penetrate the County in a northeasterly direction. The other network is that of Cedar River which drains the northeastern section. The pattern 13 I MAJOR DRAINAGE: Iv/ NETWORK !+. r _J HENOMINEE I _' w I COUNTY . A I I, L \1 I , i K» i I '1 I . ’ _, _ ! 1. I I ' ‘ x V‘ I ~<\ ‘T’ I — -— — t — — --—‘ «_ \ k \ r, \ > / L .1" § CV TC ‘x/V ‘* 1 .‘ /" . I a I“ _. /. ‘\- R a! l I . , , g I '/ ""°': .9 N I I j r » 1. f, ’ CT. I ’ q I ‘ 2 \‘ ' ' i . ‘ I f» a V w ‘ /~ \ \ IéIlr'A.‘ ‘\ . . /’ I . j I / . I I” - IF, I. . . "IL. I, CHI-In I 0- o o I, I; mun v“ H is». cu PLATE V 14 formed by this stream reflects the degree of structural influence in the drainage. The southeastern part of the County is drained by a series of small streams which enter directly into Green Bay. These streams, unlike the others, are oriented in a northwest-southeast direction following the regional slope which is perpendicular to the shoreline. The drainage systems of the County are obviously very young. With the exception of the Menominee River, all have poorly-defined valleys. The strong structural control of the drainage has resulted in many areas of interior drainage and a large number of swamps. APPROXIMATE WATERSHED AREAS OF THE LARGER STREAMS Cedar River 380 square miles Little Cedar River 170 " ” Bark River 75 H ," Little River 75 N '" Ford River 70 n n Other Streams 225 " " Surface Drainage - Drainage throughout the County is generally poor. The depressions which are fed by interior drainage are predominantly swampy. ‘Most of the streams have gradients too low to satisfactorily drain their watersheds. The poor drainage conditions have resulted in a high amount of land occupied by swamps and a generally high water table (Plate VI). The swamps form distinct patterns in the various landform regions of the County (Plate VII). Three factors were found to influence the patterns. The shape and size of the depressions which contain the swamps are directly related to the type of relief features in each region. The level of the water table controls the base elevation at which the swamps can form. The type of drainage (exterior or interior) determines the quantity of water which is available for swamp formation. 15 SWAMP DISTRIBUTION MENOMINEE , COUNTY ' PLATE VI l6 LACUSTRI NE PLAINS REGION SWAMP PATTERNS MENOMINEE COUNTY SCALE i O 6000 IZOOO FEET TIC-I -J D. I DRUM LIN REGION PLATE VI I l7 Swamp patterns, therefore, are good indicators of certain aspects of the surface configuration. The swamp pattern in the morainic area indicates that the terrain is non-oriented. The majority of the depress- ions are isolated and vary greatly in size and shape. The swamp pattern of the lacustrine plains has been formed primarily in linear depressions parallel to the shoreline. The size of the swamps indicates that much of the area is flat whereas the shape of the swamps implies that the depressions are contained by linear, parallel uplands. The pattern in the drumlin field reflects a linear arrangement of the major topographic features. Most of the swamps are isolated which indicates that they are located in areas of interior drainage. Pedologic Aspects e Soils are intimately related to geomorphic genesis and other physical characteristics of the landform. They reflect mode of origin, groundwater conditions, degree of erosion, slope charac- teristics, and geologic age. A distinct relationship exists between the soils series of the County and particular aspects of the terrain (U.S. Department of Agriculture, 8.0.8., 1925). SOIL SERIES GEOMORPHIC RELATIONSHIP Bergland Eastport lacustrine plains Alpena ' Ewen stream alluvium Grayling fluvioglacial outwash Longrie limestone within 3 feet of surface Menominee deposited by wind or water Wallace sand dunes 18 The effects of drainage on soil development in the County are significant and numerous. Rifle and Greenwood Peat are the two most important organic soils in the County. They occupy approximately 33% of the total land area. The organic soils are widely distributed (Plate VI). The younger ones in the eastern part of the County support a vegetational cover of leatherleaf whereas the older organic soils in the central and western parts posseSs a thick forest cover. The poorly drained mineral soils are located primarily along the swamp borders. Their typical profile consists of an organic layer less than one foot thick, a gray layer, a fine-textured layer with brown and yellow mottling, and a water-logged substratum. They are represented by the Bergland, Saugatuck, and Granby series. The well drained soils are associated with the uplands of the County. The most extensive series is Onaway which is found throughout the central and western regions. The texture of the Onaway is a fine sandy loam in the western part of the County where it has developed from a coarse- grained parent material. A loam texture has developed from the clay till in the central region. Other well drained soils are the Rodman, Longrie, Roselawn, and Emmet series. CHAPTER III DISTRIBUTION OF LANDFORM TYPES The terrain patterns which are seen on the air photo mosaics and soil map are reflected by various landform types. A landform type, for the purpose of this study, may be defined as an area on the earth's surface created by natural processes in such a way that it may be described and recognized in terms of typical features wherever it may occur, and which, when identified, will provide dependable information concerning its structure, composition, and form (after Lueder, 1959). The surface configuration of Menominee County has been formed primarily by glacial, fluvioglacial, and lacustrine processes. The results of these processes formed distinct associations of landforms. The major characteristics of the terrain, structure, composition, and form, vary with the mode of formation, and thereby cause different landform types. On this basis, the landform types of the County can be designated as morphogenetic regions. In order to classify the surface configuration of the County into morphographic types, the measurable characteristics of the terrain must be examined. Slope, local relief, and material are the most important parameters which are used in this study for landform classification. Slope elements form horizontal as well as vertical dimensions of the topography. Local relief, which may be defined as the difference in elevation within a unit area, is an important indicator of vertical l9 20 terrain differences. Two distinct regions of high local relief exist in the County (Plate VIII). Material variations indicate differences in deposition. On the basis of these criteria, the County has been classified into five landform types (Plate IX): Moraine Hill Lands Till Plains (Ground Moraine) Oriented Morainic Hill Lands (Drumlin Field) Valley Trains (Fluvioglacial Plains and Valleys) Lacustrine Plains (Lake Plains) Several of the landform types occur in more than one area. There are three regions which have been classified as moraine hill lands. Although the local relief varies, form, structure, and material composi— tion of these areas are similar. The mode of formation of the three regions is basically the same, therefore the moraine hill lands are homogeneous in genesis as well as in morphometric and morphographic qualities. Only the major fluvioglacial features are classified as landform types. Most of the fluvioglacial valleys and plains are limited in size and occur entirely within other landform types. Consequently, they are considered as extraneous features of the other regions. However, there are three fluvioglacial plains in the southern part of the County large enough to be considered as special landform types. Most of the landform types have one dominant characteristic that differentiates them from all others. Fluvioglacial plains are recognized by the stratification of fine sorted material. Moraine hill lands can be identified by the poor sorting of material and the presence of non- oriented hills. Till plains are characterized by poor material sorting and low, undulating hills. Oriented moraine hill lands are recognized by the form and distribution of individual hills, and lacustrine plains generally contain long, parallel abandoned beach ridges. 