BEHAVIOR summons: A THEORY BASE-FOR. LIFESTYLE AND PSYCHOGRAPHIC RESEARCH Thesis. for the Degree MM, A , MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ‘ woman 1.. smonsm 4 r t 1975- _ ' ~t ..;,. . .:' . . _ ‘ - ‘o- _ ' ybu~~u KM“ ‘M'-Wd’-__‘ —-__. I ~ . I Q IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII 3 1293| 105462 1311313319? Micki .r 5 rate ' Univ an“)! 3" ' L ABSTRACT BEHAVIOR SITUATIONS: A THEORY BASE FOR LIFESTYLE AND PSYCHOGRAPHIC RESEARCH BY Richard J. Sikorski Webster defines the term treatise as follows: a systematic exposition or argument in writing includ- ing a methodical discussion of the facts and principles involved and conclusions reached. Based upon that definition this thesis would be more aptly named treatise. It unfolds as follows: 1. The argument is presented that life style re- search in advertising suffers from lack of proper science in its definition and methodology. 2. Basic tenets of proper scientific inquiry are reviewed via Cantril, Ames, Hastorf and Ittelson. 3. They are used as criteria to judge the existing state of life style research. 4. Solutions to phenomenal and methodological problems are sought among the following behavioral scien- tists: Kantor, Rokeach, Lewin, Bentley, Ryle, Stephenson and.Mauldin. 5. A theory base founded on phenomenal definitions of human behavior is presented. 6. A hypothesis about the effect of a possible definition of life style is tested. 7. Null hypothesis stands, but a new unit of analysis is isolated, a new form of segmentation proposed. 8. A case of that segmentation is used as the basis for advertising strategy. Richard J. Sikorski Details include a "spelling out" of the basic tenets, conclusions from that application as criteria, an outline of theory base propositions, steps in methodologi- cal procedure, factor names, and conclusion areas can be found in the table of contents. BEHAVIOR SITUATIONS: A THEORY BASE FOR LIFESTYLE AND PSYCHOGRAPHIC RESEARCH BY Richard J. Sikorski A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS College of Communication Arts Department of Advertising 1975 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Adver- tising, College of Communication Arts, Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. MRW Director of Thesis ‘84-‘15 Date DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to Haley Cantril, J.R. Kantor, Arthur Bentley, William Stephenson, "Charlie" Mauldin, Maharishi Mahish Yogi and especially me because I valiantly braved an acute attack of sinusitis through- out this whole project, insuring me forever a revered place in factor 3. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S Charlie, Because you grokked that I had the ability to soar you took me to levels I've never been before and taught me how to navigate there. Sharing with me your favorite clouds you showed me how to read their faces and understand the nature of the secrets each held. . . so that I could show you secrets in clouds of my own so that I might help others reach those neither of us will ever know. I love you for that. I will honor the tradition. iii Gordon, Lynn, June, You convinced me I had what it took to be Copernicus and showed enough confidence in me to stand aside and let me take command. You know the secret of leadership. I've learned the lesson. I love you. You know you've been the secret of my strength, the sunshine of my life. And believe it or not, your light can shine through any cloud. You didn't realize what hell it would be to type a thesis that started out in the heavens. You did me a great service. And also taught me that women are like rivers, calm, accepting and always patient. You're good peOple, thanks. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter I. INTRODUCING .A PERFORMER WITH NO MIND OF ITS OWN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 II. SOME BASIC TENETS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH . . . 7 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Tenet I: Basic function of research is th understanding of the phenomena in ques- tion, not predicting how one variable abstracted from it affects another . . . . 9 Tenet II: Real research always involves higher order abstractions. . . . . . . . . 10 Tenet III: Proper scientific research must religiously obey the following ‘ procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Tenet IV: Phenomena in nature must be viewed transactionally, especially when that phenomena concerns the behavior of man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Summary: Basic tenets of scientific research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 III. HOW LIFESTYLE RESEARCH MEASURES UP AS SCIENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Conclusion One: It's life style's relative ability to predict purchase, and its relative ability to segment audiences that are fundamental to life style re- searchers, not the understanding of life style as a phenomenon in and of itself . . 26 Conclusion Two: Life style research lacks an adequate theory base . . . . . . . . . 30 Chapter Page Conclusion Three: Many life style studies suffer from inadequate initial problem formulation . . . . . . . . . . .‘ 31 Conclusion Four: Life style researchers lack agreement on phenomena of interest . 34 Conclusion Five: Life style research often risks overextending the suitability of its variables for measurement. . . . . 38 Conclusion Six: Lack of agreement on research instruments and methodology. . . 41 Conclusion Seven: Data yielded still needs demonstration of motivation or cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Conclusion Eight: An apparen lack o the transactional perspective of be- havior in many studies offers doubts as to their validity, much less their success in demonstrating life style motivation. . 45 Summary Conclusions: Life style research measures up as sloppy scientific in- quiry. Its methods for gathering in— formation, its units of analysis and methodology are questionable. But the area does point out where to look for phenomena relevant for explaining the behavior and developing theory bases. . . 46 IV. DEVELOPING THEORETICAL BASES FOR THE CONCEPT OF LIFE STYLE I O O O O C O O C C O O O O O O 47 IntrOduCtion O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 49 Part One: Scientific bases for the study of behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 Part Two: Outlining propositions for a theory base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 A. Life style is a behavior situation a particular individual decides to live . 80 B. Life style as a behavior situation is goal oriented, and functional in terms of those goals . . . . . . . . . . 82 C. Life style goals are subjectively manifested and therefore can be deter- mined by units of analysis designed to reflect a respondent's subjective be- havior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 D. One's behavior situations diffe as their goals for achieving them differ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 vi Chapter Page E. Functional situations (people— product interactions) differ as their goals differ . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 V. FINDING PURPOSE IN A LIFE PLAGUED BY PRESSURE, PAIN AND CONGESTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Part One: Some additional notes on Q . . . . 93 Part Two: Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . 95 . Selection of the Q-sample. . . . . . . 95 Selection of Respondents . . . . . . . 97 Administration of the Q-Sample . . . . 97 Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . . 98 DWNH VI. INTERPRETING DATA THAT MIGHT REVEAL THE REAL REASONS FOR LIVING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 The Interpreting Process: How one goes about making sense of the data . . . . . . 102 Reporting Results: How one goes about communicating his explanations . . . . . . 103 CONSENSUS ITEMS: Creed of the Luckless Order of Sinus Sufferers . . . . . . . . . 105 FACTOR ONE: The Cautious Relief-Seeker. . 114 FACTOR TWO: The Annoyed Victim of Circumstance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 FACTOR THREE: The Self—Reliant Coper. . . 141 FACTOR FOUR: The Conservative Medicine User. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 VII. SOMETIMES YOU CONCLUDE THAT WHAT YOU GET IS BETTER THAN WHAT YOU WANTED. . . . . . . . . . 166 Part One: You don't give your dreams away in tissue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 Part Two: Introducing a phenomenal new performer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174 Part Three: Formulating advertising strategy from phenomenal examples of segmentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Target Market Information: Geographics. . . 179 Target Market Information: Supplement to "case study" demographic profile . . . . . 180 Target Market Information: Psycho- graphic Inferences . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Consensus Behaviors: Basic selling job. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 vii Chapter Page Target Behaviors: Basic Pitch . . . . . . 187 Target Ball Park: No choice but T.V. . . 187 Cautious Relief Seeking: Basic delivery. . 187 Escaping Victimization: Basic delivery. . 188 Coping: Basic delivery . . . . . . . . . 189 Conservative Using: Basic delivery. . . . 190 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LI ST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Consensus Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 2. Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor I . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 3. Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor II . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 4. Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor III . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 5. Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 ix CHAPTER ONE: Introducing A Performer with No Mind of Its Own. "The deve10pment of life style and psychographics has been hap- hazard in the sense that it has not been guided by any explicit theory of human behavior." Hustad and Pessemier Research assuming the common name of "life style" has suffered the brunt of much criticism in the last few years. Objections its prosecutors raise seem to share common themes. There is no general agreement as to just exactly what it is, what its major purpose and applications are, what the technical and/or theoretical attributes are that distinguish it from other types of research.1 There exists no clear out set of principles or body of knowledge that is unique to it such as can be found to apply to any of the physical sciences or most of the "ologies" in general.2 W.R. Simmons, W.R. Simmons and Associates Research The concept of life style has been widely recognized and studied as either the dependent or independent variable set in numerous behavioral science and mar- keting studies. Yet there is no clear cut conceptual or Operational definition of the concept. Jerry Wind, Paul Green, Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania 1W.R. Simmons, "Overall Impressions of Psychograph- ics," in Charles W. King and Douglas J. Tigert (eds.), Attitude Research Reaches New Heights (American Marketing Association, 1970), p. 215-216. 21bid. 3Jerry Wind and Paul Green, "Some Conceptual, Measurement and Analytical Problems in Life Style Research," in William D. Wells (ed.), Life Style and Psychographics, (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1974), p. 105. These same authors demonstrate how general lack of consensus on ways to define life style has led to the term coming to mean all non-demographic characteristics of con- sumers that may account for unit of association differences in consumer behavior.4 Investigation by William Wells reinforces their case. Using the term life style and its sometimes alias, "psychographics," interchangeably, Wells turned up no less than 32 definitions in two dozen papers dealing with the subject.5 Focusing on methodology, he also alludes to sloppy scientific method: The fact is that most of the established wasy of con- ducting life style and psychographic research repre- sent the personal judgments, predispositions and pre- judices of a relatively small number of researchers who have copied freely from, and reinforced, each other.6 Expounding on the same issue, Charles King uses words a bit more economically: Virtually millions of dollars are being spent by re- searchers to generate their own proprietary approaches 41bid., p. 106. 5William D. Wells, "Psychographics: A Critical Re- View," (unpublished working paper, Chicago: University of Chicago, November, 1973), p. 3. 6William D. Wells, "Some Conceptual, Measurement and Analytical Problems in Life Style Research," in William D. Wells (ed.), Life Style and Psychographics, (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1974, p. 99. 5 which will ultimately produce only confounding, in- conclusive data. As a productive and causal factor in explaining consumer behavior, King describes the whole are of psycho- graphics as cloudy, absolutely chaotic, plagued with mis- conception and weak methodology.8 He predicts: Because of this lack of organized, scientific treat- ment, the conceptual arena of psychographics may lose its research charisma. King judges that, given current practices market- ing research is light years away from joining the sophisti- cated social sciences. And that unless its inquiry into psychographics and consumer behavior adopts proper scientific approach, little lasting content will be generated.10 Diagnosis then, at least among these critics, is unanimous. Problems of life style research stem from an 11 inherent lack of proper science. That makes philosophy of science the logical area to look to for cure. In the "reference section of its library" there exists a classic trilogy of articles that spell out basic 7Charles W. King, "Social Science, Pragmatic Market- ing Research and Psychographics," in Charles W. King and Douglas J. Tigert (eds.), Attitude Research Reaches New Eggghtg, (American Marketing Association, 1970): p. 230. 81bid, p. 230. 91bid, p. 230. lolbid, p. 231. llIbid, p. 230. tenets concerning the nature, method and perspective of proper scientific inquiry. Perhaps by using these as criteria one can comprehensively evaluate the state of life style research as scientific inquiry, point out areas of deficiency, maybe even isolate vital elements needed to begin creation of the "explicit theory of human be- havior" life style needs as its guide.12 12Wells, op. cit., p. 73. CHAPTER TWO: Some Basic Tenets of Scientific Research "Sometimes the scientist's interest in building up the content of his discipline sidetracks him from a consideration of the scientific process itself and creates a lag in the understanding and improvement of scientific tools. What follows is an attempt to clarify our thinking about the nature of scientific research in these fields which take on the primary responsibility of accounting for man's thoughts and behavior. Only then will such research accomplish what we have a right to expect of it." Cantril, Ames, Hastorf, Ittelson Introduction Vintage of the quote you just read was 1949. What follows are the basic tenets of scientific research its authors outlined in the classic trilogy: Psychology and Scientific Research. I. The Nature of Scientific Inquiry, Psychology and Scientific Research. II. Scientific Inquiry and Scientific Method, Psychology and Scientific Research. III. The Transactional View of Psyr chological Research. Tenet I: Basic function of research is the understanding of the phenomena in question, not predicting how one variable abstracted from it affects another.l3 Increasing understanding means increasing one's entire range of conceptual knowledge about a phenomenon.14 'The ability to control variables and to apply knowledge is a natural by—product of increased understanding in this sense.15 Primary concern with understanding also helps a researcher avoid the dangers of a rigid determinism.