. fi“-”~-- V-w—.—— _ ,"‘ -uo- *' -Q'“'.O'..Ho .- ‘ . . .~-— 0 o. .. .l. . .- 0. .. - o o I.. . o O a. . . _ _ . o IMAGES. MEANlNG ORGANIZATIONAL _ .. _. .. 0.1.3... .~ ...n0 :1... ..... . .Vo- .. n: _. _ I. —..,. .u. ._ 3.. _ .1. 27.2.... '3‘.‘ $.- o... ‘no' ‘ .7 .0. ‘ cr 3.. _. 3 11.4 2...... $2 ... . 1.... 33:... o . _ . L . . 17 .1 2:55.. 3 3.2.. . _ l v .1 ,5. a a am Mo. .m m m. m m .5 a .m MICHIGAN- STATE UNWERSITY .3. . o . .9»... GRANT J. MILLER .V . . n . . o- . . .V .v‘£.v..aup . 1-: ; To...) .34.. To! 7. o... 1973 cu. . .K .. . .. . ..; ..1..-4.r . . .. .5r... . o .1 . 3.55.. CA. .L I. I .llll .. . a. ‘.n.O.J, ‘ I a. a... (a... ol- 0.... ...-5 ..,q—..' u . 3/ .5.‘ \ .1 On. Quh. ‘9: .‘| 1‘. fi I + .1 .. ll 1 IllllllllllNlllHllJllllllUlllllHllllllHIIIIIIIIHHIIUII 31293 10525 0397 ‘ A I ‘ h LIfiRABY Michigan State * University ‘:7‘ . J bV1ESI_J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from " your Y‘ECOY‘d. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. rr' _ vw-x':$(£:§ Lu 9 '- iLJ?‘ " f'” . z 1 , .1‘ W ‘3 Li " " "‘ "'1 M's" Li '4 r1 1 $5 5; A. '(‘f -: .4" ABSTRACT IMAGES, MEANING AND ORGANIZATIONAL NAMES BY Grant J. Miller The concept of image is a vital and often discussed aspect of advertising and public relations practices. Often a name or title for a company or organization is the first opportunity for the public to perceive the image of such organizations. If an organization's public image is poor, a name change can be a first step toward altering that image. One such organization with a less than desirable public image is the Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center in Lansing, Michigan. This study was designed to develop a viable public name- change model and to suggest a new name(s) for the Community Mental Health Center (CMHC). A secondary purpose was to deter- mine what effect (if any) "knowing" about the CMHC's problems and the type of new name they were seeking had on gs evaluation of possible alternative names. A step-by-step procedure (the name—change model) is re- ported in the study in which all g5 rated each of six alterna- tive names for appropriateness as a new name for the CMHC. gs also selected descriptive adjectives from the adjective list Grant J. Miller to determine meaning and meaningfulness for each alternative name . Additional descriptive data was also gathered from gs. Data analysis revealed the following results: 1. 2. The CMHC should change its name. The issue of mental health care is not a salient issue to the sample respondents. The name Tri-County Center for Social Consultation is the most appropriate new name for the CMHC based on a mean appropriateness score criterion. The names Counseling Services Center and Tri- County Center for Social Consultation contain the most meaning and are the most meaningful of the alternative names as the terms "meaning" and "meaningful" were defined in this study. The names Tri-County Center for Social Consul- tation and Counseling Services Center correlate most closely with the Center's administrators' concept of an ideal name for a community-based mental health center on a meaning and meaningful- ness criterion. "Knowing" had a significant effect on respondents' appropriateness rating for two of the alternative names. Respondents' sex and the names themselves had significant effects on how many adjectival descriptors were selected for each of the six alternative names. Description of the name-change model, limitations of the study, as well as future research possibilities, are also dis- cussed. IMAGES, MEANING AND ORGANIZATIONAL NAMES BY Grant J. Miller A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS College of Communication Arts Department of Advertising 1973 @417ij Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Advertising, College of Communication Arts, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Director 0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A great deal of gratitude and admiration is due many people who have helped me develop this study from a mere idea to its completed form. My deepest thanks goes to my friend and advisor, Dr. John Simpkins, whose time and ideas have been invaluable contributions. They have given this study direction, gui- dance and stability, without which it would not have been possible. I would also like to thank Mr. Ed Oxer of the Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center for his cooperation in supplying materials and information on matters related to the Center. Thanks is also in order for Mr. Larry Pontius for the use of his advertising class as participants in gath- ering data. Finally, to those others, too numerous to single out, who have provided assistance in many diverse ways, thanks again for your help. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i. . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Nature of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Images .'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Images of Mental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center . . . . . . .y 14 Purpose of the Study . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . . . l6 Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 20 Stereotype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Relationships Among Dimensions. of Stereotypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 More on Stereotypes . . . . . .-. . . . . . . . . 39 Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Proper or Personal Names . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Clinical Research on Names . . . . . . . . . . 47 Research Studies Into Names . . . . . . . . . . 52 Brand Names, Trademarks, Corporate Names . . . 56 Corporate Name Changes -- New Product Names . . 63 Set Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 The Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . 78 IV. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Chapter ' _ Page V. DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Appropriateness of Alternative Names . . . . . . 85 Adjectives—Meaning and Meaningfulness of Each Alternative Name . . . . . . . . . . 87 The Effect of Knowing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Recommendations for a New Name for CMHC . . . . 97 Statement of Name-Change Model . . . . . . . . . 99 Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Implications for Future Research . . . . . . . . 102 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Some Notes on Consequences of Name Changes . . . 104 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 A PRE-TEST'DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . 117 B THE TEST INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 C MR. OXER'S SELECTION OF DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES FOR "IDEAL" NAME . . . . . . . . . . 128 ii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Appropriateness Scores for Alternative Names . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 2 Respondents Closeness to Social Issues . . . . 81 3 Subset of Adjectives (Comprising the Meaning) for Each Name and Meaningfulness Score (Number of Adjectives) . . . . . . . . . 83 4 Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 5 Mean Number of Adjectives Selected by Sex Across All Six Names . . . . . . . . . . 91 6 Ranked Adjective Mean Scores for Each Alternative Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 iii Figure ' l . 2 . 3 . 4 5 . LIST OF FIGURES iv Page 21 23 24 93 100 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction The concept of "image" is a vital and often discussed aspect of today's advertising and public relations practices. Scholars and practitioners refer to image in relation to all other facets of advertising: copy, media selection, manage- ment strategy and research. Businesses often hire advertising agencies or public relations firms as consultants in relation to the presentation of a favorable "corporate image" for the organization, or "brand image" for oneof its products. Not only businesses, but individuals —- often political candidates -- hire "image merchants" to construct an image for them that will be seen as favorable by voters. Nature of the Problem Images 8 An examination of the literature on images reveals two different but related conceptions. The dimension along which the distinction between the two can be made-is the source of control of the image. Images, when projected by a business firm or individual, can be said to be controlled by the source (the object or person being imaged). Daniel Boorstin1 1Boorstin, Daniel, The Image (New York: Atheneum Publi- shers, 1962), pp. 183-197. 1 2 describes image in terms of being a studiously crafted person- ality profile of an individual, institution, corporation, pro- duct or serviCe. The image is planned, was created to serve a purpose and to make a certain kind of impression. The other viewpoint of an image is that it is the per- ceived characteristics of an object or person by other individ- uals. Images are the result of the observer drawing out cer- tain characteristics about objects from his perceptions of those objects. Herman Kelman2 is of this view and this agrees with " Kenneth Boulding? who sees image as one's subjective knowledge of the world.y This complex of elements by the fact that it is a perception, belongs only to the individual, not groups, organizations, etc. It is the receiver who controls the image. The relationship between these two viewpoints of image is best seen in the area of promotion. Be it a product, service, political candidate or organization, both the source (object) control and receiver (public) control are vital. The source (business, candidate, organization, etc.) through its ads, pub- lic information releases and operating procedures, presents it- - self in a manner that it h0pes will be viewed by the receiver (individual or group members) in the same manner. Simultaneously, the receivers look at the source and are developing ideas and Opinions about what the source is or how 2Kelman, Herman, International Behavior: A Social-Psy- chological Analysis (New YorR: Holt, RInehart and Winston, I965). Pp. 24—28. 3Boulding, Kenneth, The Image (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1956), pp. 5-7. 3 it operates and conducts itself. The resulting success meas- ured in sales, votes, greater understanding or increased visi- bility, is how closely the image the receiver has of the source and the image that the source is putting forth are in agreement with one another. For the remainder of this study, the term "image" will be used in the manner defined by William Crissy. "Image is the aggregate stimulus value the company, store, brand or product, has for a particular individual or group. There can be as many images as there are peOple reacting."4 Businesses or organizations interact with too many people to explore in depth its image with each one. Grouping, then, must occur because there are many publics which view a firm or organization. These may include employees, customers, compe- titors, suppliers or associates. Each individual in a group may have a different image of the company or organization, but the image any group has may be composed of common elements from the individuals. Images aren't disparate. They are interactive. The image of a business influences the image of its products. Product images might be reflected by the media in which it is adver- tised. A store's image may be influenced by the area in which it is located.5 4Crissy, William, "Image! What IS It?" Business Topics (East Lansing: Michigan State University, Winter 1971), p. 28. 5Ibid., p. 29. 4 Crissy6maintains that in order to be meaningful, an investigation of images requires careful definition of ref- erence groups as well as the array of images that are likely to be interactive. The images are individual in nature, because knowledge of life's values, experience, needs, think— ing and perceiving are found in human beings. There are vari- ables which affect the image in each individual. Communication of products by the product itself or by promotional means results in a meaning or cognition to the individual consumer. This has been termed "brand image."7 The product, especially to the extent that it is differentiated from similar products and not viewed as a commodity item, tends to possess an abstract social-symbolic meaning.8 Social-symbolic meaning "says something" about the pur— chaser or owner. The auto consumer buys more than just trans- portation. A "luxurious" Cadillac, and the lifestyle that goes with owning it, expresses a significantly different social- symbolic meaning than a car with luxury at Chevrolet prices. This results from communication being essentially a sym- bolic process. Man's thought processes depend upon symbolic manipulation. Language consists of symbols, and the spoken word represents the object with which we become familiar. The 61bid. 7Gardner, B.B. and Levy, S.J., "The Product and theflBrand,' Hammad Business Review, Vol. 33 (March-April, 1955), pp. 33-39. 8Robertson, T.S., Consumer Behavior (Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1970), p. 2. 5 word itself is not the object, by any means.9 Boorstinlosays of this process that "We are in a world where peOple talk constantly not of things themselves but of their images." AS an example, take the presidential candidate who considers it more important what peOple think of his image than what he really is. PeOple vote for him because his is the public image they want to see in the White House. Levyllbelieves that people buy things not only for what they can do, but for what they mean. Therefore, there is really no such thing as a product existing by itself. It must be experienced by consumers, and these consumers have sets of values, needs, etc. Not all products are perceived by all con- sumers. To the extent that perception does occur, however, it is organized and meanings are attached to products, according to Robertson}2 Although there is often considerable varia- tion in meaning, fairly consistent brand images generally occur. Lipson and Darlinngtalk of image as a qualitative per- formance goal that focusses on the favorable or unfavorable perceptiOn of an enterprise and its market offerings. This 91bid., p. 18. 10Boorstin, D.J., gp, cit., p. 204. 11Levy, S.J., "Symbols for Sale." Itmvani Business Review, Vol. 37 (July-Aug., 1959), pp. 117-124. 12Robertson, T.S., gp. cit., p. 18. 13Lipson, H.A. and Darling, J.R., Introduction to Market- ing: 53 Administrative Approach (New York: John WIIey and Sons, 1971), p. 514. 6 goal can be stated quantitatively in that the firm always strives to increase the number of individuals who see it in a favorable light. A company's image, once perceived, encompasses everything that an enterprise does. This includes factors such as its employee relations, behavior of its employees outside the firm, the architectural aspects of its building, promotional opera— tions, and services it offers its customers.14 Products vary in the degree to which the social-symbolic meaning is important. Cars and clothing are high in visual display; that is, they are outwardly and readily visible. In our society we recognize this as saying something about a per- son. Other products, canned food for example, are less impor- tant. A marketer must decide to what extent to feature func- tional or social-symbolic attributes of a product in his communication programs.15 The process of image promotion is quite evident in our everyday lives. An examination of print or television adver- tising shows the preoccupation advertisers have with their images. One aspect of image formation is the choice of a symbolic name for the company or its products. A name often is the first contact that a firm has with its potential 14"Store Designers Help Ring the Cash Register." Business Week (July, 1967). PP. 42-48. 15Robertson, T.S., pp. cit., p. 3. 7 customers. The opportunity for potential customers to obtain a favorable image of a company or product often depends on their first perception of the name. Zenith Corporation, for example, in its advertising stresses that "Quality Goes In Before the Name Goes On" to symbolize that its products are of high quality. Old Milwaukee Beer, a product of Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company, uses the slogan "Tastes As Great As Its Name" to symbolize that their beer comes from Milwaukee, the brewing capital of the U.S. There are numerous other examples. Occasionally, when the image of companies or products is not favorable, or other circumstances arise, a change in name often comes about in an effort to remedy the situation. For example, in the early 60's the Cities Service Oil Company changed its brand name to CITGO and changed its stations' decor in an effort to rejuvenate their image. Many businesses undergo this process every year. Thus far, the emphasis on image has been on businesses and products in their promotion. These same principles can also be applied to and are true of non-profit organizations and the services and concepts upon which these organizations are based. Individuals have images of these types of organi— zations along the same dimensions that they do for commercial concerns. Service organizations, art and music societies, fraternal orders, civic groups, public agencies and medical societies all have image problems peculiar to their own organizations 8 or type of organization. A closer look at the promotional problems of one of these organization types —- a mental health center -- will be a focal point of this study. Image of Mental Health The concept of mental health is one plagued with complex promotional problems. The image held by the general public of mental health and institutions whose function it is to work with the mentally ill, has not been favorable over the years. Mental hospitals have traditionally been viewed negatively as finuthouses" or places where we (society) put crazy peOple away. Star}6in a national survey, found that "People are afraid of psychotics and afraid of being infected by their irrational way of thinking. So they keep what they call mental illness at arm's length by emphasizing the difference between them and 'crazy' peOple." It is known that peOple who are similar tend to be attracted to and express liking for one another. The opposite is true for dissimilar people. In a study in 1968, Novakl7had 56 males form impressions of persons viewed on videotape. §§ interacted with three classes of peOple: normals (those 16Star, S.A., "The National Opinion Research Center Study." Psychiatry, the Press and the Public (Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric AssOEIatIon, I956). l7Novak, D.W., "Social Psychological Processes and Reactions to the Handicapped (unpublished Doctoral Disser- tation, University of Kentucky, 1968). appearing and acting normal), physically handicapped and men- tally ill. §§ responses indicated that physically handi- capped persons were less attractive than so-called normals and the mentally ill were the least attractive. Scribner,l8using a cross—cultural study in 1970, found that in all the cultures studied (14 over a 90—year period), certain formal prOperties of behavior underly naive percep- tions of craziness. This suggests the importance of the organizational properties of behavior to the perception of everyday behavior in general. Bentz and Edgertonlgconclude that Since mental illness more often than not manifests itself as some kind of deviant behavior from community norms, it follows that persons labeled as mentally ill will also be subjected to rejection and isola- tion. Using a questionnaire survey, Nunnallyzoconcluded that the public regards the mentally ill with fear, distrust and dislike. Cumming and Cumminngsuggest from their data that 18Scribner, 8., "A Cross-Cultural Study of Perception of Mental Disorders" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, New School for Research, 1970). 19Bentz, W.K. and Edgerton, J.W., "The Consequences of Labeling a Person as Mentally Ill." Social Psychiatry, Vol. 6, No. 1, 1971. 20Nunnally, J.C., Jr., Popular Conceptions g£_Mental Health (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961). 21Cumming, J. and Cumming, E., Closed Ranks: A2 Experiment £2 Mental Health Education (Cambridge, Mass.: Hammad University Press, 1957). 