21 LOCAL RELIEF MENOMINEE COUNTY 0-24 FEET 25-49 ' 50-74 ' 75-99 ' loo-200 ” WTS PLATE VIII 22 Although each landform type is primarily the result of a particular process, it should be noted that these regions may also contain features of different genesis. Eolian forces have reworked the surface material in many areas, thereby altering the original surface configuration. Eskers, kames, and other forms of fluvioglacial outwash occur in all regions except the lacustrine plains. These features which are super- imposed upon the original glacial topography are locally dominant. Only large scale mapping can bring out the individuality of these features. Boundary Problems - The landform type boundaries that are shown on Plate IX are only approximate. In most cases, boundaries between the regions are not clearly marked. Instead, the peripheral parts of the various landform types increase in extraneous characteristics which are not associated with the ”modal" character of the regions. Consequently, an area exists between the regions where characteristics of the landform types merge. An example of a transitional region is the area between the Ingalls fluvioglacial plain and the drumlin field. Individual drumlins, although more infrequent and smaller than in the central part of the drumlin field, have been partially buried by fluvioglacial outwash. An exact boundary is difficult to locate. It could be placed in the part of the drumlin field where the outwash begins, or in that part of the fluvioglacial plain where the drumlins cease to exist. It seems logical that the boundary be placed in the center of the transitional area. In a few instances, the boundaries are clearly marked. Wave erosion has cut a series of cliffs in the hills of the southeast moraine forming a distinct boundary between the lacustrine plains and the moraine region. The Menominee River valley has been cut into the western side of the 223 PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS MENOMINEE COUNTY TYPE SITE _ IA 7// Is 119 TYPE SITE ‘ IIc TYPE SITE Ills TYPE SITE Ic TYPE SITE MARENISCO MORAINE sw MORAINE SE MORAINE ORUMLIN FIELD GROUNO MORAINE KOSS OUTWASH PLAIN INGALLS " " LITTLE R." " LACUSTRINE PLAINS iPIuAIEB IJK 24 N main I! m»; 08 u. 000 n 00m mzozbm muwwomo 3. 2925336 .2953 000.3... uiom mtm ma»... II.-I.O'onHaloo-. a O OHIOOI I... ..lo-o . .. v W~ ...... «I “1. I (I 1 I I ‘5.“ I III. D .II II III IIIIIO I O l . c I o o a . 0‘ III I I -IIUHHIIII ..U I... .N... an .II..L...I.III .I u .. . I 1.141% a .a. . I . III ~11- q u... I - .. l I II I C I I I 'I C | I I- IO‘\|| I II IIIIIIIIIIII fl D ch- 00 on IIICIIIII lllllll 00 II a... 0- I l 0 slot On.- lul'o l I. - 0-“.qu H .....v. . i L o H I A II q I C I C ”Cult”. ”u. Incon- ‘II MI. v '0 In” 0 K | I on I. \ Q "‘9 o a \u no... I u .9 .I-lu out. “ ”I; a. In 10‘. a a“; a ”I Iv...“- p-c Ina- \ 9.0 uGQOHWOI-ti I quvI 1 ”'00.”- EuI-HwIWII-IO ...... .. ...... I u: v .. .. ..w...“ ....... ....u. .v.. . . .... ..r... .. ....... nu. . . v nu. In... .. n I!” I... nuno-uuu .... .- .. so. . ~u .. .....y.. ..v: v. .. .. . ..w. .v .0 0 .o . ... sud. aqohnc-onnnnnu ...... nunwfi’otuno-noo- ”Iv-u- “ cap-- .- 0...-.--.a-o. mfg...“ . on...”- ouol’ ...- sumo-......“ OZ // ....wgbd u 5&3! b dd.0( g.>:4u htwmulm g meg—(CO uuziozu! .. maida 80010 ma maouzo..@u CEUDLOOZCCJ /..r wGDEDIO 838).). Nstxbzo /d. «Suflwfin LwSSDIO g8 U8.)§ chuso. ...... Q xoonoum .» nus: musiosu: . .... moi; «cause. . xooaomm .u. .m 3 n music—32... o ) .3658?ch 392.. Jr amuse/Pu» ...utwn /u@flv 5 . . \ \ \t. .\ \\\ \.\\ \\\\\ .L.\\ \ 34 There are several fluvioglacial deposits in the type site area. A kame deposit occupies the central part of the spillway valley. The kame has a crescent shape and is slightly over thirty feet in height. Two esker systems have been formed, one in the spillway valley and the other on the northern valley wall. These fluvioglacial deposits mark the termination of glacial activity in the area. Sections of the lowlands adjacent to the valleys possess a veneer of alluvial material. A delta has been formed at the junction of the spillway valley and the west side of the Menominee River. Alluvial material also exists in the spillway valley where a floodplain has been developed. Most of the deeper depressions have originated as pit lakes and are now covered by swamps. Kettles and swales in the morainic uplands are also occupied by swamps as are the abandoned channels of the valleys. Most of the swamps in the uplands are isolated features and vary greatly in size and shape, whereas the valley swamps form an interconnecting linear pattern. CHAPTER Y THE TILL PLAIN REGION (GROUND MORAINE) The till plain region forms a narrow, rectangular-shaped lowland between the southeast and southwest moraine systems. The north and south boundaries of the region are formed by fluvioglacial plains. The till plain is the southern part of a much larger ground moraine system which extends through the center of the County in a north-south direction. Many of the characteristics of the drumlin field, which is located in the central part of the ground moraine system, can also be found in the till plain region. The surface configuration has a definite northeast-southwest orientation, similar to that of the drumlins. The elongated, parallel till plain uplands form a linear pattern of islands in a large network of swamps. The majority of the esker systems in the till plain have a northeast-southwest trend. The material composition of the ground moraine uplands is similar to that of the drumlin field. The uplands are composed of a clayey till with a large number of cobbles. The diameter of the cobbles ranges between one and four inches. Large erratics are uncommon in the ground moraine. The material possesses a distinct red hue which may be related to the deposition with the Valders Advance (Chapter IX). The till plain is poorly drained. The drainage system is composed of one stream which extends the length of the region. Small tributaries branch out from the trunk stream and drain sections of the peripheral 35 36 Figure 4. Deflation in the Till Plain. In parts of the till plain there exists a veneer of eolian sand. The sand has not been deposited in dune formations but instead has been formed into low, gently undulating hills. Vegetation has anchored most of the sand but in places where cultural activities have disturbed the plant cover, recent eolian erosion has taken place. Figure 5. Oblique View of the Till Plain. The better drained uplands of the till plain are used for agricultural purposes. The rock piles throughout the fields are evidence of the stoniness of the till. The forest cover occurs primarily in the swampy areas. 37 ( .mét: $9.35. I C I W Ev ,h " s r 38 areas of the till plain. The presence of the morainic regions on either side of the till plain is one of the prime causes of the large amount of land which is occupied by swamp. A large percentage of the water which originates in the morainic regions does not reach the drainage system of the till plain and consequently is contained in the lowland areas where it supports swamp formation. There are many eskers located throughout the till plain. Two large systems have been formed parallel to one another in the central and northern sections of the region. These two eskers are approximately eight miles long and are oriented in a northeast-southwest direction. Another large sinuous ridge is located in the central part of the till plain. This feature, unlike the other two, is oriented in an east-west direction. All three terminate in approximately the same area. There are many smaller esker systems, most of which are located in the northern half of the till plain. Eolian forces have deposited a mantle of fine-grained sands over the glacial till in the northern and western sections of the till plain. The surface configuration of the sand areas is characterized by a flat to gently rolling terrain. The high permeability of the sand has caused a different type of vegetation to develop than in the other sections. In places where the coniferous cover has been disturbed, blowouts have been formed. The source region of the sand is the fluvioglacial plains and the moraine regions which surround the till plain. Type Site Analysis (Figure 6, Plate XII) The major relief forming phenomena of the till plain are the elongated hills which form a linear pattern in the topography. The hills are 1000 to 2000 feet wide and rise approximately 40 feet above the plane of the swamps. The ground moraine uplanishave been severely dissected. The low permeability of the till encourages surface run-off rather than percola- tion, and consequently the hill slopes are marked by a series of gullies. 