* ¥ 13Hadley Cantril, Adelbert Ames, Jr., Albert H. HaStorf, and William H. Ittelson, "Psychology and Scientific Research. I. The Nature of Scientific Inquiry," Science, Vol. 110, (November 4, 1949). p. 463. l4Ibid. lsIbid. * Holding that natural, social and psychological Phenomena are determined by certain antecedent causes. 9 10 Tenet II: Real research always involves higher order ab- stractions.16 "Abstractions" are the higher order constructs, theories, sets of principles or bodies of knowledge the scientist uses to explain behavioral phenomena. Cantril and associates continually testify to their basic necessity in creating new definitional and conceptual explanations of more specific phenomena, in formulating problems for investigation, in determining hypotheses for experimenta- tion, and in interpreting research data.17 Tenet III: PrOper scientific research must religiously obey the following procedurele 1. Research must begin with the formulation of a specific problem for investigation. Einstein and Infeld have written that the formulation of a problem is often more essential than its solution. To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires cre- ative imagination and makes a real advance in science.19 Sckuizopenreia stayed "solely caused" by psychological dis- Snfliers for many years becuase of this tendency. Recently 1t luas been discovered to also be the product of thyroid 0Veractivity . . 16 , ”Psychology and Scientific Research. II. SCJJentific Inquiry and Scientific Method," Science, Vol. 110, November 11, 1949), p. 495. 17Ibid. . 18Cantril, et al., op. cit., "Psychology and Scien- tliiic Research. I. The Nature of Scientific Inquiry," p. 462. 19A. Einstein and L. Infeld, The Evolution of Physics, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1947): p. 286. 11 Problem solving is the natural reason for any inquiry, not just ones termed scientific. It's part of man's every day functional activities of going beyond what he already knows. It's the goal that guides his thought, his efforts. Scientific inquiry can never be understood if it is somehow put on a pedestal and held as something remote or foreign from man's everyday activities. "Science," says Conant, "emerges from the other progressive activities of man to the extent that new concepts arise from experi- ments and observations."20 Problem formulation rests at its heart. Problem formulation starts with sensing the in- adequacy of current concept to explain the phenomenon in question. It's aim is understanding. It's effort is that of prompting concern with research that will bring about Inajor reformulations, or new ways to explain phenomena or INBhavior. "Otherwise (researchers) are forced to close trueir eyes to important problems that face them, or to de- ‘RJte themselves only to methodological problems, rational- . U n o a 21 lzlng these act1V1t1es as research." Cantril calls one variety of this perversion the "Sflnot-gun approach." Its practitioners hold that if one 20J.R. Conant, On Understanding Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1947) . . 21Cantril, et al., 0p. cit., "Psychology and Scien- 'tlfic Research. II. Scientific Inquiry and Scientific Mat—bod," p. 492. 12 gathers enough data, "possible with the use of new gadgets and apparatus, one must sooner or later come out with some sort of scientific result."22 Precedent can be traced to Francis Bacon who maintained that "by recording and tabula- ting all possible observations and experiments 'proper relationships' emerge almost automatically."23 Much of the data gathered today seems concerned with the "gadgets and apparatus" Cantril refers to, under the new names "statistics and computer."24 In advertising research specifically, many modern day "Bacons" have fallen into the habit of trying correlation after correlation in hope of stumbling onto something "significant." Another perversion, Cantril cites, is generally re- ferred to as "classification syndrome."25 Tendency here is for researchers to work out classifications, with the im- Iilication that if an individual's behavior can be prOperly Ifitted into one of them, then further analysis of a func- tidonal nature is relatively unimportant for its understanding. Both the "shotgun approach" and the "classification Syfildrome" happen because of poor problem formulation, or lack ZZIbid. 23W.C.D., Dampier-Whetham, A History of Science, (New York: Macmillan, 1929): p. 58. . 24Cantril, et al., op. cit., "Psychology and Scien- t1fic Research. II. Scientific Inquiry and Scientific Method," p. 492. 25Ibid. 13 of it in the first place. One must remember that because the act of formulating a problem contains within itself the inherent possibility of stretching beyond what is scien- tifically established theory and methodology depend on its solution, rather than solution depending solely on them. Theory for explaining the pehnomena may very well not exist, much less the methodology to test it. Investigations that limit themselves solely to quantitative methodological approaches or that overemphasize problems of measurement bias their decisions as to what data are significant to gather, blind investigators from realizing the necessity of first formulating a problem and narrowing the possible selection of new units of analyses from relevant phenomena. Researchers sold on quantitative approaches are Ifrequently hesitant to tackle problems for which there are I“) quantitative techniques, thus "limiting themselves to research impressive only in elaborate quantitative treat- ment of data.26 Stage two of problem formulation concerns the for- mation of adequate hypotheses. As Cantril states, an adequate hypothesis "must be “Kite than a description of current data and more than a PINEdiction that data will reproduce themselves."27 A \ 261bid. 27 Ibid., p. 491. l4 hypothesis is judged not only in terms of its ability to predict immediate events, but for the promise it holds for leading to further, more adequate hypotheses.28 Since the increased understanding of behavior is its overall goal, scientific inquiry demands that each new hypothesis reach beyond established formulations.29 This is the "key phenomena" of its nature. The way an investigator poses his problem's hy- pothesis, determines where his investigation will come out, what functional activities or subphenomena he believes have bearing on the phenomenon in question, which of these he will use as bases for units of analysis, and what 30 methodology he will select or even invent if he has to. 2. Determining those functional activities or subphenomena that may have a significant bearing Won the problem.31 What established concepts, definitions or princi- Eiles of behavior are related? What subphenomena point to tlueir relevance? What conditional relationships would have tC> exist if the phenomena could be explained in terms of an experiencing individual in a concrete environment? \ 28Ibid. 291bid. 3°1bid. , 31Cantril, et al., 0p. cit., "Psychology and Scien- Eéfic Research. I. The Nature of Scientific Inquiry," p. 20 15 Questions like these are at issue here. 3. Picking from the various aspects of phenomena involved those that seem most important in explain- ing the problem at issue, and that will serve as bases for units of analysis.32 As Cantril explains: He (the investigator) abstracts out of the hitch sit- uation those aspects he believes are probably neces- sary to his understanding of the original hitch.33 d 4. Working out some method of changing those as- pects of relevant phenomena into proper units of analysis, and conducting empirical investigations accordingly.34 Measureable variables and proper methodology are decided here. According to Cantril: . . . the scientist arbitrarily treats these (the relevant) abstracted aspects of a phenomenon as if they existed in their own right. He does not do this simply because he wants to, but because he has to, in order to recall and manipulate the phenomenon intel- lectually.35 Aspects of phenomenon, then, become bases for sitandards that can be measured and carried, as units of analysis. The researcher designs an empirical test of his "thew basis for standard" with reference to other phenomena tiuat have already been established as bases for standards. HE! does this to determine whether or not variation in this \ 321bid. 33Ibid. 34Ibid. 3SIbid. 16 "new basis" affects old standards, and whether it is affected by them according to the formulation in step one. 5. Modifying our "assumptive world" on the basis of how well empirical evidence proved the validity of the formulated hypothesis for resolving the immediate problem.36 If his empirical test confirms the hypothesis or formulation, if the researcher finds he has "abstracted 0 out" an aspect of phenomenon that is a necessary condition total phenomenon in question, then Cantril says, a basis for a new standard has been discovered and we can proceed I to think of it quantitatively.37 Quantitative status doesn't grant axiomatic privileges, however. Suitability of a particular operation for solving the problem at hand doesn't necessarily exhaust other possibilities for inquiry, nor license its use for other investigations. Variables are based on the intuitive judgments of the investigator, Cantril reminds us, and in any concrete investigation depend on the way he has formulated the prob- 38 lem. Since problems are formulated differently in dif- ferent fields of inquiry, units of analysis in that field may not be necessarily applicable to others.39 Even units __ 361bid. . 37Cantril, et al., 0p. cit., "Psychology and Scien- tlfiC Research. II. Scientific Inquiry and Scientific Method," p. 496. 38Ibid., p. 495. 391bid. 17 of analyses in the same field will vary according to the nature of the "hitch"* in any concrete situation. Con- sequently, psychology and consumer behavior researchers can't swap variables because they both happen to be dealing with what appear to be introverts. Variables that help explain the purchase of a Gillette Trac II may not explain purchase of a Shick Double-Edge. Agreeing on "basic" variables, Cantril explains, leads to an artificial restriction of the problems dealt with, sometimes to eliminating from consideration the most 40 In many perceptual studies, for important variables. example, emphasis has been placed on easily defined vari— ables like "further than" and "bigger than" where the more psychologically meaningful variable is probably the sub- jective feeling of "surer than."41 Investigations of the "surety" with which attitudes are held under different con- ditions have lagged far behind interest in measuring "direction" of attitude or opinion.42 For variables then, morals like "if the shoe fits, wear it" may not apply. For in a particular situation a particular person might just prefer going barefoot, or 40Ibid., p. 496. 411bid. 421bid. * The inadequacy of established concept to explain the phenomenon at issue. 18 might even feel more comfortablevmmring sandals." So much for this author's review of the steps involved with proper research procedure. Proper philosophy of science must also include the "higher order" perspective research must take when it ob- serves behavioral phenomenon. Tenet IV: Phenomena in nature must be viewed transaction- ally, especially when that phenomena concerns the behavior of man. Cantril and associates argue that man's thought and behavior can only be understood as processes of a full I o I o 43 Situation of organism-enVironment. Therefore, researchers need to understand the complete "representativeness of cir- o o c I 0 44 cumstances" Operative in any Situation under observation. Cantril explains: The psychological investigator of all people cannot separate the observer from what is being observed, the process of knowing from what is known, what is "out there" from whatever goes on in the experiencing organism. Psychology must disavow completely any "field theory" which implies an environmental field acts on a person rather than through a person.45 43H.A. Murray, et al., Assessment of Men, (New York: Rinehart, 1948): P. 466. 44E. Brunswick, Proceedings: Berkeley Symposium for Mathematics, Statistics and Probability_(Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1949): PP. 149- 202. 45Cantril, et al., "Psychology and Scientific Re- search. III. The Transactional View in Psychological Re- search," Science, Vol. 110, (November 18, 1949): p. 517. 19 Transactionalism holds that each man develops the assumptive world he needs to carry out his purposive activities. The world he is related to, the world he sees, the world he is operating on, and the world that is oper- ating on him is the result of a transactional process in which man himself plays an active role. As man carries out his activity, the concrete events he must face dictate the significances he must deal with. The function, man abstracts from his "encounter" situation certain deter- mined aspects his assumptive world considers relevant. This world includes far more than what's needed to deal with the immediate situation. Its more like a continuum which includes the past and the future, a library of both 46 past experience and ideals. Bentley has pointed out that "behaviors are present events emerging pasts into futures. They cannot be reduced to successions of instants nor to successions of locations. They themselves span extension and duration. The pasts and the futures are rather phases of behavior than its control."47 The transactional mode of observation has definite :hmplications for those seeking to explain the complex process of human behavior. 461bid. 47A.F. Bentley, Journal of philosophy, 1945, Vol. 48, p. 485. 20 One, researchers must be constantly aware of the effects a mans own actions have on his assumptive frame- work, (in confirming and denying what makes it up) and the effects his actions have on the environment as he con- currently perceives and experiences it.48 Two, transactionalism gives further reason to guard against the "classification perversion" introduced earlier in this chapter. Uncritical use of "catchwords" shatters behavior into fragments before prOper inquiry and destroys comprehensive observation of it. The conclusion Bentley and Dewey argue.49 Reasons to study subjective phenomena and to place firm reliance on subjective bases of analysis become more apparent, when a transactional perspective is taken, as do reasons for not overextending the use of subjective vari- ables that have been successful. Once one understands the transactional View of human behavior, the inadequacies of the interactional per- spective become apparent. An investigator could study the interdependence of various aspects of a perception forever and never get at the reason for such relationships until he 48Cantril, et al., op. cit., "Psychology and Scien- tific Research. III. The Transactional View in Psychological Research," p. 517. _ 49A. F. Bentley and J. Dewey, Journal of Philosophy, 1945, Vol. 45, p. 225. 21 asked himself what function such an interrelation- ship of phenomena served in the transaction of living. 50 Cantril concludes that one cannot understand even the simplest behavior of man without bringing in the variable 51 The fact that human behavior is functional, of purpose. therefore becomes axiomatic. Other conclusions relevant to scientific research procedure also become axiomatic when "transactionalism" is applied. Naturally, the "functional" nature of be- havior dictates that the "transaction of living" become a "higher order" standard for selecting phenomena related to the behavior in question. Logically, the "process" dimension emphasizes the particular significance a particular subject might attach to all the stimuli involved, at a particular place and time. Summary: Basic tenets of scientific research. 