CHANGES IN PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND BODY MEASUREMENTS ACCOMPANYING WEIGHT REDUCTION AND EXERCISE PROGRAMS AMONG UNIVERSITY WOMEN by Mary Arlene Appelhof AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Physical Education 1961 .Approved / p / .‘J :1: ;J. i' i_ 3 [0/7/55- / ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my sincere thanks to my advisor, Dr. Janet A. Wessel, for her many hours and extended inter- est in pursuing this study. I wish also to thank Dr. Evelyn. Jones, Department of Home Economics, for her work in con- tributing the nutrition phase of this study. I am indebted to Dr. Henry J. Montoya for his interest, suggestions, and encouragement. Tb all who helped in the testing, the taking of measurements, and all of the many related aspects of this study, I am extremely grateful. And, finally, I wish to express my appreciation to all of the subjects who participated in this study, for without them an extension okanowledge based on these findings would not be possible. M.A.A. ABSTRACT CHANGES IN PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND BODY'MEASUREMENTS ACCOMPANYING WEIGHT REDUCTION AND EXERCISE PROGRAMS AMONG UNIVERSITT'WOMEN by Mary Arlene Appelhof The purpose of this study was to: 1. Measure changes in physical performance and anthropometric measures among overweight university women who were undergoing diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs; 2. Determine the significance of these changes in anthropometric and physical performance measures; 3. Investigate the relationships between changes in physical performance and anthropometric measures among overweight university women who were under- going diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs. The procedure was as follows: Eighteen overweight university women were selected from the instructional physical education program at Michigan State University. Subjects were matched and divided into three groups. One group was placed on a program of reduced caloric intake diet; another group was placed on a supervised exercise program; the third group participated in both the diet and the exer- cise programs. Initial and final measurements were taken of the physical performance, skin-fold fat, girth, and body weight of each subject. Mary Arlene Appelhof Conclusions from this study were that: 1. Improved physical performance accompanied partici- pation in both the supervised exercise and the reduced caloric intake diet programs. Subjects who participated in reduced caloric intake diet obtained greater weight reduction, decrease in skin-fold fat, and girth measurements than those who participated in the supervised exercise programs. Subjects who participated in the supervised exercise program obtained greater decrease in girth measurements than in skin-fold fat. REFERENCES Behnke, Albert R. "The Estimation of Lean Body Weight from Skeletal Measurements," Human Biology, 31. 295- 315, December, 1959. Bogert, L. Jean. "Food Value of Foods and Control of Body Weight," Nutrition and Physical Fitness. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1954. Chapter 5, pp. 63-76. Brady, George F. "The Effect of Excess Weight Upon Motor Skills." Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1951. (Cited by Sills and Everett in "The Relationship of Extreme Somatotypes to Perfor- mance in Motor and Strength Tests," Research Quarterly, 24: 223- 228, May, 1953. ) Bronstein, J. P. et a1. "Obesity in Childhood, Psychologic Studies," AmerIEan Journal of Diseases of Children, 63: 238- -251, February, 19fl2. Bruch, Hilde. "Obesity in Childhood IV. Energy Expenditure of Obese Children," American Journal of’Diseases of Children, 60:1082-1109,'Novem5€r, 1940. Carns, Marie L. and Ruth Glassow. "Changes in Body Volume Accompanying Weight Reduction in College Women," Human Biology, 29: 305- 314, December, 1957. Carpenter, Aileen. "An Analysis of the Relationships of the Factors of Velocity, Strength, and Dead Weight to Athletic Performance," Research Quarterly, 12: 34- -39, March, 1941. . "A Critical Study of the Factors Determining Ef- fective Strength Tests for Women," Research Quarterly, . 9: 3- 32, December, 1938. Clarke, Harrison. "Relationships of Strength and Anthropo- metric Measures to Physical Performances Involving the Trunk and Legs," Research Quarterly, 28:223-232, October, 1957. Dublin, L. I. and H. H. Marks. "Mortality Among Insured Overweights in Recent Years, " Trans. Assoc. Life Insur. med. Dir. Amer., 35: 235- 63, 1951. (Cited by MafES in "Ianuence of Obesity on Morbidity and Mortality," Symposium on Prevention of Obesity, 1960. ) LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE ’ PAGE 1. Improvement in Performance of Activities in ' Supervised Exercise Program: Subjects Number 21 and 31. . . . . . . 39 Subjects Number 32, 33, and 34 . . . . . no 2. Weight Loss Curves for Subjects on Diet Program an 3. Relationship Between Physical Performance Measures and Changes in Body Weight: Grip, Push, and Pull Strength . . . . . 5h Shuttle Run, Standing Flexion, Back Extension . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Standing Broad Jump, Deep Knee Bends, Sit-ups in 30 Sec., Pulse Rate . . . . 56 A. Relationship Between Changes in Skin-fold Measurements and Changes in Body Weight: Triceps, Scapular, Lower Ribs, Sum. . . . 6O Pectoral, Iliac-Crest . . . . . . . . 61 5. Relationship Between Changes in Girth Measurements and Changes in Body Weight: Buttocks, Abdomen, Waist, Sum . . . . . 65 Thigh, Calf, Upper-Arm, Bust. . . . . . 66 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem. . . . . . Need for the Study. . . . . . . . Definition of the Terms . . . . . . Limitations of the Study. . . . . . II. REVIEW or ms LITERATURE. . . . . . . Physical Activity Related to Cause and Onset of Overweight . . . . . . Treatment of Obesity Through Physical Activity . . . . . . . . . . Relationships Between Body Weight and Anthropometric Measurements. . . . Relationships Between Anthropometric Measurements and Strength . . . . Relationships Between Body Weight and Motor Performance . . . . . . . Changes in Body Measurements Associated with Weight Loss . . . . . . . III. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY-OF THE STUDY’. . . Selection of Subjects and Groups . . . The Diet and Supervised Exercise Programs . . . . . . . . . . PAGE axe-4:00 12 12 '17 17 18 19 22 24 24 27 CHAPTER IV} V. Measurement and Testing Procedures. . . Statistical Methods Employed. . . . . ANALXSIS AND PRESENTRTION OF DATA . . . . Subjects Used in Final Analysis. . . . Frequency of Participation in Supervised Exercise Program. . . . . . . . Improvement in Performance in Supervised Exercise Program. . . . . . . . Changes in Body Weight. . . . . . . Changes in Physical Performance. . . . Correlations Between Physical Performance and Weight Loss . . . . Changes in Skin-fold Measurements . . . Changes in Girth Measurements . . . . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . REFERENCES. APPENDIX 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O A--D€80r1pt10n Of Procedures. 0 c o o o B" -RaW Data 0 o o o o o o o o o 0 iv PAGE 30 32 33 33 34 38 ’43 45 53 58 63 72 76 77 9O TABLE II. III. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. LIST OF TABLES Initial Weights, Optimum Weights, and Kilograms Overweight for Experimental Subjects . . . Mean Initial Kilograms Overweight in the Initial Groups . . . . . . . . . . Mean Initial Kilograms Overweight for the Groups Used in this Study. . . . . . . Frequency of Participation in Supervised Exercise Program. . . . . . . . . . Mean Daily Performance of Activities in Supervised Exercise Program . . . . . . Mean Changes in Body Weight Over a Nine Week Period . . . . . . . . . . . Mean Changes in Physical Performance Measures . Mean Changes of Skin-fold Measurements . . . Mean Changes of Girth Measurements. . . . . Raw Scores of Body Weights . . . . . . . Improvement in Performance of Activities in Supervised Exercise Program . . . . . . Raw Scores of Physical Performance Measures. . Raw Scores of Girth Measurements . . . . . Raw Scores of Skin-fold Measurements . . . . PAGE 26 27 13” 35 36 45 u? 59 64 91 92 94 97 98 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Overweight is one of the most prevalent health prob- lems in our society today. Excess weight impairs health. Studies show that individuals who are overweight are more likely to develop cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and disorders of the gall-bladder and liver.1 Overweight individuals are handicapped physically by their excessive weight. Wear and tear on joints is hastened.2 The performance of such strenuous activities as broad jump and dash events is hindered by excessive weight.3 1Herbert H. Marks, "Influence of Obesity on Morbidity and Mortality," S osium on Preventibn of Obesit , Robert L. Craig, M.D., agitor (Reprinted Trom BEIleEin o; the New York Academy of Medicine, 36:Nos. and 6. New York: Charles C. Marchand Company, 1960 , pp. 21-25. 21bid., p. 25. 