40 o ngm nah. améés‘ ”an: . , SITE, 41 The gullies are generally broad and shallow and form an intricate drainage network. They form a rectangular pattern as they are oriented parallel and at right angles to the trend of the hills. Many of the larger gully systems which are located in depressions between the uplands mark the locations of former stream channels. These gullies contain alluvial deposits which have a braided pattern. The valley of the master stream in the eastern part of the type site is marked by a braided alluvium pattern and a narrow, sinuous swamp. The alluvium was deposited during the functioning of a late-glacial discharge stream which often changed its channel. The abandoned channel courses wind through parts of the uplands and form a series of small ground moraine "islands” and are marked by curvilinear depressions which appear as dark gray areas on the photograph. The area adjacent to the stream channel is characterized by a series of small, sedge-covered islands. The low stream gradient has caused a number of small meanders to form. The meanders cause periodic local flooding in the swamp area. The fluvioglacial features are located entirely in the northern part of the type site. Most of these features are in the form of small esker segments. Two short eskers are located on the ground moraine uplands in the eastern section of the type site whereas the remainder are situated in the swamplands in the western section. Most of the esker formations are small and seldom exceed 10 feet in height. In the northwest corner of the type site, three short eskers connect and terminate as a single feature. An irregularly-shaped fluvioglacial deposit is located in the north-central part of the type site. This deposit resembles the form of a kame rather than that of an esker. The drainage of the type site is very poor. The eskers and ground moraine uplands are the only parts of the region which have satisfactory drainage. The soils of the ground moraine which are adjacent to the swamplands are characterized by mottling and waterlogged substrata in their horizons. CHAPTER VI ORIENTED GROUND MORAINE REGION The largest and most diverse landform type region is that of the oriented moraine hill land. The drumlin field is morphographically and morphogenetically the most interesting complex of landforms in the County. Drumlin fields are not common in Michigan. The Menominee drumlin field is the only one in the Northern Peninsula and there are two in the northern part of the Southern Peninsula. They are located in the Traverse Bay and Cheboygan areas (Melhorn, 1956). The drumlins in the Southern Peninsula are small in comparison to those in Menominee County. In the Traverse Bay region, they vary from one-eighth to one mile in length and range between 40 to 70 feet in height. Those in the Cheboygan area vary from one-eighth to one-half miles in length and range between 20 to 50 feet in height. The drumlins in Menominee County range up to one andcne-half miles in length and exceed 130 feet in height. The three drumlin fields have several characteristics in common. They are all located on sedimentary rock which has a distinct regional dip. Drumlin cores are composed of pre-Valders drift and have a surface plastering of Valders till. Regional Aspects of the Menominee Drumlin Field - The oriented morainic hill lands of the County extefihd over 44 miles along a northeast- southwest axis. The width of the region averages approximately 12 miles. 42 43 ~ " ’M I DRUMLIN DISTRIBUTION 4 MENOMINEE COUNTY EEEEEE c SCALE 1 o 6000 uzooo FEET I’ LOCATION OF SELECTED AREAS ; g fl 44% MW AREA C HUHEER or onuuuus HEAH LENGTH or onuuuus 3960' MEAN HEIGHT or onuutms 67' w T s PLATE XIII 44 ORUMLINOID LANDFORMS MENOMINEE COUNTY EEEEEE SSSSS PLATE XIV 45 Figure 7. An Undissected Drumlin. This drumlin has moderately sloping, convex sides and a broad, flat crest. The forest cover, which is a deterrent to gullying, has only recently been removed. A small swamp has formed in the low‘ inter-drumlin area due to the absence of exterior drainage. Figure 8. A Narrow, Steeply Slgping Drumlin. This feature has a narrow crest and steeply sloping convex slopes on which a series of incipient gullies have developed. The profile of this type of drumlin is characterized by an even, gently rounded crest. The lowland in the foreground, although not in swamp, has a very high water table which restricts its agricultural use. 46 FIGURE 7 47 Figure 9. Material Composition of the Oriented Morainic Hill Lands. The till consists of a sandy clay matrix with a large number of cobbles. The cobbles generally range between one to six inches in diameter. Figure 10. Gully Development in the Clay Till Alongga Road-cut. Gullies develop quickly in areas where the vegetational cover has been removed. The finer particles are washed away leaving behind a very stony slope. 48 FIGURE 9 FIGURE 10 49 Figure 11. A Typical Esker in the Drumlin Field. The sinuous form of the ridge is partially obliterated by the dense forest cover. The height of the esker can be visualized from the size of the trees in the background. The high porosity of the material within the eskers allows a different type of vegetation to grow than in the surrounding areas. Figure 12. Stratified Sands and Gravels of a Stream in the Drumlin Region. The valleys of the larger streams in the drumlin field contain large deposits of stratified sands and gravels. These sediments indicate that there have been frequent changes in the stream courses. The shifting of stream courses is also evident in the organic layer approximately one foot below the present surface. 50 . .ti! CI.‘ . - O . 43-4" '*~ ' ' Wan-o." ,m' 91". ”A'Qf ‘ _ .'-‘ .1; w ‘ » 4-2 ‘ . v I"\"' 4’ .ib‘ »- O ‘ '~ ‘ 1’. ~ ‘4‘: ‘ .‘ a p .I' .. 3.. . ».!y'.‘ it's.“ ‘ "V" it“ . FIGURE 12 51 The drumlins in the eastern part of the field are higher and occupy a larger percentage of land than in any other section (Plate XIII). The peripheral parts of the drumlin field are marked by a decrease in drumlin size and an increase in number. The regional boundaries of the north, west, and south sides are not abrupt, instead they tend to blend into the peripheral parts of the surrounding type regions. On the eastern side, however, the wave-cut cliffs form a distinct boundary between the drumlin field and the lacustrine plains. Many drumlins along this boundary have been totally or partially destroyed by wave action of the former, higher lake levels. There is a gradual shift in drumlin orientation from the eastern to the western portion of the field. The axes of the drumlins in the eastern section.tnendalong an azimuth of 34 degrees. The orientation gradually shifts to a more westerly direction in the extreme western part of the field where the axes have an azimuth of 70 degrees, or a change of 36 degrees over a distance of 12 miles. The drumlins have a wide variety of shapes (Plate XIV). Many appear as long, narrow ridges whereas others are more symmetrical. Other drum— lims appear as groups superimposed on pediments. The pediments are broad, intermediate uplands composed of till. Where drumlins join one another, they form a complex series of slopes. The hills which possess the more typical drumlin form (tapering off of the profile in the direc- tion of ice movement and the blunt end at the stoss side)usually appear as individual features. Type Site Analysis (Figure 13, Plate XV) The drumlin field is composed of three principle kinds of landforms: glacial, fluvioglacial and fluvial. The post-glacial processes have altered'the original form of the glacial deposits and thereby have created a complex topography. Consequently, in order to show the ggsualsurface configuration of a ' _, b, - - - -é‘,’ - m H EDUHh 2..ng 54 drumlinized region, the various features superimposed on the drumlin area must be considered as important characteristics of the region. Glacial Features - The material of the oriented morainic hill lands is composed of a clay till with a large number of cobbles. The cobbles are generally well rounded and vary from one to six inches in diameter. Large sedimentary erratics, although uncommon, are scattered throughout the drift. The slopes of the glacial topography can be classified into three categories: flat to gently sloping lowlands, gently to moderately sloping drumlin pediments, and steeply sloping drumlins. The breaks in slope between these three categories are sharp in some places while in others they are hard to locate. The flat to gently sloping lowlands constitute a platform upon which the drumlin pediments and drumlins are located. The lowlands have a successive increase in absolute elevation in a northwesterly direction as the result of the underlying rock structure (Plate II). The lowlands have undergone the most extensive alteration by post-glacial processes. Almost all of the fluvially formed features are confined to the inter- drumlin areas. In the northern part of the type site, the inter-drumlin areas are small and moderately dissected whereas in the southern part they are broad and flat. An important factor which caused dissection in the northern part and not in the southern section is the relationship of the local elevation to the base level of the drainage network. In the north, the lowlands are at an elevation above the level of the primary stream channel and therefore the tributary streams are able to entrench themselves. In the south, however, the broad lowlands do not have an adequate gradient to the principal stream channel and consequently extensive swamps have developed. The drumlin pediments are intermediate upIands which generally form a base upon which the irumlins are located. They are not all associated with drumlins, however, as in places the drumlins