1. Research primarily seeks to understand behavior, not predict it; The former is a natural by product of the latter. Overemphasis on the latter makes research "method" rather than "inquiry." 2. Research must be guided by "theory" in all steps of its procedure. 50Cantril, et al., 0p. cit., "Psychology and Scien- tific Research. III. The Transactional View in Psychological Research," p. 519. 51Ibid. . hill! 22 3. Research must follow each step in the proper sequence of inquiry. Problem formulation leads. 4. Units of analysis depend on "problem" phenomena for their definition. Less similar the problem, less suit- able the unit of analysis. 5. Man's behavior must be conceived as a trans- actional process, as having as much an active role in the perception and experience of his environment as it has on him. 6. Absence of this perspective give rise to: a. the danger of classifying phenomena before proper inquiry into its identity b. refusal to place reliance on subjective variables c. interdependence of phenomena without func- tional reason 7. Application of this perspective demonstrates that: a. human behavior is functional. The trans- action of living makes it so. b. human behavior is also subjectively deter- mined. So much for the gospel of Cantril. Now to apply its words to "everyday life." CHAPTER THREE : How Lifestyle Research Measures up as Science 23 "The trouble with lifestyle research is that the majority of its investigators just don't pursue it scientifically." 24 Introduction The form of inquiry this thesis conducts was modeled after the procedure for proper scientific investigation Cantril prescribed. Chapter one poses problems caused by lack of theory and pr0per scientific procedure, and hy- pothesizes a sound theory of human behavior as key to the solutions. Chapter two provides the functional activities or tools needed to isolate the behavior phenomenon and empirically test possible theory. Chapter three, this chapter, uses those functional activities or basic tenets to review current research and isolate those phenomena that will serve as bases of standards for its definition, theory and test. Chapter four will define those bases for theory and measurement. In five, units of analysis and methodology for testing the theory will be develOped. Six will report data. Seven, implications the test holds for influencing our current concepts of life style and its use for adver- tising will be discussed. ' Thank you for "baby-stepping" through that explan- ation with me. I trust it wasn't too elementary. On with chapter three, applying Cantril's tenets of prOper inquiry to current "life style" research. Each section of this chapter states the conclusion Inade by applying tenets (in the order they appear in the 25 26 previous chapter) and lays forth arguments to support that conclusion. Conclusion One: It's life style's relative ability to pre- dict purchase, and its relative ability to segment audiences that are fundamental to life style researchers, not the understand- ing of lifestyle as ayphenomenon in and of itself. Which type of lifestyle item (specific items, gen- eral items, or both) is most accurate in distinguishing in- frequent shOppers from frequent shoppers? What do person- ality characteristics add (over and above demographic and socioeconomic characteristics) to our ability to understand and predict purchasing behavior? Do distinct types of con- sumers with similar media patterns exist, and if so, is it possible to identify them in terms of their demographic and psychological characteristics? Thumb through any journal of marketing or adver— tising and these are the objectives you'll find heading most life style studies. Take a moment to determine what is fundamental to every one and you'll come to two obvious conclusions. One, the segmentation of consumers seem more important than explaining that which prompts them to pur- chase in the first place. Two, determining a variable's predictive power seems more important than understanding the phenomena its meant to operationalize. Second conclusion may seem a bit bold. But when one realizes that no clear cut or even generally accepted 27 definition of "life style yet exists, whether that defin- ition be conceptual or operational, the charge becomes mighty concrete."52’53’54’55 Again, the words read "no clear cut or generally accepted" definition. That's not to say attempts haven't been made. Several authors have "fiddled some" in the conceptual arena. Whether or not their definitions prove useful remains to be seen. However, they are worthy of recognition and review. William Lazer provided an early definition for scholars to ponder. He conceived of life style as: a systems concept. It refers to the distinctive or characteristic mode of living, in its aggregative and broadest sense, of a whole society or segment thereof. It is concerned with those unique ingredients or qualities which describe the style of life of some culture or group, and distinguish it from others. It embodies the patterns that develop and emerge from the dynamics of living in a society.56 In conjunction with his definition he offered the idea of life style hierarchy diagrammed on the next page. 52Simmons, op. cit., p. 216. 53King, op. cit., p. 230. 54Wind and Green, 0p. cit., p. 105. SSIbid. 56 William Lazer, "Life Style Concepts and Market- ing," in Stephen A. Greysec (ed.), Toward Scientific Mar- ketin (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1968), pp. IgO-139. 28 LAZER'S LIFE STYLE HIERARCHY Culture and society + Group and Individual Expectations and Values + Life Style Patterns and Values +— 4 Purchase Decision + -- + Market Reaction of Consumers Life style, Lazer explains, is the "result of such forces as culture, values, resources, symbols, license, and sanction. A logical deduction is that the aggregate of consumer purchases, and the manner in which they are con- sumed, reflect a society's life style.57 "A part equals the sum of the whole" explanation of the phenomenon. Socio- logically very valid, and applicable to producers that would like to market to "Americans," "Negroes" or ethnic groups. All do, but with competition being as tight as it is, they would appreciate a unit of segmentation a little less ab- stract, and more "phenomenally" oriented. "A character- istic mode of living" the definition provides, or the "individual expectations and values" label isn't, specifically, very phenomenal. And specific phenomena involved are vital 57Ibid. 29 to any definition that attempts to explain human be- havior. The most Lazer offers are broad areas for further investigation. But these are unclear and the behavior of the individual consumer isn't emphasized. So much for entries into the conceptual arena. Bernay offers a basically operational definition of the behavioral phenomenon. She refers to it as "an in- dividual's particular manner of living as reflected by all the expenditures of time and money in both his practical 58 To her, a person's pursuits and his active pleasures." lifestyle is the expression of all the factors which in- fluence him: psychological, sociological, economic, cul- tural, and physical. She proceeds to measure that expres- sion by what she terms "new demographics," a broader range of activities, products and characteristics added to tra- ditional age, sex, income, family size and social class variables. Though Bernay has succeeded in Operationalizing what she terms "lifestyle descriptors" she adds little to Lazer's concept except emphasis on study of the individual. So, the link between "lifestyle" and specific be- havioral phenomena remains undetermined. 58Elayn K. Bernay, "Life Style Analysis as a Basis for Media Selection," in Charles W. King and Douglas J. Tigert (eds.), Attitude Research Reaches New Heights (American Marketing Association, 1970), p. 190. 30 One relevant area to search, however, has been pointed out. Consumer behavior. Lazer outlines "purchase decisions“ in his life style hierarchy. Bernay attests that it produces "life style descriptors." Many other researchers hold the same opinion. In a multitudinous review of studies labeled "life style" and "psychographics," specific "life style" studies Wells found that the "life style" variety were always those that focused on "more specific activities, interests, attitudes and values directly tied to consumer behavior.59 Conclusion Two: Life style research lacks an adequate theory base. As Simmons testified in the introduction to this thesis, no clear cut set of principles or body of knowledge is unique to the phenomena of behavior called life style.60 No explicit theoretical model exists to explain the general and specific characteristics of the life style concepts that do exist.61 Cantril couldn't argue enough for the essential need for higher order abstractions in any type of be- havioral inquiry. 59William D. Wells, "Life Style and Psychographics: Definitions, Uses and Problems," in William D. Wells (ed.), Life Styles and Psychographics, (American Marketing Associ- ation, Chicago, 1974), p. 320. 6oSimmons, op. cit., p. 216. 61Wind and Green, op. cit., p. 107. 31 Westfall warns against what happens when data has no theory to guide its interpretation. To do so, he cites a study that used "product purchase" to operationalize, or reflect personality in an attempt to identify purchase 62 Advertising strategy based on original data motives. interpretation flopped. When data was investigated it was found that some consumers purchased products to complement their personalities or life styles while others purchased because they wished to enhance what they were or to feign what they wanted to be. Wind and Green are more explicit in pointing to areas of "self-concept" for theory behind life style vari- ables. They conceive individual consumers as each possess- ing an "implicit theory of life style" that patterns their responses to projective research statements.63 A conclusion they made after making the same kind of critical review Wells did . Conclusion Three: Many life style studies suffer from in- adequate initial problem formulation. In the late 1960's Marketing Science Institute com- missioned Thomas P. Hustad and Edgar A. Pessemier to examine the field of life style research and prepare an overview of current practices. One fact they discovered was that 62Ralph Westfall, "Psychological Factors in Pre- dicting Brand Choice," Journal of Marketing, Vol. 26, (April 63Wind and Green, 0p. cit., p. 113. 32 many "life style" studies "began with no explicit hy- pothesis."64 (The tell—tale symptom of "search rather than research" that Cantril pointed out.) Fundamental purpose of "activity and attitude" research (as Hustad and Pessemier called the aggregate of life style studies they reviewed), was the search for rele- vant activities and attitudes that could quantitatively pre- dict purchase and segment audiences.65 Cantril would call that conglomeration of words "buck shot" for the "shot gun approach." The quantitative ability of existing variables (like personality measures, benefits, or general vs. specific AIO statements) either to predict purchase behavior or to segment target markets was of fundamental concern to such studies. Understanding the behavioral phenomena unique to a concept of lifestyle wasn't. Variables ranging from pro- ducts purchased to self concept have been operationalized as life style. (Cantril's classification perversion in operation.) Criteria for suitability of units of analysis seemed existing “quantative status" and availability in stored computer files, especially those branded "general-item" or descriptive approach segmentation. (Practices contrary to the 64Thomas P. Hustad and Edgar A. Pessemier, "The De- velopment and Application of Psychographic Life Style and Associated Activity and Attitude Measures," in William D. Wells (ed.), Life Style and Psychographics, (American Mar- keting Association, Chicago, 1974), p. 58. 651bid., p. 41. 33 transactional perspective.) Units of analysis classified as "study specific" were developed, but for purposes of understanding purchase behavior rather than life style, the phenomenon they were said to be Operationalizing. Hustad and Pessemier found that focus interviewing practices, a likely area for operant definition of rele- vant phenomena, were de-emphasized. Data they yielded was too voluminous, and not easily quantifiable.66 Concentra- tion on quantitative approaches fostered general unwilling- ness to tackle problems for which there were no quantitative techniques. But then, segmentation and purchase behavior correlates were the function of these studies. Not hy— pothesis that tried to reach for explanation of behavior beyond concepts already formulated. "Life style" research's ability to understand consumer behavior was trapped by its own perspective or lack of one. For, As Cantril so often pointed out, its problem and hypothesis formation that determines selection of the phenomena of interest and designates of units of analyses, methodology and outcome. Little wonder some hypotheses that are formed are no more than "a description of current data and a pre- diction that data will reproduce themselves." (Many times researchers take one model evidenced as high behavior predictor and another thats a high 66Ibid. 34 behavior predictor combine them differently just to dis- cover which of its phenomenon combinations correlate differently with a new behavior. A study by Bonfield is 67 Two theories he used were very successful one example. behavior predictors to begin with, the Dulany theory of propositional control and Fishbein's attitude theory. Both had attitude, social influence and intention components. Fishbein's added a personal norm dimension. Both theories were previously known for the predictive power of their intention components. Results of their combination veri- fied the same thing. Nice theoretical mathematics but his level ”Baconism" all the same.) Conclusion Four: Life style researchers lack agreement on phenomena of interest. Phenomena used as bases for life style units of analysis are many, and varied. Plummer takes an amalgam View of product usage plus general activities, interests, Opinions and demographics.68 Ruth Ziff points to overt behaviors that include uses of leisure time, home entertainment and community 67E.H. Bonfield, "Attitude, Social Influence, Personal Norm, and Intention Interactions as Related to Brand Purchase Behavior," Journal of Marketing Research, ‘Vol. XI (November, 1974), pp. 379-389. 68Joseph T. Plummer, "Life Style Patterns and Com- :mercial Bank Cred Card Usage," Journal of Marketing, Vol. 35 (April, 1971), pp. 35-41. 35 involvement and classifies these as a subclass of a larger set of variables she labels psychographics.69 Levy, like Bernay, favors demographic descriptors like products and services consumed.70'71 General activities, interest and Opinions are utilized by W811S. Tigert and Pessemier.72’73'74 Rokeach argues that value systems determine life 75 76'77 While self- style. Cohen and Koponen personality. 69Ruth Tiff, "Closing the Consumer—Advertising Gap through Psychographics," in Boris W. Becker and Helmut Becker (eds.), Marketing Education and the Real World and Dynamic Marketing in a Changing World (American Marketing Association, 1972), p. 459. 70Sidney J. Levy, "Sumbolism and Life Style," in Stephen A. Greyser (ed.), Toward Scientific Marketing (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1968). 71Bernay, Op. cit. 72William D. Wells and Douglas Tigert, "Activities, Interests and Opinions," Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. II-4 (August 1971), PP. 27-35. 