3Aileen Carpenter, "An Analysis of the Relationships of the Factors of velocity, Strength, and Dead Weight to Athletic Performance," Research Quarterl , 12:36,March,1941; R. P. Riendeau, gt a1.,‘"ReIafionships 0 Body Fat to Motor Fitness Test Scores?" Research Quarterl , 29:203, May, 1958; R. W. Kireilis, and T. K. Cureton, e Relationships of External Fat to Physical Education Activities and Fitness Tests," Research Quarterl , 18:132, May, 1947; Frank D.Sills and Peter W. Everett, " e Relationship of Extreme Somato- types to Performance in Motor and Strength Tests," Research Quarterly, 24:228, May, 1953. The mortality rate for overweight individuals is greater than that for individuals who are not overweight." Problems accompanying overweight can be lessened by weight reduction. Beneficial results accompanying weight reduction have been shown in cases of’diabetes,5 blood 6 and glucose tolerance in diabetics.7 Also, pressure levels , the mortality rate of individuals who had lost enough weight to improve their insurance rating was substantially less than that of overweight individuals.8 Therefore, evidence shows that the problems accompanying overweight can be lessened by weight reduction. The importance of exercise for improved physical performance and diet for decreasing girth measurements are "Marks, 17-20. 5L. H. Newburgh, "Control of the Hype lycemia of Obese 'Diabetics' by Weight Reduction," Anna 8 of Internal Medicine, 17:935-42, December, 1942. 68. Lups and C. Franke, "Changes in Blood Pressure During Period of Starvation (September 1944 to May 1945) and After Liberation (May 1945 to September 1945 in Utrecht, Holland," Acta Medica Scandinavia, 126:449-5 , Fasc. 6,1947. 7New‘burgh. 8Marks, citing L. 1. Dublin and H. H. Marks, "Mortality Among Insured Overweights in Recent Years," Trans. Assoc. Life Insur. med. Dir. Amer., 35:235-63, 1951. well recognized. While stepped up physical activity has been minimized with respect to weight reduction in the past, recent research indicates that activity plays a significant_ part in weight control and weight reduction programs. The purposeful inclusion of optimum physical recreation in everyday living as a proper means of weight control is one of the major contributions of physical education to modern day living. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study was three-fold: 1. To measure changes in anthropometric and physical performance measures among overweight college women who were undergoing diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs. To determine the significance of the changes in anthropometric and physical performance measures - among overweight college women who were under- going diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs. Tb investigate the relationships between the changes in anthropometric and physical performance measures among overweight college women who were undergoing diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs. NEED FOR THE STUDY Means for evaluating changes which occur through dif- ferent types of weight reduction techniques are necessary if the effectiveness of any type of program is to be deter- mined. Diet and some form of exercise are among the most common techniques used in weight reduction programs. There is a need for evaluating the effectiveness of specific exercises in changing selected body measurements. There is a need for evaluating the effects of diet in changing selected body measurements. There is need for comparing the changes in body measurements obtained by women undergoing exercise with those changes in the same body measurements obtained by women undergoing diet. Also, little has been done to evaluate whether weight - loss affects physical performance favorably or unfavorably. This points up a need for means of evaluating whether physical performance is affected favorably or unfavorably by weight loss. DEFINITION OF THE TERMS _ Overweight. Overweight is that weight in excess of the optimum weight for an individual as determined by a standard. The Helen B. Pryor'Width-Weight Tables were used in this study to determine optimum weights on the basis of sex, age, height, chest-width, and bi-iliac width measure- ments.9 Physicalgperformance. Physical performance is a per- son's ability to use his body to perform in specified situ- ations. Physical performance was measured by selected tests of flexibility, strength, agility, and endurance. The tests used to measure physical performance were grip-strength,' push and pull strengths, back-extension, standing-flexion, sit-ups, shuttle-race, and chair-step. Skin-fold fat. Skin-fold fat is that fat which lies immediately underneath the skin and which can be grasped or pinched between thumb and forefinger. Fat calipers were used to measure the thickness of skin-folds in the biceps, triceps, cheek, pectoral, bi-iliac crest, scapular, and lower ribs areas. I Girth. Girth refers to the distance around a partic- ular area of the body. The specific girth measurements taken for this study were upper arm, bust, waist, abdomen, buttocks, thigh, and calf girths. Diet. Diet is what a person usually eats. Unless otherwise specified, diet in this study shall refer to a carefully controlled reduced caloric intake diet of approx- imately 1500 calories per day. 9Helen Bw Pryor, Width-Weight Tables (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford university Press, 1940). Exercise. Exercise is a regular series of movements designed for a specific purpose. Exercise as referred to in this study shall be specific movements of a calisthenic nature performed under supervision. LIMITATIONS OF ms STUDY This study was limited to certain physical changes which took place among overweight university women during a nine week period of controlled diet and exercise. The physical changes studied were: (1) body weight, (2) skin- fold fat, (3) girth, and (4) physical performance. The results of this study are reported in the light of the following limitations: 1. Limitations due to subjects and the control thereof; 2. Limitation of measurement procedures; U) Limitations due to the duration of experimental period; 4. Limitations due to the selection of exercises; 5. Limitations due to the time of the testing; 6. Limitations due to the lack of energy cost data. 1. Limitations due to subjects and the control thereof. This study was definitely limited by the small number of subjects for whom complete data is available. Of the limited number of eligible women (based upon degree of overweight), even fewer desired to participate in the program. Although the study was begun with 18 experimental subjects who were divided into equal groups, various circumstances permitted the compilation of complete data on only 8 subjects. One woman dropped out of school, another was dropped from the study for medical reasons, some were unable to stay on the diet, and others did not report for the full series of tests. Motivation and attitude of the subjects affected this study in two ways: (1) Lack of motivation and self-disci- pline were partially responsible for situations in which subjects were not able to stay on the diet or who did not report for the full series of tests. Therefore complete data was not available for them and the total number of-sub- jects was decreased accordingly. (2) Lack of motivation and self-discipline may have affected the scores of subjects in the physical performance tests and the performance of exercises in the exercise program. Subjects who felt that it took too much time attended exercise sessions less fre- quently. Those who felt it was too much work did not exert themselves as much as they could have, either in the exer- cise program or the physical performance tests and thereby possibly affected total changes. It was exceedingly difficult to control whether the subjects on the diet program actually limited themselves only to the calories consumed under the diet program. Some "cheating" may have occurred which was not admitted to, thereby affecting the diet phase of the study. Each subject 8 was permitted to spend one weekend away from campus. During this time there were no dietary restrictions, some of the' subjects ate excessively, and weight loss curves were affected. Another limitation of the subjects and the control thereof was related to an attempt to estimate the daily extent of activity of each subject. When trying to account for all activities during a 24 hour day, sometimes subjects could account for only 12 hours, othersmight have a total of 30 hours. Control of, or a record of activity is an im- portant aspect of this type of investigation and needs to be studied further. Diet recall was used in an attempt to secure caloric intake information on the subjects in the exercise program. The ability of these subjects to recall accurately their food‘intake was not adequate for evaluation purposes; This is another very important aspect of this type of investi- gation. 