rise directly above the lowlands. Gullies have been formed on the slopes of the pediments due to the low permeability of the till. The drumlins have been formed in a variety of shapes and sizes. In the central part of the type site, they are long and narrow whereas in the western part they are more blunt. The drumlin profiles vary greatly. In most cases, the highest point of the crest is located towards the stoss end. In others, however, the maximum height is reached at the center of the profile and in some cases at the lee end. Drumlin cross-sections have many forms. The slopes vary from concave to convex and in some cases both types can be found on one drumlin. Many drumlins have a steep slope on one side and a gentle slope on the other. The steep slope can occur on either side. The drumlins occur as individuals or as interconnected groups. Those that are in groups are commonly superimposed on pediments. There is not any pattern of drumlin density. In the central part of the site, drumlins occur within several hundred feet of one another whereas in the southern and northern areas they are separated by lowlands several thousand feet wide. 55 Fluvioglacial Features - Effects of fluvioglacial erosion and depo- sition are evident throughout the drumlin field. Trenches have been cut at right angles through many of the drumlin crests. It can be inferred that these trenches were cut by meltwater streams which were superimposed on the drumlins during the retreat of the glacier. ‘ The most common of the fluvioglacial landforms are the eskers. They are generally located on the drumlin pediments and in the lowlands. Mater- ially, they consist of stratified sands and gravels or boulders. The eskers vary greatly in size. The larger ones, which exceed heights of 40 feet, form systems which extend for several miles. The smaller eskers, which range between 10 to 20 feet in height, are short, usually not exceeding several thousand feet in length. The most common esker cross-section is that of steep sides with the height approximately equal to the basal width. The profiles are often interrupted, thereby forming a series of esker segments. Individual seg— ments begin and terminate abruptly rather than gradually tapering off. The larger systems have a greater number of segments due to their super- imposition over a more diverse terrain. In plane view the esker profiles are very irregular. They are all sinuous and in places may suddenly turn at right angles to their major trend. In a few cases, two eskers join and form one system. Almost all of the systems are oriented in a northeast—southwest direction. Those that are situated on drumlin pediments generally follow the trend of the pediment. The eskers that are located in the lowlands are more apt to diverge from the orientation of the other landforms. The eskers in the type site area are both isolated and segments of much larger systems. Those in the southeastern part are the terminal segments of long eskers whereas those in the northwest section originate and terminate within the site area. The terminal point of the esker which extends along the trend of the drumlin pediment is in the form of a small kame. In the northwestern part of the site, an esker is oriented perpendicular to the axis of the drumlin. It extends up the slope of the drumlin pediment and terminated against the side of the drumlin. Esker-Drumlin Relationships - There are several instances in the oriented moraine hill lands where eskers cross over drumlins. In the southwest corner of Section 17, T.38 N., R.25 W., an esker has been superimposed on a drumlin. The esker is flat and low at the drumlin crest but on either side has the steep-sided ridge form (Ver Wiebe, 1926). There are cases where esker streams have eroded trenches through drumlins, thereby connecting the eskers on either side. In the southeast corner of Section 12, T.36 N., R.26 W., an esker has cut a channel 15 feet deep and 25 to 40 feet wide through a drumlin. On the northwest side of the drumlin, there is a poorly-defined esker whereas on the south- east side there is a large amount of stratified sand and gravel in the form of an alluvial fan. The occurrence of eskers on drumlin pediments and in cases crossing over drumlin crests indicates that the eskers were formed either within or upon the ice and superimposed on the glacial tOpography or else created as continuous delta deposits that were formed during the retreat of the glacier. The trenches which cut through drumlin crests are evidence of fluvial activity at elevations high above the present base level. The occurrence of trenches at different elevations tends to indicate that the fluvioglacial erosion and deposition was caused by 56 superimposition of the meltwater streams upon the glacial terrain rather than in the form of delta formations with adjacent glacial lakes. If glacial lakes existed in the area there should be some evidence of terr- acing in the drumlin slopes. Fluvial Features - Effects of fluvial activity are evident in a number of different forms. A trellis drainage system was formed as a result of structural control. Streams tend to wind around drumlins rather than cut through them. The trunk stream in the type site area is contained to the inter-drumlin lowlands in the west and central parts but has cut through a drumlin pediment in the eastern part. The channel at this point is marked by steep cliffs. The first order tributaries enter the trunk stream at right angles. The trend of these streams, unlike that of the trunk stream, is parallel to the orientation of the drumlins. Second order tributaries which are located on the drumlin s10pes join the first order tributaries at right angles. The tributary streams are generally intermittent. The steepest stream gradients occur where channels have been cut perpendicular to the drumlin axis. An abandoned stream channel exists south of the present channel. Like that of the present drainage system, the channel is marked by a braided arrangement of stratified sands and gravels: The abandoned channel is much narrower than the present course which indicates that it did not function for as long a time as thatof the active channel. A large percentage of the lowlands in the southern part of the site is occupied by swamps. Stream gradients are too low to adquately drain these areas. North of the present channel, however, drainage is much better and consequently the swamps are not widespread. CHAPTER_VII FLUVIOGLACIAL PLAINS REGIONS Evidence of past fluvioglacial activity is widespread throughout Menominee County. Meltwater streams have produced large numbers of small features such as eskers, kames, and spillway valleys. In areas of large scale fluvioglacial activity, plains consisting of outwash material were formed. There are many of these outwash features throughout the County although most of them are small and must be considered as special features of the other landform types. There are three fluvioglacial plains which are large enough to be considered as separate landform types, however. They are the Ross, Little River, and Ingalls fluvioglacial plains. Even though they are areally separated, they all possess a set of similar characteristics. 1. They are characterized by a flat to gently rolling terrain which has not undergone any severe post-glacial erosion. 2. The three regions are poorly drained and have a large per- centage of their area occupied by swamplands. 3. The stratified sediments consist of varying textures of sands and gravels, all of which have a distinct red tint. 4. They all possess some of the characteristics of the bordering glacially formed regions. The Koss fluvioglacial plain is located along the west-central boundary of the drumlin field. Although the drumlins are farther apart and smaller than in the center of the field, they are prominent enough 57 58 to form a distinct pattern in the outwash plain. The fluvial sediments were deposited in the lowlands between the drumlins and consequently the larger drumlins which were not buried by the outwash rise above the general level of the plain. The largest number of drumlin outliers is located in the eastern section of the Ross plain. They gradually decrease in both size and number towards the west. Little Cedar River extends through the central part of the region. The flatness of the terrain and the base level given by the Menominee River system have resulted in a poorly developed drainage network. The channel of the Little Cedar River meanders greatly which further indicates poor drainage conditions. Consequently, a large percentage of the plain is covered by swamps. The isolated drumlins which are scattered through- out the region comprise the largest percentage of the better drained lands. The Little River fluvioglacial plain is a small, delta-shaped region located at the junction of the Little and Menominee rivers. This plain has