73Douglas J. Tigert, "A Research Project in Creative Advertising through Life Style Analysis," in Charles W. King and Douglas J. Tigert (eds.) Attitude Research Reaches New Heights (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1973i, pp. 223-227. 74Edgar A. Pessemier and Douglas J. Tigert, "Per- sonality, Activity and Attitude Predictors of Consumer Be- havior," in John G. Wright and Goldstuckey (eds.), Egg Ideas for Successful Marketipg. (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1966), pp. 332-347. 75Milton Rokeach, Beliefs, Attitudes and Vabies (Jossey Boss, Inc., San Francisco, 1968). 76Joel E. Cohen, "An Interpersonal Orientation to the Study of Consumer Behavior," Journal of Marketing Re- search, Vol. 4 (August 1, 1974). 77Arthur KOponen, "Personality Characteristics of Purchasers," Journal of Advertising_Research (September, 1960) I pp. 6-12. 36 concept encompasses the relevant phenomena Opinions of Dolich, Green, Masheshwara, Rao and Landon.78’79’80 Haley considers life style best reflected in per— sonal attitudes toward various product classes, which may include the benefits the consumer seeks in buying items in that category, special problems items in that category may solve, and general attitudes toward specific brands.81 On the other hand, one finds researchers like Yoell complaining that "life styles" are nothing but new terms for the "product personality," "product image" and "person- ality profile" concept Dichter proposed in 1939.82 What's interesting is that Wells, using the terms "life style" and "psychographics" interchangeably found no less than 32 definitions in two dozen papers dealing with the phenomenon.83 78J.J. Dolich, "Congruence Relationships Between Self Images and Product Brands," Journal of Marketing Re- search, Vol. 6, (February 1969), pp. 80-84). 79P.E. Green, Arun Masheshwara and Vithala R. Rao, "Self-Concept and Brand Preference: An Empirical Applica- tion of Multidimensional Scaling," Journal of the Market Research Society, Vol. 4 (October, 1969), pp. 343-360. 80E.L. Landon, Jr., "Need for Achievement, Self- Concept, and Product Perception," (doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1971). 81Russell I. Haley, "Benefit Segmentation: A De- cision-Oriented Research Tool," Journal of Marketing, Vol. 82William A. Yoell, "Can There Be A Universal Be- havior in a Diverse Society?" in Russell I. Haley (ed.), Attitude Research in Transition (American Marketing Associ- ation, 1972), p. 113. 83Wells, op. cit., "Psychographics: A Critical Re- View." 37 Wind and Green conclude that the lack of general consensus as to which of these phenomena are the best areas for determining life style has led to the practice Of using various combinations of units of analyses.84 Trend has become the practice of knowing, besides tradi- tional demographics, all these "psychographic" aspects of consumers.85 As a result, "life style" has come to mean all non-demographic characteristics that account for "unit of association" differences in some kind of consumer be- havior.86 Simmons sums up the situation quite nicely in an article entitled, "Overall Impressions of Psychographics." . . . we are still left with the problem of discussing a subject that is not clearly defined. Certainly some have tended to define the work (phenomenona) . . . so broadly as to encompass a substantial prOportion of all questions and analytical procedures that are used to describe people and to explain their behavior and attitudes. A definition so broad as this tends to become virtually meaningless being more or less syn- onimous with the research work itself.8 Basically what has happened, then, is what Cantril argued against in 1949. Research has become method and technique centered, too shallow in concept and design to quality as "scientific" investigation. The concept of life style is approached in terms of the variables used to 84Wind and Green, Op. cit., p. 106. 85Ibid. 86Simmons, Op. cit., p. 216. 87 Opinions." Wells, Op. cit., "Activities, Interests and 38 measure it rather than in terms of theory, or principles used to describe phenomena unique to its definition. Cantril would brand this "operationism," Operating at its fullest, not "science." Conclusion Five: Life style research often risks over- extendingithe suitability of its vari- ables for measurement. This observation was made in "Conclusion Three" of this chapter. Research that focuses on predictability and segmentation tends to become "information gathering" rather than scientific inquiry. So the lack of adequate problem formulation and hypothesis would make it seem. Such research tends to encourage two of the "oper- ational" dangers Cantril warns against. One, an over- emphasis on the preference for established "quantitative status" variables. Wide spread use of "Edwards preferential" traits to Operationally define life style aspects is a prime ex- ample of this suitability perversion. SO is the common bank of general activity, interest and Opinion statements life style researchers use to establish general purchase interdependency across product. For the bank may hold pur4 chase variables, determinedfiom many different purchase situations. The behavior "classification" syndrome Cantril recog- nized in 1949, is also inherent to many operational definitions of the phenomena labeled life style. For "life style" has 39 been categorized as everything from product purchased to self-concept, a point made previously. Such controversy over suitability of units Of analyses seems to have divided life style researchers into two camps. Researchers like Wells, Bernay and Plummer argue the relevancy of general lifestyle variables, those that 88,89,90 Cumu1a_ would 0perationally define types of people. tive value of successful segmenting variables, the Oppor- tunity to chart trends and the "relevancy" to that concep- tion Of life style as a "general" phenomenon form their rationalization. Young, Ziff, Pernica, Monk, Heller and Haley favor analyses of life styles within the context of a particular product category.9l'92193194,95 88Bernay, Op. cit. 89Joseph T. Plummer, "The Concept and Application of Life Style Segmentation." Journal of Marketing, Vol. 38 (Jan- uary, 1974), pp.33-37. 90Shirley Young, "Psychographics Research and Market- ing Relevancy," in Charles King and Douglas Tigert (eds.), Attitude Research Reaches New Heights, (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1973), pp. 455-461. 91Ruth Ziff, "Psychographics for Market Segmentation," Journal Of Advertising Research, Vol. 11 (April, l974),pp.3-10. 92Joseph Pernica, "The Second Generation of Marketing Segmentation Studies: An Audit of Buying Motivations," in William D. Wells (ed.), Life Style and Psychographics (Amer— ican Marketing Association, Chicago, 1974). 93Donald Monk, "Burnett Life Style Research," Euro- pean Research: Marketing Opinion Advertising, Vol. 1 (January 1973); PP. 14-19. 94Harry E. Heller, "Defining Target Markets by Their Attitude Profiles," in Lee Adler and Irving Crispi (eds.), Attitude Research on the Rocks (American Marketing Association, 40 They argue that situation specific phenomena are better reflectors of relevant attitudes than segment types of consumers.* table.96 An argument illustrated in the following Cough Remedy Analgesics, Soaps Toothpaste I catch colds I am very I worry I worry about easily prone to about the losing my headaches germs on teeth I am a very active person I prefer to use prescrip- tion cough remedies I am a very active person I prefer to use pres- cription analgesics one's body I am a very active person I prefer to use soaps that a doctor recommends I am a very active person I prefer to use a tooth- paste that my dentist recommends For these researchers, identifying types of users was the goal. A final Observation that can be made about the derivation of "life style" units of analysis is the fact Chicago, 1968), pp.45-47. 95 96 Haley, Op. cit. Ruth Ziff, "The Role of Psychographics in the Development of Advertising Strategy and Copy, in William D. Wells (ed.), Life Style and Psychographics (American Marketing Association, Chicago, 1974). * I A tract attitude theorists like Rokeach had argued for in 1966. (Milton Rokeach, "Attitude Change and Behavior Change," Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. XXX, No. 4 (1966- 67), PPo 529-550. 41 that these are rarely Operantly defined. The following description exemplifies methods used. Activity, interest and Opinion items, the major approach to measuring life style are usually based on intuition, hunches, conversations with friends, reading, head-scratching, day-dreaming, and group or individual narrative interviews. If the purpose is to have consumers reflect their life style, wouldn't they be the most logical peOple to ask first? Conclusion Six: Lack of agreement on research instruments and methodology. King observes the many professional researchers and marketers have created their own definitions and research instruments and methodology in the "life style" area. He concludes that: . . . millions of dollars of research are being spent by researchers to generate their own proprietary approaches which will ultimately produce only con- founding, inconclusive data.98 A quote that introduced reason for this thesis. Other critics, like Wells, report that most method— ology for conducting life style research represents the "personal judgments, predispositions and prejudices of a relatively small number of researchers who have copied freely from and reinforced each other."99 97Wells and Tigert, op. cit., "Activities, Interests and Opinions." 98 99Wells, Op. cit., "Some Conceptual, Measurement and Analytical Problems in Life Style Research." King, op. cit., pp. 230-231. 42 What methodology agreement there is, focuses on defining "types of peOple" versus defining "types of users." "Types of users" segmenters like Hustad, Pessemier, Pernica, Ziff, Heller and Haley seem to agree on the fol- lowing methodology: 1. develop a set of life style and psychographic items all related to the topic of the investigation 2. develop a set of more generalized life style or psychographic items about brand or product use and media exposure 3. cluster respondents on the basis of responses to the product related items alone 4. cross tabulate cluster membership with responses to the items from which the clusters were formed, with the life style and psychographic items not used in clustering and the usual demographics.100 "Types of people“ segmenters like Wells, Plummer, Bernay and Tigert: 1. develop a large and varied collection of activity, interest and Opinion questions and submit them to large samples. 2. cluster respondents into groups based on their answers to the entire list of items. 3. compare the groups with each other on consump- tion of products and services, preferences for evaluating brands. and patterns of exposure to various advertising media.101 100Wells, Op. cit., "Life Style and Psychographics: Definitions, Uses and Problems," p. 329. 101Ibid. 43 I Steps one and three of the "type of user" method- ology follow Stephenson's rules for dependency analysis.102 However, operant definition of variables is what's primarily lacking. "Type of people" methodology exemplifies outcomes of interdependency or correlates to purchase behavior. Stephenson would classify it as R analysis (interdepen- dency analysis).* Conclusion Seven: Data yielded still needs demonstration of motivation or cause. Simons argues that most R analysis factors method- ology that largely describes relationships between vari- ables but falls short at point to cause. Statistical tech- niques like "factoring persons," "factoring items," dis- criminant analyses, correlation, regression and cross- tabulation, of independent purchase variables provide: . . . a description of a group Of individuals that may have several characteristics in common . . . does not really tell us why they may also tend to be frequent users Of an advertiser's product.103 Conclusions concerning reasons for specific behavior, how- ever, must still rest upon inferences based on assumptions 102William Stephenson, The Study of Behavior, (University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1956), p. 28. *Stephenson's rule for discriminative between R and Q analyses is not the common rule of discriminating between factoring items and factoring persons. The critical dis- crimination for Stephenson, referred to whether the subject ranked the items or re5ponded to the items independently. Chapter 3, p. 30, Study of Behavior. 103Simmons, op. cit., p. 216. 44 based beyond the findings demonstrated by research itself. "Higher order abstractions" like behavior concepts or theory are needed to demonstrate motivation or cause. And as stated so many times already, no adequate theory of behavior has been used. Though interpretation via high order abstractions is still needed, studies that employ Q-techniques (as Stephenson prOposed it) yield material for which one may more defensibly infer causality. Q-methodology has often been used to segment persons according to their expressed needs or wants, the operational and operant definition of life style researchers like Haley favor. Products studied using Q-technique include tuna automobiles,105 106 108 104 107 fish, men's toiletries, magazines, and toothpaste. But the fact remains that because many professional researchers and marketers have created their own research instruments and methodolody for testing life style, as 104William Stephenson, (unpublished paper expounding methodological and theoretical foundations in application of Q-methodology to advertising, Columbia, Missouri, University of Missouri, 1971). PP. 9-10. 105Eric D. Fischer, "The Automobile and the Consumer: Operant Market Segmentation" (M.A. thesis, East Lansing, Mich- igan, Michigan State University, 1973). 106Ricky H. McCarty, "Packaging and.Advertising of Men's Toiletries: An Intensive Analysis of a Pure Type" (M.A. thesis, Columbia, Missouri, University of Missouri, 1968). 107Laurel Booth, "An Image Study of McCall's maga- zine (M.A. thesis, Columbia, Missouri, University Of Missouri, 1972). ' 108Haley, Op. cit. 45 instruments and methodology for testing life style, as well as their own definitions, one cannot generalize about the phenomenon, but only separately consider each of its supposed aspects in relation to specific studies. Conclusion Eight: An apparent lack Of the transactional perspective of behavior in many studies offers doubts as to their validity, much less their success in demonstra- ting life style motivation. Focusing on the transaction of a person's living rather than on the descriptors of that behavior could inherently point to the function of interrelationships between variables. The transactional perspective also emphasizes that the interaction between environment and individual is a dynamic rather than a static process. Each particular encounter involves reinforcement of some phenomena of his assumptive framework, changes in others. Therefore the suitability of many subjective variables used in "life style" research is questionable. Especially those that have been borrowed (like person- ality traits), those that are general (generalized AIO items) and those that are banked for seemingly cumula- tive value (subjective data files of any type). 46 Summary Conclusions: Life style research measures up as leppy scientific inquiry. Its methods for gathering information, its units of analysis and methodology are questionable. But the area does point out where to look for phenomena relevant for explaining the behavior and developing theory bases. 1. Focus on the individual, his manner of living, and especially toward activity, attitude, interests and values, as they related to consumer behavior can be import- ant frames Of reference for determining life style. (Bernay, Lazer, Wells.) 2. An implicit theory of self-concept that patterns behavior for both immediate and enduring purposes is possible. (Westfall, Wind and Green.) 