10 once a person is identified as mentally ill, it would lead to a patterned response of denial, isolation and rejection. Phillips,22in a study in 1967 designed specifically to measure public acceptance or rejection of the mentally ill, concluded that one's ability to identify correctly certain behaviors as mental illness is not associated with acceptance, but rather rejection. The data reviewed above suggests there is a stigma attached to the term "mental illness," or to a person labeled as mentally ill. Goffman23describes a stigma in terms of an attribute that is deeply discrediting. He adds that a lan- guage of relationships, not attributes, is needed. An attri- bute that stigmatizes one type of individual or group can con- firm the usefulness of another and therefore is neither credit- able nor discreditable. Riesman24believes that by definition we believe that the person with a stigma to be not quite human. Assuming this, he says we exercise a variety of discriminations through which we effectively, though often unthinkingly, reduce the stigmatized person's life chances. We construct a stigma-theory or 22Phillips, D., in Bentz and Edgerton, pp. cit. .23Goffman, E., Stigma -- The Notes on the Management pg Spoiled Identitv (Englewood—Cliffs, New JErsey: Prentice- Ha I InC., 1963)! p0 3. 24Riesman, D., "Some Observations Concerning Marginality." Phylon (Second Quarter, 1951), p. 122. 11 ideology to explain his inferiority and account for the danger he represents. Goffmanzsindicates we use specific stigma terms, such as cripple, bastard and moron in our daily speech as a source of metaphor and imagery. We often do this without giving thought to the original meaning. We tend to attribute a wide range of imperfections on the basis of the original one. AvoidanCe provides a frequent and effective way of reduc- ing anxiety in the normals in their relationships to and with the mentally ill. The World Health Organization,26in a tech- nical report, suggests that a community may attempt to keep as distant as possible from the mentally ill by building big iso- lated hospitals and by requing to employ or be near former mental patients. The pleasure of acting out aggressive impulses based on the prejudice subtly reinforces rejection of the mentally sick. Bentz, Edgerton and Miller,27in a study in North Carolina, found that 70 percent of the public felt that mental hospitals were needed to protect the community. 25Goffman, E., pp. cit., p. 4. 26World Health Organization, Social Psychiatry and Community Attitudes. World Health Organizatibn Technical Report, Series No. 177 (Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 1959). 27Bentz, W.K., Edgerton, J.W., and Miller, F.T., "Attitudes of Teachers and the Public Toward Mental Illness." Mental Hygiene, Vol. 55, No. 3 (July, 1971), pp. 324-330. 12 Not all attitudes toward mental illness are unfavorable. The stereotype of a mental hospital as a "snake pit" or "mad house" has been diminishing in recent years. Bentz, Edgerton 28say this trend is taking place, but suggest that and Miller mental hospitals have not been accepted on the same basis as general hospitals. According to the World Health Organization,291f a commun- ity believes that the goal of psychiatric practitioners is to help their patients to regain and maintain their personal and social adequacy, the community will be far more prepared to go into active partnership. Perhaps the main reason that the mentally ill are being better accepted is that mental illness is being looked upon more and more as a medical illness rather than a deviant social behavior. Crocetti and Lemkau in 1963 found that a substan- tial majority of their sample was able to identify several case descriptions as mentally ill and that they recommended medical treatment of such cases. They are Optimistic and state that: "In defining mental illness as a medical sick- ness rather than a deviant social behavior, the mentally ill person Should receive sympathy, under- standing and support from the public, and should 28Ibid. 29World Health Organization, pp. cit. 13 not be held responsible for his behavior regard- less of how bizarre it may be. This is in accor- dance with the manner in which we define the Sick role in our society."30 Bentz, Edgerton and Miller3lspeak of a movement toward more open hospital environments and treatment within the com- munity of mental patients. Hunt32comments on these changes and suggests that the general public doesn't know about them. He reasons that the long-standing literary tradition in which every mental hospital is pictured as a hellish bedlam has thoroughly conditioned the public to see and hear only evil of them and to overlook or forget the good that has been emerging of late. In another study in North Carolina, Bentz and Edgerton33 Speak of changes in perceptions on the part of the general public toward the mentally ill and mental illness and predict that this will require changes in program activities in the mental health professions. One of these changes is the development of the community mental health center. It is a localized unit in various com- munities throughout the nation and staffed by professionals. 3oLemkau, P.W., and Crocetti, G.M., "An Urban Population's Opinion and Knowledge About Mental Illness." American Journal pg Psychiatry, No. 118 (1967), pp. 692-700. 31Bentz, Edgerton and Miller, pp. cit. 32Hunt, M.M., Mental Hospital (New York: Pyramid Books, 1961). 33 Bentz, and Edgerton, pp. cit. 14 Its emphasis is on community—based services. These services range from short-term counseling on drug or marital problems 11>the morecritical types of mental illness. These much needed community (locally) based centers are alternatives to private high-cost mental care and the state hospital systems. Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center The Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center in Lansing, Michigan, is one of these centers. It is one of the facilities of the Tri—County (Ingham-Clinton—Eaton) Mental Health Programs. The impetus for this community approach came from citizens of the area who organized first in the 1930's as an advisory board to the Child Guidance Clinic. The board later served as another board to the Adult Mental Health Clinic and eventually as an Executive Community Mental Health Board under Public Act 54, in 1964. The Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center (CMHC) began providing outpatient services in 1966. Rapid movement toward providing a comprehensive program of services to the community has been made in the last couple of years. A federal grant has been awarded to assist implementation of the essential services of a comprehensive center. One of the problems which the Center faces is the dif- ficulty it has dealing with the image the public holds of its functions and the services it offers. The writer became aware of the problem in the spring of 1972 while doing work with the 15 CMHC concerning the diffusion of information about the Center. The specific problem is that the public's image of the Center and the Center's own image (as held by its staff) are appar- ently very different. C The CMHC staff views the Center as one offering compre- hensive mental health services. These comprehensive services range from outpatient short-term crisis intervention counseling and Other short-term treatments for marriage, family or drug related problems to the inpatient services at the Ingham Medi- cal Hospital. These inpatient services focus on stabilization and short-term hospitalization. Precare-aftercare services are included and are rehabili- tative in nature and are provided to counter the effects of severe, chronically disabling mental illness. Their goal is stabilization and enhancement of functioning through longeterm supportive treatment, retraining for employment, socialization, etc. A 24-hour emergency service is available through Ingham Medical Hospital and consultation and education services make mental health information available to individuals and organi- zations in the community. The Lansing public apparently views the CMHC as merely a place where the very mentally ill are taken and "put away" for a while. CMHC staff members related this information to this writer in meetings concerning the diffusion problem. This information is based on CMHC staff reports from meetings with other community organizations and staff personnel's everyday and casual contacts. Patient interviews (especially those of l6 first-time users) also support this conclusion. Staff members spoke of a stigma attached not only to the Center, but also to those who use its services. Interviews showed patients were often reluctant to seek treatment because of rejection or denial by friends or family members. One administrator related that the stigma is so strong that in fre- quent cases husbands or wives will come in for treatment with- out their mate‘s knowledge. One of the suggestions that came out of the diffusion work was that the Center develop a new name or title. This is to be a first step in the process of attempting to Slowly change the image of CMHC in the Lansing public's eyes. In further conversations with the CMHC staff, they stressed that the image they would like to see perceived is that of the comprehensive mental health services; something more complex and richer in meaning than the single simple perception of the Center and mental health that is presumably in common use. It is to this problem —- development of a new name for the Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center -- that this study will be directed. Purpose of the Study This study is exploratory in nature. It is intended to develop a name—change model of generalizable value and to suggest a new name or names for the Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center. It is hOped by the Center and writer that the name suggested will be perceived by its l7 audience (the Lansing public) as including those services that comprise the concept of what the Center refers to as "comprehensive mental health." The problem seems to be one of image and meaning. At present the meaning that the public gets from the name Com- munity Mental Health Center does not appear to include those services which the Center staff in their definition of ser- vices offered lists under the concept of "comprehensive mental health." The Center's administrators point out that in init- ial interviews with patients that these people just don't know enough about the Center or mental health to be aware of or understand the services offered. Compounding this problem of lack of public awareness is the stigma attached to mental health care, facilities and patients by society's "normals."34 This study, as it is planned, will be a first step to a better understanding of the concept of "comprehensive mental health." Lowering the rejection rate among society's normals of patients using mental health services and facilities is another objective of this study. The study, as reported, is designed to serve as a model for the development of new names for the Community Mental Health Center and similar other 34Joint Commission on Mental Illness and Health, Action for Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, 1961). The Commission describes society's many sided pattern of rejection of the mentally ill. They cite a major lack of recognition of mental illness as illness and a predominant tendency toward rejection of both the mental patients and those who treat them. 18 _institutions and organizations. A secondary purpose of this study is to examine the effects of knowing on both appropriateness of names and the adjectival descriptions provided by Sp. Knowing in this study is defined as Sp being informed of the problem facing the Center and the Center's reasons for seeking a name change prior to any performance of evaluative tasks on the part of the Sp. The "knowing" variable was randomly assigned to one of the sample segments. Importance of the Study The importance of the need for the new name and this study is the result of several factors. The need for a viable, public name-change model is pri- mary. An equally important factor is that the public just doesn't know enough about mental health or the Community Mental Health Center to be aware of its services. The public and the majority of first-time users of the Center's services look at the Center as a place where only long-term mental problems are dealt with. The reduction of the stigma attached to mental health and the agencies that deal with it is another factor in the need for a study such as this. A lack of understanding of the comprehensive services offered by the Center and a hope that the new name will trigger a recognition (or at least not serve to promote and support prevailing stereotypes of the Center) of the concept in the l9 minds of those who see, hear or read of it is perhaps the most fundamental need for this study into finding a new name. Organization of the Study This study is divided into five chapters. The remaining four chapters deal with reviewing applicable literature; data collection; data analysis and a discussion and summary of the results. In Chapter II an extensive literature review providing reference and perspective about what is already known about the goals and purposes of this study will be presented. In Chapter III a detailed description of how the data is collected and from whom is discussed. Sampling procedures and experimental procedures are presented. In Chapter IV an analysis of the data is presented. This presentation centers around the measurement of image for each of the alternative names and the inter-relationships be- tween the dependent and independent variables. A discussion of the findings and implications will be presented before the final summary section in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE An extensive review of the literature failed to reveal a model for the naming or changing of a name for institutions or organizations similar to a mental health center. Corporations and private enterprises, when reporting a name change, often list reasons for the change or criteria that the new name must meet. However, the method of develop- ment remains private and within each specific firm involved. In relation to the procedure and method of approaching the problem, appropriate research falls under the following topic areas: meaning; images; stereotypes; names and labels; and "set" research. By dealing with these topics, the study was given limits and direction. Another purpose of the literature review is to provide an interpretive framework. Meaning Meaning is the essential element of this study. It is related to most topic areas of the study and a solid grasp of the concept as used in this study is essential to facili- tate an understanding of the study. 20 21 Berlo3sstates that meanings are in peOple. They are 36 posits covert responses of human organisms. Charles Osgood a "mediation hypothesis" to develop a concept of meaning. Briefly, this hypothesis holds that certain stimuli cause in- ternal responses which in turn act (mediate) as stimuli for other responses, either overt or covert. Diagramatically, this is as follows: Figure 1 STIMULUS -— RESPONSE - ° - STIMULUS +RESPONSE (external) (internal) (overt) (covert) Berlo37relied on this hypothesis for the suggestion that the internal response that acts as an internal stimulus can be defined as the meaning of the external stimulus for the person who is responding. He further discusses one's meaning for things as consisting of the ways people respond to them internally and the predispositions which one has to respond to them (stimuli) generally. 35Berlo, D.K., The Process p£ Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1960), p. 175. 36Osgood, C., in E.P. Bettinghaus' Persuasive Communica— tion (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968T, p. 123. 37 Berlo, D.K., pp. cit. 22 The type of meaning involved in this study has been termed "connotative meaning." Berlo38calls it primitive meaning -- a meaning which has never gone beyond the personal learning stage. Connotative meaning is characterized by a relationship with people and a Sign (word) and an object (stimulus). In his work in persuasive communication, Bettinghaus39 draws on the work of Osgood40and Staats and Staats4lto explain connotative meaning. His description of connotative meaning refers to the set of internal mediating responses to a word (rmS) which in turn are responsible for a set of internal stimuli (SmS) and these help to determine the kinds of exter- nal reactions that the individual is likely to make to the perception of a word (see Figure 2). 381bid., p. 209. 39Bettinghaus, E.P., Persuasive Communication (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), p. 124. 40Osgood, C., Method and Theopy 33 Experimental Psy- chology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1953), pp. 680-727. 41Staats, A., and Staats, C., Complex Human Behavior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964), pp. 115-238. 23 Figure 2 STIMULUS— THE X WORD \Rms. . . sms —> RESPONSE (covert (overt) responses) The initial responses elicited by a word (covert respon- ses) are analogous to the external responses (overt responses) and can be said to constitute another kind of meaning, an in- ternal meaning for the word. This is connotative meaning. Some writers have suggested that connotative meaning functions to mediate incoming stimuli and to help to determine the char- acter of external (overt) responses made to the messages. This discussion suggests that the internal mediating responses may occur in varying numbers. Certain stimuli may elicit more internal responses than other stimuli, which in turn elicit more internal responses. Dealing with these inter- nal responses in a hierarchical fashion suggests a concept related to meaning; i.e., meaningfulness. Since meaning is described as the internal responses to a stimulus, meaningfulness correlates to the number of and hier— archial nature of those responses. Stimuli that elicit more internal responses and subsequent external responses can be said to be more meaningful (more complex, richer) than stimuli 24 that elicit fewer internal responses. For example, a stereotype of a certain ethnic group that describes that group as being intelligent, shrewed, indus- trious, proud and peaceful is more meaningful than a stereo- type of that same group which describes it as being indus— trious and proud. This is so because the first stereotype' elicited more adjective responses than the latter. C.E. Nob1e4zin a now classic article on the analysis of meaning also deals with the concept of meaning and meaning— fulness in terms of stimulus (S) and response (R). Briefly, he describes meaning as a relation between S and R. It was ‘coordinated with Hull's43theoretic construct class of corres- ponding habit strengths (H) (see Figure 3). Figure 3 STIMULUS MEANING = ACQUIRED NO. OF SHRS RESPONSES HI —3>R‘ H2 5 H3 - , ~‘3>F?3 ,4” =fi>f§n at For the reader who is unfamiliar with the conception of response hierarchies, he is referred to the writings of C.L. Hull. , Principles of Behavior. New York: Appleton-Century, 1943. _— 42 I . Noble, C.E., "An Analysis of Meaning." Psychological ReVIew, Vol. 59 (1952), pp. 421-430. 43 Hull, C.L., Principles pf Behavior (New York: Appleton- Century, 1943). 25 Since meaning is a relation between variables, Noble defines it as the number of HS subsisting between S and the several Rs taken together. More specifically, the particular meaning of Sx are H1 H2 H3 . . . Hn, and different conceptual combinations Of these HS yield different numbers of meanings. Meanings increase as a simple linear function of the number of S multiple R connections acquired in a particular organism's history.44 In other words, the meaning of S is a function of the number of Hs developed for it. A habit is a linkage between a stimulus and an acquired response for it. A simple explanation is that meaningseue habits. A S conditioned to twenty RS has more meanings and is therefore more meaningful than a S condi- tioned to five Rs. AS more habits (meanings) build—up to par- ticular stimulus situations, so does the meaningfulness increase. It is this explanation of meaning as developed by Noble45 that will be used in this study. Meaning refers to the number of responses elicited by a stimulus. Also in this study, response to the alternative names (see Appendix A) will be elicited from the entire combination of words making up the name. The adjectives and nouns making up each alternative name will be considered as a single stimulus. 