2. Limitations of measurementyprocedures. A previous study on the same campus reported reliabilities for physical 10 performance tests. There were problems in administering the tests, which were unique to measuring overweight subjects 10Janet A. Wessel, Richard Nelson, and Eva Lou.Dillon, "Frequency Distribution and Standards of Anthropometric and Physical Performance Measures for College Women," Research Quarterly, 31: 523- 53 3, October, 1960. therefore, reliabilities should have been found for this specific group of subjects. The frequency and time for obtaining body weights of the exercise subjects was not established definitely. In some cases, the time for the initial observed weight did not correspond exactly with the commencement of the exercise program, thereby providing an opportunity for discrepancy. Subjects on the exercise program were not required to weigh- in weekly, hence weight curves were not available. 3. Limitations due to the duration of the_experi— menta1_period. The most serious limitation dUe to the duration of the experimental period was that the duration of the diet program was nine weeks, that of the exercise program only seven weeks. Some subjects began the diet program before all physical and body measurements were taken, therefore, initial measurements may have been affected by a certain amount of change due to the diet. It was difficult for subjects to hold to the diet without “cheating," especially in the latter weeks of the diet. Subjects in the exercise program had difficulty maintaining a high level of motivation in the exercise program when school pressures became greater towards the end of the term. 4. ‘Limitations due to the selection of exercises;' A limitation in the results of this study may lie in the selection of exercises. Although an all-out endurance activity was required, it can be questioned that this 10 required in all cases all-out effort. As subjects improved in swimming ability, so did their efficiency in the water improve, thereby perhaps actually decreasing caloric expen- diture for a stated time or distance. Tb swim "as fast as one can for as long as one can" requires strong motivation. Also, subjects did not always respond favorably to the idea of getting wet, getting hair wet, etc. for a few minutes of effort. Riding the bike often required greater exertion than swimming. A subject's total feeling of well-being any one day seemed to affect the rate and time she could maintain on the bike. The problem of waiting in line for use of the bike prevented some participation in this exercise. Sub- jects could not come in, perform all exercises in succession, and leave as originally planned. Two exercises were changed when the purpose for which they were intended did not appear to be met, therefore, shorter durations of time were recorded for the exercises finally used. 5. Limitations due tokthe time of testing. As has been mentioned previously, the time of the administration of all tests did not always coincide with the beginning and end of the experimental period. "Difficulties in getting all subjects together for testing, making arrangements for make-up, and retesting when necessary helped to contribute to this. In some cases, the duration of the experimental 11 period was cut down because time was needed to administer tests. The placement of the initial tests immediately following Christmas vacation and the final tests at the end of a term may have affected test scores in a way not accounted for by the experimental variables. Following Christmas vacation, subjects were reasonably rested, ready to start a new term. Towards the end of the experimental period, when final tests were administered, pre-exam tensions, lack of sleep, and greater academic pressures may have affected physical performance test scores. ‘ 6. Limitations due to lack of energy;cost data. No facilities were available for testing the actual energy cost of the subjects who were undergoing the supervised exercise program. Some activities may have caused a greater increase of energy expenditure than others for particular subjects. The activity recall used was too inaccurate to correlate with energy cost tables. This study could have been im- proved considerably with this information. 13 McKee, in studying the caloric expenditure of normal and obese subjects during a standard work test, actually found that "The energy expenditure of obese persons of both sexes was greater during both the basal period and the work period than that of the normal subjects.”2 When compared with basal expenditure, energy to perform work was no greater for obese subjects than for normal subjects. Greater expen- diture during work was directly related to greater body sur- face area and basal expenditure of the obese subjects.3 n Bruch,5 and New- Furthermore, according to Lauter, burgh,6 the only factor of energy economy in obese people is decreased muscular activity, inactivity, diminished muscular exercise, or diminished outgo of energy. 9w. D. McKee, R. E. Bolinger, "Caloric Expenditure of Normal and Obese Subjects During Standard Worvaest," Journal of Applied Physiology, 15:197, March, 1960. 31b1d., pp. 197-200. “s. Lauter, "Zur Genese der Fettscucht," Deutches Arch. f. Klin. Med., 1?0:315, 1926, cited by Hilae Bruch, T"'615es'ity in CHIIHEbod,‘ American Journal of Diseases of Children, 60:1086, November,'l930. , JHilde Bruch, ”Obesity in Childhood Ive Energy Expen- diture of Obese Children," American Journal of Diseases of Children. 60:1086, November, 1940. 6Newburgh, 720. 14 Bogert places inactivity second only to overeating in discussing the causes of overweight. He describes a vicious circle when a person performing only slight muscular activity uses less energy, deposits more fat, and desires less activity requiring even less energy outgo, hence develops more fat deposits. He mentions the necessity of taking either less food, more exercise, or both in order to keep the weight down. He also states that weight is almost cer- tain to increase with age as a result of the tendency towards less activity and lower basal metabolism.7 Greene traced the beginning of obesity among 350 over- weight adults to a sudden decrease in activity. Pregnancy, disease, long illness, and convalescence, rather than over- all life activity were responsible for the onset of the in- active period. Greene further points out, however, the neglect in studying activity of patients during gain in body weight.8 Studies which were concerned with the activity of obese children report that inactivity is characteristic. Graham observed that obese children spent leisure time 71.. Jean Bogert, '"Food Value of Foods and Control of Body Weight," Nutrition and Ph sical Fitness (Philadelphia: w. B. Saunders, 1955!, Chip. 5, p. 76. 8J. A. Greene, "Clinical Study of the Etiology of Obesity," Annals of Internal Medicine, 12:1797—1803, May, 1939. 14 Bogert places inactivity second only to overeating in discussing the causes of overweight. He describes a vicious circle when a person performing only slight muscular activity uses less energy, deposits more fat, and desires less activity requiring even less energy outgo, hence develops more fat deposits. He mentions the necessity of taking either less food, more exercise, or both in order to keep the weight down. He also states that weight is almost cer- tain to increase with age as a result of the tendency towards less activity and lower basal metabolism.7 Greene traced the beginning of obesity among 350 over- weight adults to a sudden decrease in activity. Pregnancy, disease, long illness, and convalescence, rather than over- all life activity were responsible for the onset of the in- active period. Greene further points out, however, the neglect in studying activity of patients during gain in body weight.8 Studies which were concerned with the activity of obese children report that inactivity is characteristic. Graham observed that obese children spent leisure time 7L. Jean Bogert, "Food value of Foods and Control of Body Weight, " Nutrition and Ph sical Fitness (Philadelphia: W. ,B. Saunders, 1953!, Chap. 5, p. 76. 8J. A. Greene, "Clinical Study of the Etiology of Obesity," Annals of Internal Medicine, 12: 1797- 1803, May, 1939 15 sitting down,9 Bronstein reported that 335 obese children spent most leisure time in sedentary activities,10 Bruch claims inactivity characteristic of 160 obese children 11 studied, and Mayer reported that a higher proportion of obese children than non-obese were labled as only moderately active or inactive.12 When diet histories and over-all picture of physical activity of 28 obese and 28 normal high school girls were studied, Johnson, Burke, and Mayer found the intake of energy by obese girls to be significantly less than that of the normal girls, but the normal girls were significantly more active.13 Stunkard matched according to age and occupation 15 pairs of obese women with non-obese women. A pedometer was used to measure activity for one week. Obese women walked less than half as far as the non-obese controls. Also, the attitudes of obese women towards activity were less favorable 9H. B. Graham, Medical Journal of Australia,2:6fl9,19h7. 101. P. Bronstein, e_t al., "Obesity in Childhood, Psy- cholo ic Studies," American‘Journal of Diseases of Children, 63:23 , February, 1932. 