POFULAR GARDENING MAGAZIFES AS AN ENDEX
’60 THE DEVELOPMENT OF ORNAMENTAL
HORTICULTURE IN THE UNITE STATES

Thesis for ”19 Degree of M. 5.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Mary Bennett Little

1957

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POPULAR GARDENING MAGAZINES AS AN INDEX TO THE DEVELOPMENT
OF ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

By

Mary Bennett Little

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan
State University of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

_ MASTER or SCIENCE

Department Of Horticulture

1957

/— 7 — 58’”
(723 7.?»

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I The author wishes to express her sincere

appreciation to Dr. Donald P. watson, under

whose direction and guidance this study was
undertaken and completed.

Gratitude is also expressed to Mr. Clinton
Holland for his many helpful suggestions.

The author is also indebted to Mrs. J. D.

Fliehler and Mrs. Shirley M. Goodwin, for their
assistance in preparing this manuscript.

ii

POPULAR GARDENING MAGAZINES AS AN INDEX TO THE DEVELOPMENT
OF ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES

By

Mary Bennett Little

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School of Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan
State University of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE
Department of Horticulture

Year 1957

Approved iii M 9‘ UL) 0%

ABSTRACT

Within the last decade the popularity of gardening as a hobby, an
interest, has increased greatly. Evidence of this interest in home
gardens is found in popular magazines and newspapers.

The study was intended to show trends in horticultural information
in agricultural and horticultural publications from 1810 to 1957. These
trends included the development of an interest in horticulture, the
reporting of specific information concerning ornamental plants, and the
branching of the home owner's interests in ornamental horticulture.

A total of 76 volumes and 3h magazines was used in this study.

The magazines were selected on the basis of their period of publication,
their influence at the time of their publication, and their location.

The study shows how conditions in America either fostered and
hindered the activity in the field of ornamental horticulture. The
first interest indicated in these magazines was in plants of a useful
nature as well as plants of native origin. The grape attained great
fame.

The birth of two horticultural publications in 1835 and subsequent
ones, in later years, increased the amount of horticultural information.
These magazines show how the colonists first became concerned with the
appearance of their yard and how this interest changed as America grew
into a successful nation. V

The fear of displaying any dependence on a foreign country
encouraged the use of native plants. Gradually writers began to

iv

recommend the use of exotic plants. That most of these magazines were
ipartially eclectic, and took liberally from foreign publications indi~
cated the admiration of foreign progress in horticulture.

After 1860 exotic plants became fashionable and the indigenous
ones common. In the 1900's plants were accepted not only on the basis
of their beauty but also on the basis of the purpose they might serve.

The magazine, also told of the change in emphasis from the formal
to the informal garden. WOody plants gained increasing prominence as
the perennial border gained pOpularity.

New garden tools and equipment are partially responsible for in-
creased interest in gardens. Magazines have drawn attention to this
phase of gardening since the first simple tools were introduced.
Another recent emphasis in gardening magazines, outdoor living, reflects
the newamerican way of life. The small well-kept yards have replaced
the vast estate grounds.

The broadening interest in gardening is further reflected in the
magazines style of writing.

The first periodical appealed to the more wealthy and more edu-
cated as they were the first to have time for gardens. In recent years
practical gardening magazines have been edited to appeal to a more
popular audience.

These magazines show that many topics remain the same; people have
always been concerned with such practices as pruning, controling insects
and mulching. The type information given about these practices has
changed greatly as scientific knowledge has advanced. However, the

V

increased leisure time of the middle class American has played a large
part in extending the appreciation of the beauty of plants and the

home garden.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION.... ................ ........ .......................... 1
Statement of Purpose......... .................................. 1
Limitations .................. . ............................. .... 2
Justification.. ............ . .............................. ..... 3
HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE PERIODICALS ............................ 5
Agricultural ............................................ . ...... 5
Horticultural .................................................. 9
HORTICULTURAL INFORMATION IN MAGAZINES FROM 1810—1835 ............. 23
The Grape ........................ . ............................. 23
Fruit Trees .................................................... 2S
Insects ........................................................ 28
Peach Trees. ............ . ....... .. .......................... ... 30
Apple Trees. ........... .... ..... . ......... . .............. . ..... 32
Pear Trees ........ . ............... . ......... . .................. 33
Other Fruits.... .......... ...... ..... . ......................... 3h
The Hedge..... ................................................. 35
Forest Trees.. ........................... . .......... .. ..... ~... 37
Garden Plants.... ..... . ......... ... ............................ 39
HORTICULTURAL INFORMATION IN MAGAZINES FROM 1835-1860 ......... .... h3
Native Plants ........... . .................................. .... hh
Trees............. ................. . ..................... . ..... DE
The Rose......... .............................................. h?
Garden Flowers ................................ . ................. h8
Flowering Shrubs.. ......... . ........ . .......................... 50
Fruit........... .................................... ........... 52
Pear........... ........ ...... .................................. 5h
Peach ...... ..... ............................................... SS
Curculio WOrm... ..... . ..... ..... .................. . ............ 56
The Grape................................. ............ ......... S7
The Strawberry............ ..... ......... .............. . ..... ... 59
The Brambles...... ...... ............................ ........... 60
The Hedge....... ...... . ........ . .............................. . 62
Summary .................. ...... ................................ 6b

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS - continued

Page

INFORMATION CONCERNING ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FROM 1860-1910 ........... 66
Improving the Home Grounds..... ................................ 66
The Culture of Trees... ............................. . .......... 69
Types and Uses of Trees.................... ............ ........ 71
Shrubs..... ................................................. ... 7S
Vines. .............................................. . ..... ..... 80
Roses .......................................................... 81
Flowering Plants ............................................... 83
Insects, Diseases and Pests ............. . ...................... 88
Fertilizers .................................................... 91
Propagation ....... . ............. . ............... . .............. 92
summooooooooouoooooonooooooooooooo00000000000000.0000...coo. 93
CURRENT TRENDS IN ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE 1910-1957 ............... 95
CONCLUSIONS ....... . ............. . ................................. 102
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... . ............................................... 106

viii

LIST OF TABLES

 

 

 

TABLE Page
I. Frequency of Topics in Flower Grower ............. . ......... 98

II. Frequency of TOpics in Horticulture ........................ 99
III. Frequency of Topics in The Gardener's Chronicle ..... ....... 100
IV. Frequency of Topics in The Home Garden.............. ....... lOl

 

INTRODUCTION

Gardening has long been an admired art. ‘When the colonists came
to America they brought with them backgrounds of various gardening
techniques. A new country gave little time for such luxuries as
ornamental plants. As leisure time developed gardeners in America
struggled to create their own distinctive gardens, in spite of strong
foreign influence which they grudgingly admired. Agricultural and
horticultural periodicals picture man‘s aesthetic interest, as it
matured with a nation, developing into a substantial art which has made

America a more pleasant place.

Statement of Purpose

 

The purpose of this study is to investigate trends in the develop-
ment of ornamental horticulture in America as evidenced in agricultural
and horticultural magazines from 1810-1957.

Specifically this study concerns itself with: l) the emergence
of horticultural information in the early agricultural periodicals;

2) the broadening of horticultural interests as America prospered;
3) the recognition of horticulture as a science and an art; h) the
branching of interests in ornamental horticulture, and S) the corre-
lation of the development of ornamental horticulture with the periods

most encouraging to this development.

DJ

Limitations

The study includes only popular American agricultural periodicals
from 1810 to 1860 and popular American horticultural periodicals from
1835 to 1957.

An attempt was made to cover only the more important of the agri-
cultural and horticultural periodicals. A thorough study of these
publications would be impossible. As Bailey stated many horticultural
journals lived and died with their existence never having been recorded.1
According to secondary references, however, the most influential of
these magazines were included. The availability of the various magazines
again partially determined those used.

To obtain horticultural information from the magazines between
1810 and 1860, the author reported all of the material pertaining to
the outdoor culture of fruits and ornamental plants in 21 magazines and
a total of 29 volumes, plus 20 numbers within one volume. In each case
the first volume available and each succeeding tenth available volume
were used. In many cases it was difficult to judge exactly which wmuld
be the tenth volume, for the magazines frequently started new series
beginning the volume numbering over again. 'When this happened, a period
approximating nine years was skipped, regardless of the volume number.
The only exception to the above practice was in the case of The Aggi-
cultural Museum, 1810-1812, and The New England Farmer, 1822-1825.

Due to their early date, Volumes I and II of The.Agricultural Museum

 

1L. H. Bailey, "Nortthmerican Horticultural Periodicals,"
The Standard Cyclopaedia of Horticulture, II (19h7), p. 1559.

and Volumes I, II, III and IV through Number 20 of The New;Eng1and Farmer
were used.

For information about Ornamental Horticulture between 1860 and 1910
the writer used the method described previously. A total of 12 magazines
and 20 volumes was included in this part of the study. The subject of
Fruit Growing was discontinued in 1860.

For the most recent material dealing with Ornamental Horticulture
from 1910-1957, the magazines, Flower Grower and Horticulture were used
extensively. Instead of beginning with the first volume, the writer
began with the latest twelve issues and went backwards, omitting nine
years and selecting the issues from July to June. The subjects of the
five chief articles of each issue were listed. The Gardeners Chronicle
was treated in a similar fashion, with one exception, the volumes used
consisted of the earliest available and each succeeding tenth volume.

A fourth magazine, The Home Garden, l9h3-1953, was treated differently
as it was impossible to choose five feature articles. In this magazine
the subject of each article of any consequence was recorded for the
Volumes I and II and Volumes XIX and XX. Six magaiines were used for

the years 1910 to 1957.
Justification

"Periodicals of any subject are supposed to chronicle all the fleet-
ing events of the day and the years and to preserve them for future

1
generations." Assuming this to be valid, a study of the development of

 

1Ibid.

horticultural information in periodicals should portray trends of public
interest in horticulture. In turn those trends would show the deveIOp-
ment of ornamental horticulture in America.

.An additional value of this study is an insight into the effect
of world conditions on the activity and interest of horticulture. This
study also indicates how magazines concerned with horticulture changed

to adjust to new demands.

HISTORICAL SKETCHES OF THE PERIODICALS
Agricultural

Early writings did not distinguish horticulture from agriculture;
perhaps the first American book, The Husbandmanls Guide, combining the

1
two was published in 1710. One hundred years later, The Agricultural

 

Museum, the first agricultural periodical in America, began on July b,
1810, in Georgetown, 0a., or District of Columbia.2

The full title given this small octavo was The Agricultural Museum,
, Designed to be a Repository of Valuable Information to the Farmer and
Manufacturer,pthe Means of a Free Communication of Sentiment and General
Interchange of Ideas on the Important Subjects of Their Occupation.
Each semi-monthly issue contained extracts from foreign periodicals,
articles from.Amefiican newspaper, proceedings of agricultural societies,
and letters from the readers.3 In spite of the function this magazine
served, it is thought to have ended with Volume II.4 Its brief life-
span is attributed to the varied interests of its editor, the Reverend

5
David Wiley, and the apparent small circulation of the magazine.

 

1L. H. Bailey, "Horticulture," The Standard Cyclopedia of Horti-
culture, II (19h7), p. 1509.

2Clarebel R. Barnett, "The Agricultural Museum; An Early American

.Agricultural Periodical," Agricultural History, II (April, 1928), pp.
99-102.

3The Agricultural Museum, I (1811).
4Barnett, loc. cit.

5Ibid.

Although The Agricultural Museum is known as the first agricultural
periodical, The American Farmer, a weekly eight page quarto, is con-
sidered the "great precursor of present agricultural periodicals."1
This paper began April 2, 1819 in Baltimore, under the editorship of
John S. Skinner. Its purpose was to give the reader knowledge and skill
to manage the farm.2 That the paper‘s successful career continued
until 189D under various titles, with new series beginning in 1866 and
188R, indicated that it was highly valued during this period.3 While
concentrating on agriculture, horticulture gained a heading of its own
in Volume One. In these columns were found nursery reports, as well
as advice about the fruit and kitchen gardens.4

Bailey, however, states that The New England-Farmer, another eight
page quarto, was the first to devote any important space to horticulture.
He considered this weekly instrumental in the formation of the
Massachusetts Horticultural Society.5 This journal, first issued in
Boston August 3, 1822, was edited by Thomas G. Fessenden, whom Mott

6
described as a brilliant, eccentric and interesting man of letters.

 

1Ibid.

2Gilbert M. Tucker, American Agricultural Periodicals, (Albany:
By the author, 1909), p. 71.

3Ibid.

4"Horticulture," The American Farmer, I (Oct. 22, 1819), PP-
233-23h-

5L. H. Bailey, "North American Horticultural Periodicals,"
The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, II (19h7), p. 1559.

6Frank Luther Mott, A History of American Magazines, I (New York:
D. Appleton and Co., 1930), p. 317.

Fessenden contributed a great deal to the development of horticulture
in America; his book, New American Gardener, was published in 1828.
This series of The New,§ng1and Farmer ended with Number 20 of
Volume IV in 1825; however, in 1832 a continuation of this periodical
under the title The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal
appeared. Fessenden remained the editor and John G. Russell the pub-
lisher. After Fessenden's death in 1837, the magazine changed hands
until in 18h6 the list of subscribers was given to Luther Tucker's

Horticulturist. In 18h8 a quite different New England Farmer began and

 

2
continued for twenty-two years. The changing names and beginning of
new series in these early periodicals is quite confusing; however,
The New England Farmer (1822-18h6) was considered to be one of the
3

earliest and most influential agricultural journals.

In 1831 Luther Tucker began another weekly paper, The Genesee Farmer

 

in Rochester, New York, which continued with minor changes in its title

4
until 1865. In 1839 it merged into The Cultivator, a periodical begun

 

in 183k by Jesse Buel in Albany, New York. In 18h0 The New Genesee

 

Farmer and Gardener's Journal appeared and continued until 1866 when it

5 .
merged with The American Agriculturist. At the same time The Cultivator

 

owned by Tucker also prospered, becoming The Cultivator and Country

Gentleman in 1833, until in 1889 The Cultivator was drOpped from the

 

1Bailey, loc. cit.
2Mott, loc. cit., pp. 317-319.

3Albert Lowther Demaree, The.American.AgriculturQl Press, 1819-1860,
(New York: Columbia University Press, 19hl) pp. 321-326.

4Tucker, loc. cit., pp. 73-7h.
5Ibid.

 

1
title, leaving the well-known magazine, The Countgngentleman.

 

In Richmond, Virginia, Edmund Ruflin began The Farmers‘ Register

 

in 1833. This southern periodical ended in 18h2, to be followed by
The Southern Planter.2

In 18h2, A. B. Allen and R. L. Allen founded The American Agri-
culturist in New York. This journal was known for its large and wide
circulation increasing from 10,000 in l8h2 to 100,000 in 186h. In 1855
Orange Judd, the co-editor bought it, and his policy of combatting
fraud, spreading scientific knowledge and promoting new methods gave
him, as well as the publication, a high place in agricultural journal-
ism.3 Later, edited by Professor George Thurber, a botanist at Michigan
Agricultural College, The American Aggiculturist continued its emphasis
on scientific authority and practicality. By 1872 it had absorbed
twenty-six competitors. In 1922 it became The American Aggiculturist,

4
Egg.

Also appearing in l8h2 was The Michigan Farmer, a small, sixteen-
page monthly which is now witnessing its second century of publication.
The early issues of this magazine gave considerable space to horticulture
and valuable seasonal information. John C. Holmes, author of The Early

History of Horticulture in Michigan, was in charge of the Horticultural

5
Department of the magazine in its early period. The magazine frequently

 

1Librarian, Michigan State University.
2Demaree, 195;. 213., p. 15.

3Mott, .2: 23332 pp. 728-730.

4521S3: p. 730.

5Joseph George Duncan, The Michigan Farmer: A Century of Agri-
galtural Journalism, 18h3-19E3. Unpublished thesis, Michigan State
College, 19h3.

copied articles from other magazines as well as books; however, this
was a common practice among early American periodicals.l

From l8h3 until 1866 The Ohio Cultivator was published in Columbus,
Ohio. In 1855 The Ohio Valley Farmer began in Cincinnati and continued

until 1861. From 1852 until 185h The Farmer‘s Companion and Horticultural

 

Gazette was published in Detroit, Michigan.2 This magazine had a regular
Horticultural Department, as did The Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural
Journal published in Iowa from 1857-1859.

Of these and other agricultural periodicals not mentioned, Tucker
said that the motives leading to their establishment were to benefit the
public and to promote the basal art of American life. Continuing he
said, "it may be fairly claimed that no other class of periodicals
stands higher in point of conscientious and independent editorial
management, and that few were so careful about admitting anything of

3
doubtful character to their advertising column.

Horticultural

 

Bailey in 1915 stated that probably as many as 500 horticultural
journals had been started in America, many of which never attracted the
attention of a single collector or library. He believed that there were

4
more than 60 horticultural journals being published.

 

1The Michigan Farmer, III (18h5).
2Librarian, Michigan State University.
3Tucker, loc. cit., p. 80.

4Bailey, loc. cit.

10

In 1832 David Landreths started A Floral Magazine in Philadelphia;
however, it was discontinued after a few issues as tradition says it
did not pay.1

The Horticultural Register and Gardeners' Magazine, which was pub-
lished in Boston January 1, 1935, was known as the first journal to
specialize from the agricultural periodical.r This magazine continued
for four years edited by Thomas G. Fessenden and J. E. Teschemacher.
In spite of its short lifetime, Bailey called it "a magazine of more
than ordinary merit."3 In his introduction Fessenden felt that the
object of the magazine was utility, not display, stressing that the
colored illustrations were designed for scientific purposes. It was his
opinion that the magazine would "generally avoid words of learned length
and thundering sound, and that botanical and technical words would be
followed by an explanation."4 Such statements indicated that the editors
were appealing to a broad audience.. Also significant to this magazine’s
approach was Fessenden's former association with The New England Farmer.
To gain some of his former readers, Fessenden chose to promote horti-
culture by defining gardening as a kind of agriculture, that might be
considered miniature farming, saying that the more perfect farming

5
became, the more similar it was to gardening.

 

1Ibid.
2Tucker, loc. cit., p. 79.
3Bailey, loc. cit.

4T. G. Fessenden, "Letter of Introduction," The Horticultural
Register and Gardeners' Monthly, I (Jan, 1835) p. 2.