44 Noble, C.E., cit., p. 424. 220 45 . NOble’ C.E. ' _920 Clto 26 Howes and Osgood46and Bettinghaus reported studies that indicate evaluative meanings are affected by the adjectives used to describe a name. A A congruity or balance principle, as Bettinghaus47refers to it, enables researchers to predict an estimate of the meaning that would be held for a combination of two or more words. As an example, if the evaluative meaning for an adjective was neu- tral and the meaning for the noun was positive, the meaning of the combination might fall in between the two. A second phase of the Bettinghaus study tested the hypo- thesis that results of prior associations with particular adjec- tives would be persistent, even when the noun was no longer associated with the adjectives. A series of combinations were tested for three days. The nouns were then presented alone. The results were upheld. As an example, one group judged the combination "wonderful doctor." After three days, the group was asked to judge the concept of "doctor" alone. Results showed that nouns associated with adjectives had been affected by the adjectives. The adjectives had "rubbed off" onto the nouns. The group who rated "horrible doctor" rated the noun alone less favorably than the group who rated "wonder-. ful doctor." 46Howes, D., and Osgood, C.E., "On the Combination of Associative Probabilities in Linguistic Context," American Journal p£ Ppychology, Vol. 67 (1954), pp. 241-258. 47 . . . Bettinghaus, E., "Cognitive Balance and the Development of Meaning," Journal pf Communication,Vol. 13 (1963), pp. 94-105. 27 Bettinghaus suggests words have an effect on the ways in which language is perceived. For example, books or motion pic- tures described as "colossal" or "enchanting" will acquire some of the characteristics of the adjectives that are used to de- scribe it. Another indicator of the studies of word combination is that even words that have already had meanings developed, mean— ings that are rather strong or highly polarized, can have those meanings modified by the ways in which they are combined with other language units. Using persistence and repetitions, a communicator can change the evaluations that the audience has of a person, product or idea.48 Osgood, Tannenbaum and Suci4gsuggest that when people are asked about their feelings (inner responses, meanings) they have for words or concepts, they frequently are given in terms of descriptive adjectives of various kinds. A descriptive adjec- tive is often referred to as a trait. Traits are important to this study in that each adjective used to describe the alterna- tive names will be considered as a trait. This concept is reviewed and discussed in the description of pre-test design. Stereotype One of the first areas where traits were used as a descrip- tion of thoughts, feelings, or meanings of terms is the area of 481bid. 49Bettinghaus, E.P., Persuasive Conversation (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968), p. 143. 28 stereotypes. In recent years, stereotype has evolved into mean— ing a "category that singles out an individual as showing assumed characteristics on the basis of his group membership."50 Walter Lippman, a pioneer in this area, recognized stereo- type as part of a simplifying mechanism to handle the real en- vironment which to many is too big, too complex and too fleeting for direct acquaintance.51 In a work on stereotypy of imagery as an ego defense, Rosemary Gordonszgives an explanation of how we attempt to cope with the environment and form stereotypes. She likens stereo- typed constructs to and places their dependence upon the cogni— tive processes. As part of the attempt to understand the ex- ternal environment,they are also accepted by their possessors as the result of logic and reason. After examining stereotypes, one must admit that emotions and interests are far more responsible for their existence than are reason and logic or experience. In Short, interested urges predominate over disinterested ones in the production of stereo- typed constructs. Components of an individual's mental construct which lead to stereotype formation are outlined by Gordon.53 They include 50VanderZanden, J.W., American Minority Relations: The Sociology pp Racial and Ethnic Grogps (New York: Ronald, 1966). 51Lippman, W., Public Opinion (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1922), P. 16. 52Gordon, R., Stereotypy pp Imagepy and Belief pp pp Ego Defense (Cambridge, Great Britain: The University Press, 1962), p. 2. 53Ibid-r pp- 10‘13. 29 cognition, perception, images and concept. Images are mental structures, distanced considerably from actual stimulation by the environment. They are more exposed to the influence of sub- jective forces than are perceptions (the means of providing raw material for other cognitive contents). Perceptions and images are both concerned with the appre- hension of sense impressions. While perceptions occur in the presence of and in response to a stimulus, images have no such external exciting cause. Lippman's work supports this in that he points out that men's actions are not based on direct and certain knowledge but on pictures made by himself or given to him. It is "the way in which the world is imagined that determines at any par- ticular moment what men will do. We react not to the real world but to our reconstruction of it —— the pictures in our heads."54 Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition, defines a concept as a general idea derived from and considered apart from the particulars observed by the senses. The mental process by which this is obtained is called abstraction. Snakessdescribes concept formation as the reaction to the relationship common to two or more stimulus patterns and the 54Lippman, pp. cit., p. 11. 55Snake, K.L., pp Objective Study p: Concept Formation ("Princeton—Psychological Monographs," Vol. 43; Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press). 30 result of both analytical and synthetic thought processes. Formation of a concept according to Gordon56implies setting up in one's mind a new pattern which comprehends all the traits essential to the classification of a number of separate units under the same heading. This is done while traits which are irrelevant to that classification are discarded, even though possessed by individual members of the group. The new pattern will be different from any actually per— ceived and must be the outcome of something more than a purely analytical procedure. If the latter were so, the procedure would lead to nothing more complex than the listing of a number of isolated traits. Concepts -- such as stereotypes -- constitute the most important mental content by means of which impressions are organized and systematized. The number of items apprehended are also reduced by their organization into diStinct-types and classes. In addition, they facilitate learning and use of past experience in order to deal with novel situations. In his work, Lippman57put forth that we react to the stereo- type of the object and not to the object itself. This was vari— fied in studies conducted by Secord.58 56Gordon, R., pp. cit., pp. 10-13. 57Lippman, W., pp. cit., p. 11. 58Secord, P.F., "Stereotyping and Favorableness in the Per- ception of Negro Faces," Journal pp Abnormal and Social Psycholqu, 59 (1959), PP. 309-314. 31 Members of ethnic groups were rated as being more similar on traits included in their stereotype than on traits not includ- ed in their stereotype in research done by Tajfel,'Sheikh and Gardner.59 Once a person is identified as belonging to a minority group (i.e., stereotyped) he is automatically given the presumed characteristics of that group. Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss60 indicate that this would imply that naming an object automati- cally results in the individual's social experience attaching a whole complement of attributes to the name of the object pro- viding we had experience with others in the class. Edwardsélin dealing with assessing stereotypes, breaks the concept down into four dimensions: content, uniformity, direc- tion and intensity. 1. Content. Refers to the traits that make up the stereotype. The content of stereotypes has shown tremendous stability over time. 59 . . Tajfel, H., Sheikh, A.A., and Gardner, R.C., "Content of Stereotypes and the Inference of Similarity Between Members of Stereotyped Groups,"Acu3 Psychology, 22 (1964), pp. 191-201. 60 . . Cauthen, N., Robinson, I., and Krauss, H., "Stereotype: A Rev1ew of the Literature. 1926-1968," Journal of Social Psychology, 84 (July, 1971), pp. 103—125. ’— 61 . . _Edwards, A.L., "Studies of Stereotypes: I. The Direc— tionality and Uniformity of Response to Stereotypes," Journal pp Soc1al Psychology, 12 (1960), pp. 357-366. 32 Katz and Braly,620ne of the first to use the adjective checklist in assessing traits, demon- strated the traits associated with each of 10 ethnic groups. For example, the traits assigned to Jews (shrewd, grasping, intelligent and ambi— tious) in 1932 were quite similar to traits found in 1965 by Ehrlich and Rinehart.63 The latter used a method of free association. Some 18 years after Katz and Braly and using the same method, Gilbert64 found the content of all stereotypes unchanged except for the Chinese, Japanese and Germans. These changes were believed to come about as the results of these nations' partici— pation in World War II. The universe of traits of stereotypes remains recognizable over time. A ten year old list of stereotypes without identifying their nationali- ties was given to subjects by Meenes.65 62Katz, D., and Braly, K.W., "Racial Stereotypes of 100 College Students," Journal pp Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28 (1933), pp. 280-290. 63Ehrlich, H.J., and Rinehart, J.W., "A Brief Report on the Methodology of Stereotype Research," Social Forces, 43 (1965), pp. 564-575. 64Gilbert, G.M., "Stereotypes Persistence and Change Among College Students," Journal pp Abnormal and Social Psychology, 46 (1951), Pp. 245—254. 5Meenes, M., "A Comparison of Racial Stereotypes of Negro College Students in 1935 and 1942," Ppychological Bulletin, 39 (1942), PP. 467-468. 33 Subjects were asked to match the trait list to a list of nationalities. All stereotypes were identified correctly except Japanese and Chinese. He interprets the inability of subjects to identify correctly the Japanese and Chinese as an indication of the content change over the intervening years. A similar recognition technique with the same 66 results was used by Centers. 2. Uniformity. It is defined by Edwards67as agreement on the assignment of traits. Instructions were used by Schoenfield68to have subjects mark those traits useful in describing ethnic groups in general. This instruction produced a uniformity of response beyond that of chance. Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss6gindicated that another measure to assess uniformity is the frequency of individual traits assigned to a group. This can be thought of as the importance of a trait to the stereotype. They cite numerous studies that have used this method. 66Centers, R., "An Effective Classroom Demonstration of Stereotypes," Journal pp Social Psychology, 34 (1951), pp. 41-46. 67Edwards, pp. cit., pp. 566-572. 68Schoenfield, N., "An Experimental Study of Some Problems Relating to Stereotypes," Arch. Psychology, 38 (1942), Whole No. 270. 69Cauthen, N., Robinson, I., and Krauss, H., pp. cit., pp. 112-113. 34 Direction. Refers to the favorablesness-unfavor- ableness of a stereotype. Studies of direction Show that once an object is associated with a stereotype, the object is regarded as being in the same direction as the stereotype. Sherif70found that the pairing of an author previously rated as unfavorable with a literary passage rated as favorable resulted in the author's acting as a stereotype. Consequently, an unfavor— able rating of the passage resulted. In similar studies, Stagner7lfound that sub— jects responded favorably to unlabeled principles of Fascism, although they had previously responded in a highly unfavorable direction to the princi- ples when labeled as Fascist. Intensity. Refers to the degree of favorableness- unfavorablesness of a stereotype. This can be determined either from the stereotype itself or separately from it. 72 73 Katz and Braly, Saenger and Flowerman used a social desirability rating of traits to 7O Sherif, M., "An Experimental Study of Stereotypes," Journal p£.Abnormal and Social Ppychology, 29 (1934), pp. 371-375. 71 Stagner, F., "Fascist Attitudes -- An Exploratory Study," Journal pp Social Psychology, 7 (1936), pp. 309-319. 72 73 Katz and Braly, pp. cit. Saenger, G., and Flowerman, S., "Stereotyping and Pre- judiced Attitudes," Human Relations, 7 (1954), pp. 217-238. 35 determine intensity. Assessing intensity separately from the stereotype, Katz and Bralyz4Schoenfie1d75 and Taft76measured intensity by a favorability rank- ing of ethnic groups. In using both measures, Katz and Braly77found ranking of nationality preference very similar to the ranking of social desirability ratings of the traits. Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss78make clear that intensity, as it was originally conceived by Edwards,79was mentioned in terms of degrees of reac- tion to a stereotype. Intensity they say has now been used more lately in terms of what groups are liked and disliked. Both high and low-prejudiced people hold stereo- types, but high-prejudiced individuals are more 74Katz and Braly, pp. cit. 75Schoenfield, pp. cit. 76Taft, R., "Ethnic Stereotypes, Attitudes and Familiar- ity: Australia," Journal pp Social Psychology, 49 (1959), pp. 177-186. 77 Katz and Braly, pp cit. 78Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss, pp. cit. 79Edwards, pp. cit. 36 8 likely to hold more intense stereotypes (Barton, 0 Hasling,815aenger and Flowerman,82and Secord83). It seems likely that the intensity is a consequence of individual attitudes rather than characteristic of the stereotypes themselves. Eysenck and Crown84found individuals who were high and low on anti-semitism agreed in rating of statements as to degrees of prejudice expressed toward Jews. Relationships Among Dimensions of Stereotypes Content to Direction. Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss85 report that Edward586hypothesized that while two groups may respond in opposite directions to a concept and still show equal uniformity and intensity of response, one can expect to find Significant content differences in the response of the groups. 80Barton, J.B., "A Study of Attitudes Toward Jews and Mormons at a Southern University" (unpublished master's thesis, University of Georgia, 1965). 81Hasling, J.T., "A Study of Attitude Intensity Among Dogmatic Students" (unpublished master's thesis, University of Georgia, 1969). 2Saenger and Flowerman, pp. cit. 83Secord, pp. cit. 84Eysenck, H.J., and Crown, 8., "An Experimental Study in Opinion Attitude Methodology," International Journal pp Opinion and Attitude Research, 3 (1949), pp. 47-56. 85 Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss, pp. cit. 86Edwards, loc. cit. 37 Edwards used a list of 30 items relating to Socialism, Democracy and Fascism. He found those who disapproved of So- cialism had checked different items as characteristics of both Democracy and Socialism than did those who had approved of So- cialism. In an earlier study Edward587noticed differences in con- tent for groups who were opposed to or favorable to Communism for the stereotypes of Communism. This indicates that differ- ences in direction produced differences in content. It is not illogical that the concept "Communism" has a different meaning to those who favor it than it does for those who are opposed to it.88 Uniformity to Direction. Schoenfieldsgpointed out that Edwardsfiogroups of different direction, Communist and non- Communist, had produced stereotypes of different content toward Communism.- AS a result, the combining of different content rather than different direction produced the lower uniformity. There were two stereotypes of Communism. Uniformity to Intensity. In another hypothesis, Edwards predicted that greater intensity of an attitude toward a 87Ibid. 881bid., p. 70. 89Schoenfield, pp. cit. 90Edwards, pp. cit. glIbid. 38 concept of government would result in a greater uniformity of stereotyping. He showed this to be the case when a group of subjects _which approved of Socialism and a group which opposed Social- ism had more uniform stereotypes of Socialism than neutrals. Content of a Socialism stereotype was different for the two groups, but the relationship of intensity and uniformity does not depend on Similarity of content.92 Saenger and Flowerman93found that high anti—semitic indi- viduals were more uniform in assigning stereotype traits to Jews than were low anti-semitic individuals. High-prejudiced individuals assigned more stereotyped terms to Negroes than did low—prejudiced ones.94 Greater intensity is directly related to greater uniformity within a stereotype.95 In other relationships between dimensions of stereotypes, Cauthen, Robinson and Kraussg6cite evidence of a tendency for high familiarity to be associated with a positive direction 92Ibid., p. 113. 93Saenger and Flowerman, pp. cit. 4Secord, P.F., Bevan, W., and Duke, W.F., "Occupational and Physiognomic Stereotypes in the Perception of Photographs,’ Journal pp Social Ppychology, 37 (1953), pp. 261-267. 95 Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss, pp. cit., p. 113. 96Ibid., pp. 110-116. 39 and low familiarity with negative direction. They also report that general trends seem to indicate that greater familiarity is associated with greater uniformity. For a comprehensive review of stereotype literature, the reader is directed to Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss,97 "Stereo- types: A Review of the Literature 1926-1968," to which this section is greatly indebted. More on Stereotypes Gordonggdescribes the essential characteristics of a stereo— typed construct to be rigidity, resistance to change and a ten- dency to persist in their original form in the face of all demands for modification made by objective facts and conditions. The effects on stereotypes varying with the amount of in- formation has received little study. Stereotypes are likely to be most influential when the amount of information is either very low or very high.99 Sheikh and Millerloofound that stereotypes did not differ as a function of age. 97Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss, pp. cit., p. 114. 98Gordon, pp. cit., p. 2. 99Schroeder, H.M., Driver, M.J., and Struefert, 8., Human Information Processing (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967). 100Sheikh, A., and Miller, p., "Investigation of Some Variables Influencing Stereotyping in Interpersonal Perception," Journal pp Psychology: 78 (1971), pp. 213—216. 40 GordonlOlreminds that the attributed stereotype is not synonomous with false or erroneous, for it is possible to find correct stereotyped constructs as well as incorrect stereotyped constructs. The chance, she says, that a stereotyped construct is false is greater than it is true. The reason is the complex- ity of the external world; it is dynamic with constant movement. Stereotyped content is rigid and static, therefore true stereo? typed constructs are likely to be rare and accidental. Lambert and Klineberglozdemonstrated that while there may not be a universal core of stereotypes, it is safe to say that there is no known group that does not use negative stereotypes or derogatory names. The spreading of a new concept —— be it a stereotype or a concept designed to change a stereotype -- will be slow and pro- tracted. Gordon103emphasizes that every member of a group will have to learn the new and unlearn the old piece of knowledge or Sentiment before he in turn can pass it on to the next person and form an active link in a necessary chain. An additional factor hindering a quick change, she adds, is man's fears of social isolation which might follow the acceptance of new atypical or eccentric ideas. Standing up to defend thoughts whose acceptability by the rest of the group lOlGordon, pp. cit., p. 2. 