11Bruch, 1082. 12Jean Mayer, "Exercise and Weight Control," Post- graduate Medicine, 25:331, February, 1959. 13M. L. Johnson, B. s. Burke, and J. Mayer, "Relative Importance of Inactivity and Overeating in the Energy ‘ Balance of Obese High School Girls," American Journal of Clincial Nutrition, 4:37-uu, January- ruary, . 17 TREATMENT OF OEESITY THROUGH PHYSICAL ACTIVITY Although Bony says that "as an adjunct to the submain- tenance diet, moderate exercise is not without value,. . ."19 he credits muscular exercise with limited value in the practical treatment of obesity due to the relatively slight energy expenditure and resultant increase in appetite.20 On the other hand, Mayer: . . . is convinced that inactivity is the most important factor explaining the frequency of "creeping" overweight in modern Western societies [and that although] . . . ,, strenuous exercise on an irregular basis is not . advocated, . . . [one should] reorganize one's life to include regular exergise adapted to one's physical potentialities . . . RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BODY’WEIGHT AND ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS Anthropometric measurements have been used to estimate body weight and degree of overweight. Keys states that "body weight, even when evaluated with reference to the size of the skeleton, is a poor measure of fatness."22 He claims 19Hugo Rony Obesity and Leanness (Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, l9h05,p. 266Ti 2°Ib1d. , p. 265-66. 21Jean Ma er, "The Role of Exercise and Activity in Weight Control,’ Wei ht Control (Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State College Press, 19 , p. 203. 22Ancel Keys and Josef Brozek, "Body Fat in Adult Man," Physiological Reviews, 33:249, July, 1953. 18 that the measurement of body fat, itself, is more important, since the greatest variability in the animal body is in fat. This fat is measured by Keys with skin-fold calipers in a large number of sites. Keys has found the determination of body fat with skin calipers to correlate well with specific gravity.23 Hechter has used X-ray, selected girth, and selected bone diameter measurements to predict body weight and lean 2“ Behnke used skeletal, body weight in 31 adult males. anthropometric, and x-ray measurements to estimate lean body weight. This was compared with body density and total body water determinations. Although Behnke attributed the largest source of error to variations in subcutaneous fat, the "size of the 'skeleton' appears to be a reliable refer- ence standard in both health and disease to estimate lean body weight."25 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENTS AND STRENGTH Anthropometric measurements have been correlated to strength in several studies. In investigating factors 23Ibid., pp. 2u9-60. 2h“. Hechter, "The Relationship Between Weight and Some Anthropometric Measurements in Adult Males," Human Biology, 31:235-243, September, 1959. 25Albert R. Behnke, "The Estimation of Lean Body Weight from Skeletal Measurements," Human Biology, 31:295- 315, December, 1959. 19 related to strength among women, Carpenter has found that relative size of arms and legs fails to indicate their strength.26 Clarke correlated anthropometric measures with physical performance of men and reported significant corre- lations between body weight and.trunk flexion, trunk lateral flexion, trunk rotation, and knee extension.27 In pre- dicting physical performance by somatotype in male college freshmen, Sills and Mitchem found that subjects with greater endomorphic components received lower test scores in Sit-ups and pull--ups.28 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN’BODY WEIGHT AND MOTOR PERFORMANCE Motor performance among obese and normal female sub- jects was determined by standard exercise on a bicycle by Wang and his associates. Twenty-seven obese women, 9 normal, and 7 underweight women were the subjects of 57 experiments. Mechanical efficiency was found to vary inversely with per 2 6Aileen Carpenter, "A Critical Study of the Factors Determining Effective Strength Tests for‘Women," Research Quarterly, 9:26, December, 1938. 27Harrison Clarke, "Relationships of Strength and Anthropometric Measures to Physical Performances Involving the Trunk and Legs," Research Quarterly, 28:226-228, October, 1957. 28Frank D. Sills and John Mitchem, "Prediction of Per- formances on Physical Fitness Tests by Means of Somatotype Ratings," Research Quarterly, 28:64-71, March, 1957. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE There is little detailed information pertaining to controlled research of the relationship of muscular activity to obesity. The majority of the studies available have to do with the dietary aspect of overweight; those that sub- stantiate the fact that obese people eat more than their energy outgo requires. This review shall present some of the more significant studies relating obesity and overweight to various aspects of physical activity, physical perform- ance, and anthropometric measurements. PHYSICAL ACTIVITY RELATED TO CAUSE AND ONSET OF OVERWEIGHT There are claims that the energy outgo of obese people is less than that required for non-obese individuals. These are refuted by Newburgh when he says that: . . . obese persons . . . produce more heat in basal state, expend more energy to perform a measured amount of work, and . . . their total heat production is greater than that of normal persons of similar age, height, and sex under the same circumstances. Since they are unable to absorb more energy from their food, they must eat mire than normal people simply to avoid loss of weight. 1L. H. Newburgh, Clinical Nutrition, Chapter 28, Norman Jollife, editor (NEW'YbnE: EauI B. Hoober, Inc., Med. Dept. of Harper and Bros., 1950), p. 707. 20 cent overweight; a gradual decrease in mechanical efficiency was found with an increase in obesity.29 Carpenter used 100 college women as subjects in inves- tigating relationships between factors of velocity, strength, and dead weight and athletic performance. She states that "Dash and broad jump are both negative to weight and normal weight, yet the several variables involvingistrength are POSitive to weight in all cases.n30 Furthermore , Carpenter introduces the term "dead weight" as that weight not repre- sented by contractile tissue and which acts as a load on muscular weight. She found the dead weight to be a handicap to dash and broad jump, and identifies it as "surplus bassase - " 31 Carpenter further clarifies the relationship between dead weight and strength by saying: [The] greater the dead weight is in proportion to total weight, the less will be the strength . . . , while the greater the strength factor in proportiogeto weight, the less will be the dead weight factor. Brady defined "dead weight" as "that part of the body weight which was a handicap in physical activity," in a 29C. C. Wang, S. Strouse, and Z. Morton, "The Metabo- lism of Obesity," Archives of Internal Medicine, 45:727, May, 1930. 3OAileen Carpenter, "An Analysis of the Relationships of the Factors of Velocity, Strength, and Dead Weight to Athletic Performance," Research Quarterlyz 12:34, March, 19 1. 31w.’ p0 36. 32Ib1do) ppo 38‘39. 21 study concerning the effect of excess weight upon motor skills.33 Sills measured, tested, and somatotyped 158 male freshmen enrolled in freshmen physical education classes. He found that endomorphy (or overweight) bears a negative relationship to performance in sit-ups, pull-ups, squat- thrusts, squat-jumps, 100 yard pick-a-back-run, and 300 yard 4 Sills also reported in a later study that in shuttle-run.3 12 fitness tests of strength, agility, speed, and endurance, no endomorph was able to complete the mile run. He concluded that "excess weight is a handicap to endomorphs . . . in the performance of physical tests."35 In relating body fat to motor fitness test scores, Riendeau and his associates concluded that "the motor fitness test items most affected by body fat were those which involve "36 running and jumping. Riendeau found that weight did not significantly affect the performance of any of the test 33Geor e F. Brady, "The Effect of Excess Weight Upon Motor Skills (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, 1951), quoted by Frank D. Sills and Peter W. Everett, "The Relationship of Extreme Somatotypes to Per- formance in Motor and Strength Tests," Research Quartegly, 24:223, May, 1953. 3uIbid. 35Erank D. Sills and Peter w. Everett, "The Relation- ship of Extreme Somatotypes to Performance in Motor and Strength Tests," Research Quarterly, 24:223-228. 36R. P. Riendeau, E£.El°’ "Relationships of Body Fat to Motor Fitness Test Scores," Research Quarterly, 29:203, May, 1958. . 