5Ibid., p. 3.

ll

Concerning the location of his magazine, Fessenden said that no
part of the United States presented greater natural advantages for the

1
pursuit of horticulture than Boston. Although The Horticultural Register

 

was similar to Loudon's Magazine in England, and contained extracts from
it and other foreign publications, the whole magazine seemed to echo the
sentiment Fessenden quoted from the memoirs of a French nobleman:
"I could wish to inspire all the world with a taste for the garden."2
'With a similar purpose, another horticultural magazine began in
Boston in 1835. This one was known by the following titles during its
33 year existence: The American Gardener's Magazine, The Magazine of
Horticulture and Hovayjs Gardener‘s Magazine.3 C. M. Hovey and P. B.
Hovey, Jr., the conductors (editors) were also anxious to spread the
love of horticulture. Their purpose was "to promote a taste for the
art among all classes of society and offer observations which will
direct attention of those who have not impartially considered the subject,
to its interest, value and importance."4 In a later number is this
statement: "To record the progressive advancements of, and improvements
in, the science of horticulture, in all its branches, has been our first
and principal purpose."5
The magazine seemed to do this. Under its section, "Original

Contributions," were letters and articles from contributors throughout

 

11bid., p. 2.
21bid., p. 1.
3Bailey, loc. cit.

4C. M. Hovey, "Introduction," Magazine of Horticulture, I (Jan.

1935), p- 2.
5Hovey, "Preface," ibid., p. III.

12

the country. Hovey called his contributors the "first practical men,
or gardeners who knew how to write as well as practise." Under
the heading of "Miscellaneous Intelligence" were notices of progress in
horticulture in foreign countries.1 Hovey pointed out that the English
and French periodicals contained "most valuable and desirable infor-
mation" and since expense prohibited many from seeing these magazines,
he stated that he would select from them. Frequently the conductors
attached a page or more of their own views to articles taken from these
foreign periodicals.2 Hovey's magazine had definitely a personality of
its own, created by its editor whose opinions were widely discussed in
the other periodicals. In 1868 the magazine was consolidated with
The American Journal of Horticulture under the title Tilton‘s Journal of
Horticulture and Floral Magazine.3

The third periodical of equal importance in the field of horti-
culture was The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste
which was established July 18h6 in Albany, New York. The Horticulturist
was first published by Luther Tucker and edited by A. J. Downing, the
author of Fruit and Fruit Trees of America. After Downing's death in
1852, the publication had a series of well-known editors including
James Vick, Patrick Barry, author of Fruit Garden, J. J. Smith, Peter B.

Mead and G. E. WOOdward. In 1875 The Horticulturist united with

4
The Gardener's Monthly of Philadelphia.
1Ibid., pp. III-IV
2Hovey, loc. cit., p. 2.

3"Suspension of Hovey's Magazine," The Gardener's Monthly, II
(Jan. 1869), p. 19.

4Bailey, loo. cit.

13

Tucker considered that The Horticulturist was written in a some-
what lighter and more popular vein than Hoveyjs Magazine or The Horti-
gultural Register.1 This suggests that The Horticulturist may have had
a wider audience than the other two and there is evidence that Thg_
Horticulturist had more circulation in the west in 1855 than Hovey's

2
did. The Horticulturist in 1865, however, stated that it had a large

 

circulation "principally among the wealthy men of our country . . . who
3
have fine farms and money to spend." As no circulation figures were

given for either Hovay's Magazine or The Horticulturist, it is impossible

 

to say which had the wider influence; however, the duration of their
publication is evidence of their profitable career.

Of these horticultural journals born in America before 1850, Tucker
in 1909 said, "It is not too much to say that these three covered the
whole field of horticulture, including pomology, flower and landscape
gardening in all their ramifications, as no periodical has since
covered it."4

‘ In 1859 Thomas Meehan, an admirer of Hovey, began The Gardener‘s
Monthly and Horticultural Adviser in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, devoted
to Horticulture, Agriculture, Botany and Rural Affairs. Meehan was a

graduate of the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, England, and author of the

5
book, The American Handbook of Ornamental Trees. Meehan maintained

 

1Tucker, l_o_c_. p_i__t., p. 79.

2The Michigan Farmer, XIII (1855), p. 30.

3The Horticulturist, XX (Nov., 1865), p. 369.
4Tucker, _l_._o_c_:_. 93:3.

5The Gardener's Monthly, II (1869), frontispiece.

lb

that nurseries or other horticultural establishment afforded excellent
schools for "conductors" of magazines and that the public regard for a
magazine owned by such an establishment should not be lowered. In 1869
Meehan stated that although the circulation fell during the war, he
believed that no other purely horticultural journal had ever had a list
of paid-up subscribers equal to The Gardener's Monthly.l He asked those
who took the journal to pass it around to their friends; however, he
cautioned that one could not rely on books or periodicals if he had no
practical experience, for these "are revolutionary, intended to improve

old practices" and without the knowledge of these old practices the

2
reader could not evaluate the new methods. In 1888 The Gardener's

 

Monthly merged with another publication edited by Meehan, The American
Garden.3

The American Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion or
Tilton's Journal of Horticulture began in Boston in 1867. This was
edited by the younger Robert Manning the last three years of its career
until its discontinuance in 1871.4 Meehan had predicted great success
for this journal in 1869 after it absorbed Hoveyjs Magazine; however,
no explanation was given for its failure.5 The first issue stated that

the magazine was not supposed to be different from other horticultural

publications, but that its purpose was to "lend our aid to the

 

1Ibid., (Dec. 1869), p. 367.

2"Practical Gardening," The Gardener's Mbnthly, XI (May 1869),
p. 1h3.

3Bailey, loc. cit.
4Ibid., p. 1560.

5
"5118 81181011 or Hove ‘S Ma azine " lOC. Cit.

15

improvement of horticultural science and the dissemination of infor-
mation on floriculture and pomology."l The editors pledged a publica-
tion of high character that had no bias interest in a horticultural
establishment. They also insisted that it would be for the rural and
urban gardener. Besides having flower, fruit and vegetable departments,
the magazine devoted attention to architecture, landscaping, entomology
and ornithology.2

In 1878 James Vick, a seedsman, began Vick’s Monthly Magazine in
Rochester, New York. This journal began as a 32-page magazine with a
handpainted plate at the beginning of each issue.3 Vick, stating some
of the objectives of his magazine, said that it would instruct amateurs
about the following subjects: vegetables, fruits, flowers, ornamental
plants and trees, and the native flora. The magazine displayed civic
concern by further pledging itself to the improvement of home grounds,
school, and other public grounds.4 At the close of Volume X, the
publisher indicated that the magazine's readers and contributors were
more numerous than at the beginning of the year.5 By 1896, however, the
magazine had dwindled to 16 pages.6 By Volume-XXX in 1906 the complete
character of the magazine had changed; Zigkg had become a general

magazine containing fiction, with horticulture remaining only as one of

 

1"Introduction," American Journal of Horticulture, I (1867), p. 1.
22229:: pp. 1-h.

3Vicks Monthly Magazine, I (1878).

41222» x (Nov. 1887)

5"Close of the Volume," iRlés: (Dec. 1887), p. 379.

61229:, XX (Nov. 1896).

16

many departments.1 The number of advertisements and the cheap subscrip-
tion price (50¢) indicated that the magazine attained a wide circulation.
It ended in 1909.

The American Garden, A Monthly Journal of Practical Gardening,
began in 1879 in New York. In volume VI the editor, Dr. F. M. Hexamer,
boasted that the magazine had broken all mercantile affiliations and
was now strictly independent.2 This 2h-page magazine had section head-
ings including vegetables, fruits, flowers, window gardens, lawns,
landscaping, foreign gardening, exhibitions and societies.3
L. H. Bailey was its editor from 1890-1893, during which time the
magazine changed its name to American Gardening.4 At this time the
magazine boasted that it had a regular staff of practically engaged
men for its various departments; it had no armchair editors.5 In volume
XXIV the editor stated that the magazine was not a trade paper; that it
appealed to all who were interested in plants.6 Soon after this in
December of l90h The American Gardener ceased publication as a general
horticultural magazine. The Fruit Grower of St. Joseph, Missouri, took

7

over the mailing list.

 

IlRigna XXX (March 1906).

3American Gardening, VI (Jan. 1885), p. 1b.
SEEiSR’ (1885).

4Bai1ey, .123. 933.

5American Gardening, XV (Oct. 1893), p. 8.
6131A” XXIV (May 1903), p. 236.

7Bailey, loc. cit.

17

During its career The American Garden absorbed The Gardener's
Monthly and The Ladies Floral Cabinet in 1887. Later it also absorbed
Flower Garden and Popular Gardeniag.1

Popular Gardening and Fruit Grower was founded in 1885 in Buffalo,
New York, by Elias A. Long, the author of Ornamental Gardening_for
Americans.2 At the t0p of each monthly issue was this quotation from
Milton, which gives the spirit of the publication: "Accuse not nature,
She Hath Done her Part; Do Thou but Thine." This journal declared its
purpose to be the "brightest and cheapest, most useful and most popular

_ s
horticultural magazine in America." Previous to its merger with

American Gardening in 1892, Popalar Gardening had absorbed The American

 

Horticulturist which began its career as The Michigan Horticulturist

 

4
Septemben 1885,in Detroit, Michigan. This journal, edited by Charles

WM Garfield, secretary of the Michigan State Horticultural Society, was

5
begun to represent Michigan horticulture in its "advanced position."

At the end of Volume I the sponsors felt that there was a demand for a

6
national horticultural journal; however, in January of 1887 before

'7
Volume II was complete the monthly was sold to Pppular Gardening.
In 1886 Thomas B. Jenkins, horticulturist, began a more unusual

type of journal, The Horticultural Art Journal, in Rochester, New York.

 

IERES:
2£2123

3Popu1ar Gardening, I (Oct. 1885), p. h.

4TheAmerican Horticulturist, II (Dec. 1886), p. 93.
5"Publishers Department," 22193: I (Sept. 1885), p. 23.
6The American Horticulturist, 1 (Aug. 1886), p. 1453.

”Bailey, loc. cit.

18

Jenkins said he intended to make the magazine a "perfect record of
horticultural productions as they are introduced." He stated that each
month he would have four full-page, colored plates. Art work was
definitely the emphasis of this magazine which completed only six
volumes ending in 1891.1

In 1888, Garden and Forest, conducted by Charles S. Sargent,
director of the Arnold Arboretum and Professor of Arboriculture at
Harvard, began as a weekly in New York. Bailey said this journal
represented "ten volumes of high character entitled to rank as one of
the noteworthy undertakings in the field."2 He further pointed out
that Garden and Forest was the first attempt in America to establish a
weekly publication similar to the great English journals.3 The 12-page
publication included horticulture, landscape art, and forestry in its
subject matter and had a regular letter from a London editor concerning
foreign news in these fields. Garden and Forest was of a different
character than any other horticultural journal. Having absolutely no
interest in the business and being conducted by a professor in close
contact with the Arnold Arboretum the magazine gave much valuable
information. When the magazine ended at the end of the tenth volume,
it left no doubt about the reasons for its cessation. The staff said

that the magazine "cost a lot in time and mones [sic] and experiment

 

“Publishers Card," The Horticultural Art Journal, I (Jan. 1886),
p. l.
2Bailey, _1_(_)_<_:_. git.

3Ibid.

19

has shown that there are not enough in the U. S. interested in the
subject printed to make a journal of this class and character self-
supporting."1 The magazine was directed to the educated reader rather
than to the masses and there was no evidence that it tried to gain
subscribers.

A more practical magazine for the amateur Meehan's Monthiy--a

 

Magazine of Horticulture, Botany and Kindred Subjects began in Phila-
delphia in July, 18911 This magazine was conducted by Thomas Meehan
assisted by Thomas B. Meehan, J. Frank Meehan and G. M. Meehan. They
stated that they wished to minister to both classes, the novice and the
more experienced. To do so they pledged to give plain and practical

2

gardening hints as well as accounts of the increase in popular knowledge.

3
MeehankaMonthiy_continued until 1902 when it became Floral Life.

 

In 1892 the journal Gardening began in Chicago. The editor,
'William Faconer, called his journal a "plain practical paper, in plain
language gotten up with the view of aiding everyone who is interested
in a garden, more especially the amateur."4 The staff declared that
its teachings and opinions would be reliable, independent, and unbiased,
as the magazine was not interested in selling anything.5 Urging con-

tributions, Falconer gave the qualifications of his staff which included

 

1Garden and Forrest, X (Dec. 1897), p. 518.

2"General Notes," Meehans Monthly, I (July 1891), p. 16.
3Librarian, Michigan State University.

4"Announcement," Gardening, I (Sept. 15, 1892), p. 3.

5Ibid.

20

Warren H. Manning, a practical landscapist. In 1925 this magazine was
discontinued.

Another gardener‘s magazine, The Gardener's Chronicle of America,
began in 1892 in New York. This monthly might be considered a trade
paper, for in 1939 it was declared the official organ of the National
Association of Gardeners and American Rock Garden Society.1 This
magazine was more technical in nature and was directed to accomplished
gardeners. In 19h9 it called itself America's foremost gardening
magazine for hh years.2 This magazine ceased publication in l9h9 after

a
absorbing Real Gardening and Gardening Magazine.

 

 

The magazine, Horticulture, began as a weekly in l90h. Volumes

 

XXIV and XXV in 1916 and 1917 were predominantly concerned with florists'
products. A new series began in 1922. Volume IV, 1926, was published
in Boston by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in conjunction with
the Horticultural Societies of New York and Pennsylvania.4 At this time
the magazine stated that it dealt with all phases of gardening and that
since it was in close contact with the Arnold Arboretum it might be
depended upon for the latest information about novelties and important
introductions. The magazine was called Horticulture Illustrated and

5
was edited by Edward I. Farrington. In January, 1955, at their 50th

 

1The Gardener‘s Chronicle, XLIII (Jan. 1939).

233g” LIII (Jan. 19h9), p. 228.

3Ibid.

4Horticulture, IV (1926).

5"Horticultural News Notes," 2229:: (July 1, 1926), p. 295.

 

 

21

anniversary the editors of Horticulture, which was now a monthly,
announced that they had added six pages of color. They further said
that a recent reader survey had given the staff much additional infor-
mation about their readers interests and they were looking forward to
a most successful year. At this time Daniel J. Foley was the editor
of Horticulture, America's Authentic Garden Magazine.1

In January, 191b, The Modern Gladiolus Grower began in Calcium,
New York. This small 20-page magazine was concerned chiefly with
introducing the gladiolus to more people; however, it gave some interest-
ing information about other plants.2 In 1918, The Modern Gladiolus
Grower became Flower Grower, the Home Garden Magazine. It is edited
and published by John R. Whiting in New York.3

In 1938, Robert Shemmon edited a digest known as Real Gardening.
This magazine ended with Volume IV.4

An interesting 96-page digest, The Home Garden, began in January,
19h3. Its Board of Editors consisted of F. F. Rockwell, Montague Free,
Donald Wyman, Esther C. Grayson, Dorothy H. Jenkens, Helen van.Pe1t
Wilson and R. C. Allen.5 As this magazine stated, it was born in a
period of emergency and had a patriotic duty to perform in connection

with the war effort. The editorials and the articles tried to impress

 

1Horticulture, Vol. XXXIII, p. 10.
gihe Modern Gladiolus Grower, III (1916).

3Flower Grower, XLVII (June 1957).

 

4Librarian, Michigan State University.

5The Home Garden, I (Jan. 19h3).

22

the readers with the importance of a victory garden, and thrift in the
1
use of foods, fertilizer, seeds, etc. Rockwell pled that the slogan
2

"back to the land" was what society needed in peace time as well as war.

The Home Garden realized that the strain of the day called for recreation,

 

and therefore stated that no phase of ornamental gardening would be
neglected.3 Throughout its career which ended in 1953, The Home Garden
maintained its "dedication to the simple principle that the person or
the family retaining contact with the earth, in peace no less than in
war, is both the happiest and the mose secure. The earth was not a
hobby, a recreation but a way of life."4

Two more recent publications, not included in this study, are

Pppular Gardening which began in 1950 and Flower and Garden, which

 

began in January 1957. Flower and Garden calls itself a magazine for
mid-America and is published in Kansas City, Missouri. Due to the short
life time of these magazines and their similarity to Flower Grower

neither was included in this study.

 

1"Thrift was the WOrd," The Home Garden, I (March 19h3), P- 7-
3The Home Garden, I (Jan. l9h3).

4"Earth and the Good Life," ibid., p. 9.

PERIOD OF PUBLICATION OF GARDENING MAGAZINES

Agricultural Periodicals:

 

\OmxlChU‘LII‘UJMl—J

. The Agricultural Museum 1810-1812
. The American Farmer 1819-1897
. The New England Farmer 1822-1825

The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal 1832-18h6

. The New England Farmer 1857-1913

. The [enmesyee Farmer 1831-1866

. The Farmer's Register 1833-18h1

. The Cultivator 183h-1866

. The American Agriculturist 18h2-1916

. The Michigan Farmer 18h2-1957

. The Ohio Cultivator 18h5-1866

. The Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Gazette 1852-185h
. The Ohio Valley Farmer 1855-1861

. The Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural Journal 1857-1859

Horticultural Periodicals:

l5.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
2h.
25.
76.
27.
28.
. Horticulture 190h-1957

. The Modern Gladiolus Grower 191h-19l7.
. Flower Grower 1917-1957

. Real Gardening l938-19h1

. The Home Garden 19h3—1953

. Popular Gardening 1950-1957

. Flower and Garden 1957

The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Monthly 1835-1839
Hovey's Gardener's Magazine 1835-1868

The Horticulturist 18u6-1875

The Gardener's Monthly and Horticultural Advisor 1859-1888
The American Journal of Horticulture (Tiltons) 1867-1871
Vick's Monthly Magazine 1878-1909

The American Garden 1879-190h

Popular Gardening and Fruit Grower 1885-1892

The American Horticulturist 1885-1887

The Horticultural Art Journal 1886-1891

Garden and Forest 1888-1897

Meehan's Monthly 1891-1902

Gardening 1892-1925

The Gardener‘s Chronicle 1892-19h9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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HORTICULTURAL INFORMATION IN MAGAZINES FROM 1810-1835

The early American agricultural periodicals provide an interesting
picture of the beginning of horticultural information in magazines.
The development of interest in the various subjects clearly shows that
the settlers thought of their land primarily in terms of sustenance.
During the period 1810-1835, topics such as wheat, potatoes, and sheep
occupied most of the space in these magazines. Horticultural infor-
mation evolved at first in minor articles concerning vegetables and

1

fruit.

Readers frequently reported their own experiences, or problems,
in growing fruit trees. These articles seldom tried to give the complete
culture of the fruit selected; they just reported some aspect that.
interested the grower. The contributors were seldom authorities in
their field; instead they were unknown farmers, orchardists or botanists
who thought they had something worth-while to tell. To this the editors

2
frequently added their own opinions.