102Lambert, and Klineberg, "A Pilot Study of the Origin and Development of National Stereotyping," International Social Science Journal, 11 (1959), pp. 221—238. 103 Gordon, pp. cit., p. 9. 41 may be in doubt seems to require more courage and strength than most people are endowed with. It follows, Gordon says, that a new thought, idea or fash— ion will be obstructed in its passage through a Social group -— especially at the beginning of its career —- by this reluctance of men to embrace something new which might result in the with- drawal from them of general social approval. Many may be famil- iar with a new concept or practice, but only when they realize that others are in possession of the novelty and it isn't some- thing that might separate them from the group will they consent to acknowledge it. The process of ideological change could therefore be very slow. Names Research about names is both numerous and relevant to the problem outlined in the purpose of the study. Names, from per— sonal or proper, to business or product, have one thing in com- mon. They are symbolic of something: ideas, processes, geo— graphical places, occupations, personality variables (traits), and many other referents. Proper or Personal Names At an early stage in his development, nameless man Showed an intelligent curiosity concerning his needs and surroundings. One of these needs was to call one's children, relatives and friends by distinctive signs or symbols, whereby they could be distinguished from one another. 42 The need for names, when a mere inflection of the voice or a gesture was considered no longer sufficient, appears to have been felt almost simultaneously with the origin of speech.104 A man's name was his individuality. His personality and the rights and obligations connected with it would not exist without the name. Those who knew him or heard his name pronounced, con- nected it immediately in their thoughts with the idea of his physical characteristics, mental make-up and moral character.105 There was a general belief that an intimate connection be— tween the meaning of the prOper name and the character of des- tiny of the man who bore it existed, according to Masani.106 Since creation -- when in the Book of Genesis, Adam is referred to as the giver of names for all living creatures —- the need for naming every living thing has been felt. Later years showed that people came to believe that the character and destiny of the person named was determined by the choice and significance of the name.107 Almost every Hebrew name had some significance originally. Some names had a symbolical sig- nificance concerning all the aspects of Jewish child life. An example is Emmanuel, meaning "God is with us." Other names had 104Masani, R.P., Folk Culture Reflected pp Names (Bombay: Popular Prakashu, 1966), pp. 6—7. 105 Ibid. 106Ibid. lO7Ibid. 43 a commemorative character, such as Jacob, because he followed on the heels of Esau.108 Brown reports that the "early Greeks regarded the name or logos of a thing as intimately connected with its very nature. Plato held the view that it was not merely a label, symbol or representation, but a true reality with independent existence, the material thing being but its shadow."109 Unbaptized children are called dragons and snakes in parts of modern Greece because they are believed to turn into snakes and vanish if they remain unbaptized. Studies from other parts of the world show that unbaptized children are believed to have no soul. Instances are recorded where such children were re- fused burial by the church.110 A name is so closely related to the soul and vital to it, that it must be carefully guarded from attack. An attack on the name is regarded in many places to be just as dangerous as an attack on any physical part of the self. Even in today's western culture this is evident. People speak of "defending one's good name" or of a name being tarnished when a person's honor has been attacked.111 lOBIbid., p. 14. 109Brown, P.W.F., "Names Magic," Names, 2 (1954): PP- 21‘26- llOIbid. 111 Walker, E.A., "Self-Concept and Degree of Liking of One's First Name by Self and Others" (unpublished master's thesis, Michigan State University, 1970), p. 17. 44 Maintaining this protection has resulted in various name taboos. These taboos are found in great quantity all over the world and Show great similarity in places quite distant from each other.112 An example of this taboo is that once a person knows the true name of another he gains power over him. Folk—tales, cus— toms and religious legend in every culture will Show this to be the case. The fairy tale of Rumplestiltskin is a form of this belief.113 The heroine in the story must know the name of the little magic dwarf in order to be released from his power. Similar versions of this story in Scotland, Wales, England, Ireland, Germany, Austria and other countries have been found by A Clodd.ll‘ Masani reports that a widespread belief in Eastern and Western cultures is to give a child a deprecatory name as pro- tection from evil Spirits. In some places this is done only if the child is sickly -— the rationale being that the spirits won't think someone with such a terrible name is worth bothering. Another form of the custom is to give disgraceful names to children after previously born children given good names have died.115 Some primitive people are under the belief that a child 112Ibid. 113 Fenichel, 0., Psychoanlytic Theory pp Neurosis (New York: Norton, 1945). 114Clodd, E., "The Philosophy of Rumplestiltskin, The Folk— lore Journal, 7 (1889), part 2, pp. 135-163. 115 Masani, op. cit. 45 named after someone will acquire the namesake's qualities. Nam- ing helps create the character of the child.116 A change of a personal name can occur on many occasions and for different reasons. An important event, sickness, a cere- monial occasiOn such as marriage, baptism, puberty rites, circum- cision or even old age can serve as the impetus for changing a name. Any event that changes the status of a person may be 117 Many of accompanied by a name change or addition of a name. these reasons are still used today such as marriage, baptism, divorce, adoption, conferring of certain degrees or joining an order such as the Black Muslims. Often in today's society the name becomes part of one's per- sonality. Masanilleiscusses what is in a name. He believes it is important. One's future and fortune depend on it. It is a storehouse of folk culture. He believes it is like being stamped on the forehead, this stamp reflecting the tradition and usages of the community to which the individual belongs and the level of culture attained by the community. He suggests a look to religion, psychology, history and folk philosophy to understand this vital connection. 119 Jahoda, in a study of the Ashanti tribe of the British Gold Coast, found that children were given a name according to 116Walker, pp. cit. 117Ibid., pp. 19-22. 118Masani, pp. cit., p. 21. 119Jahoda, C., "A Note on Ashanti Names and Their Relation- ship to Personality," British Journal pp Psychology, 45 (1954), pp. 192-195. 46 the day of the week on which they were born. Two outstanding cultural stereotypes existed regarding the names. Boys born on Monday were supposed to be quiet and peaceful. Wednesday boys were supposed to be troublemakers. His conclusion in the study was that results obtained were consistent with his hypothesis that Ashanti beliefs about a connection between personality,. character and day of birth may be effective in selectively enhancing certain traits which otherwise may have remained 1a- tent. Regarding names and the identity of self, Allport called the name the most important anchorage point for selfhood. As the child grows, the name becomes a point of contact with the interpersonal world. He says that, "With the name comes the formality of receiving salutations and addresses from others and with this formality comes a sense of self—importance and of position within the social hierarchy."120 Allport refers to an earlier work where he found that de- fending one's name was second only to the immediate physical safety of oneself as a cause of justifiable homicide. DeLevita speaks of name in relation to identity in this manner: "The name has in common with the body the fact that it fulfills a function as a format of identity before it becomes an idential. The child says its name before it says 'I' and needs its name in order 120 p. 163. Allport, G.W., Personality (New York: Holt, 1937), 47 to be able to delineate itself as an ego....The per- sonal role expectation of the parent -- name givers with regard to the child -- is expressed in it but is inseparably interwoven with the communis opinio in the prevailing culture with regard to what the name symbolizes."l 1 He hints further that identity problems may arise from names that are too unusual, leading to loneliness, or from names that are too common, leading a person to feel he must do some- thing to distinguish himself from others. Other studies show that these are two of the most common reaSOns given by people who dislike their name.122 In his work on identity, Strauss discusses names and says it reveals the judgement of the namer: "The names that are adopted voluntarily reveal even more tellingly the indissoluble tie between name and self-image. The changing of names marks a rite of passage. It means such things as that the person wants to have the kind of name he thinks represents him as a person. He does not want any longer to be the kind of person that his previous name signified."123 To name is to know. This isn't in a magical sense, but in the sense that naming is central to a person's cognition of the world. Clinical Research on Names Much has been revealed about names through clinical research in such areas as social psychiatry and psychoanalysis. 121DeLevita, D.J., The Concept pp Identity (Paris: Mouton and Company, 1965), pp. 173-174. 122 Ibid. 123Strauss, A.L., Mirrors and Masks: The Search for Identity (Glencoe: The Free Press, 1959), p. 16. 48 Steke1124had a belief that a person's neurosis, character and occupation may be related to his name. Abrahamlzssupported Stekel's assumption by citing two of his cases where the content of an obsession was related to the name of the patient and one homosexual case where there was an obvious correspondence between the name and the problem. He also suggested that in families where the name suggests a character trait, both may be handed down providing the origi- nal ancestor was appropriately named. He also has basis to think that one's name might be an important determinant in the choice of a love object.126 127agrees with Abraham. He describes the cases he Flugel has encountered where unconScious influence of name on conduct has been present. There are three main divisions in these cases: (1) general influence on character and behavior; (2) choices of profession or occupation; and (3) choice of love ob- ject. In addition, some cases showed influence of a name being shown in more than one of the categories. Murpheyzareported the following cases. A doctor had pa- tients named Small and Little with inferiority complexes, a 124Stekel, W., Compulsion and Doubt, I. (New York: Liveright, 1949). 125Abraham, K., Clinical Papers and Esspys pp Psycho— analysis (New York: Basic Books, 1955). lzelbid. 127 Flugel, I., "On the Significance of Names," British Journal pp Medical Psychiatry, 10 (1930), p. 209. 128MurPheYrW.F., "A Note on the Significance of Names," Psychoanlytic Quarterly, 26 (1957), pp. 91-106. 49 McCold who had troubles with his sinuses and a Hogg who first overate and then developed anorexia nervosa (loss of appetite). A case seeming less coincidental was that of a young man whose parents each had a different nickname for him. "Throughout his life and career he wavered between the choice of one of these nicknames as he wavered in his identification with and his alle- giance to each of his parents."129 A slightly different view is held by Oberndorff. He exam- ined the relationship of name and character and says: "Although there is a striking frequency with which patients have referred to their attitudes toward their Christian names or in some way altered their surnames....where the reaction had had any intense force, the vital influencp has depended not so much on the person as Abraham1 0states, but upon innate feelings which the patient believes is in some way mirrored in his name, to or against his advantage." In agreement with this viewpoint is Plotke.132 He adds that 131 certain people focus on their name as a sort of "guiding fixture" to symbolize their lifestyle. Opinions a person has of his name are revealing factors of lifestyle, similarly as can analysis of dreams or childhood recollections. 133 In a theoretical framework, Feldman sees naming as an essentially hostile limiting act. Names are an expression of 129Ibid., pp. 93-94. 130Abraham, pp. cit. l3.10berndorff, C.P., "Reaction to Personal Names," Psycho- analytic Review, 5 (1918), PP. 47-52. 132Plotke, P., "On the Psychology of Proper Names," Individual Ppychology Bulletin, 5 (1946), pp. 106-111. 133Feldman, H., "The Problem of Personal Names as a Universal Element in Culture," American.ImagO: 16 (1959), pp. 237-250. 50 antagonism which people feel toward what they name. Naming is a means by which they come to terms with unwanted resistant ob- jects. The named person reflects this hostility of the namer. The named feels imposed upon, as the name given him by another is an alien imprint on his personality, and yet he is at the same time identified with the name. Fenichel addresses himself to magical thinking in children with regard to names. Tying up words and ideas makes thinking as a process possible. The ego has now a better weapon to handle the external world as well as its own excitations. This is the‘ rational content of the ancient magical belief that one can mas- ter what one can name.134 Berguerl35expands on this concept relating that control comes about through naming for the child. Gradually, as the child learns more and more names of things and peOple, he is better and better able to get what he wants. 136addresses himself to psy- In a speculative manner, Memmi chological correlates of name changes. In the case of Jews -- name changes ostensibly for the purpose of concealing their Jewish origin are really compromises between retaining the Jewish identity and concealing it. 134Fenichel, pp. cit., p. 46. 135Berguer, G., "La Puissance de Nom," Archives dp_ Psychologie, 25 (1936): pp. 313-322. 136Memmi, A., The Liberation pp the Jew (New York: Orion Press, 1966). 51 Changes discussed are Aron to Nora, a reverse; Benamor to Emmanuel, a change to a name that might be Jewish; Schwartz to Black, Bronstein to Brownstone, Greenfeld to Greenfield, all translations and Davidovitch to David, a shortened form. Memmi's agrument is that if people really wanted to conceal their Jewish origin, they would take names like Smith or Jones. In place of this, they compromise and take a name that could be Jewish without having to be Jewish. The change concedes something to the demands of the non- Jewish world, but retains a link with the Jewish name. "The name literally sticks to the person, and most people suffer when they hear theirs mutilated as if it hurts their very being. It is doubltless the old magical fear of losing one's soul."137 Israeli Jews do the same, with the intention being just the opposite, yet the mechanisms of transference are identical. A remnant of the old name is kept, either by translation into Hebrew, keeping the meaning of the old name, choosing a name with similar sound or significance, or by the common practice of tak- ing the name Ben___ followed by the Hebraic name of the father. Memmi concludes, "It seems that even in triumph, an absolute rupture with the self is not always desired."138 137Ibid., p. 41. lBBIbid. 52 Research Studies Into Names Allen, Brown, Dickinson and Pratt}39and Waltonl40have shown that stereotypy of first names takes place, but the number is limited. Lawson,l41in a semantic differential analysis of men's first names, found that both men and women hold stereotypes for both common and random names. Names with lower frequency were not rated as favorably as common names. Men and women saw high fre- quency names as closer to the good, strong and active semantic dimensions. In 1937, Waltonl42found that by paired comparison and abso- lute judgement, common first names do have affective value (stu- dents were able to indicate a like or dislike for the name alone). Men and women generally agree on which names they prefer. In a sample of college students, Allen, Brown, Dickinson and Pratt143found that some 40 percent of men and 46 percent of women were dissatisfied with their first names. They also found that men prefer more common first names but women prefer names neither 139Allen, L. et. al., "The Relation of First Name Preferences to Their Frequency in the Culture," American Journal pp Psychology, 14 (1941), PP. 279-293. ' 140Walton, W.E., "The Affective Value of First Names," Journal pp Applied Psychology, 21 (1937), pp. 396-409. 141Lawson, E.D., "Semantic Differential Analysis of Men's First Names," Journal p£_Psyphology, 78 (1971), pp. 229-240. 142 Walton, pp. cit. 143Allen, et. al., pp. cit. 53 too strange nor too common. Both men and women dislike very strange names. Finch, Kilgren and Pratt,l44using college and elementary school students and heterogeneous adults as subjects, concluded that common male names were generally preferred by all groups. A greater variability occurred for female names. "Variability of name preference reaches its greatest amount among the females of childbearing age. This means that many unique names, those which are bizarre and those which represent a passing fad will be bestowed upon children."145 A preference for unusual names was found by Eagleson146 among Negro college women. Another result he found was that one of every five who disliked her name and one of every eight who liked hers said the name affected her life in some way. Dexterl47found among college students that those with nick- names tended to be more popular than those not having them. P1ank148reports that a definite trend is develOping in giving similar names to sets of twins (rhyme, first letter, etc.). This 144Finch, M., Kilgren, H., and Pratt, K.C., "The Relation of First Name Preferences to Age of Judges or to Different Although Overlapping Generations," Journal pp Social Psychology, 20 (1944), pp. 249-269. ‘ l451bid., p. 263. 146Eagleson, O.W., "Student's Reactions to Their Given Names," Journal pp Social Ppychology, 23 (1946), pp. 187-195. 147Dexter, E.S., "Three Items Related to Personality: Popu- larity, Nicknames and Homesickness," Journal pp Social Psychology, 30 (1949), pp. 155-158. 148 Plank, R., "Names of Twins," Names, 12 (1964), pp. 1-5. 54 is dangerous, he cautions, in that a name is closely related to one's status as an individual. Using Harvard undergrads as subjects, Savage and Wells149 studied the effects of unusual names. Nine percent of the sample had unusual names. Fifteen percent of those diagnosed as psycho- neurotic had unusual names and 17 percent of those flunking out had unusual names. The unusual name could work positively, how- ever, as some students with unusual names did superior work on their exams. Ellis and Beechlylsoexamined case histories of children at a clinic over a period of three years. They found disturbance was associated with peculiar names in boys, not in girls. Their explanation is that women's names have a much wider range of acceptable variability. A girl therefore with an unusual name is not spotlighted as is a boy with a peculiar name. The relationship between the ratings of degree of liking of first names and the population of children having those names 151 was studied by McDavid and Harari. A correlation was found between the ratings given a name in a group of children and the popularity assessed by sociometric analysis of a child liking 149Savage, B.M., and Wells, F.L., "A Note on Singularity in Given Names," Journal pp Social Psychology, 27 (1948), pp. 271-272. 