22 items except the 220 yard dash.37 Willgoose concluded that endomorphy was a limiting factor in physical fitness when he studied the relationship of somatotype to physical fitness.38 Kireilis claimed fat to be a real handicap in most strenuous exercises. During a 6 week period of treadmill running, external fat diminished among young male students as the number of miles accumulated. Little weight loss was noted, although loss of external fat from hips, rear thigh, and gluteals was observed. He then concluded that "weight is not a good guide to fat loss, possibly because fat loss is compensated for by increased muscular density due to the exercise."39 CHANGES IN BODY MEASUREMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH WEIGHT LOSS There are few studies investigating the changes in body measurements which accompany weight loss. Carns and Glassow measured body volume changes which accompanied weight loss among 10 university women who underwent a 6 week diet program. The body volume was reduced to the greatest degree where the fat deposits were largest. Also, the 37Ibid. 38Carl E. Willgoose and Millard L. Rogers," Relation- ship of Somatotype to Physical Fitness," Journal of Educa- tional Research, 42:710, May, 1949. 39R. w. Kireilis and T. K. Cureton, "The Relationships of External Fat to Physical Education Activities and Fitness Tests," Research Quarterly, 18:123-134, May, 1947. 23 percentage loss of volume was twice that of percentage loss of weight.“0 Ohlson and her associates reported decrease in body measurements accompanying weight loss among obese women. Most rapid change was noted in the girth of the upper arm.“1 Loss in scapula skin-fold thickness and upper arm circum- ference accompanying weight loss in college women were reported by Stefanik. In the same study, increase in the same measurements accompanied weight gain.“2 quarie L. Carns and Ruth B. Glassow, "Changes in Body volume Accompanyi Weight Reduction in College Women," Human Biology, 29:305-1 , December, 1957. ulMargaret A. Ohlson, et gl., "Anthropometry and Nutritional Status of Adult WEmen," Human Biology, 28:195-98, May, 1956. uzPatricia A. Stefanik, et 21-: "Physical Performance, Skinfold Measurements, Activit§'Expenditures, and Food Con- sumptiog of College Women," Research Quarterly, 32:234-235, May, 19 l. - CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY Eighteen overweight university women were selected from the instructional physical education program at Michigan State University. Each subject was placed in one of three groups to participate in a nine week program of controlled diet, supervised exercise, or a combination of both controlled diet and supervised exercise. Initial and final measurements were taken of the physical performance, skin-fold fat, girth and body weight of each subject. . It was the purpose of this study to (1) measure changes in anthropometric and physical performance measures among overweight college women who were undergoing diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs; (2) to determine the signif- icance of the changes in anthropometric and physical perfor- mance measures; and (3) to investigate the relationships between the changes in anthropometric and physical perfor- mance measures among these university women. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS AND GROUPS The subjects were eighteen overweight women who were enrolled in the instructional physical education program at Michigan State university. Each subject had her parents' permission as well as a medical examination given by a 25 physician1 of the University Health Service before partici- pating in this experiment. The Pryor Width-Weight Tables2 were used to determine the optimum weight for each subject. The initial weight of each subject, her optimum weight, and initial kilograms overweight are presented in Table I. All observed weights were recorded in kilograms. The subjects were matched according to mean kilograms overweight and divided into three groups. Group I was the diet group, Group II the diet and exercise group, and Group III the exercise group. Table II presents the means and ranges of kilograms overweight for the three groups. The subjects in Group I were placed on the diet pro- gram for a period of nine weeks. A 24 hour Activity Recall was administered to each subject. This was used to estimate the extent of activity for requesting these subjects to con- tinue their regular daily activities. These subjects did not enroll in physical education courses during the ten week period they were participating in this study. Subjects in Group II participated in the diet program and were given a series of supervised exercises for a period of seven weeks. 1Acknowledgment is made to Dr. 0. Grant Reed for examining the subjects. _ 2 Pryor. TABLE I INITIAL WEIGHTS, OPTIMUM WEIGHTS AND KILOGRAMS OVERWEIGHT FOR EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS Initial Observed Optimuma . . Subject Weight Weight Overweight No. K8. K8. KS 11 87.18 72.0 15.2 12 80.36 68.0 12:4 13 59.88 52.1 7.8 14 80.94 63.5 17.4 15 82.22 , 64.4 17.8 16 74.36 61.2 13.2 21 79.62 69.4 10.2 22 74.26 63.0 7.7 23 76.56 61.2 15.4 24 72.50 67.5 5.0 25 85.90 70.4 15.5 26 92.70 69.4 23.3 31 73.56 66.6 7.0 32 64.31 63.0 1.3 33 68.42 56.2 12.2 34 78.36 59.9 18.5 35 83.22 59.9 23.3 36 61.16 54.4 6.8 aOptimum weight computed to kilograms from pounds based on Helen B. Pryor Optimum Weight Tables. The con-‘ version factor was 0.45 kg. per pound. . 27 Subjects in Group III participated in a series of supervised exercises for a period of seven weeks. A 24 hour Diet Recall was used to determine what the subjects ate. No D other controls were used to insure that the subjects ate the same type and quantity of food that they were normally accustomed to eating at home or in the dormitory. TABLE II MEAN INITIAL KILOGRAMS OVERWEIGHT IN THE INITIAL GROUPS Group I Group II Group III Diet Diet and Exercise Exercise Number of subjects' 6 6 6 Kilograms overweight Range 7.8-17.8 5.0-23.3 1.3-23.3 Mean 14.0 13.6 11.5 —; _I__ THE DIET AND SUPERVISED EXERCISE PROGRAMS Diet program. The subjects on the diet program ate all meals at a special diet table maintained by the Depart- ment of Foods and Nutrition where a low calorie diet of approximately 1500 calories per day was closely adhered to.3 3Acknowledgment is made to Evelyn Jones, Ph.D., who contributed this phase of the study. 28 Although the program was continued for nine weeks, each sub- ject was permitted one weekend off during which she could go home, thereby being away from the close restrictions of the diet. Control of activity was obtained by requesting each subject to continue her regular daily activity as estimated by the 24 hour Activity Recall. Subjects did not enroll in physical education activity courses for the duration of this experiment. Supervised exercise program. Subjects on the super- vised exercise program reported to the Women's Intramural Building five days per week, one to two hours per day, for a period of seven weeks. All exercises were under the super- vision of one physical education instructor. Mats, a sta- tionary bicycle, a stop watch, a timer, and record sheets for each subject were kept in the area for the duration of the program. A daily record of activities in the supervised exer- cise program was kept by each girl with the help of the supervisor. Number of repititions was recorded for each exercise. A description of the training procedure follows. Each subject performed all exercises at maximum rate for a specified time. Number of repititions was recorded and identified as the exercise level for that particular subject. This level of exercise was maintained for one week. At the 29 beginning of each succeeding week the level of exercise was increased. The method for increasing the level of exercise depended upon the exercise. There were three series of exercises. Series I was designed to build up endurance. Run-in-place was used for the first seven days, but since the lack of motor skill in some of the subjects prevented the proper execution of the exercise, this was changed to rope-jump for the remainder of the exercise program. . Series II consisted of two types of toe-touching. Toe- touch I was changed when a swinging motion from the shoulder girdle was all that was being accomplished. In Toe-touch II the subject was required to stand erect before changing to the opposite side, therefore greater energy and greater 'abdominal muscular contraction were required. Series III was continued for all 34 days and consisted of sit-ups, lift-push-point, and an all-out endurance activity. For the all-out endurance activity, each subject who could swim was instructed to swim as many lengths of the pool as she could to establish her exercise level. Time and number of lengths was recorded. In succeeding sessions, she was instructed to never go below her exercise level for that week. During the menstrual period, subjects Changed to the bicycle for all-out endurance activity. The all-out endurance activity for subjects who could not swim was that of riding the stationary bicycle. The 30 first day, each subject was instructed to go as long as she could, maintaining a minimum speed of 10 miles per hour. The subject's time and miles per hour were recorded and estab- lished as the exercise level for that particular subject. Each subject was then requested to maintain this level for one week. At the beginning of the second week, the subject increased her exercise level. This greater level was then performed for one week. This procedure was continued throughout the training period. Specific exercises of all three series are described in detail in the Appendix. MEASUREMENT AND TESTING PROCEDURES Body weiggt. The subjects in Group I and Group II were weighed weekly. The subjects in Group III were weighed at the beginning and at the end of the supervised exercise program. Subjects were no outer clothing nor shoes. Body weights were recorded to the nearest hundredth of a kilogram. Egysicalgperformance tests. The physical performance tests were administered to all subjects before the beginning of the supervised exercise program. The tests were again given to all subjects at the completion of both the diet and the supervised exercise program. All physical performance tests were administered in the Women‘s Intramural Building by instructors in physical education. 