The Grape

Specific horticultural information in the early American agri-
cultural periodical magazines had its beginning in the native grape,

s
referred to in the magazines as "the vine." Grapevines, grapes, and

g

1The Aggicultural Museum, I (1811).

 

2The New England Farmer, I (1823).

3B, "The Vine," The Cultivator, I (July, 183h), p. 60.

23

2h

wine must have been among the important imports and the settlers con-
stantly rebelled against this expense and dependence on France and
England.1

Although most of the magazine material was actually concerned with
the making of wine from the native grapes, the articles revealed certain
cultural practices. In 1810, The Agricultural Museum, the first American
agricultural periodical, reported that spring training and a horizontal
arbor were the necessary factors for the successful growing of the vine.2
Continuing to disfavor foreign vines, the article said that the native
grape was "most proper to plant here" as it was resistant to the cold
winters and the fruit was not as subject to blast or rot as were the
foreign grapes.3 The early articles on "the vine" actually gave little
practical information. Concerning environmental factors, the author
merely stated that the plants should be placed where they would get
"full benefit of the soil, the sun, and the air."4

By 1819, the promotion of the grape had reached such a stage that

The American Farmer carried a complete series concerning the making of

 

wines and brandies. No other fruit was awarded such distinction.
By the 1830's, some native grapes had been discovered whose fruits

compared more favorably with those of the foreign grape. The "Isabella,"

A;

1Joseph Cooper, "On the Manner of Making Wine from the Native Grape
and the Advantages to be Derived from Its Cultivation," The.Agricultural
Museum, I (Sept. 12, 1810), pp. 92-93.

21219:: p. 93.
31239:: p. 92.
4.1.933. p. 93.
5IhaAmerican Farmer, I (1819).

25

the white scuppernong, and the "Catawba," were said to be the best.
Growers strongly recommended that no animal manures be placed around
the roots; however, decayed vegetable matter, lime, and ashes were con-
sidered excellent.1 Fertilization was a matter of utmost importance
when so little was known about plant breeding and many felt that proper
cultivation was all that the native grape needed to equal the quality
of the foreign grape.2

As Tha Farmer's Register expressed it, "the grape was the most
generally esteemed fruit" of this period.3 The apple perhaps followed
the grape in individual importance; however, fruit trees were discussed

in very general terms. Methods and practices were often recommended

for the orchard, without reference to a Specific fruit.

Fruit Trees

 

Pruning was recognized as a practice of great consequence as early
as 1810. It was said to double the life of a tree and to cause it to
fruit earlier.4 After much debate the writers seemed to agree that
trees should be pruned annually between May and April 10th, when the
sap was active. Although some felt that the excess bleeding from the

wounds at this time was harmful, it was generally accepted that the

 

lEdmund F. Noel, "Native and Foreign Grapes," The Farmer's Register,

I (Jan., 183k), PP. h5h-h59.
2B, "The Vine," The Cultivator, I (July, 183h), pp. 60-61.

3Noel, loc. cit.

 

4Thomas Skip Dyot Bucnall, Esq., "Observations Relative to the
Pruning of Orchards," The Agricultural Museum, I (Nov. 23, 1810), pp.
167-171.

26

wounds would heal more rapidly.1 In the pruning Operation writers
stressed the necessity of going back to the forks of the limb, making
a smooth cut, and leaving no stump.2 The dangers wounds presented to
the trees were fully recognized in 1810 as they are today. .Among the
many interesting applications for wound coverings was a substance known
as medicated tar. It consisted of one-fourth ounce of powdered corrosive
sublimate dissolved in a glass full of gin or other spirit. This was
put into a three pint earthen pipkin which was later filled with
vegetable or common tar. This amount was said to be sufficient for two
hundred trees.3 A London recipe called for three parts of powdered
chalk or brick dust to one part vegetable tar.4

Many writers placed great importance on pruning. One stated that
he hOped pruning would become as general as hoeing; he felt sure that
it was as necessary. The objective of the pruning in those days was a
circular range of evenly spaced branches, with all ends pointing outward
and a little upward. The writer felt that this equal distribution of
sap would lead to more fruit.5

The thorough discussion of pruning was evidence of the general

feeling that many neglected to practice it. writers advised the growers

to remove only the small branches. They advocated "judicious" pruning

 

1"The Farmer's and Gardeneris Remembrance," The New England Farmer,
I (March 29, 1823), pp. 289-290.

2Bucnall, loc. cit., p. 170.
31bid., p. 171.

4Earl Stanhope, "Composition for Healing wounds in Trees,"
The Agricultural_Museum, I (April 3, 1811), pp. 31h-317.

5Bucnall, The Agricultural Museum, I (Nov. 23, 1810) pp. 167-171.

 

27

and emphasized the fact that this did not include shortening the branches.
It was entirely a thinning Operation, which would allow the sun to reach
1

all the branches and improve the tree‘s figure. One contributor‘s
sentiment was reflected in the following statement: "The best compliment
your neighbor can make is that your trees are handsome, but too thin of

2
wood."

Pruning was recommended also to rejuvenate old orchards. In the

case of peach trees, "going backward from age" The New England Farmer

 

advised that the whole tOp above the roots or at the first branching
limbs be removed.3 In 1790 this practice was followed on an orchard
planted in 1772. The writer had observed great improvement by 1810 and
added as a general rule for pruning, the removal of any limb that might
be in the way in three years.4 Fruit thinning was recommended on
heavily laden branches especially for the peach, the nectarine and the
5

apple.

The early horticulturists derived much of their information from
trying various practices and observing the results. Although more such

experiments were recorded in magazines after 1835, there were quite a

few before this time. By comparing the flowering season for the various

 

1Ibid.
2Ibid., p. 169.

3"On Shape of Trees and Pruning," The New England Farmer and
Horticultural Journal, X (July 20, 1831), p. l.

4Bucnall, loc. cit., pp. 167-171.

 

5"The Farmers and Gardeners Remembrance," loc. cit., (July 19, 1823),
p. h07.

28

fruits over a period of ten years, in 1822 it was decided that the

earth temperature had to reach a given point for the flowering of each
particular fruit tree. From this evolved the practical rule "when the
apple tree flowers we may safely venture to put our corn, squash, and
melons into the earth."1 The late flowering apple trees seem to guarantee
that the danger of frost was past.

Frost injury was common for the fruit trees. Mulches, which are
used for winter protection today, were not recommended for that purpose
then as they harbored field mice who often girdled the fruit trees.

In case of this, a preacher suggested that by "connecting the under
and upper lips of the bark with a suitable number of scions," a girdled
tree might be preserved.2 Although this method of grafting proved
successful, earlier writers thought it simpler to remove the mulch each
autumn. It seems that the mulch, commonly of straw or hay, was first

3
used in America to keep the ground cool and moist in the summer.

Insects

Insect remedies provided the topic that could get anyone‘s name in
print. Everyone wrote about his special treatment and the editors,
realizing the seriousness of the problem, thus seemed to include all of
them in the magazines. Many of the applications were simple; however,

they caused one to wonder how the fruit trees survived at all.

 

1"Comparison of the Present with Some Past Seasons," The New
England Farmer, I (Aug., 1822), p. 2.

3Rev. Abiel Abbot, "Fruit Trees," The New England Farmer, I
(Nov. 30, 1822), p. lul.

3Ibid.

29

Among these were the practices of pouring boiling water, lamp oil, or
fish oil around the roots to protect the tree from the caterpillar and
canker worm.1 'Writers also advised the reader to eliminate the worms
by gathering the eggs and destroying them between January and April.2
A mixture of soap suds and oil sprinkled on the tree was said to keep
the insects from settling on the tree. Another antidote was a lye or
brine wash to kill the orchard lice. The brine consisted of a quart of
common salt to two gallons of water.3 A farmer's letter reported the 1
following substance to have "great utility against frost and insects."
His recipe included boiling tobacco in strong soap suds until the solu-
tion became reddish-brown. To six quarts of this he added one quart

of strong beef brine and then proceeded to wash the trunk and large
limbs of the tree. The part that fell on the soil served as a "most
powerful manure" that would force the fruit on your trees. He said
this should be done three times between February 15th and April 6th.5
These explicit directions were common in articles of this type; the
writers simply described what they had done. Dusting the trees with
lime and woodash was reported to be more expensive and not as long

6
lasting as the previously mentioned method.

 

1General Dearborn, "Caterpillars," The American Farmer, X (June 6,

1828), p. 9b.
2"Fruit Trees," The Aggicultural Museum, II (March, 1812), p. 283-

3"The Farmer's and Gardener's Remembrance," The New England Farmer,
I (May 17, 1823). pp. 333-33h.

4J.Wi11is, "Letter from a Farmer," ibid., II (March, l82h), p. 277.
51bid.

6"The Farmer's and Gardener's Remembrance," loc. cit.

 

30

The ravages of insects presented a bewildering problem to the
settler. The editors of The New England Farmer explained it by saying
that "the climate and soil of late years has increased insects."l
Today's knowledge of the multiplying rates indeed would have frightened
these people. Their use of the effective tobacco, oil, and soap without

additional material killing most of the plants remains a miracle.

Peach Trees

 

Interest in the peach tree itself developed in the magazines as
insects threatened the crOp. Anxious to check the ravages of the in-
sects, the magazines reported many cultural practices that might help
in some way. This resulted in the more complete cultural information
about the peach than any other crop except the grape.

The Aggicultural Museum in 1811 stated that the peach tree was

 

"liable to three casualties." These were the fly, the bursting of the
bark by frost and the splintering of limbs at the fork.2 Attacking the
peach fruit as well as the plum was the curculio worm which the editors
said was a problem from Maine to Georgia.3

In hopes of conquering these troubles, specific instructions were

given. Many felt the stock upon which the peach was budded played a

part in the fight against the insects; however, the articles show that

 

1"The Peach Tree," The Aggicultural Museum, I (Feb. 20, 1811) pp.

2Ibid.

3"Peach Trees," ibid., II (Dec. 1811), p- 192-

31

no one was sure exactly what stock was best. The Agricultural Museum

 

named plum stock as a certain remedy, but said that almond was also
good. In budding, or inoculating, as it was frequently called, the
editors recommended that the stock be left five-six inches long.1
A later issue of this same periodical stated that cherry or persimmon
stock should be used, and that the stock should be left at least 18
inches long.2 Such different recommendations were common; failing to
know the right answer, the settlers were willing to try anything.

By planting in poor soil on the northern side of a slope, readers
were told that they might avoid frost injury.3 Orchardists of the 1800's
recognized the value of transplanting the trees while they were young.
A Pennsylvania writer stated that to be sure of no check in growth,
the trees should still be in the kernel. The writers agreed that the
trees, planted 16 feet apart, should be cut off at ground level the
third spring.4 This would give a well established root system, before

budding took place. To avoid a top-heavy tree The American Farmer said

 

5

only four to six limbs should be allowed. To further combat the worm
that attacked the tree at ground level, readers were advised to tie
coarse linen cloth around the base of the tree in the spring and let it

extend three inches below ground level. Other cautions, particularly

 

11bid., I (Apr. 3, 1811), pp. 318-319.
2Ibid., II (Dec., 1811), p. 192.
3Ibid., (Jan., 1812), p. 215.

4Thomas Coulder, "Peach Orchard," The American Farmer, I (March 17,
1820), pp. h06-h07.

5Ibid.

 

32

for the peach, included a warning not to put manure around them. This
was said to cause premature decay and later ripening of the fruit which

I
remained green. The Genesee Farmer was the only magazine that recom-

 

2
mended putting manure around fruit trees. These are only a few of
the many cultural practices various writers recommended for the success-

ful growing of peaches.

Apple Trees

 

In contrast to this, individual interest in the apple developed
with an economic and patriotic slant. Apples gave the settler another
source of protest against imports. The Agricultural Museum proposed
cyder [sic] as another substitute for foreign wines.3 "It is certainly
of great importance to the people of America to cultivate the fruit that
is natural to the soil of their country, and to make the most of the
fruit which the soil produces; especially when it produces an article of
value, and of great consumption in this country."4 Apples from a 100-300
acre orchard were said to be worth $75.0043250.00 at a distillery and
more if the owners made their own cyder [sic].5 The nutritional value

of the apple was also stressed. The writers evidently felt facts such

 

1John Ellis, "Account of a Method of Preventing Premature Decay of
Peach Trees," The.Agricultura1 Museum, II (Jan., 1812), p. 212.

2"Fruit Gardens," The Genesee Farmar, III (Dec. 21, 1833), P- hOB.

3"Queries addressed to the Editor of The Agricultural Museum,"
The Agricultural Museum, I (Sept. 27, 1810): p. 98.

4"On Cider," ibid., (Nov. 9, 1810), p. 160.

5"Queries addressed to the Editor of The Agricultural Museum,"
100. cit.

33

as these more pertinent to the promotion of the apple than practical
growing rules.

The exception to this economic interest was a short article of the
propagation of the apple. The President of the London Horticultural
Society, T. Andrew Knight, in a letter to The American Farmer, reported
that an apple plant from a root cutting of the "Ribstone Pippin" variety
was superior to a seedling plant of that variety, and he recommended
the use of root cuttings to prOpagate the apple, the plum, the cherry

1
and the pear.

Pear Trees

 

From 1810 to 1835, the pear tree received notice mainly because
of the strange disease which attacked a seemingly healthy tree in spring
and by fall had turned its leaves black and its limbs a rusty iron.
A complete mystery surrounded the action of this disease. It was given
every description; however, the disease was never understood. A little
later it became known as fireblight, and today the knowledge of bacterial
diseases has fully explained the behavior of the infected tree. Even
without this knowledge many recommended that the only cure was to
destroy the tree. The disease prompted horticulturists to advocate
propagation by seed from outstanding trees. These seedlings were said

2
to bear after 12-15 years and to live for 100 years. If a vegetative

 

1T. Andrew Knight, "Upon the Advantages of Propagating from the
Roots of Old Ungrafted Fruit Trees," The American Farmer, I (May 7, 1819),
pp- hS—hé.

2"The Pear Tree," The Agricultural Museum, II (April, 1812), PP-
290-292.

 

38

method of propagation were used, growers were warned to be sure "the
cutting for engrafting is in a state of healthfulness and not of the old

1
worn-out kinds."

Other Fruits

 

The peach, the apple, and the pear were not the only fruit trees
grown; however, except for variety names there was little information
about these other types of fruits. 0n the subject of grafting,

The New England Farmer mentioned that plums, peaches, nectarine, apricots,
and almonds would all grow on the wild plum stock. The wild hawthorn

was recommended for the pear and the apple.2 Actually the possibility

of a successful union of some of these is doubtful today. In general
espalier fruit trees were frowned upon as being a little too foreign
during this period. writers did consent to tell a little about their
training; however, these exotics did not gain prominence in the magazines
until after 1835.3

The grape took almost all of the attention given small fruits.
Strawberries were of some consequence; however, deep interest in them
did not develop until the second period. The argument about the sexual
character of the strawberry plant began around 1820 but remained mild

until 1835. In 1819 The American Farmer cautioned readers to take care

 

1Ibid., p. 291.
2"Fruit Trees," The New England Farmer, I (Dec. 7, 1822), p. 152.

3"For the Month of July," The American Farmer, I (July 9, 1819),
pp. 119-120.

35

in selecting their plants. It stated that the variety, "Hautboy," was
more subject to becoming all male plants, thereby bearing no fruit, than
any of the other six principal varieties.1 In 1832, the price of straw-
berry plants varied from seventy-five cents a dozen to one dollar for

a hundred, according to the variety bought.2 Other small fruits such

as raspberries and gooseberries were only mentioned.3 They were of

such minor importance that the competition of other subjects in the

agricultural periodicals gave them no space.

The Hedge

Until now, major interests have been confined to plants which
furnished an edible or a saleable product. Running parallel to this
development was a great interest in plants for their value as a hedge.
The requirements were that the hedge be "impervious to black cattle" and
also to hogs.4 Various types of hedges were compared as to their
hardiness, value for this purpose, and their price. In a series of
detailed articles a writer compared the price of a common oak rail fence
and that of a live thorn fence. He concluded that "the balance in
favor of live fence at the end of seven years enclosing a farm of 100

5
acres would be $8h0.00."

 

1Ibid.
2"Strawberry Plants for Sale," The New'Epgland Farmer and Horti-
cultural Journal, X (Aug. 31, 1831), p. 5b. T—

3"Nursery for October," The American Farmer, I (Oct. 22, 1819),
pp ° 233 ~23h 0

4Thomas Main, "On Hedges," The Agricultural Museum, II (March,
1812), pp. 269-27h.

5Caleb Kirk, "On Hedging," The American Farmer, I (March 2h, 1820),
p. R13. T'T

36

writers argued about which kind of shrub was best for this purpose.
The English white hawthorn was said to be the best of all kinds of
plants for a hedge. It was referred to as "the thorn."1 The Honorable
John Quincy stated that the Virginia thorn was hardier and more adaptable
to the American climate than the English thorn.2 The pyracantha or
burning bush was described as a beautiful evergreen thorn which made
an excellent hedge.3 Other plants, now considered ornamentals, that
were recommended for this "live fence" were the Cherokee rose, the dog
rose, the pomegranate, the Black Haw or Viburnum and the Blueberry.
Arborvitae and cedars were mentioned also, however, plants having thorns
were preferred. Among the wild plants which the writer stated were more
permanent and required less care were the brambles and the plum.4

In spite of the importance the settler placed on the hedge and the
large number of articles concerning the hedge, very little was mentioned
about the care these plants should be given. In 1833 a writer recom-
mended that these live fences be planted in full sun in October or
November and sheltered for three years until the plants became strong.5
Pruning was extremely important to form a good hedge. It was recommended

6
that they be out very near ground level so that they would thicken up.

 

1George Tibbets, "On the Cultivation of Live Fences," The New
England Farmer, III (Aug. 28, 1823), pp. 31-33.

2"Massachusetts Agricultural Repository and Journal for June,"
The New Eagland Farmer, I (Aug. 3, 1822), p. 2.

3Tibbets, loc. cit.

4Dr. Joseph Johnson, "On Hedges," The Farmers' Register, I (Aug.,
1833), pp. lbh-lbé.

51bid.

6Kirk, loc. cit.

37

The interest in the hedge represents the first large indirect

interest in any ornamental plant. The writers did not feature the hedge

as an ornament; however, some of them mentioned casually that it would

1
add to the appearance of a farm or garden.