150Ellis, A., and Beechly, R., "Emotional Disturbance in. Children with Peculiar Given Names," Journal pp Genetic Psychology, 85 (1954), PP. 337-339. 151McDavid, W., and Harari, H., "Stereotyping of Names and Popularity in Grade-School Children," Child Development, 37 (1966), pp. 453-459. 55 that name. They found a definite preference for certain names. "Attention is drawn to the possibility that the child who bears a generally unpopular or unattractive name may be handicapped in his social interactions with peerlesz Murphey, in discussing name changes, asserts that "aliases and noms de plume reveal the unconscious factors of those using them."153 Hartman studied criminal aliases and found many similarities between the alias and the real name of the individual. He is in 154and states that, "Probably the most impor- agreement with Memmi tant psychological process underlying the selection of aliases is a conflict between the desire to achieve anonymity and the need to retain one's personality identity."155 In addition, he says the degree of similarity between the original and assumed names may be taken as an important indication of the degree of personality reorganization or conflict. When a clear-cut name change is made we can assume corresponding changes in an individual's self-concept. A change also shows in the strength of identification with his original family and social 156 group. 152Ibid., p. 458. 153Murphey, op. cit., p. 104. 154Memmi, pp. cit. 155Hartman, A.A., "Criminal Aliases: A Psychological Study," Journal pp Psychology, 32 (1951), p. 53. 156 Ibid.! pp. 49-56. 56 To explain how important the name is to an individual, Moray157conducted a dichotic listening experiment. He found no stimulus would break the attention barrier except the subject's own name. In discussion he says that these results raise a prob- lem that can be termed an identification paradox. While appar- ently the verbal content of the rejected message is blocked out below the level of conscious perception, nonetheless a subject can respond to his own name. Using middle class suburban 9th grade students as subjects, 158 concluded that a person's feelings of like or dislike Walker for his name are indicative of his level of self-concept when they are particularly strong in either direction. Feelings about one's first name are closely related to one's feelings about oneself as a member of a homogeneous family unit. Brand Names, Trademarks, Corporate Names A brand is a word, name, design or symbol (or combination of these) that is intended to identify visually and/or orally the offering of one enterprise and to differentiate it from offerings of other enterprises.159 A trademark is a kind of shortened symbol for a corporation. It is a memory trigger. If it is a good one, it can in an instant, 157Moray, N., "Attention in Dichotic Listening," Quarterly Journal pp Epperimental Ppychology, 11 (1959), pp. 56-60. 158Walker, pp. cit. 159Lipson, H.A., and Darling, J.R., Introduction tp_Marketing: pp Administrative Approach (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1971), p. 634. 57 utilizing conscious and unconscious forces, reflect a corporate image effectively and accurately.160 The relationship between brand names and trademarks is 161 All brand names and trademarks explained by Lipson and Darling. are brands or parts of brands, but not all brands are either brand names or trademarks. A brand is the inclusive generalized term used to indicate the identification of the product. The brand name is concerned with that part of the brand that can be vocalized. Trademarks are legal terms for that part of the brand that the law identifies and protects as a trademark. Each brand is actually a very brief coded message that per- mits the seller to identify the particular set of specifications represented. Buyers can grasp a code name easier than they can absorb all the specifications that this brand name represents. Sellers find it effective to use brands in order to identify the product specifications.162 Boorstin eleborates on trademarks stating that they are in- tended to become a standard for judging all products of a certain kind. He stresses that it is a legally protected set of letters, a picture or a design identifying a particular product. "A trade- mark is seldom a simple by-product of other activities. It is not merely the name, initials or signature of a maker or guild —- it 160Boorstin, D.J., The Image (New York: Atheneum Publishers, 1962), p. 194. 161 Lipson and Darling, pp. cit., p. 634. l621bid., p. 635. 58 is designed by a specialist."163 He believes this is so because trademarks have become very important in recent years. They are not simply "Coca-Cola" or "USS," but are more ab-- stract. He refers to them as a crafted personality profile of 164 an individual institution, corporation, product or service. "We confess a distinction between what we see and what is really there," he says, and "we prefer what we see."165 This overshadowing that results covers up whatever may really be there. By using the term trademark (image) -- in the manner Boorstin describes -- one can imply that something can be done to it -- refurbish, improve, synthesize or doctor it. 166 Leo Bogart looks at the brand name, trademark, corporate image and product image in communication terms. A manufacturer is continually involved in the complex process of communication with his product's customers. This is in some ways comparable to interpersonal relations. In our society of impersonal mass marketing and mass con- sumption, the relationship of buyer and seller is at quite a dis- tance, yet in a sense the advertiser is still constantly trying to establish a one-to-one relationship with prospective customers or to deepen a relationship that already exists.167 163Boorstin, pp. cit., p. 185. 164Ibid. 16SIbid., pp. 186-187. 166Bogart, L., Strate pp Advertising (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1967g, pp. 60-61. 167Ibid. 59 The reputation of his company or brand is as complex and subtle a product of events and forces as is the impression one human being has of another. Many bits and pieces of personal experience, conversation, symbolism of name, pricing, packaging and product attributes build that reputation.168 As a result of research into consumer motivation, adver- tisers have become aware that in making a product choice among relatively undifferentiated brands, the consumer buys mainly the satisfaction arising from a brand's unconscious symbolic meanings and associations.169 The principles of generalization and discrimination in learn- ing are relevant to marketing of such undifferentiated products. Generalization refers to the individual's tendency to make the same learned response to similar cues. Discrimination refers to the individual's ability to selectively respond to similar cues.170 Robertson states that, "Most marketers wish to move their item from being perceived as a product by consumers to being per- ceived as a brand. They wish consumers to discriminate toward their individual one rather than to generalize that one item is "171 like any other. 'The greater the product differences, the more likely dis- crimination is to occur. Companies have invested large sums of 168Ibid. 169Bogart, pp. cit., p. 61. 170Robertson, T.S., Consumer Behavior (Glenview, 111.: Scott Foresman Company, 1970), p. 26. 171 Ibid. 60 money to induce consumers to perceive differences and make dis- criminating responses for many non-differentiated product cate- gories such as beer, soap or cigarettes. Advertising has flourished from efforts to produce apparent distinctions in such product categories according to Boorstin.172 Competing products were precisely similar and very unnotice- ably different. Different brands of these commodities could not be distinguished from one another by shape or function. Conse- quently, each had to be distinguished by being attached to a dis- tinctive image.173 The Brand Names Foundation (1943) by 1959 had almost a thous- and members. Brand names had become household words. Boorstin calls what has happened since with the aid of advertising as go- ing from the "brand name to the name brand."174 He states that the use of brand as a synonym for trademark had entered the English language as early as 1827. "In America, the usage of the expression 'brand name' called attention to pri- vate ownership of trademarks the fact that one firm alone was authorized to designate its product. But the much newer expres- sion 'name brand' makes the name and not the product the center of attention."175 An objective for any low-interest product is to get a tip- of-the—tongue association between the general product category 172Boorstin, pp. cit., p. 199. l731bid. 174Ibid., p. 200. 17SIbid. 61 and the individual brand. For instance, not a soft-drink but a "Coke;" not a facial tissue, but a "Kleenex." Such an identifica- tion makes it more likely that the customer will ask for the brand by name or reach for it on a shelf among similarly priced and. packaged items.176 Generalization, as mentioned earlier, can be a valuable strategy depending on the marketing situation. The use of a "family" brand such as G.E. or Heinz takes account of this prin- ciple. The objective behind this is to provide a unified meaning for a line of products and to benefit from strong positive asso- ciations developed for the family name.177 The importance of brand identity to an advertiser was shown in a study by P.E. Van de Bruin and J.H. van Lonkhuyserl78for the Phillips Lamp Company in the Netherlands. They composed split-run full-page two color ads for a photo cell in a Dutch publication "The Engineer." The COpy and illus- tration were identified in both ads except that one carried the logotype symbol that identifies "Phillips" and the other a logo for a mythical brand "TAG." The Phillips logo created five times as much unaided recall scores, and aided recall was twice as high as that created by the unknown brand. 176Bogart, pp. cit., p. 61. 177Robertson, pp. cit., p. 27. 178Van de Bruin, P.E., and van Lonkhuyser, J.H., in L. Bogart, pp. cit., p. 61. 62 179compared ad content for leading In a similar study, Simon brands and other brands. Brand names were masked for the first evaluation and identified for subsequent evaluations. She con- cluded that brand name leaders can elicit more favorable atti- tudes than ad content may warrant. This is true because of the positive influence of their companies' names. 180in a study of women shoppers in Oakland, Califor- Bucklin, nia, found that store reputation (name) may be just as important to the consumer as that of the product. He found consumer famil- iarity with both the brand of merchandise and the store which sells it reduces the uncertainty which causes people to shOp around before they buy. This sense of familiarity and trust is what every advertiser seeks to establish. An example where a competing brand's name is too closely associated with the name of the brand leader is that of the B.F. Goodrich Tire Company. They feel that they are losing potential sales for their "Lifesaver Radial" tires because of the "curse" of having a name similar to the leading manufacturer, the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. In an attempt to obtain better discrim- ination for their product, Goodrich is doing a series of ads rather than change their name.181 179Simon, M.F., "Influence of Brand Name on Attitudes," Journal pp Advertising Research, Vol. 10 (1970), pp. 10-13. 180Bucklin, L., American Druggist (June 6, 1966), cited in L. Bogart, pp. cit., p. 61. 181"Goodrich Out to Dispel 'Curse' of Its Own Name," Advertising Age, 43:49 (December 4, 1972), p. 2. 63 In changing or choosing a name for a product, marketers may either: (1) coin a name -- Kodak, Dacron; (2) adapt or adopt words -- Pamper, Perfection; or (3) use a name under license or agreement -- Batman, Howard Johnson.182 In general, brand names should be short, easy to pronounce, pleasing when read or said, timely, adaptable to packaging or labelling needs and any advertising medium, and not used by any other enterprise. Some businesses use brand names to indicate. endurance, strength or performance characteristics.183 In the most recent wave of new product introductions, brand names have imposed a personality upon the product. Joining such old-timers as Dr. Pepper and Mr. Clean are new-comers Baron von Redberry and Sir Grapefellow (breakfast cereals), Big Wally (household cleaner) and Ragedy Ann-Ragedy Andy (disposable dia- 184 pers). Corporate Name Changes —- New Product Names Corporations often go to considerable lengths to find a more suitable name for themselves or to introduce a new product. The classic example is the Ford Motor Company who, prior to launching a new product several years ago, established a judging panel to select a new name. After months of study, they came up with the name they wanted all along: Edsel, named after the son 182Lipson and Darling, pp. cit., p. 635. 183Ibid. 184O'Connor, J., "Personality Brand Names Seen as Trend in June New-Product Reports," Advertising Age, 43:27 (July 3, 1972), p. 4. 64 of the company's founder. The car was a dud, so much so that now Edsel has become a synonym for a highly publicized product which flops in the marketplace.185 Months are often spent in search of new corporate titles. An example is Eaton, Yale and Towne, Inc. Its management decided that the name led to misunderstanding and confusion among its many publics. They undertook a comprehensive study to evaluate possible alternatives. They decided that any choice must be brief, easy to pronounce and linguistically acceptable in all major countries be- cause of the concern's multinational nature. Finally the name Eaton Corporation was chosen since it met all the criteria.186 A recent example where a brand name was changed because of linguistic non-acceptance was the case of the Humble Oil and Re- fining Company, changing its Enco brand to Exxon, because in Japanese the word "enco" means stalled car. 187gives another case example in the change from Allis Merjos Chalmers Manufacturing Company to Allis Chalmers Corporation. Its management commented that the new name has brevity, conforms to common usage of the public in referring to the firm, and bet- ter identifies it more as a manufacturer of the product it sells. Whatever the reason, some 250 publicly owned enterprises had changed their name from 1970 to 1971. Merjoslssgives some 185Merjos, A., "Aerodyne to Ziegler, More Companies Than Ever are Changing Their Names," Barron's, 51:38 (September 20, 1971), PP. 9-15. 186 Ibid. 187Ibid. lBgIbid. 65 reasons fOr and methods of changing corporate names as well as examples of each. I Some corporations change for the sake of simplicity. An example is Red Lake Laboratories, Inc., changing to Redlake Corporation. Sometimes management comes up with a shorter name by cOmbin- ing the initials of the old one. EMI Ltd., formerly Electric and Musical Industries, Ltd., is an example. H.G. SawyerlBgcommented on the recent trend of forming names by use of initials. He says that advertisers like the short, initial made-up names for reasons that they are easier to build into ad layouts and more susceptible to modern design. Theoretically, a name like AME-TEK is more distinctive than "American Gadget Company" or "Ideal Can Corporation." Sawyer questions this theory by arguing that initial made-up names are so much alike that one has to convert to the original to make a positive identification. Advertising is the key to a company making its name stand for what it wants. This holds true for companies whose name no longer stands for the business it is in. Reputation is what counts. G.E. makes things other than electric items; Frigidaire makes stoves; and Hotpoint makes refrigerators -- yet all are successful and have kept their original names.190 189Sawyer, H.G., "Sawyer: What's In A Name? More Than What's In Initials," Industrial Marketing, 56:8 (August, 1971), p. 35. lgOIbid. 66 Some new names are an anagram of the old title. Artko Company was formerly Aero-Tech, Inc., and Danalab, Inc., was formerly known as Dana Laboratories. Many switches are brought on by diversification. American Sugar Company, for example, felt the name no longer was descrip- tive of the full SCOpe of its business. Developments had expanded its activities into areas beyond refining, processing and sale of sugar. The company changed their name to Amstar Corporation. Quaker Oats Company decided recently to change its corporate symbol but not its name to shOw its diversification of product lines and contemporary, dynamic policies. The reason given for not changing the name was "because the goodwill and reputation for quality that are now associated with the Quaker Oats Company name are a priceless asset."191 When a title no longer reflects the geographical SCOpe of the business, a change may be in order. Culligan, Inc., upon acquiring operations in several other countries, became Culligan International Company. National Lead found that the term lead carried adverse con- notations. For that reason it changed its name to NL Industries, Inc. New names sometimes come from a desire to identify with a particular company's popular brand. National Biscuit Company re- cently changed its name to Nabisco, Inc., because the firm was 191"Quaker Oats Introduces New Corporate Symbol," Advertis- ing Age, 41:39 (September 28, 1970), p. 32. 67 best known to its customers by its brand name Nabisco. Airco had long been the principal trademark of the Air Reduc- tion Company. The company is now called Airco, Inc. Mergers are another large reason for changing corporate names. Warner-Lambert Pharmaceutical merged with Parke, Davis and Company in 1970 under the new title Warner-Lambert Company. Banks, among other institutions, often change names to indi- cate a broader operating scope. The First National Bank (Madison) is now First Wisconsin National Bank. Reincorporation in another state is another reason for a name change. The Cosmodyne Corporation changed its name to Cordon International Corporation after incorporating in Delaware after a move from Florida. A final reason for changing a name or title is upon recapi- talizing. Merrill Island Mining Corporation became Canadian Merrill Limited on such an occasion.192 Set Research One cannot talk about responses to stimuli as relating to learning, perception, problem solving or social attitudes without evoking the concept of set as a mediating influence operating somewhere between stimulus and response.193 192Merjos, pp. cit. 193McGee, R.K., Response Set ip Personality Assessment, ed. I. Berg (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967), p. 8. 68 Forguslg4describes set as a perception which is structured toward a Single or few reactions. Set operates to predispose subjects toward certain kinds of behavior rather than other kinds; i.e., they reduce the number of response alternatives. Set is described by Adcock and Adcocklgsas the learned pre- disposition to attend to particular stimuli or respond (behave) in certain habitual ways. Heimstra and Ellingstad say that one of the major internal factors that influences attention is perceptual readiness or set. Their definition of set is the "disposition of a person to attend to a certain type of stimulus in a particular Situation at a given time."196 V I For example, as one approaches an intersection while driving an automobile, he is prepared or "set" to attend to such stimulus objects as traffic lights and Other vehicles. Set may be estab- lished on the basis of instructions as well as habit or experience. Perceptual readiness or set prepares a person for attending to certain categories of stimulation. In other words, stimulation does not affect a passive receiver but rather a receiver who is Prepared for certain kinds of stimulation.197 194 p. 269. 195Adcock, C.J., and Adcock, N.V., Psychology (London: Henneman Educational Books, 1968), p.44. 196Heimstra, N.W., and Ellingstad, V.S., Human Behavior, 5 Systems Approach (Monterey, Calif: Brooks/Cal Publishing Co., 1972), p. 120. 