3. Lack of adequate theory for the behavior phe- nomenon,.35 (2% SE) are signifi- cant at p>.Ol. ** Weighting is by means by Spearman's formula: IEEZ' Charles Spearman, The Abilities of Man, (New York: Macmillan Company, 1927), Appendix XIX. 99 producing an "average" sort for each factor. After con- verting the arrays to z-Scores, the computer arranged statements on a "most agree-most disagree" continuum for each factor. The array for each factor provided the basis for interpretation of the factor. The factor analysis yielded four factors judged "interpretable," based on two criteria. One interprets only those factors with at least a minimum number of per- sons with significant "pure" loadings. The number chosen for this study was eight persons. Second, the QUANAL pro- gram computes eigenvalues, the amount of variance accounted for by each factor, and it is then possible to reject a factor when the amount of variance accounted for is less than a minimum amount of variance, as represented by a designated eigenvalue. It is common for factors with eigen- values less than 1.000 to be judges as uninterpretable, and that criterion was used in this study. The four factor solution included as "pure" loadings, the sorts of 46 of the 52 subjects. With the data analyzed, one is ready to interpret the data and that step is reported in the follow- ing chapter. CHAPTER S IX: Interpreting Data That Might Reveal The Real Reasons for Living 100 "Let's hOpe we can tell what a man's after by the way he blows his nose, or folds his handkerchief." 101 The Interpreting Process: "How one goesjebout makipg sense of the data." The process of interpretation for each factor is primarily abductive. Stephenson defines it as fitting "the meanings of Q-statements, with their scores, into an overall 199 explanation of the factor." Mauldin speaks of seeking explanations as "a subjective, a creative task, guided and 200 (Thus it's common fed by the operant evidence, the data." practice in Q to qualify the interpretation as follows: if the reader disagrees with the offered interpretation, he may formulate his own from data listed in the appendices.) In this case, four interpretable factors were gen- erated and examined individually. Interpreting began with a simple arrangement of statements into logical categories like: "symptoms," "how subject feels about being sick," each respondent's "phil- osophy of medicine," and "self treatment practices." Special consideration was given to discriminating items (those state- ments ranked significantly higher or lower by one factor than by all others) as the determining characteristics of each category. One then proceeded in an "if-then" manner, that 199William Stephenson, Immediate Experience of Movies (Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri, 1962). 200Charles R. Mauldin, "The Image Study as a Basic Public Relations Study," M.A. thesis, Columbia, Missouri, University of Missouri, June 1970, p. 42. 102 103 is, examining combinations that emerged, seeking a simpli- fication, a tentative conclusion that would explain the combination. Such conclusions, paired to further combina- tions and conclusions, led eventually to an algorithm which explained the entire characteristic array for the factor in consideration. The comparisons involved individual state- ments, groups Of statements, conclusions (however tenta- tive) from previous combinations, and demographic data, and combinations of these. Early attention was also given to consensus items, or those statements upon which all factors essentially agree.* Reporting Results: How one goes about communicating his explanations This study yielded four interpretable factors. Their interpretation is Offered in three parts: (1) a label which represents the algorithm and supplies a conven- ient "handle" or reference point for the factor, (2) a typical quote, in first person, that Operationalizes what a combination of that factor's most discriminating items might sound like, and (3) a comprehensive sketch that provides a more detailed explanation and discussion of the factor.** * A consensus item is defined as a statement where the factor scores differ by less than 1.0 standard score across the five factors. **Much like Linda Goodman mightdescribe astrological types. Only this interpreter has data to back him up. 104 The typical quote is meant as a "mind-set." It's your insight into the character of each factor's typical person. Read it first. Use it as your point of view for reading the sketch that follows. Each sketch is introduced by a summary of demo- graphic and preferred remedy data for each factor. Each is appended with a table of factor statements and loadings that appear exactly as they're utilized in the factor interpretation. I suggest you read the sketch first for impression and then again for critical evidence check. CONSENSUS ITEMS : "Creed of the Luckless Order of Sinus Sufferers" 105 "Now that we've been so unduly striken by a misfortune that is no fault of our own, let's do something about it. Quick. Before it gets any worse." 106 Feel like complaining about your sinus problem to somebody? Well, chances are you'll find a sympathetic ear with any of these people. Not because you'll be hit- ting him where it hurts. (Thank heaven ear aches aren't a symptom of sinusitis too!) But because they know you're airing some very real frustration. (I) They understand what a pounding forehead, clogged nasal passages and head- ache can do to a man. And you can be assured at least somebody will believe you when you plead that simple pos- session Of all three doesn't necessarily prove that you're to blame. (41) Is it because common suffering forms a comradeship that fosters this kind of empathetic loyalty? That explanation could very well be true. For it seems that one good case is really all the initiation that's needed to join this "luckless order of sinus sufferers." (And you can bet this fraternity isn't a social one, even if it is true that misery likes company.) By now you should be getting the idea sinusitis is very serious business to everybody involved with it. To them, it could never be classified as something psycho- somatic. It's too painful an experience for anyone to be Ibase enough to actually feign its symptoms out of self-pity 107 108 or to get attention. (1J3 (There's some things one just doesn't kid about). Being conscientious about one's health doesn't necessarily spare anybody the "pain of getting it." (41) Nor does the simple act of taking medicine make one feel better. (1) (That "placebo effect" stuff might be relevant to migrain headache peOple. But you can't convince anybody of this order that sugar pills will clear up a clogged nose or ease up swollen eyes.) Sinusitis is only too real. It strikes. It hurts. It causes pain and discomfort. It weakens. And everybody wants relief as soon as possible (44), right at the onset, before the "culprit" has a chance to set in and take hold. (4) Logically then, everybody surveyed believes that, untreated, sinusitis will last longer and be more severe. (47) They fully realized that "waiting out the storm" of symptoms isn't the answer. (46) A sinus remedy, medicine in OTC drugs or prescription form, is. (44) And because they feel that a feverless combination of congestion, head- ache and pressure, is too minor to call in a doctor for, they prefer to treat the ailment themselves. (23) Therefore, OTC remedies (SINAREST, SINUTAB, CONTACT, etc.) are vitally important though all the products avail- able are in no way created equal in their eyes. (34) 109 Everybody agrues that some clear up symptoms better than others. (34) Definite quality differences between brands seem important. (8) (In other words, manufacturer reputation may play a big part.) Medicine created for other things (aspirin for headache, cold remedies, etc.) can't work as well for sinus problems as well as specific Sinus remedies. (5) To them, sinusitis seems serious enough a disease to warrant a remedy of its own. Everybody is fully aware that "sinus" is like a common cold. There is no actual cure for it. And all you can really expect a remedy to do is make you feel more com- fortable. (24) But if it does even that much, no one con- siders it a bother remembering to take pills every four hours. (21) It's worth the effort to have the pain stOpped. (44) That way they can survive their waking hours and do the living they have to do. What does bother them though, is the thought of having to get up during the night to continue recommended dosages. (25) _("Sinus" causes enough trouble during the day without having to add to the inconvenience. . .and rest is an important cure tool). What does seem to concern everyone is knowledge of, and obedience to, dosage directions. (50) That feeling that "drugs are nothing to fool with, but rather something to take responsibly" also prompts favor of child-proof safety caps for all medicine. (17) 110 The added convenience of Offering easy to carry medicine packets didn't necessarily prompt anybody's preference for brand. (19) So much for the "creed of the luckless order of sinus sufferers." TABLE 111 as FI, FII, etc. l.--Consensus Statements. statement appear at left. Scores are standard scores from The statement number and Factors are indicated the individual factor arrays. Statement FI FII FIII FIV 1. 41. 11. 41. 47. It's all in your head; that's sup- posed to make you feel better, you feel better. -1.52 If a person gets sinus or a cold, it's their own fault for not tak- ing better care of themselves. -1.60 People get sick when they want attention, when they feel sorry for themselves. -l.68 If a person gets sinus or a cold, it's their own fault for not tak- ing better care of themselves. -l.58 It's all in your head; if you take something that's supposed to make you feel better, you feel better. I want to kill a cold or sinus be- fore it gets firm hold, so I want a remedy right at the outset. 1.01 An untreated sinus problem will last longer and be more severe. 0.22 -2.33 -2.06 -1.29 —2.06 0.02 -1.57 -1.67 -1.35 -1.67 -0.08 -1.48 -1.79 -0.84 -1.78 -0.02 112 TABLE l.--Continued. Statement FI FII FIII FIV 46. About all you can really do about sinus is wait it out. -l.503 -l.l90 -0.823 -1.182 44. I want a sinus remedy to stop the pain, the sooner, the better. 0.43 1.32 1.03 1.08 23. You can't take every little problem to a doctor. I pre- fer to treat minor things like sinus myself. 0.35 1.07 0.17 0.45 34. I imagine one sinus remedy is no better and no worse than any of the others. -l.27 -l.l9 -l.86 -1.02 8. Often, medications are not as effec- tive as other things you can do for the sinus suf- ferer. -1.34 —l.44 -1.57 -0.82 5. You can't expect a sinus remedy to treat other things, or other remedies to be effective with sinus. 0.24 0.14 0.71 0.57 24. All you can really expect from a remedy is to make you more comfortable. -0.15 0.68 0.32 0.53 21. It's such a bother to have to keep taking pills every few hours. -0.12 -0.55 -0.49 -0.45 113 TABLE l.--Continued. Statement FI FII FIII FIV 21. It's such a bother to have to keep taking pills every few hours. -0.12 -0.55 -0.50 -0.45 44. I want a sinus remedy to stop the pain, the sooner the better. 0.428 1.322 1.025 1.076 25. I don't mind waking up in the middle of the night to take a pill if it's the recommended dosage. -0.55 -l.51 -0.55 -l.4l 50. It's important to know and obey the dosage prescribed on the medicine package. 1.81 1.36 1.49 1.89 17. Any medication not safe for children should have a child- proof safety cap. 1.67 1.45 .99 1.42 19. I prefer sinus and cold remedies to come in packages you can conveniently carry with you. -0.30 0.09 0.15 -0.01 FACTOR ONE : "The Cautious Relief—Seeker" 114 SUMMARY: Demographic and Preferred Remedy Data, Factor I. Eighteen respondents loaded on Factor I. Sixteen were married, two were unmarried. Nine respondents were regular sinus sufferers. Two of these females had a hus- band who suffered. Two more had both a husband and child who suffered. One non-suffering homemaker had a child who did. Children that suffered tended to be older, 11 and above. Preferred remedies included doctor's prescriptions, Corricidin, Corricidin for Children, Contact, Dristan, Sine-Aid, Excedrin, Aspirin and Vicks Vapo Rub. (A complete picture of "data by respondent," in- cluding occupation of both respondent and spouse plus ages of children, can be found in the Appendix.) 115 TYPICAL QUOTE: "I wish I could survive this sinus stuff without having to take medicine all the time . . . Since it's just too hard to, I'll only take the minimum amount. No more." 116 SKETCH : Members of this factor don't get caught up in feeling sorry for themselves when sinusitis strikes. Neither do they want anyone else to. (11) They seek relief, not pampering. Because when sinusitis belts them it's using a powerful three punch combination: congestion, sinus cavity pressure plus head- ache. (36,37,40) Of the three, though, it's congestion, by far, that packs the most whallop, causes the most discomfort. Its victims want its effects taken care of first (36), quickly (4,44) and effectively (10), even if it means a dry mouth and nasal passages. (15) Their anxiety's much like the boxer who's plagued with blood clogging up his nose . It's not that sinus pressure or that headache are any less of a nuisance. (30) Or that either of these symptoms can be survived, unaided, if the congestion problem was cleared up first. (39) It's just that "I can't breathe" is the first thought on the tip of this relief seeker's tongue. (36) Much like George Foreman's "right" is the first thing most of his opponents remember when they wake up. 117 118 Maybe it's poetic justice that congestion is characteristic of this factor. This "operational philosophy of medicine" seems just as cloudy as a head clogged with mucus. An "I can fight this thing without drugs" (20,29) versus a "realization that medicine is really the best cure" (9) battle keeps going on inside their heads, making it very unclear to them how they should actually deal with strategies for relief. So what happens? Hesitation. Extreme caution. About using medicine. (22,49) About admitting whether taking medi- cine is the right thing to do in the first place. (20,29) Hence the label "cautious relief-seeker." HOw that caution is reflected in his medical habits shouldn't be hard to imagine. Reading state- ments, 12, 51, and 3 can eaSily let you infer what his medicine cabinet, for example, might look like inside. Most likely it only holds the bare essentials. Toothpaste, deodorant, aspirin, milk of magnesia. No old prescriptions. No medicine bottles that bear labels with yellow edges. No ear drop bottles that have lost their brand identity in the pan of water used to warm them up. And you can bet you'll find no defunct 119 prescription cases packed with instant coffee, Cremora, or sugar on their next three day camping trip. (51) Little wonder, they're not in the habit of keeping any kind Of medicine around for long. They feel it'll lose its effectiveness. (12) Most would-be "coffee containers" are large economy sizes in the first place. And they're just not in the habit of buying them either. (3) Owners Of this kind of medicine chest are the types of mothers and fathers who'd rather drive to a drug store for "St. Joseph's aspirin for Children" rather than feed half a Bayer to their kid for his fever. (49) Here's the person who readily approves "child proof" safety caps for any medication, who might prefer one brand over another largely because it carried that feature. (17) Here's the housewife who reads the back of the box in line at the checkout counter. Or the guy who might study that little folded pamphlet from inside the Anacin box while arched on the throne in his family's "tiled" library. (48,50) Here's a good chance people of this factor still glance at the back of the