Forest Trees

In the se magazines interest in the cultivation of forest trees

lagged far behind that of hedges. The articles about trees were most

insignificant in comparison. The editor of The New Epgland Farmer gave

the earliES‘t. boost to the use of forest trees in 1823. He reported that

the sugar Inaple was by far the best of the forest trees. He advised

readers that it was better to buy the young trees from a nursery than

’00 dig 1Lhem from the woods. The editor gave the settler a reason to

grow the Se trees; he stated that three acres of sugar maples, planted
b8 tr ees to the acre, would furnish 600 pounds of sugar, an amount
sufficient to supply one family. Concerning oaks, the editor advised
that the acorns be gathered in the autumn and allowed to sprout in a
box of

sand before they were planted, a procedure similar to after
ripening 2

I“lethods of propagation were discussed briefly. Articles in The

 

1% Farmer, perhaps more properly called notices, especially
attempted to encourage tree-growing in this manner. This magazine

reported that the sugar maple, the beech, the ash, the black walnut,
—\

lJohnson, loc. cit.

2"On Forest Trees," The New England Farmer, I (April 26, 1823),
PP: 305-306.

38

It also stated that seeds

and the elm might be grown easily from seed.

produced better timber trees than cuttings. White sand was said to

be the best medium for rooting cuttings of trees and shrubs as it pre-

vented mould iness [sic] . Readers were advised that October was the

best time for layerage. A rather incongruous group, "Elms, limes, most

trees and flowering shrubs" were said to root easily in

hardy fores t.
‘ 4

the spring following the storage of winter moisture.

Information in The New England Farmer was concentrated on planting

the treeS- For a young. 3- to h-year-old tree, a hole three times the

width of its roots and six inches deeper than the longest root was

recommended - This alone sounds foreboding; however, the editors, while

stressing the fact that the roots should not be damaged, recommended

that they be cut back to a length of one foot. The day previous to

Planting, six inches of mould [sic] should be sifted into the hole.

If the rest of the soil used around the plant should be a light soil,

the WI‘i‘ter advised that small stones should be mixed with it to keep

the I‘OOts firm.5
we~‘tering the newly planted plant was strictly forbidden during this

9!"
p 10d , "Do not water by any means. Water, poured on, in this case,

\' '
lJ . B. "Forest and Ornamental Trees " The American Farmer, X
(NOV ’ 3
‘ 21, 1828), p. 283.
2"Ixrursery for October," 100. cit.
(Jan 3Thomas Haines, "On the Use of Sand," The American Farmer, X
‘ 9. 1829). pp- 339-3110.
"'Nursery for October," 10c. cit.
8"The Farmers and Gardeners Remembrance," The New England Farmer,

I (April 19, 1823), p. 301.

 

39

sinks rapidly down and makes cavities amongst the roots; lets in air;
mould [sic J and canker follow; and great injury is done." The same
article stated, however, "a new but elligible practice" for extreme dry

conditions was throwing two to three pails of water into the hole the

2
day before planting. Although other articles said that occasional

watering wou 1d not harm the plants, watering was not generally recom-
mended.

Concerning the question of autumn or spring transplanting, however,
the opposing results only inflamed the argument, which became very

strong after 1835. The American Farmer in 1819 thought autumn by far

3

the best- A few years later The New England Farmer acknowledged that

the time Of planting varied with the locality--in Pennsylvania they
recommended spring; in Massachusetts fall was preferred. Today the
reverse 01‘ this practice is commonly accepted; in colder climates plant-

ing is dOne in the spring. Their arguments may easily be understood,

however 3 for it is now realized that most plants may be moved success-

fully at any time if they are given the pr0per care.
Garden Plants

I‘I‘l-lch of the information concerning ornamental plants was taken
dlreetly from foreign periodicals or books. Many of these early

-\
lIbid.
...—.—
2Ihid.
3“Nursery for October," loc. cit.

4"The Farmers and Gardeners Remembrance ," loc. cit.

to

agricultural magazines featured a garden calendar which told of the

duties of the month in respect to the kitchen garden, nursery, and

flower garden. It also contained bits of information about various

plants. The calendar in The American farmer was taken directly from

the book, The American Gardener. In a July, 1819 issue the writer

1
pointed out that it was time to separate the Venus Fly Trap. A June

issue stated that many of the evergreens, such as the common Jassamine

[sic] and trumpet flower, could be prOpagated by layerage easily at that
time for the soft wood would "freely ernit the roots."

This information, although in many cases too brief to be of a great
During

deal of help, was particularly significant for its timeliness.

the years 1810-1835, timeliness seldom was a property of the article

in the agricultural periodicals. The June issue recommended that

annuals be transplanted on a cloudy day and that perennial and biennial
seedlings as Sweet Scabiosa, Canterbury bells, and Sweet William be
moved 1; . . . 3 . . .
0 their permanent p031tion. Such information as this constituted
the mailer portion of ornamental information at this time.
Even the rose, which one would presume to have been the flower of
the
day, rated little concern. Other than poetry in the ladies‘ depart-
m
ents él1an descriptions of varieties, early interest in the rose develOped

as the rose bugs became obnoxious. For these, the flambeau stick

\
1"For the Month of July," The American Farmer, I (July 9, 1819),

pp' 119—120.
2"For the Month of June," ibid., (June h, 1819), pp. 76-77.

 

3Ibid.

141

1
furnished a. method of self-destruction. In 1828, The American Farmer

reported that a well—drained, fresh soil was suitable for growing roses
Other "rose—news" worthy of comment at this time dealt with varieties

or types: the moss rose was rare; the yellow rose would not flower;

2
and there we. 3 no true black rose.

Among the other flowering plants that were mentioned specifically

in these VOLUJnes were the tulips, narcissi and hyacinths. It was recom-

mended that. they be planted in late September in sand with a three-inch

3
mulch of leaves for the winter. The color change of the hydrangea

was reported solved by Loudon‘s Magazine of London. The New England

Farmer did not completely accept this solution, that iron oxide in the

soil caused the hydrangea to turn blue, but advised its readers to try
4
it” In the 1830's introductions from California began to gain interest.

or these fischscholtzia Californica, the California poppy, was given
wide aux-31am.5

This information about ornamentals may seem insignificant and

relativ ely speaking, it was. It marked the beginning of an interest
which

s‘pread widely and rapidly in American magazines after the year

18
3'5 witnessed the publication of two horticultural magazines.

\

Wm 1"01') a Mode of Destroying Insects," The New En land Farmer, I
e 28, 1823), p. 379. L

3"Roses," The American Farmer, X (March 28, 1828), p. 11.

(0c 3"Hyacinths," The New England Farmer and Horticultural iournal, X
‘3. 26, 1831), p. 116.

‘4"gydrangia Hortensis," ibid., (June 20, 1832), p. 389.

18 5D. T., "New Ornamental Plant," The Genesee Farmer, III (April 27,
33 ) , p. 130.

1:2

Recalling tl'le conditions previous to this time when the American had
just gained his independence and was fighting to survive, it may be

said that first things came first, and beauty was of little conse-

quence .

HOR TICULTURAL INFORMATION IN MAGAZINES FROM 15335-1860

Horticultural information in magazines during the years between
1835 and 1860 was definitely of a different character than the earlier
19th Century information. Although many practices remained the same,
interest in the various horticultural crops shifted considerably.

The emergence of two horticultural magazines was responsible for

this change - They were Hovey‘s Gardener's Magazine and The Horticultural

Registeriélld Gardener's Magazine. Devoted completely to horticulture,
these magazines naturally contained a wealth of material that had been
lacking 30 noticeably in the earlier agricultural journals. As the
agriCU'ltUT-‘al periodicals after 1835 drew heavily on both of these
magazines , their horticultural information changed in a similar manner.

The birth of these two magazines gave additional authority to
inf(”Imitation as they had regular contributors, many of whom were experts
in the field. Nurserymen, such as Joseph Breck, William Prince, and
E’ B' I(enrick sent in interesting articles, which gave the reader
valuable knowledge and incidentally, gave their nurseries a little free

Pablicitw Botany professors, gardeners of well-known estates and
authors of horticultural books were frequent contributors.1 These men
reported their observations and experiments and the readers could

evaluate the recommendations in terms of the reputation of the writer.

I‘ifbvey, in his Magazine of Horticulture, attributed the present

morease in interest in horticulture to the establishment of State
\

1Magazine of Horticulture, X (1815).
D3

hi:

1
Horticultural Societies and their communications with Great Britain.

After 1835, the magazines reflected the American as being more accustomed

to his independence. Although the use of native plants was still en-

couraged, the desire for exotic introductions and knowledge of foreign

practices was acknowledged. In many ways the end of the extreme

resentment toward Great Britain turned the unsure people who seemingly

had remainEd colonists long after their independence, into peOple of a

united nation that was part of a large world.

Native Plants

To increase the gardener's use of native plants, Teschemacher said

2
that they Were the pride and ornament in Europe. Hovey lamented the

fact that the large number of indigenous plants were overlooked due to
the eXOtiQ-s.3 This was blamed partially on the nurseryman's failure to
supply nEttive plants.4 Hovey encouraged the use of both, cautioning
readers that some exotics, referring especially to the Oriental ones,

5
were not well adapted to this climate.

Of the native evergreens, Kalmia, Rhododendron, and Andromeda were

8
said to equal the exotics in beauty. It was recommended that young

\
1C - M. Hovey, "Introduction," Magazine of Horticulture, I (1835) .

th I - E. Teschemacher, Esq., "On the Preservation and Cultivation of
e Ilciigenous Plants of North America ," Magazine of Horticulture, I

(Jam 1835), pp. 12-13.
3 .
4libid.
1855) Henry W. Sargent, "Evergreen Shrubs," The Horticulturist, X (May,
3 pp. 205-207.
5 .
.Ibld..

8
.Ibid .

b5

shrubs with a. ball of earth attached to each, be bought in April and

planted in good soil in a shady location.

These should not be over two
. 1
feet high.

Kenrick emphasized the need to cultivate the wild herbaceous

plants. Among those growing near Boston he reported that the columbine,

the Hepatica, the Cymbidium, the yellow snap dragon and the aster were
2

easily grown in the garden.

Mr. Munn , a landscape architect, said the following exotics were

hardy near New York, if protected by evergreen bough for their first
two winters-

Among these were Mahonia, the English and Irish yews, Box
3
wood, and the Deodar cedar.

Eyergreens had reached a position of vast
admiration;

of many others that were discussed the Southern Magnolia

 

4
gandiflori, which was said to be hardy in Philadelphia, was most prized.

Trees

The argument about transplanting trees continued. To the earlier
questions: when is the best time?

should the plant be watered?, a new

one was added-"how deep should the tree be planted? Many felt that
planting too deep resulted in a sickly plant, because of poor aeration.

A ' .
M‘lter to The Gardener's Monthly criticized A. J. Downing, the horti-

tur ~ ‘ 5
cul lat, for advising that trees be planted in holes two feet deep.
\
1“
ative Shrubs ," The Horticultural Register and Gardener's
MEX, I (Jan., 1835), p. 20.

Boston ~ B. Kenrick, "Beautiful Plants Growing Wild in the Vicinity of
3

" Magazine of Horticulture, I (Oct., 1835), pp. 368-377.

3B . Munn, "Evergreen Shrubs," The Horticulturist, X (March, 1855),
pp' 123 ~126.

fiwiuia’“ Sanders: 2231-, (April, 1855), pp. 162-166.
Monthswilliam Bright, "Shallow Planting of Trees ," The Gardener's
—-—\1X,, II (Jan., 1860), pp-.- n.6,

to

Some maintained the radical view that trees should be planted on

1
the surface, with the soil drawn up about them. The New England Farmer

 

and Horticultural Register recommended planting the tree at the same
depth at which it had been previously growing.2 To combat the wet
subsoil which was thought to cause the root to stop growth, the writers
recommended that eight inches of stones and brush be placed two to three
feet deep below the tree.3 This magazine took a wise stand on many
issues. It even conceded that an evergreen might be watered after
transplanting.4

The Horticulturist reported that deciduous trees were easier to
transplant than evergreens.5 Downing said that America should c0py
English parks and preserve the trees instead of destroying them. Among
the trees he recommended for parks were the oak, the poplar, the
Kentucky coffee tree, and the cypress. He also recommended the use of
such exotics as the larch, the ash, the beech, and the Japanese Maiden
hair tree.6

New methods of propagation of trees were given. The Horticulturist

reported that the new Japanese ornamental, Paulownia, would grow from a

 

l"Practical Hints to Amateurs," Ohio Cultivatgr, V (Jan. 1, 18h9),
pp. 9-10.

2"Transplanting," The New England Farmer and Horticultural Register,
xx (Oct. 6, 18hl), p. 109.

3"Effect of a Wet Subsoil on Trees," ibid.
4"Transplanting," ibid-

5William Saunders, "When and How to Plant Trees," The Horticultur-
igp, x (Nov. 1855), pp. h9S-h98.

5A. J. Downing, "On the Employment of Ornamental Trees and Shrubs
in North America," Magazine of Horticulture, I (Dec., 1835), pp. hhh-hS2.

 

h?

single bud, removed in the spring and planted in a hotbed.1 In 18h?
air layerage, as it is known today, was reported to be a successful
method of propagating many trees. This spring-time operation consisted
of injuring the bark of a thrifty shoot and binding it with fine rich
mould [sic] covered by a cloth.2 The knowledge of plants had increased

greatly in many areas.
The Rose

The rose was the queen of the flowering plants during this period.
A classification system of eleven botanical classes was proposed in
1835; however, it was entirely different from today’s system.3 Among
the roses were hybrid perpetuals, especially the variety, "Prince
Albert,"4 the moss, the Damask, the Austrian Briars, the Hybrid Bourbon,
and the Hybrid Chinese. By 18h? there was a list of a total of 1,253
varieties of roses. The writer cautioned growers that many of these
were not worthy of cultivation.5

There were not many new developments in the culture of the rose.

The climbing roses were commonly laid on the earth during the winter

 

1"The Two New Ornamental Trees," The Horticulturist, I (July,
18h6), pp. 15-18.

2"A New Method of Producing Choice Trees," The American.Agri—
culturist, I (May, 18h2), p. 38.

3"On Roses," The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine,

I (1835), PP- hSB-hSB-

4"Climbing and Pole Rose for Hardy Culture," The Horticulturist,
I (Oct. 18h6), pp. 173-17h.

5Dr. Valk, "Remarks on.Roses," ibid., (Jan., 18h7), PP. 305-309.

 

b8

for protection.1 A radical method of propagation that was reported
successful in lBhS required that the rose cuttings be placed in pots
in the full summer sun and watered six times a day.2 Some felt that
budded or grafted roses were shortlived plants because of the
"degenerating influence of the briar in their nature."3 The briar
referred to the stock plant which was usually the dog rose or a type
called the "manetti" variety.4 Hovey called this the latest freak talk.
Insects were still of great concern; however, the only new cure
was an English aphis brush with which one brushed the insects off the
rose bush into not water.5 For a fertilizer, 2 1/2 ounces of guano and
one quart of charcoal dust were recommended to be placed in the hole
before planting. Such a practice as this is what Hovey called the

6
popular theory of special manures. He criticized it vehemently.

Garden Flowers

The magazines gave accounts of the complete culture of the most

7

important flowers of this period. Among these were the dahlia,

 

1Charles Robinson, Esq., "On the Cultivation of Prairie Roses,"
The Michigan Farmer, III (March, 18h6), p. 191.

20. J. W},"Striking Rose Cuttings," The Horticulturist, X (Dec.
1855), P- 566-

3Thomas Meehan, "Budded Roses," 3229:: (Jan. 1855), p. 19.

4gpig,, pp. 18-21.

5"Aphis Brush," The Horticulturist, X (Oct, 1855), p. h81-

6"Guano as Applied to the Rose," 2929:: I (Aug., 18h6), PP- 87-88-

73. B. Noble, "Cultivation of the Dahlia," The Michigan Farmer,
III (April, lBhS), p. ll.

 

 

h?

the hollyhock,l the phlox species,2 and the lily.3 Lists of species
and varieties were also given.

The following information reflects the strenuous practice of the
gardener of this period. Dahlia cuttings were said to form freer
flowering plants than divisions of the tuber, as the plants raised
from cuttings were not as woody.4 A great deal of interest in the
hollyhock revolved around attempts to prOpagate it by seedlings, and
thereby improve the varieties.5 The common garden phrase, "the earth
should move like an ash-heap," was used to describe the type soil
necessary for the hollyhock.6 This intensive culture of flowers was
typical of the day. Everything had to be perfect.

Spring bulbs continued to hold a great deal of interest, especially
the fragrant ones.7 The trenching process was recommended for them as
well as for other plants. Trenching consisted of removing the soil
from the entire bed (commonly h' x 30') to a depth of two and one-half

feet. Six inches of rotted manure were then placed in the bottom of

the trench and two feet of compost put in on top of this. The intricacies

 

1"The Hollyhock," Magazine of Horticulture, XX (Aug., lBSh), PP-
363-379.

2Joseph Breck, " A Chapter on Phloxes," The Horticulturist, I
(Sept., 18h6), pp. 122-127.

3Breck, "On the Cultivation of the Lily Tribe," ibid., (Aug, 18h6),
pp. 66-700

4Peter Mackenzie, "On the Cultivation of the Dahlia," Magazine of
Horticulture, I (May, 1835), pp. 172-l7h.

5"The Hollyhock," Magazine of Horticulture, xx (Aug., 1851;), pp-
363-379.

6Ibid., p. 370.

7nHyacinths," The Horticultural Register and Gardeners Monthly, I
(Jan., 1835), p- 6?.

 

 

SO

of the operation continued, however, for at each six-inch interval a
handful of sand had to be placed. This was for each tulip bulb. The
writer reassures the reader that next year he will only have to replace
part of this soil.1

Gardeners were advised that bulbs of the popular Gladiolus Natalensis

 

should be placed on their sides, "to prevent the wet from penetrating
their hearts."2 Hovey tried to promote the popularity of the Chrysan-
themum; he said prejudice made them common, when they should be highly
valued.3 English admiration for the pansy, violet, or Heart's-ease
had spread its fame throughout America.

Among the other garden flowers commonly recommended were Sweet
peas, Stock, Marygold [sic], Petunia, Hibiscus, Coreopsis, Jacobea,
Browallia,5 Cleome, Zinnia and larkspur.6 Flowers especially recom-
mended for the pleasure garden were Campanula, Verbena, Nicotiana,

‘7
Salvia, Iberis, Lobelia Clarkia.

Flowering,Shrubs

 

Flowering shrubs played a minor part in the development of orna-

mental horticulture in magazines. The reason for this is quite simple.