been formed on the southern part of the ground moraine region and consequently the basic characteristics of the ground moraine are also found in the outwash area. Low, elongated hills oriented in a northeast‘ southwest direction rise above the level of the stratified sediments. Although the hills occupy only a small percentage of the total area of the region, they nevertheless form a distinct pattern in the surface configuration. Little River is the only drainage system in the region. A low stream gradient has deterred run-off and consequently the stream is sluggish and meanders aimlessly. Most of the area adjacent to the 59 Figure 14. Cross-section of a Delta-kame. A wide variety of grain size is found in the stratification of the formation. The fine- grained light and dark layers are clays whereas the coarser materials Tare finely washed sands and gravels. The clay layers vary in thickness from lenses to several feet. The tilting and warping of the stratifica- tion indicates that slumping has occurred. Figure 15. A Section of the Delta-kame Where Slumping has not Occurred. The material is composed primarily of sands and gravels. The tilting of the stratification indicates that this part of the delta- kame was deposited directly on the underlying ground moraine. The knobby surface configuration of the formation is shown in the extreme left side of the photograph. 60 FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15 61 channels is periodically flooded. Swamps have formed on most of the level areas; the only places which are adequately drained are the elongated hills of the ground moraine. The Ingalls fluvioglacial plain forms a natural divide between the southern end of the drumlin field and the northern part of the ground moraine region. In the northern part of the plain drumlin outliers rise above the surface of the outwash. The drumlins diminish in number and size towards the center of the plain and grade into the low, elongated hills which are characteristic of the till plain. The drainage of the Ingalls outwash plain is better than that in either the Rose or Little River plains. There are many areas which have sufficient surface and sub surface drainage to prohibit swamp formation. The area is more accessible for analysis and it was, therefore, selected to be used as the type site area. I Type Site Analysis (Figure 16, Plate XVI) The surface configura- tion of the type site area is composed of four kinds of features. The flat to gently undulating surface of the fluvioglacial sediments forms ~the base above and below which the other landforms are located. There are two distinct patterns in the fluvioglacial plain. In the northern part of the type site the outwash has been deposited without any great irregularities. The sediments form a smooth, undulating terrain marked only by an intricate series of channels. The channel pattern reflects material differences rather than relief variationg. The areas of finer- -grained material contain a higher percentage of water than do the coarse- grained gravels and therefore accentuate the pattern on the . photograph. In the southern section of the type site the fluvioglacial material is marked by a hummocky surface configuration. An intricate series of short, interrupted channels form a linear system oriented in an east-west direction. The local relief of the hummocky topography is slight, never in excess of 10 feet. The depressions have a dark-gray tone on the aerial photo, the result of swamp formation. The elongated, ground moraine hills cross the type site in a northeast- southwest direction. They vary between 1,000 and 2,500 feet in width and seldom exceed 20 feet in height. The crests of the hills are well rounded and flanked by gently sloping sides. Small gullies have formed on the sides of the hills. Thin deposits of fluvioglacial material are located on various parts of the hills (as on the ground moraine arch in the south- central section of the type site). FLUVIOGIJLCIAL OUTNAS . g . '. . o i o'. . 5.3332 3'13 eff: 112-20,:‘-' ‘0‘.‘ ... ' .‘.,.' o o r" . .33 v‘ - I. r - .'.‘ .'. '. - ‘. :4 .- :1 u' , q n ' a r‘ .‘g .. . “2.: I.'.'-' ' '. 0.3:}; I ‘ 1:; 10‘ -° ‘4:- _ .5" g o ‘ .n‘: '- . I .' . o ' .- . o 4 97-. ff: 3' . .‘ .“- ¢ .1 '~ I. J _. ,' .. .-vf_f7ft. _I. . ... ~_ .. . ...._..'I.:. .1 .‘I -" .‘flffo': .. . ‘ . ... . .. .. ' ‘ ng‘v'. ’2, ‘:.:-.....;.. ' I, "’_t"..:,¢.' - . ’-.’_'. .... . 0-. . . . a:c'. I ‘ ' "0.0 .‘,l‘ .‘ ' _ I. " ' '.' ‘ : ....L' t 31-)! I n ' ' ‘ "‘ " _‘.-.~ ' -, - --'...-. I -- -"-. , J '- j. u p...- '. -’ :'. "...I‘ ." '3 - 'o ' ..O‘. .‘o. z_4 i FLUVIOGLACIIl .3335026...» 0H MMDUHm 64 A large number of .fluvioglacially formed features rise above the level of the outwash plain. A high, interrupted ridge extends across the type site in a northwest-southeast direction. This particular feature is a delta-kame which continued to form during the recession of the ice-front. In the northwestern part of the type site, the delta- kame attains a height of 80 feet whereas in the southeastern part the system has greater horizontal rather than vertical dimensions. There are several distributaries that diverge from the trend of the delta-kame. In the eastern part of the site the distributary is broad and flat whereas in the central section another distributary has the typical esker form of steep sides and a narrow crest. The latter distributary bifurcates at its terminal point. There are many smaller, irregularly-shaped kame deposits, most of which are located on the north side of the delta-kame. These deposits are situated both in the outwash areas and on the morainic hills. The kames are randomly scattered throughout the area and do not form any type of linear pattern. Heights of the deposits vary between 20 and 50 feet. ' The irregular shapes of many of the kame formations are the result of slumping. The stratification of the sediments is often greatly dis- rupted which indicates that parts of the kames were originally formed as ice contact features. Eskers are located throughout the type site. The eskers are often interrupted and appear as a series of short segments. They have steep sides and narrow crests as do those in the other landform type regions. However, all of the eskers in the type site are small and seldom exceed 10 to 15 feet in height. The common orientation of the sinuous ridges is northeast-southwest. The outwash material is marked in many places by irregularly shaped, steep sided depressions, most of which are adjacent to the delta-kame system. It can be inferred that these depressions mark the locations of former stagnant ice blocks around which the fluvioglacial sediments were deposited. After the ice blocks melted, their indentations in the surrounding material formed the existing depressions. The smaller depressions generally are completely surrounded by steep sides whereas the larger ones often have one section, usually away from the source region of the sediments, level with the plane of the outwash. The depth of the pits seldom exceeds 10 feet. Subsequent_ swamp formation has modified the depth, thereby distorting the actual dimensions of the depressions. The drainage of the type site is poor. Most of the lowland areas have become basins for organic accumulation. The larger depressions are connected by a series of small, sluggish streams. Stream gradients are very low, however, and the channels are marked by many small meanders. There are two types of swamps. The more shallow, broader ones support a dense forest growth whereas the deeper swamps generally contain a growth of sedges or leatherleaf. The better drained areas include the eskers, kames, and ground moraine hills. The Ingalls fluvioglacial plain was formed during the last recession of the ice sheet. The large delta-kame indicates that a body of water was dammed by the ice and surrounding uplands. The channel system in the till plain region indicates that the lake drained to the south. The 65 sediments adjacent to the delta-kame were deposited by the same forces that formed the delta-kame. A gradual slope extends up to the steep -slopes of the system. In the areas not adjacent to the delta-kame, the outwash was deposited perpendicular to the ice front. The channel systems in the outwash show that the meltwater streams were oriented in an east-west direction. CHAPTER VIII THE LACUSTRINE PLAINS The lacustrine plains region of Menominee County occupy a strip of land two to five miles wide along the present shoreline of Green Bay. (The plains are narrowest at the southern end of the County due to a lesser degree of crustal rebound than in the north and the presence of a morainic system which prevented the westward eXpansion of the water during the higher lake stages. The form of the lacustrine plains is not homogeneous in the area as a whole. In the southern section the abandoned beach ridges are poorly deve10ped and the major relief