Bayer bottle for dosage 120 reassurance, though they've been taking aspirin most of their natural lives. (50) There's an even better chance they'll ask their family doctor's Opinion about a new product, pay special attention to a credibly pre- sented commercial that ends with the standard "two out of three doctors recommend," or at least ask the pharmacist which nasal spray causes less chance of nose bleed. (27,14) That's if they use spray at all. The idea of putting the same "unsterilized" end up your nostril over and over again, might be too unhealthy for these people. More so if they realize that more than one member of the family will have to use the same bottle. From what's been described so far, you can safely predict this guy, or girl, is a stickler for dosage rules when it comes to taking medicine himself or herself. (22) They wouldn't dare think of taking any more than the exactly prescribed dosage no matter how terribly they felt. (22) Maybe that's why you'll rarely see an odd aspirin at the bottom of a bottle. (Unless, of course, they "under-treated"). Maybe that's why they get understandably anxious when they realize they might have taken a second dose an hour early, or when their noses, newly wet with Vicks Nasal Spray, 121 remind them that they've already taken a combination sinus tablet with decongestant. (50) "Cautious" enough for you?! All these symptoms are characteristic of a basic dilemma. They're how these proponents of state- ments like "the fewer pills you take during your life, the better Off you are" and "rest is the best cure" compensate for taking pills in the first place. (29) Reason for this "anti-pill" syndrome is not physical. (6,12,45) It's psychological. Perhaps people here are not ready to admit that they're really sick in the first place. (33) Perhaps they feel guilty about dealing with it the way they'd like to. For what they'd really like to do is stay home, rest and let their body fight the trauma with its own devices. What they'd really like to do is be strong enough to "survive life's little trials" (30) without having to grab for the easiest way out. (29) Trouble here is admitting whether sinusitis is large enough a trial to warrant "grabbing." (7) For these people, physically it is. Headache, pressure and especially congestion are all apparent, even to the point of this guy or girl conceding they just can't do as much as they uSually can. (28) They can't stOp themselves from saying "if a particular remedy 122 works, I'll buy it regardless of price." (16) Or even that possibly stomach upset or bad taste isn't too much to pay. Mentally, on the logic level, it is. People of this factor all realize that sinus problems can't simply be ignored (46), that without medicine they will only last long and be more severe (47), that medicine's probably the most effective way to handle them. (9) But, emotionally, it isn't. Conceding that sinusitis is physically serious would be contrary to that staunch ideology of "being strong enough to survive yourself," they idealistically cling to. They won't admit they physically appear any worse than usual, when suffering sinusitis. (38) They won't ask their friends for help. (26) They won't stand pampering, attention or self-pity. Actions like these would constitute admission that they couldn't live up to their own standards. So they de—emphasize their concessions. Locigally, then, when they do take medicine it must be medicine specific for sinus problems. (5) It can't be without doctor approval. (27) It must be taken with caution, (50,22,7,48). And it must contain only enough medicine to provide relief. Nothing more. (13,52). Though too dry a mouth wouldn't feel too unnatural if they could actually breathe again. (15) 123 Who knows? Maybe if each case of sinusitis came complete with a free amount of 101° fever, they'd feel better about being sick, or that sinus problems really meant that they were. Fever is serious enough to take medicine for . .. even if you're the strongest kind of natural combatant. Anyone for a possible diagnosis of "medical macho." 124 TABLE 2.--Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor I. The statement number and state- ment appear at the left. Factor I is indicated as FI, and the standard score given. The averaged standard scores for other factors is given as AVG. Z. The third column, DIFF., gives the difference between FI standard score and the averaged standard scores. The direction of dif- ference is indicated by + or -. (Statements without "AVG.Z" or "DIFF." scores are supporting items of significant value.) Statement FI AVG. Z. DIFF. 11. 36. 37. 40. 44. 10. 15. Pe0ple get sick when they want attention, when they feel sorry for themselves. When I suffer from si- nus, reducing the con- gestion is the first priority. I want a sinus remedy to relieve the pressure around the eyes and nose and forehead. The worst part of sinus for me is bade,headache. I want to kill a cold or sinus before it gets a firm hold, so I want a remedy right at the outset. I want a sinus remedy to -1.684 1.214 1.01 stop the pain, the sooner the better. It's important to have a remedy that's strong enough to do the job. I don't want a sinus 0.428 0.562 remedy to dry up my mouth and nose too much. -0.33 -1.160 0.456 0.456 1.141 1.263 -O.524 0.759 0.759 -0.714 -0.701 TABLE 2.--Continued. 125 Statement FI Avg.Z Diff. 30. 39. 36. 20. 29. 22. 49. 20. 29. The main thing I dis- like about sinus or a cold is the nuisance of having it. As long as I can breathe, I can put up with the other symptoms of sinus. When I suffer from sinus, reducing the congestion is the first priority. Rest is really the best cure for colds or sinus. The fewer pills you take in your life, the better Off you are. Often medications are not so effective as other things you can do for the sinus sufferer. I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. Even if an adult medica- tion has a partial do- sage for children, it seems better to buy medicines specifically formulated for children. Rest is really the best cure for colds or sinus. The fewer pills you take in your life, the better off you are. 0.74 -0.28 1.214 0.76 -0.795 -1.951 0.456 -0.649 -0.320 -0.779 0.759 -0.146 —1.631 2.612 126 TABLE 2.--Continued. Statements FI AVGOZ. DIFF. 51. 12. 49. 17. 48. 50. 27. 14. It's nice to have the medication come in pack- ages or bottles you can use for something else when they're empty. -l.622 If you keep any med- icine around very long, it's sure to lose its effectiveness. 0.703 I want to buy enough of a remedy to have some on hand. When you have sinus or a cold, you want the medication then. -0.466 Even if an adult med- ication has a partial dosage for children, it seems better to buy med- icines specifically for- mulated for children. 1.834 Any medication not safe for children should have a child-proof safety cap. 1.665 I prefer warnings on medications I buy; I want to know the limits and the dangers. 1.77 It's important to know and obey the dosage prescribed on the med- icine package. 1.81 It's good to have a doc- tor's recommendation on any medicine. 1.71 When I have some health problem, I want to learn all I can about it. 1.12 -O.620 0.116 0.356 -0.779 1.289 -1.002 0.586 -0.822 2.612 0.376 127 TABLE 2.--Continued. Statements FI ANG.Z. DIFF. 22. 50. 29. 12. 45. 33. 30. 29. I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. -l.951 -0.320 It's important to know and obey the dosage prescribed on the med- icine package. 1.81 The fewer pills you take in your life, the better Off you are. 0.85 The possibility of an up- set stomach makes me feel more reluctant to take a sinus or cold remedy. 0.16 If you keep any medi- cine around very long, it'S sure to lose its effectiveness. 0.703 0.116 Some remedies seem to make me nervous and jumpy. -0.92 There's no mistaking sinus for other prob- lems; when I have it, I know what it is. -0.16 The main thing I dis- like about sinus or a cold is the nuisance of having it. 0.74 The fewer pills you take in your life, the better Off you are. 0.85 When I have sinus sym- ptoms, I just use what- ever apprOpriate remedy we happen to have. -l.536 —0.l44 -1.631 0.586 -1.392 TABLE 2.--Continued. 128 Statements FI AVG.Z. DIFF. 28. When I get a cold, I don't feel like doing much but I have to. 16. If I think a particular medicine is right for me, I buy it regardless of the price. 46. About all you can really do about sinus is wait it out. 47. An untreated sinus prob- lem will last longer and be more severe. 9. Often, medications are not so effective as other things you can do for the sinus sufferer. 38. When I have sinus or a cold, I feel like I don't look as good. 26. It's good to talk about your minor health prob- lems with friends; you can get a lot of useful information. 5. You can't expect a sinus remedy to treat other things, or other remedies to be effective with sinus. 27. It's good to have a doctor's recommendation on any medicine. 50. It's important to know and obey the dosage prescribed on the medi- cine package. 0.76 -1.053 0.216 -O.795 -0.156 -l.18 0.24 1.71 1.81 -1.296 -0.027 -0.649 0.734 0.243 0.243 -0.146 -0.890 TABLE 2.--Continued. 129 Statements FI AVG.Z. DIFF. 22. 48. 13. 52. 15. I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. When I have sinus symptoms, I just use whatever appropriate remedy we happen to have. I prefer warnings on medications I buy; I want to know the limits and the dangers. I want a sinus remedy to make me feel better without making me drowsy. When I take a remedy for sinus at night, it's fine if it makes me drowsy. I don't want a sinus remedy to dry up my mouth and nose too much. -1.951 -1.536 1.77 -0.561 -0.331 -0.320 -0.144 0.290 0.467 -1.631 -1.392 -0.797 FACTOR TWO : "The Annoyed Victim of Circumstance" 130 SUMMARY: Demographic and Preferred Remedy Data, Factor II. Eleven respondents loaded on this factor. Seven female respondents were married. There males were. Nine of the ten families had members who suffered from sinus trouble. Women tended to suffer more than men. Again, there was no incidence of sinus problems in younger children. Only those above 15. Empirin/w codeine, aspirin, Dristan, Contac, Sinu- tabs, and 4-Way Cold tablets numbered among remedies. (A complete picture of "data by respondent" including occupa- tion of both respondent and Spouse plus ages of children, can be found in the Appendix.) 131 TYPICAL QUOTE: "Dammit, I've got that sinus head pressure again. And I don't mind tellin' you it's no joke." 132 SKETCH: Call this guy a hypochondriac (41), accuse him of faking illness to get attention (11) and you're apt to get your "block knocked off." Maybe then your throbbing fore— head will have reason to feel as bad as his does. For he's done nothing to deserve his pain. He's a victim of circum- stance. And he doesn't like it one bit. To him, like the other people in this factor, sinus- itis is an annoying pain in the "proverbial other place" besides head and sinus cavities. (30,37,40) However, let's start this particular profile tour from the "tOp floor hallways" or sinus cavities. Pressure up here's so bad the people can't stand it. (37) They want "out" as soon as possible. (44) The fact that their flaming nostrils also happen to be stuffed to the hilt with mucus (39,36,49) and the feeling that a cement floor is being jack-hammered upstairs (40) doesn't help. That's why people in this factor want a sinus remedy that works fast, that's strong enough to do the job. (10) And you can bet they'll grab for it as soon as they realize what's up. (4) They're not "macho" about taking medicine like the "cautious relief seeker." (29) They know what's in store for them if they don't. (47) 133 134 Trouble is, their chances of recognizing the enemy before he strikes is slim. (33) So the majority of the time they find themselves trapped. Realizing the most they can do is taken enough medicine to make themselves as comfortable as possible till the annoying seige is over. (24) As you can see, being attacked by sinusitis isn't easy for anybody in this factor. The symptoms weaken them physically and psychologically. They realize how bad they must look on the outside. (38) Every time they look in a mirror their drawn face, red nose and tight forehead won't let them forget. Neither will the weakness they feel when they try to live their life as usual. (28) Maybe that's why they can justify taking off from work a lot easier than other people can, staying home for a few days, or just plain taking it easy. (20) Who knows? Maybe that way they'll be released from sinusitis a few days early for good behavior. Imagine how annoyingly depressing such a prison must be for someone who must suffer alone. (43) Especially when he's been locked up so many times in the past. Especially when the door slams shut and the key's thrown away before he can realize what's happening. (33) An easier way out next time could be the real reason why this victim so readily seeks out advice from friends. But then, so could the possibility of a little pampering. (42) 135 If lightning kept striking you over and over again, you might expect some extra consideration too. Since a "sinusitis" strike does cause its share of problems, its victims don't want curing it to add to the misery. Self-treating can't include waking up during the middle Of the night to continue dosage. (25) Medicine, no matter how well it works, can't include the added annoyance of bad taste or stomach upset. (18) Tablets that have "possible drowsiness" glued on their bottle backs can only be tolerated at bed time (13,52), when they can be sure that side effect won't add any more fuel to the fire. Warn- ings will be read and dosage recommendations heeded (48,50, 22) because it would be just their luck to get sicker from trying to make themselves feel better in the first place. And who needs that? Not these people. These are the individuals who claim they keep sinus product companies in business. Little wonder, they find themselves spending enough to want to compare brands (8,34) and prices. (16) They find themselves using enough to want to keep the large economy size on hand for emergencies. (3) They know they suffer enough to carry "foil packets" or "aluminum tins" for im- mediate "on the job relief." (19) You can imagine why these same individuals who see "red" every time they notice someone else sniffling or 136 sneezing. (32) The "red" they see is the condition of their own puffy nose or swollen eyes happening all over again. They don't want to be reminded of that possibility. 137 TABLE 3.--Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor II. The statement number and statement appear at the left. Factor II is indicated as FII, and the standard score given. The averaged standard scores for other factors is fiven as AVG.Z. The third column, DIFF., gives the difference between FII standard score and the averaged standard scores. The direction of difference is indicated by + or -. (State- ments without "AVG.Z." or "DIFF." scores are supporting items of significant value.) Statement FII AVG.Z. DIFF. 41. 11. 30. 37. 40. 37. 44. 39. If a person gets sinus or a cold, it's their own fault for not taking better care of them- selves. -2.062 -l.685 -0.367 People get sick when they want attention, when they feel sorry for them— selves. -1.29 The main thing I dislike about sinus or a cold is the nuisance of having it. 0.969 0.308 0.652 I want a sinus remedy to relieve the pressure around the eyes and nose and forehead. 2.102 0.567 1.536 The worst part of sinus for me is the bad head- ache. 0.640 -0.330 0.970 I want a sinus remedy to relieve the pressure around the eyes and nose and forehead. 2.102 0.567 1.536 I want a sinus remedy to stop the pain, the sooner the better. 1.322 0.843 0.479 As long as I can breathe, I can other sinus. put up with the symptoms of -1.09 138 TABLE 3.--Continued. Statement FII AVG.Z. DIFF. 36. 49. 40. 