 

1J.'WL Russel, "On the Cultivation of the Tulip," Magazine of
Horticulture, I (Nov., 1835), pp. hOB-hll.

2S. Sweetser, "Remarks on the Management of Gladiolus Natalensis,"
ibid., (Feb., 1835), p. 55.

30. M. Hovey, "On the Cultivation of the Chinese Chrysanthemum,"
ibid., (April, 1835), pp. l38-lho.

4S.‘Wa1ker, "On the History and Cultivation of the Viola tricolor,
Pansy violet, or Heart's—ease," ibid., (Jan., 1835), Pp: 17-19.

 

5The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Monthly, I (1835), p. hSS.
6Ibid., p. hl2.
7Ibid., p. h16.

51

Hovey stated that until 1853, all of the common ones were thought to be
greenhouse plants. The tree paeony [sic] the camellia, the Japanese
magnolia, and the Wisteria vine were discovered to be hardy accidentally.
Other flowering shrubs that were first known as greenhouse plants
included §pigga_prunifolia, WEigelia £2223; Forsythia viridissima,

l
Deutzia Eacilis, and Jasminum nudiflorum.

 

In the 1850‘s numerous double flowering fruit trees were brought
to America. Of these, the double crimson-flowering peach and the

double white~flowering almond seemed most popular. The Horticulturist

 

stated that these two were just as hardy as the common peach and re-
quired the same treatment as the peach. Their special value, the
magazine said, was in their colors.2

Other fruit trees used commonly as ornamentals were the dwarf
espalier, and the pyramid. The merits of these types were often
questioned; however, they became very popular. ThegAmerican.Agri-
culturalist expressed the sentiments of many when it stated that "the
sooner gentlemen give the espaliers up for standards the better."3
It was recommended that branches of the espalier or pyramidal tree be
replaced by side-grafting rather than bud grafting. In this process a

shoot from a lower limb was trained upward and attached to the main

trunk at the point where the branch was desired. After the union was

1"Progress of Horticulture for 1853," Magazine of Horticulture,
XX (Jan., 18511), P. 10-

2"The Double Crimson-Flowering Peach and Double White—Flowering
Almond," The Horticulturist, X, (May, 1855), pp. 20h-205.

3"Espa1iers," The American.Agriculturist, X (Jan., 1851). p. 29.

52

complete, the stem from the shoot's point of origin to the trunk was
removed.1 Pyramidal trees were more popular than the espalier.2
Deep rich soil was recommended for all types of dwarf fruit trees,
as it was said the roots would not wander far since it was unnecessary
to seek nourishment in such a soil. Other recommendations especially
for the pear included the applications of phosphate of lime in the
form of bones mixed with wood ashes.3 Growers were cautioned to select
varieties that had proved durable on quince stock and to select trees
one-year-old from bud that had been pruned correctly. The editor of
the horticulture department of The Farmer‘s Companion_and Horticultural
Journal, J. E. Holmes, criticized the nurseries training of these dwarf
fruit trees, insisting that the French mode of training was the only

4
correct one.

Fruit

The magazines were very anxious for the gardeners to select the
5
best available variety of the different fruits for cultivation. Hovey
stated that many people were prejudiced against the new varieties,

without knowing their merits. Opposed to these conservatists were the

 

1Samuel G. Perkins, "Treatment of Espaliers," The Horticulturist,
1 (June, 18M), pp. 5142-515.

2Ibid.

 

3J. C. Holmes, "Horticultural Department," The Farmer's Companion
and Horticultural Journal, I (May, 1853), pp. 85487.

4Ibid I

5"Introduction," The Horticultural Register and Gardener‘s Monthly,
I (Jan., 1835), PP. 7-9-

53

people who judged the varieties entirely by their novelty rather than
their quality. Desiring new American varieties, Hovey tried to get
Americans to begin experiments in cross fertilization similar to
English and French ones.1 He said, "It would be indeed strange, that

with the energy and zeal characteristic of the American citizen, we

2

should suffer our gardens alone to be stocked with foreign productions."

Although Hovey had some strange ideas himself, as an editor he
often took an admirable stand in horticultural matters. One might say
that he was newsworthy; he was often admired or criticized by other
editors for his views. He was one of the few who did not believe in
heading fruit trees back after they were transplanted.3 Among other
interesting things, Hovey reported that the first "efficient" fruit
gatherer was on the market in 1835. This gadget consisted of a twenty-
foot pole with a net or cloth "hose" which carried the fruit directly
from its branch to the basket.4

A new method of propagating fruit trees from cuttings was found
successful in 1851. This included dipping the ends of the cutting into
grafting wax or rosin before placing them in clean sand. It was re-
ported that the cuttings could be rooted on the south side of a building

without artificial heat. Nurseries were told to run a sharp chisel

 

1"Introduction," Magazine of Horticulture, I (Jan., 1835), p. h.
3C. M. Hovey, "Seasonable Hints on Pruning," Haggaine of Horti-
ggippgg, xx (April, 185h), pp. 181-18h.

8 4"The New-Fruit Gatherer," The Horticulturist, I (Oct, 18h6), pp-
17 ~180.

Sh

under their fruit trees before they grew over two feet high.1 Each of
these three practices resemble in varying degrees ones following today.
Cuttings are dipped in a growthapromoting substance; horticulturists
are doing extensive propagation outside, with the aid of a constant
mist of water; and nurseries recognize the fact that the root pruning

produces a more compact root.

Pear

 

Of the individual tree fruits, the pear dominated the magazines.
In 185h, Hovey said that it was more important than the apple in the
west.2 The disease, fireblight, remained a favorite topic. From fifty
years of observation and experiments, which included a content analy-
sis of the pear sapwood, Dr. J. O. Kirtland reported that he believed
the reason some pears escaped fireblight was that they had been raised
from seed and planted on rich virgin soil.3 Dr. Kirtland's mistrust of
the budded or grafted pear resulted from the reported union of unsuit-
able varieties and stocks. The MichigangFarmer cautioned readers that

the variety of the trees "that is worked upon guinea stock" must be

4
carefully selected.

 

l"Orcharding," The American.Agriculturist, X (March, 1851), PP-
89-90.

2"Progress of Horticulture for 1853," Magazine of Horticulture,
XX (Jan., 185h), pp. h-S-

3Dr. J. P. Kirtland, "On the Cultivation of the Pear Tree,"
Magazine of Horticulture, XX (April, 185h), PP. 166-172-

4J. C. Holmes, "Pears on Quince Stocks," The Michigan Farmer
XIII (Sept-, 1855), p. 273.

55

Although Dr. Kirtland's conclusions were wrong, his statement that
he had seen newly planted pears die in a period of eight years from
fir‘eblight while some older ones survived it, was accurate and puzzling.l
The famed Endicott pear tree of Salem, Massachusetts, said to be
Planted in 1630, continued to bear fruit yearly. In 1851, this tree

was described as having a hollow trunk and being dwarfish, only 18 feet
high with the circumference of its limbs being 55 feet.2 As one of the

horticulturists suggested, the only answer to fireblight at this time

3
was the knife, the ultimate destruction of the tree.
Peach

Another disease, the yellows, was responsible for a great deal of
the interest in the peach at this time. It was said to be contagious
and Conununicated through the seed.4 In 18116 The Horticulturist stated
that. the disease was transmitted by pruning. Careful study of parts of
di“Based plants under a microscope showed no sign of an insect. The
Yell-0W8 in the peach was another mystery. Observation indicated that
prOpeI. nourishment seemed to cause the disease to disappear. The best

5
remedy of the day, however, was to "pull up and replant."
\

1Kirtland, loc . cit.

18 2"The Endicott Pear Tree," The American Agriculturist, X (April,
513 _, p. 120.

ist 3J. H. Ernst, "The Fireblight-—Cracking of Pears," The—Horticultur—
" X (001”, 1855), pp. 1457-168.

Far “Robert Sinclair, "The Yellows in the Peach Tree ," The New England

wand Horticultural Rigister, xx (July, 18141), pp. 1819.

(No 5L. Wyman, "The Yellows in Peach Trees," The Horticulturist, I
V - .3 181.6), pp. 212-211..

56

Curculio Worm

The curculio worm‘s damage to the fruit of the plum, the nectarine,
and the apricot brought a deluge of original remedies into the magazines.

SOme of the more drastic ones were paving the ground below the tree,

01’ covering this surface with a thin coat of salt. These were based

on a sound fact; when the rotten fruit containing the eggs fell to the

grOLuad, the curculio upon hatching would perish. The danger these

In their day these
3
were plausible; responsible well-known men as Downing recommended them.

remedies presented to the trees was not considered.

A milder remedy, frequently employed, was that of fencing pigs and

geese under the trees, then shaking the trees, allowing the insects to

fall on sheets. The animals would then eat them. William Adair summed

all Of these remedies up when he stated that they were "as numerous as
the quack vendor‘s cures of consumption or any other incurable disease."
In the same article, however, he reported five other remedies, stating

that, the best one was covering all of the branches with fish oil when

a

the fruit reached the size of a pea.

‘\
(A ‘ 1"Hints to the Cultivator of Fruits," The Michigan Farmer, III
pl‘l‘l, 1815), pp. 19-20.
2John L. Williams, "Plums," ibid., (May, 18h5), p. 31.

 

3"Hints to Cultivators of Fruit," ibid., (Dec., 1815), p. 113.
4The New Curculio Remedy," The Horticulturist, X (Jan., 1855),

p- LLB

5William Adair, "Curculio Remedies," ibid., (April, 1855), p. 171.
6Ibid., pp. 120-172.

57

The Grape

Although almost completely interpreted as the grape in magazines

from 1810-1835, small fruits were well on their way to their present

iliportance in the following period. Interest in the strawberry reached

S'Jch heights, that the coverage the magazines gave it approached that

awarded the esteemed grape. In a similar, although less striking

fashion, magazine space devoted to the bramble fruits increased to cover

their complete culture.

Hovey was responsible for much of the new interest in the native

grape . By 1855, he had declared that further improvement of the grape

would have to be by hybridization instead of cultivation. He advised

readers to examine each wild vine they saw, saying that it might be the

Very One needed in the breeding prOgram. As evidence for his belief,

Hovey- cited the new varities "Concord" and "Diana." The promised

Concord grape was one of two thousand seedling plants grown by Mrs. E.
W. Buel. Growing on a poor sandy loam, Hovey stated that it had not

3
been injured by frosts or droughts.

The vine was not pruned or pinched, "nor had it had any application

0f the horticultural arts, whereby precocity and size are attained"; yet

. , 4
1t “as a good grower and ripened before frost. Hovey further stated

\

Ma. 1:3. Hale, "Can Our Native Grapes Be Improved by Cultivation?"
“~33‘21ne of Horticulture, XX (Dec., 1851;), p. 5139.

Pp 2"The Production of Plants by Hybridization," ibid., (June, 1851;)
‘ 2h9-251. “"—
3C. M. Hovey, "Description and Engraving of the Concord Grape,"

i
~bi\d., (Feb., 1851.), pp. 63-67.
4Ibid., p. 66.

58

1
that it was a good wine and table grape. Hovey was an enthusiastic

SIl'pporter of hybrids at his time, and he reminded readers that he had
mentioned hybridization as a possible source of new varieties as early
2
as 1838.
Of the old grapes, the "Catawba" was said to compose nine-tenths
of the cultivated vineyards in the west and also to be the main grape
of the middle states. The Scuppernong grape was in great demand in the

3
South. Hovey said that the variety "Diana" was better for New England

4
than "Isabella . "

Stressing the fact that the grape fruits on the young wood of the
previous year"s growth, Hovey stated that every inch of old wood was
5 .
WOlf'tl'lless. On the basis of this he recommended the spur system of
Pruning for cold climates, rather than the renewal system. He also
Stated that the vine should remain horizontal throughout the winter
until May, as this slowed the flow of sap, thereby causing the buds to
break 5 . . . .
- more slowly and evenly. Hovey con51dered weeding or disbuddlng

the Vine necessary for a good crop and implored that it become a general

/

prac tice .
\
1311.9." p. 6‘].
2"The Production of Plants by Hybridization," 123. git:

pp 3"Cultivation of the Grape," The Horticulturist, X (Sept., 1855),
' Lun-hzl.

‘Hovey, loc. cit.
SHale, loc. cit.

6"Note on the Culture of the Grape," The Horticulturist, X (Feb.,
) , pp. 66-68.

'7Ibid.

1855

59

The Strawberry

Hovey naturally had a great interest in the strawberry, for the

hlfbrid known as "Hovey's seedling" had been cultivated since 1810. It

The Boston Pine strawberry, however,

1
Was recommended especially for the New York area.

“38 considered the best variety.

The sexual character of the strawberry was a tOpic for seemingly

Unlimited debate. No one knew the answer; however, all of the magazines

reported the latest arguments. The argument that raged between Hovey's

Egrdener's Magggine and The Horticulturist, with the latter maintaining

that strawberries in their original or normal state had a natural pro-

2
Portion of stamens and pistils, seldom missed an issue. The editors

continued to answer each other‘s comments throughout the period.

Interest in developing an everbearing strawberry grew. "Stoddard's

Red Alpine" was introduced by Mr. J. W. Bissell who thought it was a

3
valuable everbearing kind . In Georgia by planting six rows of "Hovey's
seedling" between each row of "Early Scarlet" growers had had fruit

from March to September. The factors thought to be responsible for

this Were that the plants were never manured or watered. Manure was

Said ‘to yield only abundant foliage. The writer said that in the autumn

a light dressing of top soil from the forest was applied. Over this a

cover ing of leaves was placed and allowed to decay. These leaves also

\
1"Notes on Strawberries " Ma azine of Horticulture XX (Au .
1.8 .9 EL 3 g 2
SL1) , pp. 35/-362.
I ( 2J. wu Bissell, "Stoddard‘s New Strawberry," The Horticulturist,
Aug... 18146). pp. 77-78.

3Ibid.

 

60

Served to keep the berries clean. Although the writer was aware that

the Georgia climate was responsible for the full six months of pro-
1

d"etion, he suggested that northern growers try these practices.
The Brambles

Among the bramble fruits, the red and black raspberries were given

special recognition by the magazines. The everbearing black raspberry,

discovered in Ohio in 1832, was said to produce one crop in June, on
the previous year's canes and to provide successive fruit until October

as the younger canes matured. The "Red Antwerp" seemed to be the most

favored variety of red raspberry. The magazines recommended that its

canes be woven together at the top, for additional support. Tanbark

was Said to be a good mulch for the raspberries as well as the other

5 3
”all fruits. Writers reported that the hardy "Lawton blackberry" or
4

native blackberry was not liable to insects. Horizontal training was

rec30n'lrnended as a practice that would cause all of the eyes to break

and . 5
produce a full crop of fruit.

Although the gooseberry, currant and cranberry were given less

attention by the magazines, there were articles on the culture of each.

\

Con - l"Strawberries--The Secret of Growing This Fruit Six Months
t‘3~Imously," The American Agriculturist, X (Aug., 1851), p. 253.

18L; 2Ezra Carpenter, "The Everbearing Raspberry," ibid., I (April,
2 ) 9 pp. 5’6-

1858 3"Tan Bark for Raspberries," The Ohio Valley Farmer, III (March,
) ’ p! 35.
XX 4"The Lawton, or New Rochelle Blackberry," Magazine of Horticulture,
(April, 1851;), pp. 17h-178.
(Ma. 5"Train the Blackberry Horizontally," The Ohio Valley Farmer, III
3’, 1858), p. 71..

61

AmOng the more interesting practices advised for the gooseberry was the
pruning operation. Hovey recommended that all of the shoots except the
'“m-year-old ones should be removed at the base of the plant. He
CI‘iticized the practice of cutting the remaining shoots back, forming
a round head, saying that by causing secondary shoots to develop
thickly, less air circulated among them. The result of this, he said,
has; ismall fruit and mildew.1 The Horticulturist stated that a three-
inc:fl nmlch of salt hay around the plants during the summer would pre-
verlt; nnldew, although they did not know why'.2 The advice to never
ukar11: gooseberries in the shade of trees3 makes one wonder if any
conuaeacztion between the gooseberry and the white pine blister rust was
recognized at that time.

Most writers of the day were convinced that of the three varieties
or Cr‘ELI'lberries only the "Bell" would grow on dry or upland soil. Poor
sail, ‘Fizas recommended for the bogs as writers were convinced that the
plant 8 ' sources of nourishment were the air and the water.4

lHLagazines from 1835-1860 gave the complete culture of each type
or fr‘uit from the propagation to the fruit gathering. Previous to this
dateg fist was pointed out that the magazines discussed even the most im-
I)Or-t‘éal-nt fruit in terms of its uses more frequently than its cultivation.

\

Hor 13. Walker, "On the Cultivation of the Gooseberry," Magazine of

W: 1 (June, 1835), pp. 207-209.

I ( 2"A Preventive to the Mildew in the Gooseberry ," The Horticulturist,
July, 18146), pp. 25-26.

3Walker, loc. cit.

4"The Cranberry," The Farmers Companion and Horticultural Journal,
rch, 1853), pp. 51-5r2.

62

The Hedge

A basic change in the type of information was noted also in the

ElI‘ticles on the hedge. Before 1835, writers reported almost entirely

on which plant was most suitable for hedges. Although this remained a

topic of interest, after 1835 there were innumerable accounts telling

just how to grow the hedge. The Michi an Farmer, in an article entitled

@76zrn3ing" said that a trench ten feet wide should be prepared, mixing
It stated that the taproots of the seedlings
This,

mamlre in with the soil.

should be cut back to eight inches or given lateral direction.
by causing lateral root development, was to keep the root system shallow

and well aerated. The plants were to be planted over the entire width

five inches apart. The spring following fall planting, the magazines

rec301'1‘nnended that the seedlings be cut back to a height of four inches

and the resulting shoots interwoven. Each successive spring they would

be left a little taller. By the fourth year, the plants were reported

t" be between two and three feet tall, after having been held back.
1

r1"lfleiiblchigan Farmer also advocated additional manure each year.

This was typical of the many recommendations made for planting and

triajélrling the hedge. In Michigan, the two native thorns were said to be
sup e:I'Jior to the hawthorn or crabapple for hedge plants.:3 In the con-
tirlfiJLang argument about which plants were best for hedges it was pointed
cult; ‘that the White Hawthorn had proved good for thirty years, and

a
lthough it was subject to blight and disease, so were the rest of the

\
1146 1Petra, "Fencing," The Michigan Farmer, III (Jan., 18146), pp, 115..

2Ibid.

 

63

thorns. This writer said that the buckthorn, Rhamnus catharica, which

 

1
some maintained was the best plant for hedges, had no merit.