31 A description of individual testing procedures can be found in the Appendix. Skin-fold fat measurements. Skin-fold fat measure- ments were taken of all subjects before the beginning of the supervised exercise program and at the completion of both the supervised exercise and the diet programs. Fat calipers such as those developed at the laboratory of Ancel Keyes were used for all skin-fold tests. One instructor with experience in the use of the fat calipers took all skin-fold measurements. A description of procedures for administering the skin-fold measurements can be found in the Appendix. Girth measurements. Girth measurements were taken of all subjects before the beginning of the supervised exercise program and at the completion of both the supervised exer- cise and the diet programs. All measurements were taken by a physical education instructor experienced in this type of work. A steel tape measure calibrated in centimeters was used for all girth measurements. Procedures for taking all girth measurements are to be found in the Appendix. Height and width measurements. Height and width measurements of all subjects were taken at the beginning of the supervised exercise program and the diet program at the same time as the skin-fold fat and the girth measurements. 32 STATISTICAL METHODS EMPLOYED Initial and final measurements for each subject were used to determine the changes in body weight, physical per- formance, skin-fold fat, and girth. Group means were com- pared. Analysis of variance was employed to determine the significance of the differences in mean changes among the three groups. Changes in physical performance, skin-fold fat, and girth were plotted against weight Change. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA The purpose of this study was to (1) measure changes in anthropometric and physical performance measures among overweight college women who were undergoing diet, diet and exercise, and exercise programs; (2) to determine the signif- icance of the changes in anthropometric and physical perfor— mance measures; and (3) to investigate the relationships between the changes in anthropometric and physical perform- ance measures among these university women. SUBJECTS USED IN FINAL ANALYSIS Of the 18 subjects who began this study, complete data is available for only 8. Three subjects from Group I were dropped from the experiment because they did not hold to the rigid diet. Of the five Group II subjects who were dropped from the study, one dropped out of school, one was dropped for medical reasons, and three were known to have "Cheated" on the diet. Two Group III subjects did not report for the full battery of tests. Table III presents the range and mean kilograms over- weight for each of the groups used in the final analyses of this study. The total range of kilograms overweight is 1.3 kg. to 18.5 kg. The means for Group I, II, and III are 11.8, 10.2, and 13.0 kg., respectively. 34 TABLE III MEAN INITIAL KILOGRAMS OVERNEIGHT FOR THE GROUPS USED IN THIS STUDY Group I Group II Group III Diet Diet and Exercise Exercise Number of subjects 3 1a 4 Kilograms overweight Range 7.8-15.2 10.2 1.3-18.5 Mean 11.8 10.2 13.0 aWeight based upon single subject. FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN SUPERVISED EXERCISE PROGRAM The supervised exercise program was offered for a total of 34 days over a period of seven weeks. Table IV presents the frequency of participation in this program. No subjects participated fewer than 3 times per week, and the average participation for both Group II and Group III was 4.7 times per week. Attendance was required. The super- visor was informed of any absence to be incurred other than for illness. Each subject made up the activity in an, equivalent of exercise at home or in the dormitory any day she missed an exercise session. 35 TABLE IV FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN SUPERVISED EXERCISE PROGRAM 1 __:‘ - _—: Group II Group III Diet and Exercise Exercise Number of subjects la 4 2 Frequency per week Mean (days) 4.9 4.6 Range (days) 4-5 3-5 Total participation in seven weeks Mean (days) 33 31.5 Range (days) 33 29-34 h.- , aMean based upon single subject. The mean daily performance of activities in the super- vised exercise program as shown in Table V depicts the extent that the subjects were participating in regular physical activity beyond the requirements of their daily routine. Furthermore, the daily performance of certain exercises required the exertion of specific parts of the body which would not normally be used. Examples of these are the toe-touch which required a sideward bending and accompanying stretch of the hamstrings; sit-ups which re- quired a greater extent of abdominal contraction than the subjects would normally perform in a day, and lift-push- point which required back-extension, gluteal contraction, and controlled lowering of the body from a push-up position. 36 ”.mm m.eoH m.os 0.0m essences .HHH em 0.0w . a.mHH o.mm H.mm . omaonoxm .HHH mm m.ma o.ooH o.mma m.ee chansons .HHH mm e.ms o.om o.moa s.mm onaosowm .HHH Hm m.mm m.mm m.m> H.bm omaosoxo one some .HH Hm HH nosoeiooe H nonpeaope mesh doom oomam ca :sm gnome Lowesz oo : omaosowm omdonowm p n w memo mm uwoz memo m sea ammo em awoz when w and HH moanom H moanom mwHBU¢ mo moz Manda 37 i _ E! 1.; .oom w -- -- -- .sae m m.m mm s.e~ m.Hm onaoaoxm .HHH am .CHE 0H m.w m .CHE m o.m mm N.©H «.mH omfiouoxm .HHH mm -- -- -- .sas on m.m mm 0.0m e.mm onscsowm .HHH mm .oom m . .sas m m.m ma .sse o w.H ma o.ma o.sm onscaoxm .HHH Hm .oom ma .oom m .sas oH a.oH m .sae on o.m mm m.sH o.mm essences cad moan eHH Hm CEHB mnemooq when oeae mead: when ucfiom mabnuam nsono nonesz 11 A: mnsm-maan soonnsm 53m 33m OMH on gum neon em Has -- HHH condom “possessoov > mamas 38 On the basis of the Activity Recall, the subjects did not ordinarily exert themselves physically in a normal day. Since this point was reached during the supervised exercise session, particulary during the rope jump and riding the bike, it can be concluded that this activity was beyond the requirements of the normal daily routine of the subjects. IMPROVEMENT OF PERFORMANCE IN SUPERVISED EXERCISE PROGRAM Improvement in performance of activities in the super- vised exercise program is illustrated in Figure l. Repre- sentative days from the beginning, the middle, and the end were selected from the supervised exercise program daily records. There were two possible ways of increasing the exercise level: (1) by increasing the rate or speed at which the exercise was performed, and (2) by increasing the number of repititions. -Thus, either faster rate, or in— creased number of repititions increased the exercise level. The final performance of each exercise for each individ- ual was in all cases greater than the initial performance. There was a tendency to increase at a more rapid rate from the initial to the middle period than from the middle period to the final. Similar findings are found in most physical training programs. In all exercises performance was improved from the middle to the end with the exception of the swimming or riding the bike. I 39 Eamon.” .22: 0. 38.53 45:2. 0 endosowm oooa>hoasm ca moaua>auo< no cessahounom ca acoso>osaaH Aoouosowmv HHH dsohc ems. coca. sum 8* been new Aooaohowm one uoaav HHH aroma Tl. -- :8 5-8 Iii—vi cloned. L VII 26o 5.8 lullT also mA. I_ o o o o 41 $22. maom use no. a221, mcom use as. fl 5 -2. \/o .2 . a _ a 100. Ow 12 40¢ alum 18. muqna #2 . wuqna LE. S 17o! z. 23ml Loo 2. 2:1 4 I o .o o I IT n roses woe is» H :80» use n. :89 mo» .2 H 1029 use we 3 .. MOP LON AON MOP LOB m. ud loo loo \0 ion .00 H m . nom low on w S i a non. . +00. 5 I 0 0| I won'tm l man-._._m .. in. .2 \0 A0” O\\\G\O ion - _ no 0 m ez_oa-xm:a-tj .# sz_oa-rm:a-:3 1“. i 1.0. 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Hangs 48 s.m- s.wm m.wo ma- on me e.mu e.mm m.mw :m+ :@.3 :m.# :HI =m.m :#.m :m+ =N.