10. 29. 47. 33. 24. 38. When I suffer from sinus, reducing the congestion is the first priority. 0.84 Even if an adult med- ication has a partial dosage for children, it seems better to buy medicines specifi- cally formulated for children. -1.334 The worst part of sinus for me is the bad head- ache. 0.640 It's important to have a remedy that's strong enough to do the job. 0.86 I want to kill a cold or sinus before it gets a firm hold, so I want a remedy right at the outset. 0.649 The fewer pills you take in your life, the better Off you are. -1.180 An untreated sinus prob- lem will last longer and be more severe. 0.02 There's no mistaking sinus for other prob- lems; when I have it, I know what it is. -0.68 All you can really ex- pect from a remedy is to make you more comfortable. 0.684 When I have sinus or a cold, I feel like I don't look as good. 1.279 0.277 -0.330 1.059 0.577 0.236 0.255 -1.611 0.970 -0.409 -1.757 0.449 1.024 139 TABLE 3.--Continued. Statements FII 20. 43. 33. 42. 25. 18. 13. 52. 48. 50. 22. Rest is really the best cure for colds or sinus. 0.915 When I have sinus or a cold, I just want to be left alone. -l.488 There's no mistaking sinus for other prob- lems; when I_have it, I know what it is. -0.68 When you have a cold or sinus, it's nice to be pampered a little. 0.668 I don't mind waking up in the middle of the night to take a pill if it's the recommended dosage. -1.513 It doesn't matter what the medicine tastes like if it works. -0.53 I wnat a sinus remedy to make me feel better without making me drowsy. 0.60 When I take a remedy for sinus at night, it's fine if it makes me drowsy. 0.813 I prefer warnings on medications I buy; I want to know the limits and the dangers. 1.74 It's important to know and obey the dosage pres- cribed on the medicine package. 1.362 I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. -0.43 AVG.Z. 0.058 -0.553 0.066 -0.839 -0.168 1.729 DIFF. 0.857 -0.935 0.602 -0.674 0.981 -0.367 140 TABLE 3.--Continued. Statements FII AVG.Z. DIFF. 8. I don't really worry about the quality of one brand or another; they're all regulated. -l.44 34. I imagine one sinus remedy is no better and no worse than any of the others. -l.l9 16. If I think a particular medicine is right for me, I buy it regardless of the price. -0.68 3. I want to buy enough of a remedy to have some on hand. When you have sinus or a cold, you want the medication then. 0.37 19. I prefer sinus and cold remedies to come in packages you can con- veniently carry with you. 0.10 32. I feel that the sym- ptoms of sinus and of colds are personally offensive. 0.052 -0.999 1.052 FACTOR THREE : "The Self-Reliant Coper" 141 SUMMARY: Demographic and Preferred Remedy Data, Factor III. All eight respondents here were female. Five married. Five suffered sinus problems. Three were unmarried or divorced. Two were married. One's husband suffered. The divorced woman who suffered from sinus trouble had two children who also suffered. They were 7 and 14, a young age for sinus problems to occur. Preferred remedies included prescriptions, injec- tions, Corricidin, Dristan tablets/nasal spray, Neo- Synepherine and Triamicin. (A complete picture of "data by respondent" includ- ing occupation of both respondent and spouse plus ages of children, can be found in the Appendix.) 142 TYPICAL QUOTE : "Stay home?! Sinus isn't that serious. I'll just stop by the drug store on the way to work and get something for it. I'll be Okay." 143 SKETCH: Long as she "can still breathe," you won't find this lady out of step with her daily routine. (39,28) What you're more likely to find are less perservering sinus sufferers calling her "die hard" behind her back. They know this lady can take what sinusitus dishes out a lot better than they can. She can COpe with it. As long as She takes her medicine. And coping to her means doing nothing out of the ordinary but popping a couple pills every four hours or taking a hit of nasal spray if congestion is particularly bad. (21) That's about it! Thoughts of a comforting, easy day in bed (20) or designs of hiding that telltale face of hers (38) till the storm clears up are the farthest things from her mind. There's probably no room for them anyway. She's got more important things to think about. Like responsi- bilities she knows only she can take care of adequately. Getting herself better, without disturbing her normal routine, simply becomes another one to take on. It's worth .remembering to take pills every four hours if need be. (31) It's worth keeping nasal spray by the night stand for. It 144 145 could possibly be worth an extra squirt of nasal spray, or even an extra tablet if those throbbing sinus cavities seem a bit too much for recommended dosage. (22) You can rely on it! Also rely that they'll be damn careful about doing things like this, and that they won't make a habit out of it. Ixnryou're reading about peOple who take an extra effort to inform themselves of proper dosage directions, warnings, limits and dangers of the medicine they buy. (50,27,48) And decision here's more a matter of intelligent situation ethics, rather than outright disobedience, or even arrogance. As previously implied, this housewife, school teacher, apartment manager and environmental planner have enough to handle besides sinus symptoms. So it isn't any surprise that they want the air clear (36) and pressure Off (37) as soon as possible. That means the job of head and nose relief must begin immediately. (4) There's less chance of com- plications building, and their performance slipping that way. They won't let that happen. Maybe that's why our woman representative of factor three will steer clear of medicine that causes possible drowsiness. (13,53) Maybe that's why less performance rele- vant side effects like sour taste buds or an upset stomach (18,6) are prices worth paying if a particular remedy is sstrong enough to return head and nose to a temporary state of working normalcy. (10) 146 Monetary cost is no Object either (16) if a particular medicine achieves the same goal. What's important to keep in mind is that the secret of this body's enduring preseverance lies in her medicine, much like Samson relied on his hair. Only difference is that this "pillar of strength" is well aware that no sinus product promises miracles, and that all it really can do is make her feel more comfortable. (24) Most likely, though, comfortable survival wouldn't be enough to interest this type of fighter. Her reason for taking medicine would have to strike closer to home. Consider this possibility. Consider that this lady tried to survive a barrage of pressure and congestion once or twice before with no help. (47) And that she made it. (Out of pure stubbornness maybe?) But when she realized the stupid mistakes she made, or remembered the appointment she forgot as a result, the blows to her ego were too much to justify. SO she decided on medical help, for those reasons. It's likely that ego powers this lady, whether she's conscious of it or not. But it's more of the intelligent, rational kind, the type that let's successful managers and thrifty homemakers take confidence in their own decision making. SO, whom we're talking about here are mothers who won't think twice about splitting an adult dose to ease the 147 fever of their suffering child. (49) (Even though it's not St. Joseph's Aspirin for Children.) People included in this factor are likely to try the smallest size of a new product, if a sample's not avail- able. (2) (That way they don't lose much if they find it's ineffective.) These are also the kind of people who keep a medical encyclopedia on the family reference shelf, who actually traced down the term "sinusitis" by starting the investiga- tion at that part of the body that was symptomatic of their suffering--sinus. (14) Afterall, knowing what you're up against is the first step in develOping strategies in how to COpe with it. (And "sinusitis" is definitely small league enough for them to treat themselves. (23)) At first glance the significant loading on statement 42 may seem inconsistent for the personality being described. But, then, there isn't a woman alive who doesn't appreciate a little pampering. (42) Though mostly, "pampering" in their language means that deserved pat on the back, that congratulations they'll graciously accept, because they've stayed up to par even though they've been under the weather. (11) Sure they contend that specific sinus medicine is the best way to retaliate sinusitis attack. (9,5) They've tried standing up under fire before, without reinforcement. They know the best strategy to use is chemical warfare. 148 You can bet their current weapon had to pass strin- gent combat tests before they could all it their own. But that doesn't mean it can't be replaced either. Not if more effective weaponry is develOped. Especially if its performance can guarantee them a relative state of normal working environment. (35) Speaking of working environment, imagine what the situation would be like if our characteristic lady happened to be your personnel manager. You can safely bet she'll be the type who'll demand of you no more than she does of herself. But you can guess what that can mean if it's the working philosophy of a self-reliant OOper who also happens to be a fellow sinus sufferer. It means she'll be able to sympathize with your runny nose, sneezes and sniffles. (32,11) You can depend on that much. But also depend that she'll Open up the office medicine chest before she'll approve the rest of the day Off. "Die hards" are like that. They are. Just thank God she's not your platoon leader asking for volunteers. 149 TABLE 4.—-Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor III. statement appear at the left. is given as AVG.Z. The statement number and Factor III is indicated as FIII, and the standard score given. The averaged standard scores for other factors The third column, DIFF., gives the difference between FIII standard score and the averaged standard scores. The direction of difference is indicated by + or -. (Statements without "AVG.Z." or "DIFF." scores are supporting items of significant values.) Statements FIII AVG.Z. DIFF. 29. 28. 20. 38. 31. 22. 50. 27. 48. As long as I can breathe, I can put up with the other symptoms of sinus. 0.451 When I get a cold, I don't feel like doing much but I have to. -0.151 Rest is really the best cure for colds or sinus. 0.01 When I have sinus or a cold, I feel like I don't look as good. 0.47 The trouble with having to take pills every few hours is that it's too easy to forget. -0.829 I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. 0.597 It's important to know and obey the dosage pres- cribed on the medicine package. 1.49 It's good to have a doc- tor's recommendation on any medicine. 1.19 I prefer warnings on med- cations I buy; I want to know the limits and the dangers. 0.870 -0.881 0.791 -0.110 -1.170 1.842 1.332 -0.942 -0.719 1.767 -0.972 150 TABLE 4.--Continued. Statements FIII AVG.Z. DIFF. 36. When I suffer from sinus, reducing the congestion is the first priority. 0.46 37. I want a sinus remedy to relieve the pressure around the eyes and nose and forehead. 0.52 4. I want to kill a cold or sinus before it gets a firm hold, so I want a remedy right at the outset. 1.328 0.832 0.496 13. I want a sinus remedy to make me feel better with- out making me drowsy. 1.192 0.482 0.710 33. There's no mistaking sinus for other prob- lems; when I have it, I know what it is. 0.451 -0.881 1.332 18. It doesn't matter what the medicine tastes life if it works. 0.825 -0.527 1.351 6. The possibility of an upset stomach makes me feel more reluctant to take a sinus or cold remedy. -0.837 -0.010 -0.827 10. It's important to have a remedy that's strong enough to do the job. 1.602 0.916 0.686 16. If I think a particular medicine is right for me, I buy it regardless of the price. 1.017 -0.277 1.293 24. All you can really ex- pect from a remedy is to make you more com- fortable. 0.32 151 TABLE 4.--Continued. Statements FIII AVG.Z. DIFF. 47. 49. 42. 14. 23. 42. 11. An untreated sinus problem will last longer and be more severe. -0.082 0.073 Even if an adult medi- cation has a partial dosage for children, it seems better to buy medicines specifically formulated for children. -l.05 When you have a cold or sinus, it's nice to be pampered a little. 0.62 I prefer a small size when I buy a new remedy; if it's not effective, there's not much waste. 1.261 0.040 When I have some health problem, I want to learn all I can about it. 1.39 You can't take every little problem to a doctor. I prefer to treat minor things like sinus myself. 0.174 0.626 When you have a cold or sinus, it's nice to be pampered a little. 0.62 People get sick when they want attention, when they feel sorry for them— selves. —1.35 Often, medications are not so effective as other things you can do for the sinus sufferer. -0.412 -0.776 -0.154 1.221 -0.452 0.364 152 TABLE 4.--Continued. Statements FIII AVG.Z. DIFF. 5. You can't expect a sinus remedy to treat other things, or other remedies to be effec- tive with Sinus. 0.713 0.322 0.391 35. Medicines work differ- ently with individuals; you never know if a par- ticular medicine will work until you try it. 1.379 0.094 1.285 32. I feel that the symp- toms of sinus and of colds are personally offensive. -l.382 -0.521 -0.861 11. People get sick when they want attention, when they feel sorry for themselves. -1.35 FACTOR FOUR: "The Conservative Medicine User" 153 SUMMARY: Demographic and Preferred Remedy Data, Factor IV. Of the 13 respondents that loaded on Factor IV, nine were female, four male. Eight of these women were married, three of the men. Of the resulting 11 families, six had members who suffered sinusitis. Two had child sufferers. They were older, between 13 and 30 years of age. Of the two single respondents, the woman was the sinus sufferer. Remedies ranged from simply taking good food, juices and rest to doctor's prescriptions and antibiotics. (A complete picture of "data by respondent" including occupation of both respondent and spouse plus ages of children, can be found in the Appendix.) 154 TYPICAL QUOTE : "Complaining doesn't help matters a bit, either does following heresay. Proper use of medication does, especially if that medication is recommended by your doctor." 155 SKETCH: You have to ask this guy what's bugging him when you notice he isn't contributing to the conversation and look up to see the right forehead and cavernous eyes that seemed to have appeared on that normally unemotional face of his. (26) He won't come right out and tell you. If you're her husband you'll have to pOp the "what's wrong, hon?" yourself when you noticed she's slept an hour more this morning and still looks fairly exhausted. (28) She won't tell you. She doesn't think or feel things out loud. You know that. Besides, at the moment she may have not figured out what's wrong herself. (l3) Sure things may hurt. (44) But you also know she's not the kind to complain a lot. (11) She's usually very quiet about her suffering that way. Perhaps she thinks of herself as the strong, silent type, or strives to be that way in some instances. (29) Perhaps the majority of the peOple surveyed do. Afterall, more people, like the woman being described, loaded on this factor than did on two or three. Perhaps these conservatives makes up the "silent majority" of sinus sufferers. 