The osage orange, Maclura aurantiaca, a native of the Arkansas
territory, was said to be the best hedge for fencing animals.2 It was
also recommended to hold the banks by railway lines. In the southern
states, the wood was reported to be preferable to the live oak for
shipbuilding, to be prized for cabinet work and to be used for making
a yellow dye.3 The planting method was simpler than the previously
mentioned method as the type of growth necessitated only a double row
015' plants in a three-foot-wide trench. A mulch of manure, although
straw, wood chips or sawdust could be used, was recommended to keep the
ground moist and too add to the fertility of the soil.4

Besides their use as live fences, hedges were highly thought of
as OPZnamentals to be used in front of a home.5 For this use the English

ha 5
Wtl'Iorn, Crataeggs ogcantha, and the Italian privet were rivals.

7
The use of native plants was encouraged, however, by The Horticulturist.

willflseun Prince, a well-known nurseryman, stressed the value of evergreen

1"Best Plants for Hedges," The Horticulturist, X (Feb., 1855), p.

 

9S.

2"Hedges," The Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Journal, I
(Jan., 1853), p. 11.

3"Trees, Etc., for the Banks of Railroads," The Horticulturist, X

(Dec -, 1855), p. 573.
4"Hedges," log. 9.1.9
SIbid.

eWilliam R. Prince, "Remarks on Hedges," The Horticulturist, I
(Sept ., 18%), pp. 127-129.

7A. Saul. "The American Arbor Vitae for Screens and Hedges," ibid.,
(July, 19%), pp. 23-2h. “-

 

6h

hedges. For this purpose, he recommended the American Arbor Vitae [sic],
the juniper, the red cedar, and the northern spruce.1 The most prized
of the evergreens for hedges were the pyracantha2 and the hemlock.:5
For rapid growth, Prince recommended a'hedge of flowering shrubs such

4
as Syringa, Lilac, and Snowball. A. J. Downing added Cydonia Japonica,

 

5
the Japanese quince, to this list.

Summary

In the period from 1835 to 1860, magazines stressed the ornamental

function of the plants mentioned in the earlier period. This burst of

jflf01"mation in the magazines in 1835 could easily leave a false impres-
sion . America did not become beauty-conscious overnight; however,
certain men became increasingly aware of the need for an appreciation
Of nature and a knowledge of the influence of various factors upon it.
Among these men were ’the editors of the two horticultural magazines,
Charles M. Hovey, Thomas G. Fessenden and J. E. Teschemacher. They
realiz ed that horticultural information could not flourish as long as
it had to compete with agricultural news for space in agricultural

periOd icals .

\

1Prince, loc. cit.

M 2"Evergreen Hedges," The Horticultural Register and Gardener's
3&1, I (March, 1835), 1313- 1140-1112.

3"Hedges," The Horticulturist, I (Sept. 18h6), p. 1h7.
“Prince, 10c . git.

5"Hedges," loc. cit.

65

Thus, the broadening of interests in 1835 took place. As subject

matter, fruits remained important. Small fruits came into prominence

with interest in the strawberry threatening the position of the grape.

In the group of larger fruits, the pear tree attained top rank in the

magazines. "The Hedge" took on new features, while the osage orange
dominated as a fence for cattle. Many different plants were recommended

as suitable for ornamental hedges. Among the most obvious changes in

the character of horticultural information was the emphasis placed on

plants that performed no function, other than adding pleasure and

beauty to life. Horticulture, which was first "resorted to" in America

as a means of sustenance, by 1860 definitely had become a means of

Pleasure. The subsequent years have seen the art of horticulture develop

further in terms of both personal pleasure and profitable endeavor.

INFORMATION CONCERNING ORNAMENTAL PLANTS FROM 1860-1910

In 186h Hovey said that the state of the public mind during this
"great struggle," rather than any real loss of interest in horticultural
pursuits, caused the rather stagnant position of horticulture at that
time.1 He said of the war, however, "the trials through which we are
passing will end in the one grand object of Americanizing.America.

It will teach us as a nation to be independent in everything."2

Hovey further stated that art, science, and literature would no longer
be reflections of European ideas. America had been forced to be on her
own; high duties had prevented importation of plants and this country
had found it could produce its own plants. Hovey encouraged all horti—
cultural societies to create a taste for American-produced plants and

3
thus end the desire for European novelties.

Improving the Home Grounds

One of the widely discussed tOpics in the latter part of the 19th
Century was landscaping. "Decorative gardening," as the use of orna-
mental plants was termed in Garden and Forest, was in its infancy.
Many writers expressed the opinion that few knew how to use plants

4
together pleasingly.

 

1"Horticultural Literature," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Jan.,

l86h), pp. 13-lh.
2"The Progress of Horticulture," ibid., p. 1.
3Ibid., pp. 1-2.

4"The Future of American Gardening," Garden and Forest, I (March 7,

1888), pp. 13-lb.

67

It was suggested to rural home owners that they "have certain
sympathy with nature and the poetry of the farm."1 Authors stressed
the feeling that the lawn should not be dotted with "new-fangled trees,
or crowded with vases and statuary or arbors, rustic seats and rock-
work, or thrown into jolting terraces or cut up into flower beds in
arabesque patterns."2 Instead the lawn should be only as big as could
be easily kept, with a few fine trees and a wavy belt of shrubs.3 The
lawn and its planting should be an expression of respose, unity, and
breadth.4

PeOple seemed to have been taking a great interest in plantings
around their homes.5 The debatable point was exactly how to use the
plants. In 1865 the latest fashion was the use of plants in mass
rather than as individuals. "Bedding out and ribbon planting" were
popular.6 The bedding out system was deplored by many who accused it
of requiring limited skill of the gardener especially since the number

7
- of plants suitable for this purpose was limited. Others maintained

that the beds were pleasing if well designed and neatly cared for;

 

1"A Plan for Rural Grounds," The American Horticulturist, I (Oct.,

1885), p. 28.

RA. D. G., "Hints to Ornamental Planters," The Horticulturist, XX
(July, 1865), p. 200.

3Ibid.
4John Arthur Hayes, "Garden Architecture, and Hints on Landscape
Gardening," American Journal of Horticulture, I (April, 1867), pp. 207-212.

, 5The Progress of Thirty Years," gazine of Horticulture, XXX

(Dec., 186h), pp. t17-t25.

6Edward S. Rand, Jr., "Flowers in Masses," The Horticulturist, XX
(June, 1865), pp. lob-168.

”"Horticultural Fashions," Garden and Forest, I (March 28, 1888),
p- L19.

68

however, all of the writers advised more belts and borders of mixed
flowers with backgrounds of trees and shrubs.1 Ivy and periwinkle were
recommended as good plants to edge borders.2

Saying that all grounds would suffer if any particular section of
plants was thrown out, an article stated that each gardener should
design a decorative feature to suit his own case.3 The movement toward
imitating nature's irregular planting was further strengthened in a
plea to do away with the odd circular rockery in the front yard.4
Garden and Forest summed up the influence of nature at this time by
saying, "The basis of good gardening is the love of nature,"5

The rapid concentration of the population in cities in the nineties
led to advice on city gardens.6 Here again the common fault was that
too much was put in a small space. On small lots the use of smaller
trees and shrubs was recommended so that the house would not seem buried.
If the yard were already crowded articles advised that plants be cut

'7

out to give the place a neat appearance. The American Horticulturist

reminded readers that city dwellings themselves were more beautiful

 

1"Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds," The Gardener's Monthly, XXI
(April, 1879), pp. 97-98.

2Ibid., (May, 1879), pp. 129-130.

3"Flower Gardening," Vick‘S Monthlngaggzine, X (Dec., 1887):
pp. 366-367.

4Warren H. Manning, "Front Yards," ibid., (June, 1887), pp. 170-172.

5"The Future of American Gardening," Garden and Forest, I (March 7,

1888), pp. lB-lh.
6"Gardening Leads," American Gardening, XV (Oct. 27, 189h), Po h38-
7Manning , 193. git.

 

69

than country homes so those living in the city should not hide their
1
homes with vines and trees. One writer reported that to garden on a

2
small scale one needed a "lively imagination assisted by good taste.
The Culture of Trees

Readers were encouraged to increase their use of trees, especially
native ones, during this period. "A commendable pride and love for
one's country demands that we show the same regard for our native trees
that the Englishman does for his oak."3 A later writer implored that
local conditions and indigenous plants be considered when plant material
was being selected.4 Articles stressing the importance of buying
trees and all plants at reliable nurseries reflected the fraudulent
practice of many during this time.5

The best method for moving a tree was to dig a trench around the
tree in the fall and to allow the ball of earth to freeze before moving
it. In 186h as well as in 1900, it was reported best to prune the roots
and the top of trees when moving them.6 The soil should have been

prepared by plowing to a depth of eight inches and then digging a hole

 

tA. H. Crozier, "Trees for the City," The American Horticulturist,
I (May, 1885), pp. 319-320.

2James Satterlee, "Gardening on a Village or City Lot," The Ameri-
can Horticulturist, I (March, 1885), p. 215.

3Lora S. LaMince, "Ornamental Trees," Vick's Monthly Magazine, XX
(Nov., 189h), p. 10.

4Thomas H. McBride, "Neglected Native Trees and Shrubs," Gardenin ,
X (Sept. 15, 1901), pp. 10-12.

5B.‘W} Steere, "Methods of Buying and Selling Trees and Plants,"
The.American Horticulturist, I (March, 1885), p. 232.

6"Planting Trees," The American Journal of Horticulture, II (Nov.

70

with a diameter and depth of three feet. It was recommended that the
trees be planted at the same depth as they had been in the nursery.1
The necessity of packing the earth tightly about the newly planted tree
was re—emphasized.

After planting, watering should be done with care in order not to
"consolidate" the soil. If necessary the tree should be staked; however,
this was considered a radical practice. Mulching was thought unbeneficial
to large trees with deep roots and dangerous due to insect, mice and
disease. Instead of a mulch, large trees should have open soil, which
was cultivated each fall to expose insect forms to the frost.3 To avoid
starvation of a tree, readers were advised to put two to three inches
of old manure or loam around the base of the tree. In extreme cases
it was pointed out that it might be necessary to dig the tree up,
"properly fit the soil again," and replant.4 To rejuvenate old trees,
this treatment of the soil as well as additional pruning of the tree
to expose more leaf surface to the light were advocated.5 Readers

were reminded however that pruning at any time was "a blow struck at

e
the vitality of the plant." Winter was said to be the best season to

‘

1"Plant Trees and Care for Them," American Gardening, XXIV (Jan.
2h, 1903), p. 57.

2"Flower Garden and Pleasure Ground," The Gardener‘s Monthly, XXI
(March, 1879), Pp. 65-66.

3Eugene H. Baumann, "On Planting Trees and Storing," The American
JOurnal of Horticulture, II (July, 1867), pp. 1-5.

4"Starvation of Trees," Popular Gardening, I (NOV- 1885): P- 18°

5"The Rejuvenescence of Old Trees," Garden and Forest, I (Sept. 19,

1888): P- 3b9c

6"Flower Garden and Pleasure Ground," loc. cit., (Dec., 1879),

p. 357.

 

71

prune large branches although the tree might be shaped a little more

1
in May and June. The wounds should be covered with ordinary paint.
Some writers, referring particularly to the "beheaded" street and park

trees, called pruning a lost art left to the ignorance of "tree

2
butchers."
Types and Uses of Trees

The importance in selecting healthy, thrifty-growing trees of good
habit and outline was pointed out. The ornamental trees considered to
meet these specifications most aptly were the American elm, the oak,
the beech, the maple and the birch.3 The sugar maple was recommended
as a good shade tree for the street. For a shade tree in the yard, the
Norway maple was considered best because more light could pass through
its foliage than that of the sugar maple. These maples were described
as trees which were "beautiful, unbrageous, symmetrical, healthy and
useful."4 In a large yard it was suggested that two or three trees
might be planted in a clump.5 Other good shade trees were the red oak,

s
the gingko and Liquidambar.

 

1"Proper Time for Pruning Trees," Meehan's Monthly, X (Dec., 1900),
p. 183.

2"Pruning," ibid., (Nov., 1900), p. 170.
3Lora S. LaMince, 122, 311,

4"Shade Trees About the Dwelling," American Gardening, XV (Feb.,
1885), p. 3b.

5"Flower Garden and Pleasure Ground," loc. 222,, II (Aug., 1869):
pp. 226-227 0

63. B. Parsons, "Best Shade Trees for Streets," Gardening, I
(Jan. 1, 1893), p. 122.

72

Street trees were a cause of great concern. Garden and Forest
called the planting and care of street and roadside trees the most
neglected branch of rural economy in America. The editors attributed
this to choosing the wrong kind of forest-grown trees instead of nursery
ones, planting too close, and pruning improperly.1 In Chicago the
American elm was said to be the most popular street tree, although the
cottonwood, the American linden, the ashes, catalpa and ailanthus were
also recommended.2 Authors pointed out that the only prOper time to
use a row of the same kind of trees of uniform size was when "lining a
street."3 When doing this, the reader was cautioned that tree guards
might be necessary to protect the trees which were so often used as
hitching posts. A better practice mentioned, however, was to have
hitching posts for the horses so that trees would not be abused.4

The use of trees as windbreaks, to protect less hardy trees, re~
mained popular. Common ones used included the Norway spruce or maple,
and hemlock spruce, and the Scotch, Austrian and white pines.5 In 1888
L. H. Bailey stated five rules for these shelter belts; among these he
included planting the trees six rods from any fruit trees and planting
them so that they would not interfere with air drainage. He stated

that native deciduous trees were best since dense-foliaged trees would

 

1"Street Trees," Garden and Forest, I (April 11, 1888), P- 7h-
2"Street Trees," Meehan's Monthly, I (FGb- 1892): P° 25'
3Crozier, igg. git.

4"Trees for City Streets," American Gardening, XXIV (July 25, 1903),
pp. 369-370.

5"Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds," igg, cit. XXI (NOV-, 1879),
pp. 321-322 .

 

 

73

likely force "buds of the tenderer plants before the danger of frost
was past."1 Although hardiness remained a problem, it was reported
that some trees, including Rggg cotinus and Cornus florida, which were
approximately half~killed back each year, seemed to be becoming
acclimated gradually.2 Evergreen trees, especially the fir, the pine
and the Norway spruce, were said to be made more hardy by cutting out
the lead shoot and training a side shoot up, thereby "forcing vital
power into the lower branches."3 'Writers agreed that many trees which
seemed not to be hardy were either summer starved, overcrowded, or
exposed to too much wind.4 One of such trees admired during this time
was the Cedar of Lebanon, which was said to need plenty of food and
water as well as a well-drained soil to be hardy and healthy.5

American interest in evergreen and coniferous trees lagged far
behind that in Great Britain; however, the desire for evergreens in~
creased greatly in America after the sixties. Hovey reported in 186h
that ornamental tree planting was still limited as people remained too
conscious of the "utilitarian spirit."6

Among the smaller ornamental trees frequently mentioned as early

as 1860 were various magnolias, including Maggolia glauca and

 

IL. H. Bailey, "Rules for Planting Windbreaks," Garden and Forest,
I (March 21, 1888), p. h6.

2"Some Trees and Shrubs of Extreme Hardiness," Meehanfis Monthly,
X (March, 1900), pp. 38-10.

3"The Beauty of Evergreen Trees," ibid., I (Nov., 1891), P- 71-
4Ibid . ‘
5"Cedar of Lebanon," ibid., (Sept. 1891): PPv 38'39-

6"Arboriculture Progress," ggzine of Horticulture, XXX (Jan.
186k), Pp. 12-13.

 

.lllrl‘ll l.r

Maggolia acuminata.? Pyramidal pear trees, trained into a pentagon,
were admired and encouraged, provided one had the time and skill to
keep them properly.2 The use of the novelty drooping trees was dis-
couraged although some writers admitted an occasional one, as the cut-
leaf weeping birch, would be all right.3 Other fashions of the day
included training wistaria as a standard.4 The Japanese apple, EZEEE.
floribunda or Eytgg mgigg was admired and was said to be the best
adapted of all foreign trees.5 The Transcendent variety of crab apple
was named as the best one for ornament and fruit, while the double
flowering crab apples were popular for their flowers.6

The native forest tree was of far more concern at this time than
these small trees. Authors begged that readers use the native tree
wisely and judicéously. Liriodendron tglipifera was one of the most

7
admired as well as apparently neglected trees. Readers were advised

s
to select plants such as this which were attractive in all seasons.

 

1Dr. Jared P. Kirtland, "The Magnoliacea," The American JOurnal of
Horticulture," I (March, 1867), pp. 17h-176.

supyramidal Pear Trees," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Sept.,
186D), PP- 332'335-

3"Lawn and Lawn Trees," Vick's Monthly Magazine, I (March, 1878),
pp. 70-71.

4"The'W'istaria as a Standard," ibid., XX (April, 1897), p. 83.

5C. S. S., "The Japanese Apple," Garden and Forest, I (May 23,
1888), p. 152.

6"The Crab Apples," Popular Gardening, I (Nov., 1885), P- 13:

7"Now for Tree Planting: Arbor Day," Vick's Monthly Magazing, XX
(April, 1897), pp. 85-86.

8"Ornamental Planting," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Dec., 186h),
pp. h25-h32-

7S

Shrubs

Although shrubs were not given the same attention as trees during
this period, they were most important. As one writer aptly expressed
it: "If we are ever to have in America a distinctive school of garden—
ing, it must be based upon a comprehensive use of hardy deciduous
shrubs."1 Professor Beal said that it was especially important to use
shrubs in the small yard. He said that they should be massed, rather
than scattered about the yard, so that they might be "enriched and
cultivated" together.2 In grouping the shrubs it was recommended
that the entire area be spaded and the plants set thickly, only eighteen
to twenty-four inches apart, so that there would be "no danger of a
display of bare earth." The plants could later be thinned.3 This
fear of exposing the bare earth was reinforced by the encouragement to
plant ground covers under large shrubs.4 Shrubs were said to be easily
grown, demanding only loose friable soil free of weeds, and enough
room to spread.5

Pruning was the cultural practice given most attention during this

period. 'Writers abhored the method of shearing all of the shrubs at

6
uniform height, thereby destroying the beauty and grace of the plant.

 

1"Hardy Shrubs," Garden and Forest, I (March 28, 1888), pp. SO-Slo

2Professor Beal, "Around the House," The American Horticulturist,
I (Oct., 1885), p. be.

3"The Planting of Shrubberies," Garden and Forest, X (Jan. 6, 1897),

 

p. 2.
4Ibid., pp. 1-2.