features have been formed by eolian activity. The swamps are generally shallow and small. The central part of the lacustrine plain is characterized by two dominant abandoned beach ridge systems and broad, intervening Lowlands. The Algonquin and Nipissing beach ridge systems are the major relief features. The Algonquin beach is located along the western boundary of the plains wherEas the Nipissing system is close to the present beach. A step-type tOpography has been formed below the position of the Algon- quin system by a series of small, poorly-deve10ped abandoned beach ridges. These small ridges have primarily been formed in areas where bays existed. Eolian activity in this section has not produced any large dune formations. The northern part of the lacustrine plains is the widest and has undergone the most extensive uplift. The higher lake levels which were 66 67 reached during the Algonquin time spread into the eastern part of the drumlin field. Many partially eroded drumlins exist in the western part -of this section. The Algonquin and Nipissing beach ridge systems are best developed in this area. The only interruptions in the beach ridges occur where streams have cut through them. In many places the abandoned beach ridges rise 20 feet above the surrounding terrain. There are many dune formations in the northern part of the plains. A large dune field is located along the valley of Cedar River. Individual dunes have crescentic shapes with the tails pointing in a northerly direc- tion. Many of the dunes have elevations in excess of 40 feet. Most of the broad lowland areas are poorly drained and consequently much of the region is occupied by swamp. The more shallow, smaller swamps, most of which are located east of the Algonquin beach ridge, support a dense growth of coniferous trees. The swamps west of the Algonquin system are much larger and deeper. Small lakes exist in parts of these swamps. Meat of the vegetational cover is composed of sedges and leatherleaf shrubs. Small islands within the swamps support a growth of coniferous trees. The Present Shoreline - The only irregularities in the present shore- line are in the form of small points and bays. The points are composed of glacial erratics from which the matrix has been removed. The points have complementary embayments on one side, generally the south, in which silts and muds have accumulated. 68 Figure 17. Cross-gection of a Dune. The regular foresEt bedding which is characteristic of dunes is well visible. The height of the dune is approximately 15 feet whereas the length is over one-half mile. Figure 18. Cross-section of an Abandoned Beach Ridgg; The composition of the stratification indicates that the lake level was fluctuating during the formation of the ridge. This section of the beach ridge is unique as most abandoned beach ridges are composed primarily of sands. 69 FIGURE 17 FIGURE 18 70 Figure 19. Vegetation Types of one of the Lppger Swamps of the Lacustrine PlainsI The poorly-drained lowlands behind the abandoned beach ridges are characterized by two types of vegetation. The larger, more Open swamps support a growth of leatherleaf and sedges. Areas of Open water are found in this type of swamp. Figure 20. Oblique View of the Swamp in the Above Photograph. The Open channel marks the position of the main stream. Small islands of trees mark the locations of areas where inorganic materials rise above the water level. 7l FIGURE 19 FIGURE 20 72 The only conspicuous deltas have been formed at the mouths of the larger drainage systems. The Menominee delta has an irregular shape with most of the alluvium located on the south side of the channel. The Cedar River delta is more poorly developed. Nest of the sediments have been carried south by wave and current action. The floor of the Green Bay basin slopes gradually towards the center of the bay as a result of the sedimentary rock structure (Chapter IX). The bottom tOpography adjacent to the shoreline is composed of a series of sand bars and interlying rock strips. In the areas where off-shore bars are high enough to destroy most Of the wave action, lagoons have formed. They are characterized by shallow water and bottom accumula- tions of muds. Many of the lagoons have a dense growth Of reeds and rushes. Type Site Analys;p_(Figure 21, Plate XVII) The most-characteristic feature of the lacustrine plains is the flatness of the terrain. The regional gradient of the type site, which slopes from west to east, can be divided into two parts. Below the 620 foot contour, an even lepe of approximately 20 feet'per mile. exists. The uniformity of the lepe is broken only in those places where streams exist and where dunes and portions of abandoned beach ridges have been formed. The surface configuration of the area above the 620 foot contour is characterized by a series of parallel, well-rounded hills which are separated by broad lowlands. The hills are remnants of morainic uplands which were modified by wave erosion. The local relief of this section of the lacustrine plains is between 20 and 30 feet. A series of wave-cut cliffs mark the western boundary of the lacus- trine plains. Interruptions occur along the cliffs where the morainic lowlands formed small bays. The wave-cut cliffs are moderately to steeply leping and are marked by an increase in elevation of approximately 20 feet. Two types offhatures have been formed on the plains. Sections of abandoned beach ridges, although poorly deve10ped, exist in both the eastern and western parts Of the type site. The abandoned beach ridge in the western part was formed during the Algonquin stage of the Great Lakes. The ridge is composed of stratified sands and gravels which were deposited in a horizontal plane. The northern part of the abandoned beach ridge grades into one of the residual morainic hills. The Nipissing level of the Great Lakes did not form a continuous beach ridge system in this region. Only a series of small, isolated seg- ments parallel to the present shoreline have been formed. The segments are composed almost entirely of stratified sand. madam .2553: 7/. // 75' Sand dunes are the most common relief features in the type site area. The dunes have a variety of shapes. Many are linear and parallel to the present shoreline. Fields of dunes have been formed in several places. These areas are characterized by a hummocky surface configura- tion. Almost all of the dunes have been formed between the 610 and 630 foot contours. Their location is typically between the levels attained by the Algonquin and Nipissing lake levels (See Chapter IX). The dunes vary greatly in height. Many individual dune formations exceed 30 feet in height whereas the dune fields generally are not in excess of 10 feet above the surrounding terrain. Where the vegetational cover has been disturbed by cultural activity, blowouts have‘formed on the dune crests. , . The lacustrine plains are composed of three principal types of material. The lowland and depression areas have become swamps as a result of poor drainagea The area above the 620 foot contour has many large swamps which have a definite linear pattern whereas the swamps below the 620 foot contour are generally smaller and have more irregular shapes. . The swamps are bordered by poorly drained mineral soils. These sails have also formed in some of the depressions which do not have a true swamp deveIOpment. An organic layer less than 12 inches thick mantles the waterlogged underlying mineral material. These soils reflect the appearance of a lacustrine floor as they form a "blotchy" pattern in the - surface configuration. This may be explained by the intermixing of sand and shallow formations of organic material in the flat, more poorly drained parts of the plains. The uplands in the western section of the lacustrine plains are com- posed of till. The eastern sides of the hills have a thin mantle of lacus- trine and eolian sand whereas the western sides are generally stony. The flat areas in the eastern part of the plains are composed of coarse sands.. The sands are underlain by gravels and clay lenses. The clay restricts the rate of percolation and consequently much of the surface material is constantly waterlogged. ‘ The drainage pattern of the type site area belongs to a single stream. s—Many of the depressions do not have any exterior drainage but are instead local collecting basins.. The stream is fed-by loca1.rmuko£$.waters and subsurface percolation. CHAPTER IX REMARKS ON MDRPHOGENETIC PROBLEMS Menominee County is an excellent site for genetic investigations on glacial and post-glacial terrain evolution. A great variety of Pleistocene relic landforms are distributed over a relatively small area. Posteglacial alterations of the landscape are very much in evidence even though they are definitely of lesser importance than the morphogenesis which took place before and during the Pleistocene. The genetic