197 Forgus, R., Perception (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), Ibid. 69 One of the first studies to deal with set and its effects 198. was conducted by Luchins in 1942. He refers to set as Einstellung (the German word for mental set) and explained its effect on problem-solving behavior in a series of classic "water jar“ studies. He found that after working several of the problems, typical subjects developed a set for solving the problem by means of a formula he gave them. The pp continued to work the problems in this way even though a more simple solution was available. Luchins'study showed that set had a direct effect on the type of problem-solving behavior. pp ranging from grade school children to graduate students exhibited the same lack of ability to extract the simpler solution. The original response pattern was highly resistant to extinction.199 200reported that the perceiver's Asher, Tiffin and Knight set, determined by prevailing feelings, desires and intention, and by activity which is in progress, influences one's perception. It may act as a barrier that keeps a present excitation from call- ing up the experience produced by similar excitations in the past. In this case, the perception of the present excitation is likely to be determined entirely by the perceiver's set. 198Luchins, in N.W. Heimstra and V.S. Ellingstad, 92- Cit-r p. 254. 1991bid., p. 255. 200 Asher, E.J., Tiffin, J., and Knight, F.B., Introduction tp General Psychology (Boston: D.C. Heath and Company, 1964), p. 247. 70 They list an example stating that if a man lies awake at night thinking about burglars breaking into his house, he is likely to perceive the creaking of a porch swing as a burglar trying to open a window. The man has experienced the creak of the porch swing many times, but tonight however the same creaking noise doesn't set off previous experiences and a recognition of the source of the noise. Instead, the man is set to perceive a burglar. The set not only acts as a barrier to the recall of the pre- vious experiences with creaking swings, but actually determines that the present noise will be interpreted as a burglar.201 The influence of set upon perception is easily determined when the stimulus is relatively unstructured, indistinct, new or ambiguous. Since such stimuli will be less likely to set off established perceptions, their perception will be determined more largely by the individual's set.202 Set appears related to attitudes. Allport writes that the main stream of the concept "set" is that, "In one way or another the essential feature of attitude is a preparation or readiness for response. The attitude is incipient and preparatory, rather than overt and consummatory. It is not behavior but the 2011bid., p. 248. 202Ibid., p. 248. 71 precondition of behavior."203 Meeting expectations of friends, groups, peers and others may be viewed as a form of set or attitudes toward these persons. This social desirability as a response set is described by Edwards- as a "tendency of subjects to attribute to themselves self-descrip- tive personality statements with socially desirable scale values and to reject those with socially undesirable scale values."204 Such a desire may be created through instructions to respon- dents in research, as well as in other situations when someone describes his expectations of others. The response of subjects in the performance of perceptual tasks is determined to some extent by the verbal instructions given. LandaurZOsrefers to a common view among some researchers that instructions serve to induce "analytic" or object-directed viewing attitudes which considerably affect the perceptual behav- ior of the observer. A number of tentative hypotheses have been adVanced suggesting various causes for the effect of instruction stimulus. The most common perceptual determinant mentioned is the familiarity of the observer with the stimulus. This factor l 203Allport, G., cited in I. Berg, ed., Response Set pp Personality Assessment (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1967), p. 9. 204Edwards, A.L., The Social Desirability Variables ip Personality Assessment and Research (New York: The Dryden Press, 1957), p. vi. 205 . Landaur, A.A., "The Effect of Instructing on the Judge- ment of Brightness," Quarterly Journal of Experimental Ppychology, 16 (1964). PP. 23—29. "" 72 derives largely from the memory color hypothesis of Hering.206 This has been shown by studies such as Duncker207that brightness constancy is increased in a stimulus judgement if the subject believes that he is loOking at a familiar object whose reflection he knows. Mu1h611and208 reports that an instructional set is of a gen- eral nature. He used various designs and instructional sets in six experiments and reported subjects perceived a motion more often when instructed to perceive that motion than when no in- structions were given. In an experiment in solving problems which involved turning switches to create certain light patterns, Duncanzogfound that subjects who were strongly instructed to minimize overt respon- ses (turn switches) and to think made fewer overt responses and took a longer time to solve the problem than were uninstructed subjects. These effects of instruction occurred across three different amounts of information levels about the problem and on an initial as well as a transfer basis. Problem information levels are manipulated in this study. 206Hering, E., "Zun Lebre von Lichtsinne," S.B. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Abt. III (1969). pp. 85-104. 207Duncker, K., "The Influence of Past Experience Upon Per- ceptual Properties," American Journal pp Ppycholpgy, 52 (1939), pp. 255-265. 208Mulholland, T., "Instructional Sets and Motion Perceived While Viewing Rotating Stimulus Objects," ppprnal pp Ppychology, 56 (1963): PP. 233-237. 209Duncan, C.P., "Effect of Instructions and Information on Problem Solving," Journal pp Epperimental Psychology, 65:4 (April, 1963): pp. 321—327. 73 210speak of the halo effect as a possible Lucas and Britt bias or set in the pretesting of print ads.' They refer to the halo effect as a tendency to pick out the best liked ad and rate it highest in all respects. It is the same tendency which causes peOple to rate their friends fairly high on almost every human quality and to be correspondingly unfair to people they do not like. 211write that the anticipation of making Mills and O'Neal choices about other persons increased the intercorrelations of traits attributed to the persons by the subjects involved in the experiment. Prior expoSure and stimulus complexity are other indicators of response set. A study to explore the effects of several amounts of prior exposure to one of two sets of stimuli on sub- sequent tendencies to choose the previously nonexposed set was conducted by Endsley.212 Experiments of this type are based on the Berlyne213prop- osition that organisms tend to approach stimuli as a function 210Lucas, D., and Britt, S.H., Measuring Advertising Effec- tiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963), p. 105. 211Mills, J., and O'Neal, E., "Anticipated Choice, Atten- tion and Halo Effect," Ppychonomic Science, 22 (1971), pp. 231-233. 212Endsley, R.C., "Effects of Differential Prior Exposures on Preschool Children's Subsequent Choice of Novel Stimuli," Psychonomic Science, 7 (1967), pp. 411-412. 213Berlyne, B.B., Conflict, Arousal and Curiosity (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960). 74 of their novelty, and on the assumption that both the number of alternations between the two sets (novel stimulus set vs. famil- iar stimulus set) reflect the subjects' tendencies to maintain commerce with novelty. Berlyne has suggested other variables which influence attention and perception. Information about the problem and Situation at the Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center is provided one group in this study and not the other. Such manipulation is done to explore the possibility that knowledge levels might serve as an "instructional" set in the test situation to pre- cipitate less complexity of responding to the adjective lists with each name in the test instrument (described in the next chapter). V Based on the literature review cited above, the following variables are defined for this exploratory study. INDEPENDENT: Knowing. Knowing is defined as pp being informed of the problem the Center faces and the Center's reasons for seeking a name change, prior to any performance of evaluative tasks on the part of pp. It will be ran- domly assigned to one of the sample segments. DEPENDENT: Image. The image will be measured for each alternative name for the Ingham Medical Hospital Community 75 Health Center. It is defined as: (l) appropriateness scores for each alternative name; and (2) frequency of descriptive adjectives for each alternative name. In addition, other data on media channels and use for access to social issue information was asked in the test instrument (see Appendix B). Such variables may serve as control variables in the analysis. CHAPTER III METHODS AND PROCEDURES The operations of this research were carried out much as in a laboratory experiment. Sample. The sample consisted of 147 introductory level advertising students enrolled during the Winter Term, 1973, at Michigan State University. The sample was randOmly divided into two subsets, nl=87, n =60. 2 Instructions (n=87). Group 1 was informed of the Center and of the problem confronting that Center. pp in that group were read the following: "The Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center, a facility of the Tri-County Mental Health Pro- grams (Ingham-Clinton-Eaton), desires to develop a new name for the Center. The Center offers the following services to the pub— lic. Outpatient services which are focused on crisis intervention and short-term treatment. Services of this type are provided to individuals, married couples, families and groups. Inpatient hospitalization is pro- vided when necessary and focusses on stabilization and short-term hospitalization. Precare-aftercare services are rehabilitative in na- ture and are provided to counter the effects of severe chronically disabling mental illnesses. Partial care services provide alternatives to long-term inpatient care by develOping day and night hospitalization, transitional living and the like. Twenty-four hour emergency service is available through the emergency room of Ingham Medical Hospital. A final service is the consultation and education service which makes mental health information and problem solving skills available to individuals and organizations in the community. 76 77 The need for the new name arises from several factors: 1. The first and most obvious is that the administra- tors of the Center feel the present name is too long. 2. 'The administrators also feel that the public just doesn't know enough about mental health or the Community Mental Health Center to be aware of the services offered. 3. The third factor is that the public and the majority of first-time users of the Center's services view the Center as a place where only seriously ill, long- term mental problems are dealt with. 4. The concept of mental health and related agencies that deal with it carries a social stigma. The ad— ministrators believe that a change in name may be a first step in reducing or eliminating that stigma. 5. Closely related to the above factors is the lack of understanding of the various types of services offered by the Center; ranging from consultation on drug or marriage problems, up to the more serious illnesses. The Center refers to this range of other services as 'comprehensive mental health' services. 6. The Center anticipates the new name will generate the concept of 'comprehensive mental health' clearly in the minds of those who see, hear or read of it." Instructions (n=60). pp in group 2 were not informed (unin- formed) of the Center and the problems faced by it. They were read the following: "The Tri-County Mental Health programs (Ingham-Clinton- Eaton) is planning to open a new facility in the near fu- ture. They are currently conducting research to support the choice of a name for the new facility. The facility , will offer a wide range of services." Data Collection. Groups 1 and 2 met separately for the experimental sessions. A data form (see Appendix B) was developed upon which each respondent was to rate each of six names on a five-point scale for appropriateness as a name for a mental health facility offering a full range of services. The list included the current name of the Center (see Appendix A for alternative name development procedures). 78 After this first form was completed, each respondent in each S group was asked to check those adjectives which best described that name both as a name for the Center and as a cue to the services offered by the Center (see Appendix A for adjec— tive list development procedures). The order of presentation of items on the forms, as well as the order of the adjective. list, was randomly determined. Upon completion of the six adjective checklists, each re- spondent completed a data collection form asking for demographic and other related information (see Appendix B). The Data The data collected is of three types. Appropriateness scores measured on a scale from one to five for each of the six alternative names are gathered first. Secondly, the selection of adjectives which best "delimit" the meaning of each of the six names for each S are gathered. The final data collected is categorical in nature regarding respondents' sex, information sources -- mass media vs. interpersonal -- and relative impor- tance of certain social issues, including mental health. CHAPTER IV RESULTS To evaluate the development of the name-change model, to select a new name or names for the Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center, and to evaluate the effect (if any) of the "knowing" (independent) variable on meaningful- ness (dependent) variable of the CMHC, several analyses were completed. The results of these analyses are presented in the following tables. Selection of New Name(s). The mean appropriateness scores of each alternative name as a new name for the CMHC for each treatment group was computed. The results of this compu- tation are presented in Table 1. This table shows that the name Tri-County Center for Social Consultation was rated as the most appropriate name by both treatment groups. The mean scores for respondents' closeness to (salience) mental health and other social issues were computed and ranked for each of the two treatment groups. Results of this compu- tation are presented in Table 2. Graduation from college and employment was ranked first in salience with mental health care ranked sixth on the list of seven social issues by both treatment conditions. The frequency of occurrence for each adjective was evaluated for Significance for each name. A subset of adjectives occurring 79 80 Table 1 Appropriateness Scores for Alternative Names n=87 n=60 Informed avsInformed i S.d. § S.d. Ingham Emotional Care Facility 2.89* 1.03 2.52* .95 Counseling Services Center 2.95 1.08 3.05 1.06 Tri-County Center for Social Consultation 3 02 1.12 3.35 1.07 Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center 2.33 1 14 2.28 1.17 Mental Aids Center 2.61* 1 15 2.28* .87 Tri-County Problem Control Center 2.80 1.29 2 62 1.17 * An analysis of variance showed that there was a significant difference in the appropriateness ratings between the informed and uninformed groups across the list of alternative names. 81 Table 2 Respondents Closeness to Social Issues Informed n=87 Social Issue Mean S.d. Graduation from college and employment 1.67 1.14 Environmental protection 2.18 1.06 Vietnam War 2.48 .99 Welfare reform 3.05 1.29 Wage price control 3.06 1.10 Mental Health Care 3.11 'l.l7 Airplane hijacking 3.47 1.25 Not Informed n=60 Social Issue Mean S.d. Graduation from college and employment 1.64 1.06 Environmental protection 2.08 ' 1.06 Vietnam War 2.42 1.12 'Wage price control 3.17 1.16 'Welfare reform 3.20 1.31 Mental Health Care 3.21 1.25 Airplane hijacking 3.51 1.36 82 a Significant number of times for each alternative name under each treatment group was defined. The number of statistically significant adjectives checked for each alternative name com- prises a meaningfulness score for that name. Table 3 contains the results of these computations. The names Counseling Services Center and Tri-County Center for Social Consultation emerged as the most meaningful names (mean- ingfulness scores of 4) and are comprised of the same adjective descriptors (understanding, concerned, helpful, social). An analysis of variance was performed to test sex, group (informed vs. uninformed) and the names themselves as possible sources of effect on the pp responses of the alternative names. The results of the analysis of variance are shown in Table 4. Sex and the names themselves were found to be significant sources of variance. The knowing variable (group) showed no effect on pp responses of the alternative names. 83 .Hm>ma mo. um vm.m M xa N v m4 m.m m.H N a m m H m m w m E m a: 5 1.408 4 388 338 HEEL ....“ m. HEEL 8888 858:8 m. o mmfififiéou msdvhflm AHV moflwaflm . m. mfipafinuopcp 8C 3.88: 2: 569.83 -88: E E 1.88 m. H688 E 5 5 H338 a I. Hamawm Ad @0588 Efloom E59133 ©9588 ale. 0 8888 636 madman 356:8 SH 883.8. W meflyaflmfixab IRENE JHHE: “HHHGQEH HmQfifino Imps: coflumuHSmsou Housmu muflafiomm Hmucou Houcmu Housmu Hafioom was mumu Honusou spammm amp mOOH>HOm MOM Mousmo Hopsmz Hmcofluofim EOHQOHA Isms avenue msflammssou Sassoonflue EmnmsH SHGSOUIHHB IEOU Hmuflmmom HMOHUOZ EmnmsH Amm>fluowmpm mo Hwnfiszv whoom mmwcasmmsflcmmz paw Osmz soon How Amswsmmz may msfimflnmfioov mm>Huommp¢ mo ummnsm an m magma 84 Table 4 Analysis of Variance* Approximate Degrees F Significance Sources of Variance of Statistic Probability Freedom - of F Statistic Sex 1 13.35 <: 0.0005 Group 1 .00 .93 Name 5 7.42 < 0.0005 Sex X Group 1 .06 .80 Sex X Name 5 .46 .81 Sex X Group X Name 5 .42 .83 * In order to perform a three-way analysis of variance, it was necessary to randomly reduce the original sample size to get equal n's in each cell. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY Appropriateness of Alternative Names The findings in the previous chapter Show that the name Tri-County Center for Social Consultation (with mean scores of 3.02 informed group, and 3.35 uninformed group) is the most appropriate name from the list Of alternative names under both treatment conditions (see Table l). A closer examination of Table 1 shows that the current name -- Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center -- with mean scores of 2.33 informed group, and 2.28 uninformed group, ranked lowest among the six alternative names under each treatment condition. This result supports the need for a change in name from the current title. Any of the other alternative names were deemed more apprOpriate than the current if the judgment is to be made only on the basis of the "most apprOpriate." Although the name Tri-County Center for Social Consulta- tion was judged most apprOpriate as a new name, neither of the treatment groups rated it as very apprOpriate. The 3.02 and 3.35 mean scores are only slightly appropriate on the five- point scale of apprOpriate (5)-unappropriate (1) upon which each name was rated. 