156 157 But enough speculation. Let's return to describing the characteristic lady of this factor. Data shows that she tends to be pretty conserva- tive about the method she uses to deal with the pain and discomfort of sinusitis. (29,27,48,l6) She, like her fellows, believes medicine, conser- vatively used is the most effective method. How does a person act when she's a conservative user of medicine? Well, she's probably not one of those "rest, take two aspirin, and drink plenty of liquids, till it's over" types. (20,46). Though she very well might grab for two aspirin if she's suffered discomfort long enough to realize it's not just a passing case of nerves. (7) But she probably is the kind who, if they already did take the aspirin, will wait out the four hour stretch before she takes the combination tablet, the specific sinus remedy, she just went out for. . .now that she's realized it's sinusitis that's bothering her. (29,50,5) It's not that she's extremely cautious, almost over- cautious, like the peOple of factor one. Side effects like drowsiness are Okay, long as pressure and congestion dis- appear. (13,52) She's not "macho" about being sick, nor "Christian scientist." She won't shun off a bit of pampering. (42) And she knows medicine is better than plain rest for handling what's ailing her. (9,20) 158 It's just that she feels one shouldn't have too much medicine in his system. (29) Though she's not over- zealous about that axiom, (as the toleration Of possiblev drowsiness shows,) it is a rule she strives to keep. (27, 50,22) Maybe if this person wasn't so conservative about his or her feelings they'd admit, outright, that sinus pressure and pain bother them more than they indicate. (37) Because they do insist that they want both taken care of quickly, effectively, before they settle in for a long term seige. (4,10,44) And these people are the ones who do keep their medicine chests loaded for attack. (3) But it could be the "cautious aspect" of conserva— tive that tends to keep these people well prepared. After- all, it's not the liberals who build fall-out shelters or argue against the repeal of gun laws. Most likely, though, strong consensus with a state- ment like number 44 indicates they've been hit before. (44) And that's the real reason for quick relief insurance. Strong agreement with statements like 35 indicate pretty staunch conservatism, in its cautious Operationaliza- tion. People of this factor definitely seem "to like to wait and see what happens first" when it comes to trying a new remedy. (35) Or at least seek the approval of a qualified physician. (27) 159 And you do see other things besides OTC drugs on their list of preferred remedies (as Table 9 shows). Might even discover that they've read the latest comparisons of cold remedies in Consumer Reports. (14) Questions re- searched here might give them more "useful information" than a friend's psuedo-knowledge or experience. (26) (There's a good chance they'd only be spouting off heresay anyway. And a "conservative" is one who speaks only when he has something relevant to say.) When members of this factor do try a new product, they do it "sensibly." For conservative means rational too. So, you'll find them sampling small sizes first, (2) and rarely "soaped" by the idea that high price is synomous with high quality, or effectiveness. (16) They're completely cognizant of that fact that taking medicine doesn't necessarily guarantee shorter term sickness (47) and sinus medicine can do no more than make one more comfortable. (24) They're also conscientious and, to a degree, rela- tively uncomplaining about the effects involved in their own self treatment. One, they make it a point to know the limits and dangers of the medicine they're taking. (48) Two, they're (obedient when it comes to following dosage prescriptions (50,22) Three, they find it no nuisance to remember taking grills every four hours. (21,31) And fourth, a chance of satomach upset won't keep them from trying a product that 160 might possibly relieve pressure and congestion better. (6) (In their conservative estimate results minus cost might equal profit.) Sure they won't go as far as waking up every four hours to continue dosage. (25) Or as far as braving bad taste in a medicine. (18) They have to draw the line somewhere. It's not like their throbbing sinus cavities aren't causing their own share of hassles. (37) (Remember these people are suffer- ing too, and added discomfort isn't appreciated.) But most likely, their aversion to bad tasting medicine and broken sleep has more rational reasons. Reasons members of this factor are too quiet, or too conservative to state out loud. Like the fact that time release capsules also exist. Or that box directions prescribed no more than three pills daily, and the "sleep" pill would be "number four." (27) But then that's the kind of behavior you'd expect from a conservative. 161 TABLE 5.--Discriminating Statements and Other Items of Value, Factor IV. The statement number and state— ment appear at the left. Factor IV is indicated as FIV, and the standard score given. The aver- aged standard scores for other factors is given as AVG.Z. The third column, DIFF., gives the difference between FIV standard score and the averaged standard scores. The direction of differ- ernce is indicated by + or -. (Statements with- out "AVG.Z." or "DIFF." scores are supporting items of significant values.) Statements FIV AVG.Z. DIFF. 26. It's good to talk about your minor health problems with friends, you can get a lot of useful information. -2.538 -0.589 -l.949 28. When I get a cold, I don't feel like doing much but I have to. 1.04 13. I want a sinur remedy to make me feel better without making me drowsy. -0.032 0.889 -0.921 44. I want a sinus remedy to stop the pain, the sooner the better. 1.08 11. People get sick when they want attention, when they feel sorry for themselves. -0.840 -l.442 0.601 29. The fewer pills you take in your life, the better Off you are. 1.541 -0.331 1.872 27. Itfs good to have a doc- tor's recommendation on any medicine. 1.893 0.887 1.006 48. SI prefer warnings on lnedications I buy; I 'want to know the limits and the dangers. 2.015 1.460 0.555 162 TABLE 5.--Continued. Statements FIV 16. 20. 46. 29. 50. 13. 52. 420 If I think a particular medicine is right for me, I buy it regardless of the price. -0.9l6 Rest is really the best cure for colds or sinus. -0.595 About all you can really do about sinus is wait. When I have sinus symp- toms, I just use what- ever appropriate remedy we happen to have. 0.824 The fewer pills you take in your life, the better off you are. 1.541 It's important to know and obey the dosage pres- cribed on the medicine package. 1.888 You can't expect a sinus remedy to treat other things, or other remedies to be effective with sinus. 0.57 I want a sinus remedy to make me feel better without making me drowsy. -0.032 When I take a remedy for sinus at night, it's fine if it makes me drowsy. 0.59 When you have a cold or sinus, it's nice to be pampered a little. 0.32 AVG.Z. 0.368 0.562 -0.931 -0.331 1.554 0.889 DIFF. -1.284 -1.157 1.754 1.872 0.334 -0.921 TABLE 5.--Continued. 163 Statement FIV AVG.Z. DIFF. 9. 20. 29. 27. 50. 22. 37. 10. 44. Often, medications are not so effective as other things you can do for the sinus sufferer. Rest is really the best cure for colds or sinus. The fewer pills you take in your life, the better off you are. It's good to have a doc- tor's recommendation on any medicine. It's important to know and obey the dosage pres- cribed on the medicine package. I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. I want a sinus remedy to relieve the pressure around the eyes and nose and forehead. I want to kill a cold or sinus before it gets a firm hold, so I want a remedy right at the outset. It's important to have a remedy that's strong enough to do the job. -0.76 -0.595 -l.541 1.893 1.888 -l.l3 0.335 1.32 I want a sinus remedy to stop the pain, the sooner the better. 1.08 0.562 -0.331 0.887 1.554 1.156 -1.157 1.872 1.006 0.334 -0.821 164 TABLE 5.--Continued. Statements FIV AVGOZ C DIFF. 35. 27. 14. 26. 16. 47. 24. 48. 50. Medicines work differ- ently with individuals; you never know if a particular medicine will work until you try it. -0.629 It's good to have a doctor's recommendation on any medicine. 1.893 When I have some health problem, I want to learn all I can about it. 1.661 It's good to talk about your minor health prob- lems with friends; you can get a lot of useful information. -2.530 I prefer a small size when I buy a new remedy; if it's not effective, there's not much waste. 0.20 If I think a particular medicine is right for me, I buy it regardless of the price. -0.916 An untreated sinus prob- lem will last longer and be more severe. -0.02 All you can really expect from a remedy is to make you more comfortable. 0.53 I prefer warnings on med- ications I buy; I want to know the limits and the dangers. 2.015 It's important to know and obey the dosage pres- cribed on the medicine package. 1.888 0.763 0.887 0.998 -0.589 0.368 1.460 1.554 -l.392 1.006 0.663 -1.949 -1.284 0.555 0.334 165 TABLE 5.-—Continued. Statements FIV AVG.Z. DIFF. 22. 21. 31. 25. 18. 37. 27. I prefer to adjust the dosage according to how I feel. -1.l3 It's such a bother to have to keep taking pills every few hours. -0.45 The trouble with having to take pills every few hours is that it's too easy to forget. 0.299 -0.486 The possibility of an upset stomach makes me feel more reluctant to take a sinus or cold remedy. -0.52 I don't mind waking up in the middle of the night to take a pill if it's the recommended dosage. -l.41 It doesn't matter what the medicine tastes like if it works. -0.26 I want a sinus remedy to relieve the pressure around the eyes and nose and forehead. 0.335 1.156 It's good to have a doc- tor's recommendation on any medicine. 1.893 0.887 0.785 -0.821 1.006 CHAPTER SEVEN: Sometimes You Conclude that What You Get is Better than What You Wanted '166 "Sometimes you just get plain sick about things no matter who you are." 167 Part One: You don't give your dreams away in tissue. If you remember, we went into the sinus problem situation (XY) hypothesizing that "life style" would be identifiably reflected in the subjective responses of the target subjects (rs). Discriminating items Operantly determined in Q would be their logical vehicle. What happened is apparent. We learned a lot about the life of a person from first headache to last sniffle but that's when it began and where it ended. And that the philosophy of what they wanted out of life was confined to a bottle . . . of medicine, of course! Results for our life style hypothesis for all practical purposes were null. We could say the ideal life goals and real life goals of factor one are very different by projecting his inability to decide over pills and no pills. Maybe speculate the self-reliant coper had some pretty concrete end goals in mind, and he knew when and how to get these. But conclusions like these are poor speculation. And this author would never make them after ‘writing chapter one. Unless, of course, they were hypoth- esis for the beginning of scientific inquiry. But for the hypotheses of this study, data has proved the introduction 168 169 to this section a concrete moral rather than a facetitious statement. It isn't that the characteristic response patterns of a person's life style didn't reveal themselves overtly in this situation. It isn't that sinus sufferers are aim- less wanderers with no life goals. It's Simply a matter of that area of subjectivity not being at issue here. A matter of the laws of consideration of matter and energy operating on the psychological level, as Kantor, or perhaps Sikorski, might hypothesize. The effect of priorities shifting as result of values Operating in reaction to a situation, as Rokeach might argue. A result of people having different functional behavior in different situations as Sikorski or Mauldin might explain. What has resulted, however, is something "phenomenal" in both the "promoter's" and "behavioral scientist's" language. The construct of "goal directed behavior situations" has proven itself significant for phenominally explaining different modes of conduct given the same stimulus-- sinusitis. Operating within its framework Q has Operantly revealed how different people react differently to the same situation. Or what Mauldin casually refers to as the "Ray Charles Law of Human Behavior" manifesting itself--"different strokes for different folks." 170 What about "life style," or that higher order, long range, goal-oriented behavior situation we hypothesized? Does it exist? Were Bernay, Wells, Ziff, Wind, Green and Plummer wrong in their "assumptions?" "Unphenomenal" is more apprOpriate. I have no wish to discredit their "concepts" by using that word. They just failed to define their phenomena in specific behavioral terms. In fact, knowing the aspects of its phenomenal definition as we do, we credit them with being on the right tract in many instances. The "Ziff-Haley" school were correct in demanding situation-specific settings to reveal life style's effects. (Kantor's interactional setting concept supports that.) Rokeach was definitely on the money with his des- ignation of "values" as operationalizing life style. For now we phenomenally understand how values operationalize goals and how their systems interact on cue to determine modes of conduct in different situations. Personality people were correct in their focus on individual differences. Self-concept people were on the money when they hypothesized individually determined patterns of behavior. Only now we know why. We've got the types of be- havior situations, reaction systems, values, interactional settings, goals, and value systems we need to explain how. 171 Wells, Plummer and Tigert's emphasis on general subjective items could very well be justified within the phenomenal confines of the "life style" hypothesis formu- lated in this thesis, that of long range, higher order, goal-oriented behavior situation. Rokeach's "abstract end" states as goals explain general behavior very well. (In such case general activities might be instrumental.) There's no rule that demands one's life goals be clearly predicted in time, specific in content, or even complex in nature. As Rokeach points out, some life goals are never satiable. And people may have many different goals. To reveal life style as hypothesized in the "be- havior situation" construct, this author auggests using Q in situations Specific to it. A study on the subject of "goals in life themselves," could be just such a situation. Here people could operantly define their own terminal and instrumental values. Perhaps as a result one could discover a factor of people who "take life as it comes," being "like the leaf on the river" as Siddhartha might put it. Another factor could be comprised of those "goal-oriented types" who feel anxiety when they have nothing Specific to work for. Goal seekers versus go getters. Self actualizers versus self made bank accounts. A Q study on life might do more for'defining personality than Edwards had ever dreamed possible . Again, the idea of "functional modes of living" is time key concept. They could describe ways peOple see their 172 lives just like they describe ways peOple see tuna fish. Principle's the same. In this section on theoretical implications, I'd like to call to attention a behavioral area presented in chapter four, the areas of functional or goal-oriented behavior that exist in learning and play. Can certain types of behaVior.be involved if play is the dominant goal? Are those goals for certain kinds of play? If learning must take place for the achievement of a said goal are there functional modes of behavior that a person must go through, steps, in other words? We've explained behavior as specified function per- ceived as relevant for the situation, and phenomenally described how that decision occurs. Can't we phenomenally explain certain types of behavior needed to attain certain goals? Kantor has classified types of behaviors according to consummatory reaction systems. Consequently we know what is subjective or overt, intelligent or momentary. Hasn't anybody classified behavior according to the func- tion it performs, or the goals it achieves? 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