problems investigated in the County by former students primarily involve the formation of individual glacial landforms. There have been no studies concerned with the evolution of landform patterns formed by post-glacial processes. The genesis of the present surface configuration, therefore, cannot yet be fully understood. Out of many problems which exist, three have been selected to shed light on the morphogenesis of the area. They involve the evolution of the landform patterns by both glacial and post-glacial processes. The Regional Importance of the Wisconsin Glaciation - Mast of the unconsolidated material in Menominee County was deposited in the various phases of the Wisconsin glaciation. Drift from the preceding glacia- tions (Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoian) has not yet been found in the area. Twice the County was entirely ice-covered during Wisconsin time. It remained glaciated throughout the first six substages of the Wiscon- sin glaciation and became firsr ice-free during the Two Creeks Inter- stadial when the ice front receded to a position north of Mackinac 76 77 Straits (Hough, 1958). The Menominee area remained ice—free until the Valders Advance during which the glacier again pushed south into Wis- consin (Thwaites, 1943). The Valders Advance, recognized as the ultimate substage of the Wisconsin glaciation in the United States, for the last time covered Menominee County. According to Melhorn (1956), the drift lithology of regions in the Southern Peninsula affected by the Valders Advance reveals that the majority of glacial landforms were created during pre-Valders stages and later modified by the Valders ice. Drumlins in the Traverse Bay and Cheboygan areas contain cores of pre-Valders drift and a thin plastering of Valders drift. Many of the valley trains in these areas are composed of Valders till superimposed on pre-Valders landforms. The Munsell scale, a standardized color chart for soils, was used by Melhorn to differentiate between the two drifts. Pre-Valders drift is brown (oxidized) or dark blue (unoxidized) with a Munsell range between lOYR 6/3 and lOYR 4/1. The Valders drift is represented by a red color with a Munsell range between 5YR 7/3 and 7.5YR 8/4. Application of the same technique in Menominee County yielded the result that all samples taken were within the established range for Valders drift. The depth of the Valders till was not determined although road cuts in several drumlins showed the red till at depths of twenty feet. It can be inferred that the genesis of glacial landforms in Menominee County was similar to that of Valders-affected areas in the Southern Penin- sula. Both areas were twice glaciated during Wisconsin time and the same basic landform types exist in both of them. Pending further studies, it Years B.P. 78 LATE WISCONSIN EVENTS OF THE LAKE MICHIGAN LOBE (From Zumberge, 1956) Wisconsin Chronology Lake Stage (elevation above sea? level). 2,500 3,500 5,000 6,000 8,000 8,500 11,000 XEROTHERMIC NORTH BAY becomes ice free GENERAL VALDERS RETREAT VALDERS MAXIMUM TWO CREEKS INTERSTADIAL C Port Huron A Lake Border R Tinley Y Valparaiso Table l Lake Michigan (581) Algoma (595) Nipissing Great Lakes (605) Lake Chippewa (230) Payette and other "Lower Algonquin" lakes of Stanley Lake Algonquin (605) Toleston (605) Calumet (620) Bowmanville (below 580) Glenwood (640) 79 may be assumed that the basic glacial tOpography of the County was formed during pre-Valders glaciations and later covered with a veneer of red drift by the Valders Advance. Evidence for the Existence of Fluctuating Lake Levels in the Lake Michigan Basin - The level of the Great Lakes has been fluctuating since the Cary substage of the Wisconsin glacier (Table l). Abandoned beach ridges above the present lake level mark former higher levels. Submerged stream valleys and lake core samples indicate the existence of former lower lake levels. Crustal rebound after the withdrawal of the glacier has differentially raised the abandoned beach ridges. The lacustrine plains Of the County and the Green Bay basin contain major evidence for these isostatic movements. There are two abandoned beach ridge systems on the lacustrine plains that mark positions reached by former high lake levels. The higher one was formed during the Lake Algonquin stage approximately 8,500 years ago (Ver Wiebe, 1926). It is located west of Menominee in the southern part of the County at an elevation of 620 feet, or 40 feet above the present lake level. In the north end of the County, the same beach ridge system is located at an elevation of 670 feet (Plate XVIII).‘ These elevations correspond well with Goldthwaitls Lake Algonquin eleva- tions for the eastern shore of Green Bay (1907). The discrepancy in elevation must be attributed to differential crustal rebound. The lower abandoned beach ridge system was formed during the Nipissing stage of the Great Lakes. This system closely follows the form of the present shoreline although it is located between one-half to two miles inland (Plate XVIII). The lake levels during Algonquin and Nipissing time 80 ABANDONED S'HORELINES I / MENOMINEE COUNTY SCALE I:240,000 c1: _ . 2 I O 6 IO I. go . MILES / --630 5 .. ~ I G ”’J & A V CEDAR RIVER .3221) a)” LAKE ’ / yy ALGONOUIN SHORELINE A- LAKE ALOONCUIN STAGE I 0,500 YEARS B.P. .\ 5 mmssms SHORELINE , N- NIPISSING GREAT LAKES g 3,500 YEARS 3.9. o W.,...“ , SAND DUNE FIELDS , ., ~~s yzsuTUATEo BETWEEN THE ‘3:- \ ALGONGUIH a NIPISSING SHOREUNES SPOT ELEVATIONS FROM OOO-CRESTS OF RESPECTIVE SHORELINES ITO PLATE XVIII 81 were approximately the same in terms of absolute elevation but 5,000 years had elapsed between the two stages (Table l). Crustal rebound during this interval had raised the Algonquin beach ridge in the northern part of the Great Lakes to increasingly higher elevations in a northern direction above the position reached by the Nipissing Lake level. The Nipissing beach ridge system is at an elevation of 605 feet at the south end of the County but at the north end it has been raised to an elevation of 640ifeet (Plate XVIII). There are other abandoned beach ridges on the lacustrine plains but they are small and discontinuous. ‘They were formed at intervening lake stages between the two major recognized levels. AccOrding to recent investigations, a low water stage called Lake Chippewa (Hough, 1958) occurred between the Algonquin and Nipissing stages of the Great Lakes. Lake Chippewa came into existence when the North Bay channel became ice-free allowing the upper Great Lakes to drain to a low level of 230 feet. The body of water that existed in the Lake Michigan basin during this time is referred to as Lake Chippewa. Drainage continued through the North Bay channel until crustal rebound had elevated the channel sufficiently to terndnate flow. Mast-of the evidence of the Lake Chippewa stage is found in the lake basins below the present water level. The bottom topography of the Great Lakes has been charted and many of the valleys formed during the Chippewa stage can be traced. A submerged valley connects the Green Bay and Lake Michigan basins. Two valleys were cut in the Green Bay basin, one extending from washington Island south to Green Bay and the other extending from washington Island north through Little Bay De Noc 82 (Plate XIX). A gorge 100 feet deep has been cut thrhugh the Niagara Escarpment where the valley enters the Lake Michigan basin. The north valley is much wider and more deeply entrenched than the south branch indicating that it carried a much greater volume of water. There is evidence that the north branch was a spillway for Lake Duluth during the Chippewa stage. Almost all of the glacial deposits between Rapid River and Mhnising were carried south by the spillway waters into the Lake Michigan basin. This part of the valley is marked by abandoned channel scars and bedrock outcrops. The submerged valleys in the Green Bay basin reach a maximum depth of 180 feet below the present lake level, or an elevation of 400 feet. The Lake Chippewa level of 230 feet was far below this mark indicating that the stream gradient was steep enough to allow rapid downcutting. This factor is the principal cause of the deep entrenchment of most of the submerged valleys. There are many sand dunes located between the Algonquin and Nipissing beach ridges-on the lacustrine plains. They were formed after the Algonquin lake level had receded and before the level of the Nipissing Great Lakes was réached. The dunes were formed from lacustrine deposits left exposed to subaerial processes during the low water stage. Mast of the dunes have barchan shapes, but in many places they are joined and resemble transverse dunes. All have steep southern slopes indicating that they were formed by winds with a prevailing northerly component. It can be inferred that the climate during this time was arid, preventing anchoring of the sand by vegetation. 