85 86 This neutrality of ratings for appropriateness indicates that the respondents in both groups viewed the most preferred name as well as the others in a similar manner. On the one hand the names were not rated as very appropriate as a new name for the CMHC (the highest mean scores being 2.03 informed group, and 3.35 uninformed group), but on the other hand the names were not viewed as rather inappropriate (lowest mean scores being 2.61 informed, and 2.28 uninformed). A partial explanation for this can be obtained by examin- ing Table 2. This table contains respondents' ratings of how close they feel (how salient) to certain social issues, includ- ing mental health care. Mental health care, with mean scores of 3.11 informed group, and 3.21 uninformed group, ranked sixth out of the seven issues presented to both treatment Conditions. Mental health care is a rather distant (non-salient) issue to both treatment grOups and perhaps explains why none of the alternative names was rated as being very apprOpriate as a new name for the CMHC. Non-salience may also be an explanation as to why the list of alternative names as a whole was viewed quite neutrally (neither very appropriate nor very inappro- priate) as a new name for the Center. Conceding that the sample consisted of college students with their immediate future of primary concern, if one deletes the rating of the gnmkatfl31 and employment issue (mean scores of 1.67 informed, and 1.64 uninformed) as reported in Table 2, the relative rankings of mental health care with the other 87 social issues does not change. Mental health care is not a salient issue to the sample population in this study. Adjectives-Meaning and Meaningfulness of Each Alternative Name The subsets of adjectives presented in Table 3 of the pre- ceding chapter indicate both the meanings of each alternative name (as evidenced by ppppp adjectives were chosen by respon- ‘dents a significant number of times) and the meaningfulness of each alternative name (evidenced by the number of adjectives chosen by respondents a significant number of times). The con- cepts of meaning and meaningfulness were discussed at length in Chapter II. Two names under each treatment condition -- Counseling Services Center and Tri-County Center for Social Consultation -- are comprised of the same adjectival meaning (understanding, concerned, helpful, social) and have the same meaningfulness scores (4). These two names are also rated highest across both treatment groups in meaningfulness scores. A closer examination of Table 3 indicates other interest- ing findings. The current name -- Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center -- has a meaning across both treatment groups that is very different from any of the other alternative names. Its meanings (adjectives) (critical, ill and long-term for the informed group; and long-term for they uninformed group) do not appear under any other alternative name . 88 The above indicates that both subject groups have a dis- tinct meaning of the current name and that meaning seems to support the image Of the Center reportedly held by the Lansing public as stated in describing the nature of the problem in Chapter I. This finding again supports the need for a change in name for the CMHC. A brief look at the names Tri-County Problem Control Center and Mental Aids Center shows that each has a distinct meaning from all other names in the informed groups and no significant meaning in the uninformed group. The name Ingham Emotional Care Facility has a meaning across both treatment groups which lies along the same dimensions as does Counseling Services Center and Tri-County Center for Social Consultation, however it is less meaningful (see Table 3). These findings on distinctiveness of meaning for each alternative name indicates that the procedure for developing alternative names and develOping adjectival descriptors (pre- suming adjectives mean the same across all names) as used by this model accomplished its purpose. That purpose is to create alternative names. When considering the highest meaningfulness scores (4), actually achieved in relation to the total possible meaningful- ness score (24), it appears that none of the alternative names are very meaningful. This suggests that pp current image and meaning for the concept of mental health and mental health 89 agencies is very restricted and limited in scope. It would seem that current communication efforts on the part of mental health agencies such as the CMHC are failing to get across the specific and wide-range services and sub-concepts that are a part of the total comprehensive mental health concept. However, an examination of the two names rated as most meaningful across both treatment groups (Counseling Services Center and Tri- County Center for Social Consultation) shows that the adjectives which comprise the meanings of both are broad inclusive terms open to many possible interpretations and specific referents. These broad inclusive terms are typical of stereotypes.- Stereotyped concepts are rigid, resistant to change and tend to persist in their original form in the face of all demands for modification which may be made by objective facts and condi- 214 The broad inclusive type adjectives lend themselves tions. to such characteristics as rigidity, persistence and resistence by their very nature. The many interpretations possible for such broad terms make them ideal components of stereotypes. This is further evidenced by stereotypes maintaining tre- mendous stability over time as discussed in Chapter II. This may be a partial explanation of why the stereotype of mental health care and mental health agencies is changing at a veri- table snail's pace. The universe of traits of stereotypes 214Gordon, pp. cit., p. 2. 90 remains recognizable over time and is one of the reasons why Gordon215writes about the slow, protracted process of spreading a new concept -- such as a new name to alter the stereotype of the CMHC . The Effect of Knowing Based on the findings reported in the previous chapter, knowing about the problems which the Center faced and knowing about the type of new name the Center was looking for had some effect on the appropriateness ratings for two of the alterna- tive names. Table 1 Shows that both treatment groups rated the six alternative names for appropriateness as a new name for the Center in the same rank order. An analysis of variance of mean score differences showed that the informed group rated the name Ingham Emotional Care Facility and Mental Aids Center significantly higher than the uninformed group. A partial explanation for this can be obtained by examina- tion of the list of six alternative names and the instructions given to the two groups. The two names for which "knowing" was significant can be set apart from the others on a connotative dimension of personal, therapeutic or curative services that none of the other alternative names have. Emotional care and mental aids imply the therapeutic description of their respec— tive names. 2151bid., p. 9. 91 Combining the above observation with a look at the in- structions given to the two treatment groups -- specific, per- sOnal services listed individually and briefly described for the informed group vs. a one-term catch-all descriptor for the uninformed group (see Chapter III) -- offers a viable explana- tion for the significant effect of "knowing" on the appropriate- ness ratings of Ingham Emotional Care Facility and Mental Aids Center. The knowing variable showed no effect on pp selection of adjectives for each alternative name. The three-way analysis of variance (Table 4) confirms this statement. A significant effect upon pp selection of adjectives was found for the sex variable (F=13.35) at 410.0005 level. This indicates that if all variables are controlled for and sex is the only possible source of variation, that males and females selected adjectives independently (differently) from one another. Table 5 shows that all females (regardless of treatment group) across all six alternative names Selected a significantly higher number of adjectives than did males. Table 5 Mean Number of Adjectives Selected by Sex Across All Six Names Male 7.7 Female 8 9 92 To partially explain this sex difference of adjective selection, graphs were constructed (see Figure 4) indicating the prOportion of males and females at each position on the scale for measuring pp closeness to selected social issues (see Appendix B) for the mental health care issue. Examination of the graphs Shows that if the extremes are disregarded for each sex (the proportions in the extremes in both distributions are identical), that there are distinct differences in the dis- tributions of the remaining 77 percent for each sex. For males, 38 percent (almost one-half of the remaining group) rated themselves as being neither close nor distant (position 3) to mental health care. For females, 34 percent (again almost one-half of the remaining group) rated themselves as being rather distant (position 4) from mental health care. This indicates that females as a group perceive themselves as being psychologically farther away from the mental health care issue or concept. Relating this finding to the concept of low familiarity of stereotypes being associated with negative direction and that greater familiarity is associated with greater uniformity,216there is reasonable cause to assume that females should have selected fewer adjectives than males. The reverse was the case, however. The relationship of stereotype dimen- sions as discussed by Edward3217(Chapter II), which predominated 216Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss, pp. cit., p. 113. 217Edwards, pp. cit., pp. 566-572. PERCENT PERCENT 50 4O 30 20 IO 50 4O 30 .20 IO 93 Figure 4 MALES N - 82 38% 2 3 4 5 SCALE POSITION FEMALES N I 65 2 p 3 4 5 SCALE POSITION 94 in this instance, were uniformity and intensity. These dimen- sions are positively correlated. Judging from perceived salience to the issue, females by virtue of feeling farther away from mental health care (greater intensity) as opposed to the males' predominant neutral position, therefore agreed upon (selected) more adjectives per name (higher uniformity). In comparing numbers of adjectives selected by males and females, females consistently (in every case) selected more adjectives than males, again lending credence to the evidence 18 that females are more uniform2 in their perceived distance from the mental health care issue than males. Speculation can also be made, based upOn the mean number of adjectives selected by males as opposed to females and upon the concept of meaning and meaningfulness as used throughout the study, that the Six alternative names were more meaningful to females than males. A significant effect upon pp selection of adjectives was also found for the names variable (F=7.42) at“.0.0005 level (see Table 4). This indicates that if all variables are con- trolled for and that if the names are the only possible source of variance, that each name was viewed as distinctive and was rated independently of the other names. Table 6 shows that the number of adjectives selected by all pp for the names were significantly different (table ranked 218Cauthen, Robinson and Krauss, pp. cit., pp. 112—113. 95 by mean scores). Table 6 Ranked Adjective Mean Scores for Each Alternative Name XI Counseling Services Center 9.6 Tri-County Center for Social Consultation 9.5 Tri-County Problem Control Center 8.1 Ingham Emotional Care Facility 8.1 Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center 7.5 Mental Aids Center 6.8 A close examination of each name and its corresponding mean adjective score and rank helps explain this effect. If mean number of adjectives is to be taken as a measure of meaningfulness, the rankings in Table 6 are compatible with those of an average meaningfulness score derived from Table 3. The average meaningfulness score as derived from Table 3 is the computed average of the meaningfulness score assigned each name by the two groups. Examination of the two highest ranked names on these cri- teria indicates that some form of the word counseling appears. In terms of meaning and meaningfulness, the key word counseling in the names Counseling Services Center and Tri-County Center 96 for Social Consultation has a meaning that is different from all other keywords (see Appendix A) upon which the alternative names were based. The counseling concept is apparently more meaningful also. The adjectives that comprise the meaning of the two names (understanding, concerned, social and helpful) were commented upon above as being open to many interpretations and additional referents. This indicates a complexity of meaning dimension upon which these names can be examined if one wishes (the more possible interpretations a concept has, potentially the more complex it is also). Looking at the two lowest ranked names, one immediately views the key word mental.i Taking the significantly Checked adjectives from Table 3 for those names —- Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center and Mental Aids Center -- it is obvious that those adjectives make up a sizable pro- portion of the mean number of adjectives checked (see Table 6) for the two names. Critical, ill, long-term and treatable are specific terms which are a vital part of the current stereo- type of mental health and thus it is not surprising that these alternative names not only had the fewest adjectives selected, but the most Specific of the significant adjectives of Table 3. Following through with this explanation, the names Ingham Emotional Care Facility and Tri-County Problem Control Center, with their respective key words "emotional care" and "control" -- lie somewhere between the counseling and mental concepts of the highest and lower ranked names according to meaningfulness 97 and complexity. An additional explanation for this effect may be the congruity or balance principle as discussed by Bettinghau3219(Chapter II). This concept deals with the mean- ing of a term made up of a combination of words. Associations of the various component words that made up each alternative name could very easily have given each particular name the dis- tinctive meaning that the analysis of variance indicated. When sex by group, sex by name and sex by group by name were tested as interaction sources of variation, none of the results were significant. Recommendations for a New Name for CMHC Recommendationsof a new name or names for the Community Mental Health Center can be and are based on three criteria: (1) appropriateness scores as a new name for the Center; (2) the adjectival meaning and meaningfulness based on which and how many descriptive adjectives were chosen; and (3) compati- bility with the meaning and meaningfulness of an "ideal" name for a community-based mental health center by the assistant director of the CMHC. Based only on the results of the mean score analysis re- ported in Table l of the preceding chapter, the name the data recommends as most appropriate for adoption is Tri-County Center for Social Consultation. 219Bettinghaus, pp. cit. (1963), pp. 94-105. 98 Using the meaning and meaningfulness indicators as re- ported in Table 3 of the preceding chapter as the determining criterion for new name selection, either the name Tri-County Center for Social Consultation or the name Counseling Services Center is recommended. Both names have identical adjectival meanings and the same meaningfulness scores. As a third means of evaluating the alternative names, Edward Oxer, administrator at Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center, indicated those adjectives (from the same list that was given each p for each alternative name) which he believed described an "ideal" community-based mental health .center offering comprehensive mental health services (see 2 Appendix C). The adjectives checked by Mr. Oxer and the resulting mean- ingfulness score for that "ideal" name are as follows: Meaning Meaningfulness Score understanding helpful 7 immediate educational concerned social marital Examination of Table 3 shows that the names Tri-County Center for Social Consultation and Counseling Services Center come closest to fitting the meaning and meaningfulness of the "ideal" name as defined by Mr. Oxer. Both names are a subset of the meaning of the "ideal“ name. Both names correlate to the "ideal" one on four adjectival descriptors (understanding, concerned, helpful and social). It appears that either of the two would serve the Center well as a new name. 99 One additional recommendation based on this criterion is that if one of the above two names were selected, that any future communication efforts on the part of the Center try to emphasize the specific aspects or services of comprehensive mental health. Both names matched exactly the broad inclusive types of descriptors which the Center's administrators feel are important to the Center's image. Neither name correlated to the specific terms —- immediate, marital and educational -- which are also viewed as integral to the image of the Center by its administration.. The final decision on a new name must be made by the Center's administrators. It is they who must weigh and trade- off the values of the different criteria against each other in the selection process. Statement of the Name-Change Model The initial purpose of the study was to develop a viable public name-change model. The processes and procedures in- volved in the statement of this name-change model as developed in this study can best be described in Figure 4, plotted against the time dimension (Tl=start, Tf=finish). The time-flow description of the model is the writer's recommended procedure for the process of selecting a new organizational, company or product name by some groups of people or a staff (see Figure 5). Certain tasks can be mCOHUHpCOO CHMHQO Op :mcfl3ocx mo uoommm: so scammsomflp wmm« .oEmc pouooaom osflucofioamsfl How mummmum .h moan CH pmsaspmpop mfluoufluo CO pommn was: 3o: omoozo “muasmmu Onwawqm .mflmmamcm ouwamsoo ppm pom mummoum “coeumEuomsH opoo .mosms How dauOUHMO GOHpoonm Hmcfim maefiuouoa . «.EOHQOHQ map mo endows on» so soameHOMCH ppm msoflu nonpumCH OUSHOCH .ucosdpumCH pomp pwumflcflspm .mcapozumm soaumauomsfl mo A.Ouo .oomHm .oEHuv mOflwflommm mummoum .Amaeopcmuv OHQEMm Assam uooamm .ucossnumCH ummp one ummunonm Cam mummoum 100 .muoommo uCMOAwficmfim CH CouHSmmH.mW Ou COHmeMOMCH msfl>flm £OH53 Hopes .OH .Qm .Mm .v .Ad xflpcmmmm oomv cflmuno Op coflmeHowCH Ofinmmumosmp songs OCHEHouOQ .Ad xfipcwmmd oomv Snow Hmsflm Op umfla m>auomnpm custom .Am xflpcwmmd ommv Show Hmcam Op umfla mews oospom AEOHQOHQ mo musumc on no mucopcommou Spouse “Ad xflpsmmmd mmmv mm>fluooflpm aflmuno .annonm mo musum: on on mucopcommmu Euomcfl “Am xflpsommfl mmmv moses O>Humcuouam cflmuno .mflmmamcm smflmop “Deanna Hmumcom HO newsman oocmflpsm OHMHOOQN ..m.fl “OHQEMm on mafiom .oum so» 033 mpflowp “Omcmco mam: mafixoom MOM mCOmmou camuuoomm AEOHQOHQ mo ousumc >osum H.,—FA an O. m m N m olm nnN _ m mpsmflm .0m .9m .mM .QN .MN 101 performed simultaneously as illustrated by the time dimension in the diagram. This can shorten the process considerably. Summary of Results The results of this study can be summarized as follows: 1. The Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center should change its current name. The present name has a specific meaning which supports the stereotype now in use among the Lansing public regarding mental health and mental health care. 2. The issue of mental health care is not a salient issue to respondents. 3. The name Tri-County Center for Social Consultation is the most appropriate new name for the CMHC based on a mean appropriateness score criterion. 4. The names Tri-County Center for Social Consultation and Counseling Services Center contain the most meaning and are the most meaningful of the alterna- tive names. These two names have identical mean- ings and meaningfulness. 5. The names Tri-County Center for Social Consultation and Counseling Services Center correlate most closely with the Center's administrators' concept of an "ideal" name for a community-based mental health center on a meaning and meaningfulness criterion. A secondary purpose of the study was to find the effect that "knowing" about the Center's problems and the type of new name they were seeking has on pp ratings of names. 6. Knowing had a significant effect on respondents' appropriateness rating for two of the alternative names. 7. Respondents' sex and the names themselves had significant effects on how many adjectives were selected as descriptive of the alternative names. 102 Implications for Future Research The name-change model which was generated as a result of this study can be applied to various types of name changes: organizational, product or company. The modelis not limited only to name changes. It can also be adopted for use in develop- ing original names for organizations, products or the like. As a result of the findings of the study which Show that knowing had no effect on the evaluation of the alternative names, future use of the model can eliminate the need for two treatment groups.