# :m.m owcmno Aoum< phonom.lwwcmno sound osouom m.H + m.ma w.OH m + ma m m.o +. h.ma m.:a omcmno stoma oaouom Chasm .oom om deem Adamo monosauuoom mesh omonm wcHosmum monocu coamcopxm Room Ammssnsoocv HH> mamas lllllll' . ‘ lltll'l I? Ill-‘1‘ ,I alz Ammaosoxmv HHH Huz Ammaohowm one pofinv HH muz Aboaov H gsosc 49 benefitted from both factors: she had less weight to move, and she had been exercising regularly. The decrease in pulse rate for this subject was great enough for this to be, a possibility. This was investigated further. The mean for Group III is unrealistic, since one subject showed a pulse rate decrease of 22, data is not available for one subject, and the other subjects showed pulse rate decreases of only 3 and 4. The decrease of 22 obtained by the subject in Group III is greater than the decrease of 19 obtained by the sub- ject in Group 11. Therefore it is inaccurate to conclude that the diet and exercise program produced the greatest change in cardiac efficiency. All groups showed slight improvement in performance of sit-ups and back-extension. There was little difference 'between the groups in improvement in the number of sit-ups. The subject in Group II increased the back-extension by six inches, whereas only slight improvement was obtained by sub- jects in Groups I and III. A very slight decrease in performance levels of push- strength was observed in all groups. This decrease was in no way significant. When the physical performance levels of each group were analyzed, Group I showed greater improvement of perfore mance than any other group in sit-ups, deep-knee—bends, and standing-broad-jump. These are all activities which require APPENDIX B RAW DATA APPENDIX A DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURES APPENDIX 50 the lifting or moving of body weight. Since body weight was decreased considerably between initial and final testing, the greater improvement by these subjects may be due to the fact that they had less mass to lift or move. Sills, Brady, Willgoose, Riendeau, and Kireilis all report excess fat to be a handicap in most strenuous exercise, particularly run- ning and jumping.1 The improvement in performance of sit- ups, deep-knee-bends, and standing-broad-jump accompanying. weight loss in this study seems to substantiate the theory that excess weight is a handicap in physical performance. 3 Group I subjects showed the greatest decrease in physical performance levels in the grip-strength and the pull-strength. It is possible that some loss of strength accompanied the reduced caloric intake diet. Another possibility is that a decrease in strength which often occurs from the beginning to the end of a term accounts for the decrease in grip-strength. Since Group III also showed a decrease in grip-strength, no conclusion was drawn con- cerning the reason for loss of strength. Group III showed greater improvement of performance than was observed in the other two groups in pull-strength lSills, Research Quarterl 28: 64- 71, Brady; 31113, Research QuarterIy, 21:432; SIIIs, Research Quarterly, :2 3- Rien eau; Willgoose, and Kireilis. 51 and the shuttle-race. An increase in pull-strength was achieved by all subjects in Group III. It is difficult to explain this, since no one exercise of the supervised exer- cise program would seem to affect strength across the shoulder blades. There is a possibility that the lift-push- point exercise affected the physical performance level of Group III in the pull-strength, but if this were the case, the subject in Group II should also have showed an increase in this particular measurement. A negligible loss of one pound was recorded in the pull-strength for the subject in Group II. I The improvement of performance in the shuttle-run by Group III may even be more notable than the mean would indi- cate. Although one subject in Group III ran the shuttle-run 0.9 seconds slower than initially, the other three subjects ran the shuttle-run 0.7, 0.5, and 0.8 seconds faster following the supervised exercise program. In observing the subjects during the supervised exercise program, the supervisor noted increased skill and coordination in the performance of physical activities. In other words, learning seemed to have taken place. The greater speed in the shuttle-run by subjects in Group III may be attributed to this factor. D When comparing the mean changes in physical perfor- mance levels for Group II with the mean changes in physical performance levels for the other two groups, it appeared 52 that the greatest improvements in grip-strength, standing- flexion, back-extension, and pulse-rate were found in Group II. Also, the greatest decreases in push-strength and standing broad-jump were found in Group 11. But the Group 11 means were actually the scores of a single subject, there- fore not true means. When treated as a single score and compared with the single scores achieved by subjects in the other two groups, greater changes by other subjects were found in all tests but the back-extension. To summarize, mean changes in physical performance following diet, supervised exercise, and diet and supervised exercise programs were analyzed. Although no differences between groups were statistically significant, the following results were noted: 1. Improved performance was obtained by all groups in pulse-rate following a standard amount of activity, number of sit-ups in 30 seconds, and back-extension. 2. Slightly decreased grip-strength was observed in) all groups. 3. Greater improvement in sit-ups, deep-knee-bends, and standing-broad-jump was obtained by Group I than any other group. 4. Greater improvement of pull—strength and shuttle- run was obtained by Group 111 than by any other group. 53 CORRELATIONS BETWEEN PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE AND WEIGHT LOSS The changes in physical performance were plotted against weight loss as shown in Figure 3. Improved perfor- mance by all subjects regardless of weight loss was observed only in the decreased pulse-rate following a standard activity. Loss of weight appeared to be a greater factor in the decreased pulse-rate than did exercise, but a subject who had little change in weight achieved greatest decrease in pulse-rate. Although the group means indicated that improved per- formance in physical performance tests of sit-ups and back— extension was obtained by all groups, individual records show that slightly decreased performance was obtained by a subject in Group I and little or no change was observed for three out of four members of Group III. The decreased grip-strength in all groups noted in the discussion of mean changes in physical performance is evi- dent in the plot of grip—strength versus weight-loss. The exception was that a subject in Group III showed slight improvement in grip-strength with little weight change. Comparison of the mean changes in physical performance indicated that greater improvement in sit-ups, deepgknee- bends, and standing-broad-jump was obtained by Group 1 than by any other group. In the case of sit-ups and deep-knee- bends, the plots of change versus weight-loss do not point Change in Grip Strength Dominant Hand (lbs) in Push Strength (lbs) Change 44 3 9 C I; 0 o g 0 I - ‘4‘" g 0 o -8»— f. O 5 a -I2*— (1') 9 <3 -l6r-D E 0 3-201- C O I: U_24 1 1 1 1 J .94 t2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -IO Weight Loss (kg) +20 0 g F 3+!O)- D 1: 2‘ o g 0" O . O (f) a? -|o- E S-zoL C o O 1: 0-30 #1 l i L .1 +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -IO Weight Loss (kg) Relationship Between Physical Performance Measures (Grip, Push, and Pull Strengths) +8[- 0 +4)- or ° -4). O -8r0 -I2r 0 464 -20- O o -24 l D 1 l l L J +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 —IO Weight Loss (kg) +20r O HO“- Or— 0 O . O o D -|O— _20 LC! 1 1 1 1 J +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 '|0 Weight Loss (kg) F13. 3. and Changes in Body Weight oDiet DExercise ODiet and exercise Time Change in Shuttle Run (Sec) A+3 :3 I“ .C ‘c’ 43er 5+2~U '06)’ D g C -O-ir- j": H)- D O -091- g o» 2 E 0% o .9 +07? W +041- 5 -I- 0 +061- 8' C +OB)- 2.2)- C) 0 u +|_O- 0 1 1 1 1 L J -3 1 J L 1 1 4 +2 0 -2 -4 —6 —6 -IO +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 Weight Loss (kg) Weight Loss (kg) ’3 Q) C U E ‘2 +61- . O .7. +5- 5 1; +4" [:1 LB +3_ E 0 an +2- 0 s +|*- ” C] o 0'0 S _| 0 .C U _2 1 1 1 l_ 1 _J +2 0 -2 —4 -6 —8 —IO Fig. 3 -- continued 0 Diet Weight Loss (kg) Relationship Between Physical Performance Measures Extension D Exercnse .Dle) Shuttle Run, Standing Flexion, Back and Changes in Body Weight and exercise ’5 0 .C U .s Q g +l4r- D _, 1, H2- 3 IO~ m + 2' +8" 0 12 +6— 0 a +4)- .5 +2” 0 3- ObD 0 0 S -2~ a C U _4 l l 1 l 1 _] +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -l0 Weight Lass (kg) 6 0 W O in .E 8. ? +6r D O 5 +5b .0- +41- 3 +3? S a Z ta.)- . 