83 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIAGRAM GREEN BAY BASIN PLATE XIX 84 Evolution of the Menominee River Valley (Figure 22, Plate XX) - The Menominee River valley has been formed by three processes: glacial, erosional, and eolian. Evidence of all three processes is not found throughout the whole valley, however. There are no eolian features in the upper part of the valley. Glacial drift within the valley is limited primarily to the lower part where frequent changes in stream course and lateral erosion have formed the only conspicuous floodplain of the valley. Abandoned channel scars formed by fluvial erosion are the most extensive features. They have been cut in bedrock in the upper valley and in glacial drift in the lower part. The lower river valley has been cut into an oriented ground moraine. This moraine system is the southern extension of the drumlin field, hence the material and orientation of the two areas are similar. The only exposed parts of the ground moraine are the hill crests. The depressions between the bills have been filled with alluvium and organic accumula- tions. Mbst of the hill crests have been strongly dissected by fluvial erosion leaving only irregularly shaped segments as evidence of the ground moraine. Fluvial erosion has formed two types of patterns in the floodplain. Former stream courses are marked by entrenched channel scars on the north side of the valley. The channel scars vary in width from 200 to 400 feet and form a network of curved swamps with intervening sand islands. The abandoned channel scars are confined to the floodplain and are always connected to the present channel. There is evidence of a major flood in a veneer of braided alluvium on the south side of the river. The flood waters were not contained in d 32 03 if: 0 ..',..° . «043-: -. '- " .4" o. 'n 0‘ S - .——— -——-—-. —— flax! a” f fiéiamwflv 3b 4. I fail? "E I ‘ s e0 a Slim, as l. _ . 7 1k I§N i,» ... r. , ¢_ .r «6 O I ’..I 3' x - ... - ‘3' ,:ss‘w .' _ - [a 1"” : I . S. '3‘“. 86 Ht; .1: f. . . r. , . ..oq. moor}. 3.5... ...,K, a . h NN mmstm 87 the valley but flowed south approximately five miles where they entered into the Peshtigo River system. -The flooding action may have occurred during the recession of the glacier when the present valley was not able to contain the large volumes of meltwater. The pattern formed by the flood waters is primarily reflected in the arrangement of the alluvium. When the waters overflowed from the present channel, the stream velocity drOpped sharply causing extensive deposition. The veneer of alluvium which was deposited was reworked by the flood waters into a complex pattern of sand bars and channels. The depressions have become filled with organic accumulations, thereby creating a distinct pattern of material types. Eolian processes have formed many sand dunes in the Menominee Valley. Most of the dunes are located on the ground moraine hills but a few are on the floodplain terraces. The material of the dunes was derived from the fine~textured sediments of the alluvial plains and the drift sheets. The dune profiles and the orientation are similar to those of the lacustrine plains which indicates that they were formed under comparable climatic conditions. The chronology of the Menominee Valley evolution is one of the many remaining problems which needs further investigation. It can be assumed that the various fluctuations of lake levels greatly affected the regime of the river. The major tributary valleys of the Menominee system were formed by glacial meltwaters while the glacier was receding from the area. The major activity of the stream at this time was down- cutting to its base level of erosion which was regulated by the lake level in Green Bay. When Lake Chippewa came into existence, the local 88 base level of the Menominee River was lowered significantly, thereby steepening the river gradient considerably. However, the glacier had receded from the Menominee watershed by this time which greatly reduced the available volume of water. The stream's base level of erosion was raised approximately to its former level during the Nipissing Great Lakes stage. The rise in base level would cause aggradation if the stream volume remained the same, but the climate had become more humid thereby increasing the water volume. Consequently, the post-glacial climatic history of the region needs to be understood before the various phases of valley gorging and filling can be recognized. 89 APPENDIX Major Cultural Features T0pographic Coverage 9O MAJOR CULTURAL ! FEATURES __j [_ MENOMINEE COUNTYI SCALE OI 2345678 MILES . 0mm - T PHENOON CEDAR RIVER JLNOALLB ‘ punks: /- COUNTY ROADS / sure a FEDERAL ROADS ...... . oven nopoo 909. a soo-Ipoo POP. . LESS THAN 600 POI! MENOMINEE ITS PLATE XXI —‘ _ TOPOGRAPHIC 7% :;7 COVERAGE / "" m A m MENOMINEE COUNTY ' V 7 1 / // ! WHISTWNEY W'i'TENEY ///, 2 ! 3“ij ! 6) ma NE aw in: 4 > i PE:\:JNE HERH;:VILLE HERI::8VILLE IANK‘3WER Ohm? 74/2 MINUTE QUADS / SCALE - l=24,000 “an":"E mm": E CONTOUR INTERVAL IO FEET PLATE XXII 92 BIBLIOGRAPHY American Society of Photogrammetry. Manual of Photographic Interpre- tation. Washington, D.C.: American Society of Photogrammetry, 1960. Flint, Richard Foster. Glacial and Pleistocene Geology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957. Geologic Map of Michigan. Michigan Department of Conservation, Geologic Survey Division, 1957. Scale 1:1,500,000. "Geomorphology, Geomorphography, Geomorphogeny, and Geography,” New Zealand Geographer, XXI No.1 ( April, 1956), pp. 88- 93. Goldthwait, J. W. "Abandoned Shorelines of Eastern Wisconsin," Wiscon- sin Geological and Natural History Survey Bulletin, No. 17, 1907. Hammond, Edwin. "On the Place, Nature and Methods of Description in the Geography of Landforms," ONR Contract No. 1202(01), Procedures in the Descriptive Analysis of Terrain. Technical Report No. 1, 1957. , Hough, Jack L. Geology of the Great Lakes, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1958. . Janke, Robert G. A Morphographic Analysis of the Eau Claire Wisconsin Area, (Unpublished Masters Thesis), Michigan State University, 1961. Leverett, Frank. "Surface Geology of the Northern Peninsula of Michi- gan," Michigan Geological and Biological Survey, Publication 7, Geological Series 5, Lansing, 1911. Leverett, Frank, and F. B. Taylor. "The Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and the History of the Great Lakes," U.S. Geological Survey Monograph 53, 1915. Lueder, Donald R. Aerial Photographic Interpretation. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1959. Martin, Helen M. "Map of the Surface Formations of the Northern Peninsula of Michigan,"‘Michigan Department of Conservation, Geological Survey Division, Publication 49, 1957. Scale 1:500,000. Melhorn, Wilton N. "Valders Drift in the Southern Peninsula of Michigan," Prehistory: Geology,L Soils.pand Archeology of the Northern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Biological Station, 1957, 13-20. 93 Russell, Israel C. "The Surface Geology of Portions of Menominee, Dickinson, and Iron Counties, Michigan." Report of the State Board of Geologic Survey of Michigan for the year 1906, Lansing. Smith, Guy-Harold. "The Relative Relief of Ohio," Gepgraphical Review, XXV (April, 1935), 272-84. Strahler, Arthur N. "Quantitative Analysis of Watershed Geomorphology," Transactions,pAmerican Geophysical Union, XXXVII (December, 1957), 913-24. Thornbury, William D. Principles of Geomorphology, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1960. Thwaites, F. T. "Pleistocene of Part of Northeastern Wisconsin,” . Geologic Society of America Bulletin, Vol. 54 (1943), 87-144. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Adjustment Adminis- tration, North Central Division, Air Photos: (BWB) 1-(1-103), 2-(1-98), 3-(1-103), 4-(1-98), 5-(1-88), 6-(1-99), 7-(1-105), 8-(1-98), 1938, Scale 1920,000. United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Survey Manual, Agri- cultural Handbook 18, Washington D.C., G.P.0., 1951. United States Department of Agriculture. Soil Survey of Menominee County, Michigan, Number 31, 1925. United States Geological Survey Topographic Quadrangles. Marinette NW, SW, NE, SE; Stephenson NW, SW, NE, SE; Arthur Bay NW, SW, NE, SE; Bark River NW, SW, NE, SE; Hermansville NW, SW, NE, SE; Whitney NW, SW, NE; Pembine NE, SE; (1962), Scale l:24,000. United States Lake Survey, Army Corps of Engineers. Lake Survey Charts, Lake Michigan, 701, 702, 703; (1960), 1:80,000. Ver Wiebe, Walter A. "Surface Geology, Menominee County," Michigan Academy of Science, Arts, and Letters, VII (1926), 167-92. Whiteside, E. P., I. F. Schneider, and C. A. Engberg. Taxonomic Classifipation of Michigan Soils, Soil Conservation Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, June, 1959. . ‘ ~ : i "x f It? is I. v 0‘ ' . S y- ‘ Ea- M I. : "I1111111111111111111S