* pp can be told of the nature of the prob- lem or the purpose for seeking the new name as part of the procedures. Subsequently, the sample won't have to be broken down into sub-groups, thus yielding more accurate results because of the increase in Size of the sample resulting from only the one treatment condition. Future applications of the model can eXplore such areas and answer such questions as: Are there certain adjectives which individuals checked for every name? Were certain adjec- tives checked only for certain names? Can factor analysis of individuals and their evaluations uncover certain threads of regularity running through each respondent's selections? From what channels do pp get moSt of their information and does that information relate to certain names? What influence do mass media channels vs. interpersonal channels usage have on pp evaluations? *Dependent on criterion used for selection of final name. See discussion on "Effect of Knowing." 103 This area of names, name—changing and the public's per- ception of organization and company names contains very little research. Possibilities seem unlimited for future studies in this field. To the writer's knowledge, this study was the first attempt to establish a public model or procedures de- signed specifically for changing an organization's name. Limitations of the Study There are four major limitations to this study. All are concerned with its design. The first deals with the randomness of the sample. The sample was not truly random. Although en- rollment in the introductory advertising Class was open to all students in the University, certain sub-groups of students (evidenced by study-major preference) occurred more often than would be obtainable by chance. pp were randomly assigned, how- ever, to treatment groups. A second limitation also deals with the sample. The fact that the pp were all college students makes tham a rather homo- geneous group (by age, interests, lifestyles, etc.) as opposed to the necessary heterogeneous general public upon which a study like this would be based if done on a commercial basis. The lack of heterogeneity and randomness was acceptable in this study because of its exploratory nature and purpose. A third limitation of the study concerns the time difference between administering the test instrument to the two groups. The two groups completed the test instrument one week apart. The amount and effect of information exchange and subsequent 104 bias between the pp of the two groups cannot be determined. To insure a minimum of bias, both groups should have met at the same time in different locations. The final limitation deals with the list of six alterna- tive names. In Choosing the final six names (one from each "key word" group, see Appendix A), the criteria used was to randomly select one from each group. If doing the process on a commercial basis, the client should Choose one of the names from each group that is compatible to his needs and that he can work with. By randomly Choosing a name from each group, there is the possibility of coming up with one that is totally unacceptable to the client. Some Notes on Consequences of Name Changes To keep this study in perspective, the writer feels obli- gated to comment on some of the consequences and results of name changes. On the surface, what may appear as a simple change in name or title for a company or organization, is really an arduous, detailed task. In addition to the obvious name changes on signs or in its advertising, the company or organization must deal with many other name-associated items to insure a smooth transi- tion from the old moniker to the new. To best illustrate the consequences of a corporate name- change, a look at the recent change of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, from its Esso, Enco and Humble trademarks and 105 corporate names to Exxon, is appropriate.220' 221 Officials at Exxon estimate that $100 million is being spent to promote the new name. The company has some 25,000 U.S. service stations, each with some 50 signs to be replaced. In addition, some 300 million sales slips and other ser- vice-station forms have to be reordered. Credit cards have to be replaced. Thousands of other items must be replaced or reprinted. These include embroidered emblems on dealers' uniforms, decals for hardhats, mudflaps for trucks, plaques for oil wells and names on buildings and other tanks. It was estimated that by the beginning of this year, more than a half-million pieces of company prOperty will have had new identities bolted, embossed, painted or glued on. This is not to mention the legal requirements of register- ing the new corporate name and trademark in all the states. Exxon even ran into legal difficulties in Nebraska and had to provide a settlement to an office equipment business -- Exon's, Inc. -- because of the similarity of the name. For a concise idea and summary of the mechanics involved in a name-change, see Forsyth, Verlie, "Planning a Name Change? Here's What's Involved," Burroughs Clearing House, 55, No. 5 (February, 1971), pp. 30-31. 220Tanner, J.C., "Name Change Brings Exxcedrin Headaches and Costs Approximately $100 Million," Wall Street Journal (January 9, 1973). 221Rankin, D.M., "'Exxon' Wins Standard's Reidentification Contest," The State Journal (December 28, 1972). 106 As one can see, changing a company or organizational name is not a simple matter. Obviously, the smaller the company or organization is, the less problems and potential tie-ups there will be in successfully completing a name change. In this study, as the writer advocates a name-change when necessary, there is also the obligation on his part to remind those considering changing their company's or organization's name of the consequences that result from such a change. Such consequences usually take the form of some trade-off or establishment of priorities between communiCation goals and economic/practicality matters. 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Other Sources Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center, personal interivew with administrators. May-June, 1972; March, 1973. APPENDICES 117 APPENDIX A PRE-TEST DEVELOPMENT PROCEDURES Alternative Names Sample. §§ were 29 students enrolled in an advertising research course during the Fall Term, 1972, at Michigan State University. Instructions. §§ were read the following: "The Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center, a facility of the Tri-County Mental Health Programs (Ingham-Clinton-Eaton), desires to develop a new name for the Center. The need for the new name arises from several factors. 1. The first and most obvious is that the adminis- trators of the Center feel the present name is too long. 2. The second is that the public and the majority of first-time users of the Center's services view the Center as a place where only serious, long-term mental problems are dealt with. 3. Closely related to the second factor is the lack of understanding of the various types of services offered by the Center -— ranging from consulta- tion on drug or marriage problems, up to the more serious cases. The Center refers to this range of other services as 'comprehensive mental health' services. 4. The Center anticipates the new name will generate the concept of 'comprehensive mental health' clearly in the minds of those who see, hear or read of it. Using the information supplied and your creative abili— ties, please list as many names as possible that you feel may be appropriate as the new name for the Center. Put down any name that comes to your mind...no matter how remotely related to the concept of the Center or to that of 'comprehensive mental health' it may seem." 118 The §§ followed the instructions and the names were collected. The names were then examined. Any with slang terms were elimi- nated. Names were separated by the occurrence of key words and each such key word was counted and assigned a frequency. The ng_ American Roget's College Thesaurus was used to determine synonyms among the key words. All names containing synonyms were then grouped together, counted and assigned a frequency. The number of names within each group determined the criter- ia for which groups of names would be included in the final name list. Five groups with a frequency of seven names or more were chosen (the groups with the five largest frequencies). There was a considerable gap between the groups with seven names and the next group, four names. One name from each key word group was then randomly chosen by the writer. These five names plus the current name made up the final list of possible new names (see Appendix B). The names were gathered in this manner because a large number of people could come up with a wider range of names (to get as many degrees of meaning as possible) than a single person could. The concept involved here (comprehensive mental health) is too complex for any one person to be able to generate a full range of names. Adjective List Sample. §s were 27 students enrolled in an introductory public relations course during the Fall Term, 1972, at Michigan» State University. 119 Instructions. gs were read the following: "Concepts are often made up of many components and there are many words to describe both the concept as a whole or its components. One such concept is 'comprehensive mental health.‘ Please list as many adjectives as you can (no limit) to describe what you think of when you think of the term 'comprehensive mental health.‘ Put down any adjective that describes the concept, no matter how far-out or remotely related it may seem." §§ followed the instructions and the adjectives were col- lected. The adjectives were then examined. Slang words or terms were eliminated. Adjectives were separated by frequency. The New American Roget's College Thesaurus was used to deter- mine synonyms. All synonyms were grouped together as the adjective which had originally the highest frequency among the snyonyms for each words. Seventeen adjectives which had a frequency of three or more were chosen for the final adjective list. Added to this list were six adjectives derived from the services offered by the Community Mental Health Center (see Appendix B). The list . of services was obtained from the brochure "Community Mental Health -- At Your Service" put out by the Center. The generation of an adjective list-to identify trait characteristics of a person, organization, etc., has been used in numerous areas. Kelly defines trait as, "An individual characteristic or mark descriptive of personality. In brief, an adjective 120 descriptive of behavior."222 In industrial psychology, Gowin,223Heath and Gregory,224 Joneszzsand Starch226have traditionally used different groups of people, usually businessmen and professionals, to list traits they believe to be essential to leadership. 27 Bradley2 explains that the use of the trait approach to leadership is still accepted by most managers today. 228in the first empirical studies of stereo- Katz and Braly, types, presented §§ with a list of adjectives. From the list, §§ checked those adjectives which they believed were typical of given ethnic and national groups. Schuman,229in a study of stereotype effect and veridicality, used Pakistani college students who were asked to describe the 222Kelly, J., Organizational Behavior (Homewood, Illinois: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., and the Dorsey Press, 1969). 223Gowin, B.B., The Selection and Training of the Business Executive (New York: Macmillan Company, 1918).- 224Heath, C.W., and Gregory, L.W., "What It Takes to Be An Officer," Infantry Journal, 58 (1946). PP. 44-45. 225Jones, A.J., The Education of Youth for Leadership (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938). 226Starch. D., "How to Develop Executive Ability" (New York: Harper, 1943). 227Bradley, C., "New Men at the Personnel Desk," The London Times (January 3, 1968). 228Katz, D., and Braly, K.W., "Racial Stereotypes of 100 College Students," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 28 (1933). PP- 280-290. 229Schuman, H., "Social Change and Validity of Regional Stereotypes in East Pakistan," SociOmetry, 29 (1966), pp. 428-440. 121 peoples of 12 dialects in East Pakistan. Students selected four adjectives from a checklist which characterized the people in each district. Nobleg3oin the work cited earlier on meaning, used the adjective checklist to define that concept. Lucas and Britt23ldiscuss projective techniques using word association. Subjects were given various kinds of rather vague stimuli. The object of the theory in this instance is the per- son being tested will project his own personality traits through the associations he makes to the stimuli, into the situation. The adjective compilation of this study is an extension of the word association technique described by Lucas and Britt. 230Noble, C.E., "An Analysis of Meaning," Psychological Review, 59 (1952), pp. 421-430. 231Lucas, D., and Britt, S.H., Measuring Advertising Effectiveness (New York: McGraw—Hill, 1963). 122 APPENDIX B THE TEST INSTRUMENT Respondent ( ) Please rate each of the following names (on its own merits) on the following scale for appropriateness as a name for a mental health facility offering a full range of services. l 2 3 4 5 Very Inap- Very propriate Appropriate Example: Please rate the following name (on its own merits) for appropriateness as a name for a store featuring discount prices. Thrifty Mart l 2 3 4 5 X Very Inap- Very propriate Appropriate The name then is quite appropriate for the store in this example. Now please rate each of the names for appropriateness as a name for a mental health facility offering a full range of services. Ingham Emotional Care Facility 1 2 3 4 5 ( ) Counseling Services Center 1 2 3 4 5 ( ) Tri-County Center for Social Consultation 1 2 3 4 5 ( ) Ingham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center 1 2 3 4 5 ( ) Mental Aids Center 1 2 3 4 5 ( ) Tri-County Problem Control Center 1 2 3 4 5 ( ) Please check those adjectives from the list below each name wh1ch you feel best describes that name as a title for a mental health center offering a full range of ser- vices and as a cue to those services. If the adjective 123 does not describe the name, leave it blank. (The instructions at the top of the next 5 pages are identical.) Counseling Services Center ) 1. anxious____ 2. joy L ) 3. understanding____ 4. immediate ( ) 5. critical___ 6. healthy___ ( ) 7. adjusted___. 8. good___ ( ) 9. addictive___ 10. ill___ ( ) 11. stable___ 12. Complete___ ( ) 13. concerned___ 14. marital___ ( ) 15. helpful___ 16. analytica1___ ( ) 17. long-term___ 18. educational___ ( ) 19. loving___ 20. thinking___ ( ) 21. total___ 22. socia1___. ( ) 23. treatab1e___ 24. other ( (please specify) Please check those adjectives from the list below each name which you feel best describes that name as a title for a mental health center offering a full range of ser- vices and as a cue to those services. If the adjective does not describe the name, leave it blank. ngham Medical Hospital Community Mental Health Center ) 1. anxious___ 2. joy___ ( ) 3. understanding___ 4. immediate____ ( ) 5. critical___ 6. healthy____ ( ) 7. adjusted___ 8. good___ ( ) 9. addictive___ 10. ill ( ) 11. stable 12. complete ( 124 ) l3. concerned___ 14. marital___ ( ) 15. helpful___ 16. analytical____ ( ) 17. long-term___ 18. educational___ ( ) l9. loving___ 20. thinking___ ( ) 21. total____ 22. social___ ( ) 23. treatable___ 24. other ( (please specify) Please check those adjectives from the list below each name which you feel best describes that name as a title for a mental health center offering a full range of ser- vices and as a cue to those services. If the adjective does not describe the name, leave it blank. Tri-County Problem Control Center ) 1. anxious___ 2. joy___ ( ) 3. understanding___ 4. immediate___ ( ) 5. critical___ 6. healthy___ ( ) 7. adjusted___ 8. good___ ( ) 9. addictive___ 10. ill___ ( ) ll. stable___ 12. complete___ ( ) 13. concerned___ 14. marital___ ( ) 15. helpful___ 16. analytical___ ( ) 17. long-term___ 18. educational___ ( ) 19. loving___ ' 20. thinking___ ( ) 21. total___ 22. social___ ( ) 23. treatable___ 24. other ( (please specify) Please check those adjectives from the list below each name which you feel best describes that name as a title for a mental health center offering a full range of ser- vices and as a cue to those services. If the adjective does not describe the name, leave it blank. 125 Ingham Emotional Care Facility ) 1. anxious___ 2. joy___ ( ) 3. understanding___ 4. immediate___ ( ) 5. critical___ 6. healthy___ ( ) 7. adjusted____ 8. good___ ( ) 9. addictive___ 10. ill___ ( ) 11. stable___ 12. complete___ ( ) l3. concerned___ 14. marital___ ( ) 15. helpful___ 16. analytical____ ( ) 17. long-term___ 18. educational___ ( ) l9. loving___ 20. thinking___ ( ) 21. total____ 22. social___ ( ) 23. treatable___ 24. other ( (please specify) Please check those adjectives from the list below each name which you feel best describes that name as a title for a mental health center offering a full range of ser- vices and as a cue to those services. If the adjective does not describe the name, leave it blank. Mental Aids Center ) 1. anxious___ 2. joy____ ( ) 3. understanding___ 4. immediate___ ( ) 5. critical___ 6. healthy___ ( ) 7. adjusted___ 8. good___ ( ) 9. addictive___ 10. ill___, ( ) 11. stable___ 12. complete___ ( ) 13. concerned___ 14. 'marital___ ( ) 15. helpful 16. analytical ( 126 ( ) 17. long-term___ 18. educational___ ( ) ( ) 19. loving___ 20. thinking____ ( ) ( ) 21. total___ 22. social___ ( ) ( ) 23. treatable___ 24. other ( ) (please specify) Please check those adjectives from the list below each name which you feel best describes that name as a title for a mental health center offering a full range of ser— vices and as a cue to those services. If the adjective does not describe the name, leave it blank. Tri-County Center for Social Consultation ( ) l. anxious___ 2. joy___. ( ) ( ) 3. understanding___ 4. immediate___ ( ) ( ) 5. critical___ 6. healthy___ ( ) ( )' 7. adjusted___ I 8. good___ ( ) ( ) 9. addictive___ 10. ill___ ( ) ( ) ll. stable___ 12. complete___ ( ) ( ) 13. concerned___ 14. marital____ ( ) ( ) 15. helpful____ 16. analytical___ ( ) ( ) l7. long-term___ 18. educational___ ( ) ( ) 19. loving___ 20. thinking____ ( ) ( ) 21. total___ 22. social___ ( ) ( ) 23. treatable___ 24. other ( ) (please specify) PLEASE FILL IN THE FOLLOWING INFORMATION Sex: M F From the key below, select the letter which represents the source which provides you with the majority of your information about each of the issues named. Place an a, b, c, d, e, f or g in the blank beside each of the social issues. 127 KEY ISSUES 5‘: TV Welfare ( ) b - Radio Ecology ( ) c - Conversations with Drug Problems ( ) friends or parents Viet Nam War ( ) d - Magazines Emotional Problems ( ) e - Newspapers Mental Health Care ( ) f - Personal Experience Sex-related Problems ( ) g — Books On the following scale, place an "X" in the appropriate space indicating how close you feel to each issue at hand. SELF l 2 3 4 5 ISSUE Very Close Rather Close Rather Dis- Very Distant (VC) (RC) tant (RD) (VD) Example: Tax Reform SELF 1 2 3 4 5 X ISSUE Very Close Rather Close Rather Dis- Very Distant (VC) (RC) tant (RD) (VD) The respondent in this example does not feel close at all to the issue of tax reform. Now please indicate how close you feel to each issue: (VC) (RC) (RD) (VD) SELF l 2 3 4 5 Viet Nam War ( ) SELF 1 Environmental ( ) Protection SELF l 2 3 4 5 Graduation from ( ) College and Employment SELF 1 2 3 4 5 Mental Health Care( ) SELF 1 2 3 4 5 Airplane ( ) Hijacking SELF l 2 3 4 5 Welfare Reform ( ) For the proceeding list of social issues, pick out the one that you consider yourself closest to and write it on the line below. After doing that, please rate on the scale from 1 to 10 how important (what effect it has) that particular issue is to your everyday life. l 2 3 4 5 6___ 7___ 8___ 9___ 10___ Little Utmost Importance or No Importance Name of issue: MR. OXER'S SELECTION OF DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 128 APPENDIX C FOR "IDEAL" NAME Anxious Joy ___ Understanding'_§_ Immediate _EL Critical Healthy ___ Adjusted ___ Good ___ Addictive ___ Illu___ Stable ____ Complete ___ Concerned _3£_ Marital._§_ Helpfu1'_§_ Analytical ___ Long-term Educational.§__ Loving-___ Thinking ___ Total ___ Social._§_ Treatable.___ Other (please specify) HICHIGQN STATE UNIV. LIBRQRIES '1') Hull ill! 0397 HI" I!) NILIHIH 312 3 05