6Edgar Sanders, "What Shrubbery wants," The American Garden, XV
(March, 1885), p. 56.

6S. A., "Pruning Shrubs," Garden and Forest, I (April 11, 1888), p. 80.

76

Admiring "nature's pruning," an author said that wild shrubs had rare
charm free from the "fussy gardeners' trimming."1 General rules for
the time of pruning stated that shrubs which bloomed in the spring and
early summer should be pruned after blooming and that late blooming
shrubs could be pruned either in the fall or early spring.2

Of the deciduous flowering shrubs greatly admired in the 1860’s,
Hydrangea hortensis gained additional interest due to the change in
flower color. Iron filings and blacksmith-forge filings mixed into the
earth were guaranteed to change the flower from pink to blue, while
the addition of chalk water was said to reverse the color. Although
the hydrangea was said to "suit any situation," a top-dressing of rich
pond mud was advised in May. Many writers continued to recommend that
the plant be brought indoors for the winter.3 The winter damage to
lilacs in the far north was partially blamed on the privet stock upon
which the lilac was generally grafted. It was thought that a heavy
mulch put on after the ground was well frozen would have prevented
this.4 Other small shrubs of great beauty that were recommended were

5
Sytingg grandiflora, weigelia rosea and the upright honeysuckle.

Joseph Meehan said that most of these flowering shrubs would root easily

 

1"Pruning Shrubs," The American Garden, XV (March, 1885), p. 61.

28. A., "Pruning Shrubs," Garden and Forest, I (April 11, 1888),
p. 80.

3Charles MbDonald, "Hydrangea hortensis for Outdoor Decoration,"
The American Journal of Horticulture, I (Jan., 1861), pp. 61-62.

4John Craig, "Lilac on Privet Stock," Garden and Forest, X (May 26,
1891), p. 208.

5"Trees and Shrubs of Beauty for a Place of Small Extent,"
The Horticulturist, XX (Feb., 1865), pp. 35-37.

 

from hardwood cuttings nine to twelve inches long if placed in the
cellar where they would be allowed to callus before planting outside in
the spring . 1

The deciduous and evergreen rhododendrons or azaleas, particularly
the native ones, were by far the most admired shrubs.2 Varieties of
Rhododendron maximum were said to flourish with little care; however,
readers were cautioned that only those produced by native seedlings
were hardy.3 A heavy permanent six to eight inch mulch was thought
necessary for rhododendrons; this was to be turned under each fall and
renewed. The proper soil for rhododendrons was said to consist of
one-third peat, one-third sand, and one~third well-rotted sod and manure.
Lime was considered "most repulsive" to them.4 It was reported that if
the soil were open and well-drained, rhododendrons would even grow in
full sun.5 The Indian Azalea was said to grow well planted in a mixture
of peat and sand if the leader were topped each time it grew four inches.
This azalea was not considered hardy but might be taken inside in the
winter.6 The chief problem confronting growers of the Chinese azaelea

was the black thrip which was controlled by four successive fumigations

 

1Joseph Meehan, "Propagating Shrubs from Cuttings," Gardenin , I
(April 1, 1893), p. 223.

2"Arboriculture Progress," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Jan.,
186h). pp. 12~13.

3"Rhododendron maximum and its Varieties," ibid., (June, 186h) pp.

4H. W) S., "Broadleaved Evergreens," The Horticulturist, XX (Jan.
1865), pp. 16-170

5T. B. M., "Rhododendron Culture," Meehan‘s Monthly, I (July, 1891),
pp. 3'ho

6"The Indian Azalea," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (May, l86h),
pp- 179-183.

 

78

1
of burning tobacco paper and rags three days apart.

Readers were encouraged to grow some evergreen shrubs in spite of
the feeling that doing so was merely copying English gardens. One
writer stressed that the best gardens had the native and exotic plants
growing side by side.2 It was advised that broad leaf evergreens be
planted shallow and in a situation where they would have partial shade
in the winter.3 The end of August was said to be a good time for trans-
planting evergreens. If the soil were dry it was recommended that the
plant be soaked thoroughly and a basin be left around it to hold the
water.4 Evergreens, especially the Scotch and Austrian pine, were
thought to benefit from frequent transplanting.5

In 1885 it was reported that pruning evergreens had recently become
a general practice. The lead shoot of all evergreens including pines
had to be cut out. In transplanting, the evergreens were supposed to
be cut half back.6 As early as 1879, a few winter gardens of evergreens
were found; they were discouraged, however, unless interplanted with

7
Coleus or Achyranthus to make the garden attractive in the summer.

 

1"The Chinese Azalea," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (June, 186h),
p. 21h.

2L, "Evergreens," The American Journal of Horticulture, II (July,
1867 ) , pp 0 20-23 0

3"Flower Garden and Pleasure Grounds," The Gardener's Monthly, XXI
(April, 1879): PP. 97‘98.

4Ibid., II (Aug., 1869), pp. 226-227.

5J. F. M., "Transplanting Evergreens," Meehan's Monthly, I (Dec.,
1891), p. 87.

6"Pruning Evergreens," The American Garden, XV (Aug., 1885), p. 196.

7"Flower Garden and Pleasure Ground," loc. git,, (Oct. 1879), pp.
289-290.

79

Evergreens gained increasing admiration in America as ornamental plants,
specimen plants, and ornamental hedges.1

An evergreen hedge was considered to give a taste of richness to
the home grounds. Readers were advised to choose between the Arborvitae,
the hemlock, the spruce and the Norway fir according to their own taste
and soil.2 Other plants considered to be good ornamental hedges were
the white berried privet, the English box, the American juniper,
berbery [sic] and such flowering shrubs as weigelia, Snowball and the
Japanese quince.3 The white pine was thought to make a most ornamental
as well as protective hedge. By 1867 the live fence-of the earlier years
had lost some of its popularity, for wood and stone were found more
economical in many localities.4 In 1897, authors hesitated to recommend
hedges stating that existing ones were overgrown and full of gaps at
the bases due to neglect.5 American Gardenigg explained the failure of
Americans to establish beautiful English hedgerows by saying America was

6
still too young a country.

 

1J. F. M., 100. git:
2"Evergreen Hedges," The Horticulturist, XX (Dec., 1865), pp. 390-
391-

3B. Gott, "Around the House," The American Horticulturist, I
(April, 1885), p. 288.

4J. F. C. Hyde, "Hedges," The American Journal of Horticulture, II
(Oct., 1867), pp. 213-215.

5"Some Truths About Hedges, " Vick's Monthly Magazine, XX (July,
1897), p. 130.

6"Our Absence of the Hedgerow," The American Garden, XV (Dec. 22,
189h), p- 505-

80
Vines

During this period the native climbers stepped into prominence as
both useful and ornamental plants. The more frequently mentioned in
l86h were the grape, rose, Virginia creeper, bittersweet, clematis,
Akebia, Wistaria and honeysuckle.1 In one season annual climbers such
as morning glories, nasturtiums and moonflowers were said to grow ten
to twenty feet high in common garden loam with a little manure.2
Clematis gained great admiration; it was pointed out that its wood was
very brittle and should not hang loose. Clematis was known as a rapid
grower and the newer varieties were said to be more hardy than the old.
A writer advised readers that they might grow clematis in a variety of
colors and "have the satisfaction of knowing theirs was not purple like
every one elses."4 A circular bed, ten feet in diameter, made by
pegging clematis or other vines down was considered most attractive.5

In 1886 Bailey reported that the prairie rose or honeysuckle should

be grown on a rack or trellis, and the Japanese ivy on the side of the

6
house. The small rootlets of the ivy were said to remove water from

 

1Edward S. Rand, "Our Native Climbers," The Horticulturist, XX
(Sept., 1865), p. 283.

2"Annual Climbers," Vick's Monthly Magazine, I (July, 1878), pp-
195-198.

3P. B. Mead, "The Clematis," The American Garden, VI (Aug., 1885),
pp. 192‘193-

4"Clematises of Other Colors than Purple," Popular Gardening, I
(Mar., 1885), p. 66.

5Mead, loc. cit.

 

6L. H. Bailey, "Climbers and Their Uses," The American Horticultur-
ist, I (Jan., 1886), pp. 162-163.

 

81

l

walls of houses, thereby keeping dampness out of the house. Vicks en—
2

couraged the use of American ivy as a substitute for English ivy.

In 1903 the American Garden magazine maintained that the best argument

' a
for planting a vine was to visit a home with a well—established one.

Roses

The rose was a popular topic in magazines from 1860 until 1910.
A well aerated location receiving a minimum of six hours of sun from
April to November was recommended. Circular or square beds were pre—
ferred to star or fancy shapes. These beds were to be dug to a depth
of two feet.4 A "somewhat heavy garden loam which was rich, strong
and abundantly manured" was recommended as a soil.5 The addition of
sharp sand, leaf mould [sic] or burnt clay to a soil that was too heavy
was recommended; for a soil that was too light rotted manure or turfy

6
loam was recommended. To guarantee free soil drainage the Horticultur—

 

ist suggested that a barrel might be sunk in the middle of the bed with

7
tiles draining toward it. Although a point of much discussion, the

 

1Ernest walker, "Ivy on Walls," Meehan's Monthly, I (Jan., 1892),
P. 7.

2"Climbing Plants," Vick's Monthly Magazine, I (June, 1878), pp.
l6h-168.

3"Vines and Creepers Give Easy Effects," The American Garden, XXIV
(Oct. 3, 1903), p. 521.

4John N. May, "How to Prepare a Bed for Roses," Garden and Forest,‘
I (May 23, 1888) pp. lh9-150.

5Francis Parkman, "Culture of The Rose," The Horticulturist, XX
(May, 1865), pp. 1h0-l)12.

6Angus‘W’. McIntosh, "Cultivation of the Rose, The Gardener's Monthly,
XXI (Feb., 1879), pp. 35—36.

7Parkman, loo. cit.

 

 

82

magazines seemed to agree that roses on their own roots, with the
exception of the Hybrid Tea which should be grafted on manetti stock,
grew best in America.1 Hovey recommended that the Americans should
study the likes and dislikes of roses and treat them accordingly. He
pointed out that the English and the French did this, and their roses
succeed in spite of adverse climatic conditions.2 Vigtg_fUrther stated
that as fine as the new varieties were, any rose had to be given special
culture to form fine flowers.3 The following three objectives were
given for pruning roses: invigoration of the plant, improvement of the
flowers, and shaping the plant. The amount of pruning recommended
depended upon the individual's purpose; the rule, "roses should be
pruned in inverse proportion to the vigor of their growth," was known
as early as 1865.4 The amount of pruning also depended upon the type

of rose; pruning instructions were given for the polyantha, Rugosa, Moss,
Cabbage, Damask, Gallica, Hybrid Chinese, Penzance Brier, Austrian
Brier, Scotch Brier, Climbing Tea and Noisette.5

In 1887 Vicks reported that Hybrid Perpetuals and Hybrid Teas were

6
the "present rage" in roses. In 1900 the five best hardy roses,

 

1T. D. Hatfield, "Grafted Stock for Roses," Garden and Forest, X
(OCt. 2h, 1897), po [425.

2"Roses," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Feb., 186h), PP- 67-71-
3"Floral Gossip," Vick's Monthly_Magazine, X (June, 1887), pp. 18h-

 

185.
4Parkman, lgg. git.
5"Pruning Roses," Meehan's Monthly, X (Feb., 1900): PP- 26‘27'

6"Floral Gossip," 10c. cit.

83

excluding the Hybrid Perpetuals, were said to be "Crimson Rambler,"

1
"Harrison's Yellow," Rosa ru sa, Rosa wichuraiana, and Rosa setigura.

 

 

The Polyantha rose was expected to become prevalent in the north;

especially the dwarf ones which were said to be exceptionally hardy and
2

easily protected. Garden and Forest asked that roses be massed rather

3
than "dotted in and out," regardless of variety.

Flowering Plants

 

Garden and Forest protested that the opinion that a garden existed
for its plants, rather than for its delightful view, represented a
marked decline in garden art. This magazine further maintained that
the value of a plant was determined by its use rather than its rarity.
The editors deplored those who felt plants undesirable simply because
they were considered common.4

In the early part of this period gladioli and lilies, especially
the new ones from Japan, were popular.5 It was reported that it was
not necessary to start the corms indoors; they could be planted outside,

three to four inches deep in light soil anytime after corn planting

season.until June first. Planting a clump of six tOgether was said to

 

1"The Five Best Hardy Roses," Meehan‘s Monthly, X (March, 1900),
PP- hth3-

2"Polyantha Roses in Beds," Vick's Monthly Magazine, XX (March,
1897), p. 65-

3"Rosa seti era," Garden and Forest, X (Aug. 18, 1897), pp. 320-321-
4"Common Plants," ibid., (June 2, 1897), p. 211-

5"Floriculture Progress," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Jan.,
186b,), pp. 9‘12 0

8b

be most attractive.1 The frequent failures with lilies were attributed
to overestimating their hardiness as well as planting them in too wet
a location. To protect the bulbs from the alternate freezing and thaw-
ing which was thought instrumental in the disintegration of the bulbs,
a six inch mulch of salt hay was recommended.2 There were many accounts
of various species of lilies, botanical descriptions of the bulb, and
articles concerning the dangers of ordering the bulbs from Holland.3

By 1885, the Chrysanthemum, once considered common, had become a
fad; The American Garden reported that a few years ago nurseries could
not have sold one-tenth the number demanded in that year.4 In 1883
over fifty varieties were imported from Japan.5 Known as a "gross
feeder," the Chrysanthemum was said to thrive in city smoke and dust if
planted in rich soil.6 The culture of the Chrysanthemum as an outdoor
plant consisted of planting in the spring, pinching the end of July,
pinching the crown bud in August, thereby forcing the plants to bloom

7

before frost. If the Chrysanthemums were planted among the Shrubbery

or next to a wall or fence, a few old leaves were said to protect the

 

1Eben E. Rexford, "The Gladiolus," The American Garden, VI (May,
1885), p. llh.

20. L. Allen, "Lilies and Their Culture," The American Horticultue
ist, I (Nov., 1885), pp. 58~S9.

3"The Lilies," Vick‘s Monthly Magazine, I (Oct., 1878), pp- 291~29b-
4"The Mixed Border," The American Garden, VI (Feb., 1885), p. 26.
5"Chrysanthemums," Garden and Forest, I (Nov. 1h, 1888), p. hhS-

6Fred, "The Popular Chrysanthemum," Vick's Monthly Magazine, X
(Jan., 1887), pp. lO-ll.

7John N. May, "Outdoor Chrysanthemums," Gardening, X (Mar. 1, 1902),
p. 188.

 

..___._

85

1
plants through the winter.

Among other perenials given special interest during this period
were hollyhocks, paeonies, pansies and carnations. Zigkg said that
although the hollyhock was classed as a biennial, it often lived four
to five years. The editor stated that if the lower half of the holly-
hock buds were removed, the plants would retain their vigor.2 The paeony
was said to thrive in any "sweet porous garden soil that contained
manure."3 The herbaceous paeony was said to be more easily grown than
the Tree Paeony.4 It was reported that the pansy, a long time favorite,
would flower longer if planted in a raised bed surrounded by boards.
This was supposed to combat the summer heat and dryness.5 A summer
mulch was also recommended for this purpose.6 The carnation was a very
popular garden flower in England at this time; however, Americans were
slow to realize that carnations were hardy outside the greenhouse.
Bailey, in 189h, reported that the border carnation grew well in Ithaca,

7
New York, in spite of severe winter conditions and hot dry summers.

 

1"Hardy Chrysanthemums," Meehan‘s Monthly, I (July, 1891), p. 8.
2"The Hollyhock," Vick's MonthlyMagazine, X (March, 1887), p. 86.
3"Paeonies," Magazine of Horticulture, XXX (Aug., 186h), p. 30b.
42219:: pp. 301-306.

5"How'to Raise Fine Pansies," Popular Gardening, I (Aug., 1886),
p. 122.

6E. S. Rand, "Pansies," American JOurnal of Horticulture, II
(Nov., 1867), pp. 267-271.

7L. H. Bailey, "Hardy Carnation," The American Garden, XV
(May 26, 189D), p. 277.

86

In the 1890's Iris kaempfiri, was very popular. It was said to
grow best in swampy areas, since it required a lot of water during the
growing season. If possible a special bed with a cement bottom and
wooden sides, filled with rich compost up to within two inches of the
t0p was recommended. This could be easily watered and mulched.l

Of the spring flowering bulbs, the tulip seemed to be favored over
the hyacinth in 1885. Because of their low cost and ease of culture
POEElaE Gardening encouraged its readers to growtulips.2 Daffodils
were said to "dislike" manure, preferring a sandy loam and a sprinkling
of ground bone.3 Half-rotted leaves were considered a good mulch, for
the bulb could grow up through them.4 Spring bulbs were also featured
as plants for shady locations and city gardens as the latter were con-
sidered usually shady.5 In these areas the ground covers, Einga_min2£_
and Hedera helig were also suggested.6 Ferns, lilies-of-thedvalley,
forget-me-nots, and tuberous-rooted begonias were other shade-tolerant

7
plants mentioned.

 

IMartin Benson, "The Japan Iris," Vick's Monthly Maggzine, XX
(Aug., 1897), pp. lh7-lu8.

3"Hardy Dutch Bulbs," Popular Gardening, I (Oct., 1885), p- 6-

3"Spring Blooming Bulbs," VickYS Monthly Magazine, xx (Sept., 189h),
p. 161.

4"Mulching Bulb Beds," Gardening, I (Dec. 1, 1892), p- 8h-

5Edward S. Rand, Jr., "City Gardens," émerican Journal of Horti-
culture, I (May, 1867), pp. 257-262.

6"Plants for Shady Places," The Gardener's Monthly, II (Aug., 1869),
pp. 2ho-2hl.
7LER, "my Shady Corner," Vick's Monthly Maggzine, XX (Aug., 1887),
p. lh6.

 

87

The general culture of perennials was discussed in the magazines.
It was said that the belief that perennials would grow successfully if
planted and left year after year was erroneous. The soil had to be kept
up by'a yearly tOp dressing of manure or leaf mould [sic]. It was also
advised that the soil be dug into only when dividing the plants in early
spring. An old objection to using perennials was their brief blooming
season; however, it was emphasized that by wisely choosing varieties of
the plants, continuous bloom might be obtained.1 It was further stated
that it was a shame that perennials were not more commonly used as
bedding plants.2

Annuals became very popular chiefly because of their demand as
bedding plants. However, the easier cultivation practices, as well as
less time and smaller amount of money involved in raising annuals in
comparison to perennials was pointed out.3 Buying bedding plants such
as geraniums, coleus and centaureas was expensive. It was indicated
that the seeds of plants such as the Petunia, £2125 drummondi and
Portulaca were very cheap and these plants would create an equally good

4
effect in the various carpet beds. Other annuals, balsams, asters,

stocks, nastursiums and everlastings, were emphasized as good bedding

 

1E. L. Beard, "Culture of Hardy Herbaceous Plants," The American
Garden, VI (March, 1885), p. 53.