0 .E +|"U g 0%- o o . C 2 -I- 0 U _2 4 1 1 L 1 1 +2 0 ~2 -4 -6 -8 -IO Weight Loss (kg) Pig. 3 -- continued Body Weight oDiet DExercise ODiet and exercise Change in Number of Deep Knee Bends (305cc) Change in Pulse Rate (SOsec) +31- +2- +l -I +2 I i N N O N m g I b ca T '— D l l -2 -4 Weight Weight 1 '6 Lcss (kg) 1 -6 Loss (kg) Relationship Between Physical Performance Measures (Standing Broad Jump, Deep Knee Bends, Sit-ups in 30 Sec., Pulse Rate) and Changes in L J -8 -l0 57 to a strong relationship between weight-loss and improvement of performance in these tests. Weight loss did appear to be more closely associated with improvement in performance in standing-broad—Jump than did exercise. Greater improvement in performance in the pull-strength and shuttle-run tests was found in Group III than in Groups I and II. The plots of changes in physical performance in pull-strength and shuttle-run tests versus weight-loss indi- cate that performance of pull-strength and shuttle-run did not improve with weight loss. In further analyzing the changes in physical perform- ance by correlating them with weight loss, the following relationships appeared to exist: 1. Loss of weight appeared to be a greater factor in decreased pulse-rate than did exercise. 2. Improved performance in sit-ups and back-extension as indicated by comparing mean group changes did not appear to exist when individual performances were studied. 3. A slight decrease in grip-strength was evident in all groups. 4. Weight loss appeared to be more closely associated with improvement in performance in standing-broad- Jump than did exercise. 5. Performance in pull-strength and shuttle-run improved among the subjects who participated in the supervised exercise program. CHANGES IN SKIN-FOLD MEASUREMENTS A comparison of means of changes in skin-fold measure- meant is presented in Table VIII. Loss or no change of skin- fold fat as measured by fat calipers was obtained by all groups in all regions measured, with the exception of the lower ribs in Group III. When analysis of variance was used, the difference between groups was statistically significant at the 1% level for the triceps measurement. The scapular, lower-ribs, and pectoral measurements and sum of all losses were significant at the 5% level. The decrease of skin-fold. thickness was much greateriJIGroups I and II than in Group III. The correlation plots of the changes in skin-fold fat against weight loss as illustrated in Figure u-indicate that a strong relationship exists between loss of weight and de- crease in skin-fold fat. In the plots of the sum, scapular, lower-ribs, and triceps measurements versus weight loss, decrease in skin-fold thickness always accompanied weight loss. A slight decrease in the sum of skin-fold fat measure- ments was obtained by all subjects who participated in the supervised exercise program. Decrease in the iliac-crest skin-fold measurement was obtained by all subjects in all groups. Greatest decrease of 1.9 cm was obtained by the subject who lost the most weight. 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H) mezmzmmbm¢mz aflomiszw m0 mmcz mqmde Change in Triceps Skin-Fold (cm) Cncnge in Lower Ribs Skin-Fold (cm) 'IO" 'i O;- ,5 O E 8 -OBP -08- ‘0 O E 0 ~._ 0 O I '06 E ‘06“ 0 (7i -o4» 5-o4r ' 3 O 8 -02— D D 8-02r .S 0 01-0 0 ; Ol— D U C 5 D ’02 L l _ l -1 L _J f02 J L l 1 J J +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -IO +2 0 -2 -4 -s -8 -40 Weight Loss (kg) Weight Loss (kg) -0 8*" '06? E '50— o O 8 -o4- 0 13 «40+- . LL 'E o 02'- o 5;.) -30». '5 o O 0"" Cl C] E ‘20" 0 13 D D + 21- - “)- 0 lb 0 D 1:: +04 1 1 1 1 1 g 0 1 1 L L 1 4 +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -IO +2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -IO Weight Loss (kg) Weight Loss (kg) Fig. h. Relationship Between Changes in Skin-Fold 0 Diet Measurements (Triceps, Scapular, Lower Ribs, Sum) and Changes in Body Weight 13 Exercise 0 Diet and exercise Change in Pectoral Skin-Fold(cm) Skin- Fold (cm) In lliac- Crest Change +0.2 +2 -2.0 -l.8 -|.6 -l.4 —-|.2 -l.0 -O.8 ~06 -O.4 -O.2 +0.2 j I TTT I +2 Pig. h -- continued Relationship Between Changes in Skin-Fold Measurements (Pectoral, Iliac—Crest) and Changes in Body Weight oDiet 0 Exercise ODiet 1 1 1 1 ' 1 o -2 -4 -e -8 Weight Loss (kg.) 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 Weight Loss (kg) and exercise -|O -IO 62 participated in the supervised exercise program showed a decrease of 1.7 cm. Changes in skin-fold measurements accompanying diet, diet and exercise, and supervised exercise programs were‘ evaluated. Results are as follows: 1. With one exception, loss or no change of skin-fold fat was obtained by all groups in all regions. The mean of the measurement of the lower-ribs in the exercise group showed a slight increase. 2. The decrease in skin-fold fat obtained by the diet, and diet and exercise groups was greater than the decrease obtained by the exercise group in the triceps, lower-ribs, pectoral, and sum of all losses. These differences were significant at the 1% level for triceps; at the 5% level for lower- ribs, pectoral, and sum of all losses. 3. Correlation plots of change in skin-fold versus weight loss indicated a strong relationship between loss of body weight and loss of skin-fold fat. 4. Subjects who participated in the supervised exer- cise program obtained a slight decrease in the sum of skin-fold fat measurements. 63 CHANGES IN GIR’I‘H MEASUREMENTS An over-all loss of girth is shown in Table IX. All groups, whether or not there was a loss in body weight, obtained a decrease in girth measurements. When totaled, the loss by Group I and II is more than double that of Group III. Although there was no appreciable weight change in the exercise group, losses in girth are seen in the upper-arm, waist, abdomen, buttocks, thigh, and calf measurements. Greatest losses were in the abdomen (3.1 cm.), thigh (2.9 cm.), waist (1.5 cm.), and buttocks (1.4 cm.). Group I showed greatest loss in the abdomen (6.3 cm.), waist (h.4 cm.), buttocks (4.1 cm.), thigh (3.7 cm.), and bust (2.7 cm.). Mean weight loss of 7.23 kg. accompanied the decrease in girth measurements. Greatest decrease in girth measurements for the sub- ject in Group II was in the bust (8.2 cm.). The other losses were abdomen (5.3 cm), buttocks (4.6 cm), thigh '(3.5 cm.), waist (2.2 cm.), and upper arm (1.7 cm.). This subject showed a much greater decrease in bust measurement than did the other subjects in the diet program; although she showed less decrease in waist and abdominal girth. This subject's loss of body weight was 7.72 kg. 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QOOHm panz j W noccHn op coocnouuiq H W 32:5 cooz on $393: . .u @385 omega u w. u w. 3332 came A.wm~ Anacos i nmmwv .pwz --.pwm mwa aroma .oz oemz quHBO¢ MDOm mDOM1MBZM3B 88 LETTER TO SUBJECTS PREVIOUS TO PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY Dear Miss Since you have indicated a desire to lose weight, I'm send- ing you the details about the Foods and Nutrition Department Weight Reduction Study during winter quarter, 1959. All food will be served in the Home Economics Building with the exception of a take-home breakfast and supper on Sunday. TEntative menus are attached. If you participate in the study, you should enroll in HPR 196, MW, 2-3, where special attention will be given to helpful activities. YOu will have a physical at the Health Service at the begin- ning of the study. Parents of minors will be notified. You will pay the dorm for room rent only. Pay Foods and Nutrition approximately one-half of what the dorm charges for board. This can be done any time during winter quarter. Participation in certain tests for Foods and Nutrition De- partment will be required: 1. Nitrogen balance studies.(This involves total collection of urine and feces during two one- week periods. 2. Measurement of energy expenditures while resting and walking on a treadmill. 3. Blood samples. At the time of your final exam, please let your instructor know whether or not you are interested. Leave address where you may be reached over holidays. Fifther details will be sent to you if you express an interest in this study. Call Extension 2034 if you have questions. MENUS SUNDAY Orange Slices Pot Roast Beef Turkey Sandwich Corn Flakes Potatoes,Lettuce, Carrots Devilled Egg, Dill Skim Milk Sherbert Pickles, Celery Sticks Skim Milk . Pineapple Skim Milk MONDAY Orange-Grapefruit Juice Eggs Tbast, Butter Skim Milk Banana,Peach,Pineapple and Cottage Cheese Salad 89 ‘IESDAY Tomato Juice Eggs Toast, Butter Skim Milk Grilled Cheese Sandwich Lettuce & Tomato Salad Rye-Krisp Orange Slices Skim Milk Skim Milk Pork Outlet Roast veal Carrots Cabbage Salad Baked Potato Spinach Sweet Cherries Pineapple Skim Milk Skim Milk WEDNESDAY THURSDAY Pineapple Juice Orange Juice ESSS E883 Toast, Butter Toast, Butter Skim Milk Skim Milk Tuna,Celery & Lettuce Salad Hamburger w/Salad Dressing Peas Carrots,Ce1ery Green Beans Peaches Prune Plums Skim Milk Skim Milk ' Round Steak w/Tomato Beef Pattie Brussel Sprouts Peas Lettuce Lettuce & Tbmato Salad Apricots (French Dressing) Skim Milk Cherry Cobbler Skim Milk FRIDAY SATURDAY Prunes Orange Juice Eggs Eggs Tbast,Butter Toast,Butter Skim Milk Skim Milk Shrimp w/Cocktail Sauce Hot Dog Lettuce Green Beans Peas Muffin Celery Sticks Orange & Grapefruit Sections Applesauce Skim Milk Skim Milk Roast Pork Turkey Stewed Tbmatoes Carrots Mashed Potatoes Mixed Vegs. 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