2"Floriculture Progress," Magazine of Hortiqulture, XXX (Jan. 186h),
pp. 9-12.

31. L. Powell, "Annuals, Their Uses and Cultivation," The American
Garden, xv (April 114, 1891;), p. 220.

4"Flowers and Flower Beds," Vick's Monthly Magazine, I (Feb., 1878),
pp. 39-h1.

88

plants.1 In defiance of the novelty passion, Edward S. Rand said that
many of the five-year-old varieties were still as good as newer ones.
Some of the neglected flowers to which he was referring were older
varieties of verbena, heliotrope, and Chrysanthemums.2 As well as its
uses as a bedding plant, the dahlia was known as one of the most desir-
able of the late blooming plants. The tuber was supposed to be placed
in a warm place and allowed to sprout before planting time.3 The single
dahlia was also gaining favor, and authors applauded this as they said
there was too much concern in the double forms of plants.4

The foliage plants were most admired abroad; however, the Coleus

and.Amaranthus became very pOpular as bedding plants. It was mentioned

 

that the leaf color was not reliable from seed, and that these plants

5
"seldom make much show" until midsummer.

Insects, Diseases and Pests

Many insects attacked the rose. Among those reported were the rose
caterpillar and the rose saw fly whose eggs developed into slugs.

Syringing with white Hellebore solution, a tablespoon of the Hellebore

 

1J. Cornhill, "Annuals as Bedding Plants," Vick's Monthly Magazine
X (Dec., 1887), pp. 367-368.

2Edward S. Rand, "Neglected Flowers," The Horticulturist, XX (Jan.,
1865), pp. h-Y.

3Mrs. WAK, "The Dahlia," Vick's Monthly Magazine, xx (March, 1897)
p. 7b.

4"‘I‘he Single Dahlia," Popular Gardening, I (May, 1886), p. 87.

5"The Amaranthus," Vick's Monthly Magazine, I (Dec., 1878), pp-
BSA-355.

89

to two gallons of water, was said to poison the slug.1 Rose bugs or

chafers had to be "hand picked" or brushed into a bucket of water.

Syringing the underside of the leaf was the remedy for the red spider

which was reported worse in hot dry weather. For the Aphis or green

fly it was recommended that the ends of the shoots be dipped into a

pail of tobacco or Quassia water. That thrips, more common in the west,

were killed by a solution containing one pound of whale oil soap to

eight gallons of water was the theme of an article in Popular Gardening.2
The red mite, "erroneously called by some the red spider" was

controlled by spraying the under side of the leaves with a sulfur solu-

tion, or a solution of finely powdered tobacco.3 Other powerful insecti-

cides used, included Paris Green, which destroyed all chewing insects,

and kerosene emulsion which killed the sucking insects.4 Garden and

Forest advised that the latter be used with caution.5 A new insecticide

in 1887, fir tree oil, was reported to kill mealy bugs without injuring

the plant.6 To kill scale insects it was recommended that the trunk

and limbs of the infected tree be brushed with a stiff bristled brush

7
dipped in strong soap suds. Readers were reminded that winter was an

 

lAngus W} McIntosh, "Cultivation of the Rose," The Gardener's
Monthly, XXI (Feb., 1879), pp. 35-36.

2"Insects‘Which Trouble Roses," ngular Gardening, I (June, 1886),
p. 99.

3A. 3. Packard, "The Red Mite on Verbenas," Garden and Forest, I
(March 7, 1888), p. 20.

4"Tree Enemies," Meehan's Monthly, X (Nov., 1900), Pp. 166-167-
5Packard , 192. _c_i__t_.
onFloral Gossip," Vick's Monthly Magazine, X (July, 1887), pp. 212-

21b.
7F. G. Sanborn, "Plant Lice and Scale Insects," The American Garden,
II (Aug., 1867), pp. 85-90.

. .o;‘[1|.|.

90

excellent time to fight insects by applying rags dipped in creosote to
the egg masses.l For the elm beetle a spray of arsenate of lead or
Disparene was said to be reliable.2 The elm leaf beetles as well as
other insects were causing great distress by 1900.3 Manure water was
excellent as an insect fighter since it increased the vigor of the
plant and enabled the plant to outgrow the insect ravages.4 Bordeaux
mixture controlled the most important fungi diseases of the rose:
black spot, mildew, and anthracnose.5 The exact proportions of the
Bordeaux mixture were 100 parts water, 2 parts sulfate of copper, and
2 parts of lime.6 Copperas solution, which was merely sulfate of cepper,
was also recommended for "the destruction of small funguses" [sic].
A root fungus on herbaceous plants known as Agaricus melleus, was said
to be controlled by soaking the soil with "copper infusion."8

During this period field mice remained a great problem. Trapping

the mice in a trench four feet deep and wider at the bottom than at the

top was one of the more drastic remedies recommended. Dough containing

 

lJames Jensen, "Trees and Shrubs," Gardening, X (Feb. 15, 1902),
p. 170.

2"The Elm Beetle," The American Garden, XXIV (June 20, 1903), p. 286.
3"Tree Enemies," Meehan's Monthly, X (Nov., 1900): PP- 166‘167.
4Packard , log. all .

5"The Rose Garden," The American Gardeg, XV (March 2h, 189b), p. 191.
6"Bordeaux Mixture," Meehan‘s Monthly, I (Jan., 1892), p. 10.
7"Copperas Solution," 322g3,‘(De., 1891), P- 89-

8"Root Fungus," Meehan's Monthly, X (Dec., 1900), p. 180.

91

arsenic or phosphorous was suggested as a means of killing mice. Point-
ing up the addage, prevention is better than a cure, the magazines
stated that much of the damage by mice might be avoided if old piles

1
of straw and stones were destroyed before winter.

Fertilizers

 

Through 1910 manure remained the most highly recommended fertilizer.
Garden and Forest protested the various soil specifications for dif-
ferent plant genera maintaining that all plants would flourish if
planted in well-rotted sod and t0p dressed with manure.2 As early as
1885, commercial fertilizers such as Kainit, German potash salt were in
common use in the east and south. Some writers reported that the
artificial fertilizer was cheaper; for example, 600 pounds of Kainit
would supply an acre of trees with the same nutrients that two tons of
leached ashes, thirty-five bushels of stone lime and a top dressing of
manure would.3 Those favoring manure maintained that the vegetable
matter or humus forming material in the manure rendered it much more
valuable.4 In using commercial fertilizers readers were advised to mix
their own, due to chemists' reports of fraud in the preparation and

sale of these fertilizers. Materials containing phosphoric acid, super

 

1E. A. Samuels, "Field Mice," The American Journal of Horticulture,
I (Feb., 1867), pp. lO9-llh.

2C. L. Allen, "Soils," Garden and Forest, I (Dec. 5, 1888), p. b88.

3C. Hemingway, "Fertilizers for the Horticulturist," The American
Horticulturist, I (May, 1885), pp. 32h-325.

4Prof. Coldwell, "About Fertilizers," The American Horticulturist,
I (Nov., 1885), p. 63.

 

92

phosphate, phosphate of lime, and nitrogen were reported needed for
the make-up of better fertilizers.1

wood ashes were still recommended as sources of potash, and coal
ashes were said to be good as absorbents of liquid manure. It was
emphasized, however, that coal ashes contained little plant food and
used by themselves, served only to improve the mechanical texture of

2
the soil.
Propagation

During this period, there were very few magazine articles on prepa-
gation alone; methods of propagation were generally mentioned in
connection with the culture of specific plants. One article in Vlgkg,
however, discussed and illustrated propagation by seeds, cuttings, lay-
ering, budding and grafting.3 It was said that cuttings rooted better
if planted tightly in a shallow pan of wet sand rather than just put
into water.4 The great demand for new American plant introduction

encouraged readers to save the seed from their finest plants, as an

s
entirely different plant might appear.

 

10. Hemingway, loc. cit.

2J. J. Willis, "Coal Ashes and WOOd Ashes," Vick's Monthly
Magazine, XX (March, 1897), p. 79.

3"Methods of Propagation Illustrated," ibid., I (March, 1878),
pp. 66-67.

4Daisy Eyebright, "How to Raise Cuttings," The American Garden,
VI (April, 1885), pp. 8h-8S.

5Ella Guernsey, "Seed Saving," Vick's Monthly Magazine, X (Nov.,
1887), p. 332.

 

 

93

Summagy

In 1888 Gardenfiand Forest reported that America offered great
advantages to the gardener; namely, "an endless variety of scenery, the
unrivaled richness of its native flora, and a wide diversity of soil
and climate. With such advantages we may look forward to a time when
this country will be a land of gardens. At present the gathering in-
terest in planting should be properly directed and developed."1

It is not sufficient to mention only the widespread interest in
home gardens portrayed in these magazines during this period. Great
concern for the beauty of all America was evident in these civic
conscious magazines. This endeavor for improvement of public lands
was directed toward such projects as the establishment of parks. The
growing interest in this area was well supported; in 1869 there were
only two "well advanced" rural parks. By 188h there were fifteen,
and in 1897, Garden and Forest reported that there were parks in all
cities.2 There was also vital interest in the development and beautifi-
cation of roads; in this area tree planting was the primary project.3
By 1900 the American.Park and Outdoor Art Association offered prizes
for improvements in grounds around commercial plants as well as home

4
grounds. America was truly garden conscious and the public sentiment,

 

1"The Future of American Gardening," Garden and Foreat, I (March 7,

1888), pp. lB-lh.
2Garden and Forest, X (Jan. 13, 1897), pp. 11-12.

aflMaking and Beautifying Roads," Vick's Monthly Magazine, I (Jan.,
1878), pp. 2-6.

4"Encouragement to Planting Around Manufacturies," Meehan‘s Monthly,
x (Feb., 1900), p- 22-

9b

"convenience is endeavored to be rendered as attractive as possible,

by combining it with the beautiful and the appropriate" pertained to

1
private as well as public grounds.

 

1C.'B.'N., "Pleasure Grounds-~Design and Etc.," The Horticulturist,
XX (Aug., 1865), pp. 26h-266.

CURRENT TRENDS IN ORNAMENTAL HORTICULTURE
1910-195'?

In studying two magazines, Flower Grower and Horticulture, that

 

continued up to the present in the twentieth century, five of the most
important articles of each issue were selected and listed according to
subject matter. These results indicate trends in interest in ornamental
horticulture as well as differences in the audience of the two magazines.

In the five volumes of Flower Grower, perennials remained the most
pepular topic. Their popularity rose to a peak in 1936-1937 and then
declined. Articles dealing with the landscaping and care of the garden
and the lawn progressively became more important. In 1916 and 1926,
articles dealt more exclusively with one specific plant, with the
interest centered around the plant itself; for example, gladiolus or
tulip. In later years such articles were more general and more often
entitled summer flowering bulbs or spring flowering bulbs.

As shown in Table I interest in annuals specifically has steadily
declined. The exceptionally large number of articles concerning annuals
in 1916-1917 is undoubtedly because the gladiolus naturally dominated

The Modern Gladiolus Grower. This lower figure is not intended to

 

indicate that annuals have become less important in the garden, rather

that they are discussed now in terms of their function in the garden.
Another point of significance brought out in Chart I was the

increasing interest in woody plants and the rather stable interest in

roses after 1926.

9S

96

In the early years of Flower Grower and other magazines, the
weather wasan important topic; however, it had ceased to be as common
a topic in 1936.

In Table II, which shows the subject of the five selected feature
articles of Horticulture, the high interest in perennials is again noted.
“Woody plants and landscaping are also prominent tOpics. In l9h6-l9h7
there is increased interest in insects and diseases.

Table III gives the topics of interest in the Gardener's Chronicle.
Herbacious perennials again are the highest grouping with woody plants
and landscaping following. The section, "Plants," concerned to a large
extent with explorations, shows a steady increase.

In the magazine, The Home GardegJ the topics of all articles of any
consequence were included. In Table IV the great difference in the
total number of articles for the years l9h3 and 1952 is due largely
to increased advertising. In spite of the inequality of the totals
the emphasis on vegetables, fruits and herbs in l9h3 points up the
magazine‘s concern during war time. Diseases and insects as well as
soil and fertilizers were of'great interest to the Victory Garden owner.
Vegetables became more important than herbacious perennials although
the latter remained high. Gardening, landscaping, woody plants, methods
of starting plants, and indoor plants were topics that appeared with
almost the same frequency in 19h3 and 1952 in spite of the difference
in the total number of articles. It should be noted that prOpagation,
photography, vegetables and herbs are not included as categories on the
other tables. These tepics did not play a major role in any of the

other magazines studied.

97

The articles in Flower Grower indicate that it is written for the
small home owner who, perhaps, has gardening as a hobby or simply wants
to have an attractive yard. In the magazine, Horticulture, the strong
appeal is directed towards members of Horticultural Societies, plant

fanciers, who have more than a casual interest in gardening.

98

 

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99

TABLE II

FREQUENCY OF TOPICS IN HORTICULTURE

 

July 1936- July 19h6- July 1956-
June 1937 June 19h? June 1957
Plants 1 2 b
Herbaceous
Perennials 15 1b 15
Annuals 3 2 2
WOody 2
Trees 3 h h
Shrubs 9 8 8
Roses 6 3 h
Vines 2
Indoor 2 1 2
Lawn 1 1 2
‘Weeds 1
Cut Flowers
Fruit 2 l 2
Garden and landscaping 7 11 9
Architecture
Equipment 1 l
Fertilizer l 2
Insect and Disease 3 8 2
'Weather 1
Birds 1 1

Christmas Gifts 3 2 l

 

100

TABLE III

FREQUENCY OF TOPICS IN THE GARDENER'S CHRONICLE

 

.——
:—:

VOLUME XXXIII VOLUME XLIII VOLUME LIII
1929 1939 19h9

 

Plants
Herbaceous
Perennials 2
Annuals
WOody
Trees
Shrubs
Roses
Vines
Indoor
Lawn
weeds
Cut flowers
Fruit 2

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Garden and landscaping 9 8 10
Architecture
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Fertilizer and soil 2
Insects and disease

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'Weather

Birds

Christmas 1

 

101

TABLE IV

FREQUENCY OF TOPICS IN THE HOME GARDEN

 

 

VOLUMES I AND II VOLUMES XIX AND XX

 

19h3 1952
Plants b 8
Herbaceous flowering
Annuals 19 12
Perennials h5 38
WOody 5
Trees 7 6
Shrubs 10 1h
Roses 2O 9
Vines 5 3
Vegetables h9 lO
Herbs l3 3
Fruit 18 2
Lawn lO 3
Indoor 2h 22
Cut flowers 15 9
Starting plants 15 12
Garden and landscaping 18 18
Soil 9 h
Fertilizer ll 2
Insects, diseases and pests l8 7
Photography 8
‘Weather 2
Birds 1 2

 

Totals 291 189

 

CONCLUSIONS

The agricultural and horticultural magazines discussed in this
study reflect the character of a nation, by revealing the citizen's
feelings toward their land and nature's gifts. The settler's resentment
toward England, the strong desire for nationalism, prevalent in the
United States through the early 1800's,1 crept into the pages of these
magazines in the form of protests against plants of foreign origin.
.America had to prove to itself and to the world that it could be inde-
pendent, before it could accept anything foreign. At the same time
the many articles taken from foreign periodicals evidenced America's
longing for similar advancement in horticulture and the arts.

Great admiration for exotic plants developed around l8hO, as the
settlers became more confident in their new country. This desire for
exotic plants became what many authors referred to as a fad in the
latter part of the 19th Century. Native plants were felt common,
therefore undesirable. At the turn of the century the magazines seemed
to lose awareness of the exotic and indigenous character of plants;
plants were no longer recommended on this basis. As they prospered
Americans outgrew the fear of showing any dependence on another country;
they became anxious to share the knowledge of the whole world.

As stated previously, the early information dealt with useful

plants, either edible or profitable. Between 1860 and 1930 beauty

 

1Frank Luther Mott, A History;of American Magazines 17hl-l850,
(New York: D. Appleton.and CO., 1930), pp. 183-191.

102

103

became the most important feature of plants with such fashions as carpet
bedding and ribbon planting becoming popular. At the same time magazines
'were protesting the formal garden (as well as fads) and pleading that
nature‘s style of planting be copied. Thus developed the great concern
for the perennial border with its background of Shrubbery. In later
years especially since World war 11 people have again considered the
functional use of plants as employed in landscaping at the present time.

Horticulture was indeed very important to the early settlers of the
United States. Previous to 1835 all of the agricultural publications
drew attention to fruits and vegetables, but few contained articles
concerning the culture of plants for beauty‘s sake. Ornamental horti-
culture could not compete with fruit growing, stock raising or general
farming in a young country concerned primarily with the necessities of
life.

The increasing concern for the use of ornamental plants is sub-
stantiated by the birth of numerous gardening magazines after 1835.
That the later agricultural publications took a great deal of material
from these horticultural magazines further indicates that people did
not have time to devote to this phase of horticulture, for all magazines
“were anxious for contributions of any kind.1

The first writers were amateurs who used the magazines as a means
of communication to exchange practices they thought beneficial to

plants. These practices were Often radical as the early magazines

 

lMott, 10c. cit., pp. 192-196.

10h

encouraged anything new in hope that it might be the answer. For the
most part these magazines took for granted that their audience had
basic skill in agriculture and were particularly interested in newer
methods and improvements.

The value of the information increased greatly in the 1830's when
gardeners, nurserymen and botanists became frequent contributors to the
magazine. These men represented a school with far more practical
experience than previous writers. As scientific knowledge increased
contents of these magazines became more reliable. At the present time
the authority writing the article or editing the magazine is accepted
without question; however, with science in the advanced state the
public has no reason to be as dubious as in earlier years.

The modern gardening magazine, such as the Flower Grower, is

 

written for the amateur. It gives complete instructions about the
culture of the plant, not simply what is new, but the basic information.
This magazine appeals to the increasing number of people who have more
leisure time. The changes in this magazine alone from 191h when it
was The Modern Gladiolus Grower, until the present Flower Grower, show
how it responded to changing economic conditions which have allowed
gardening to become the hobby of many.

The first horticultural magazines were directed to the more
wealthy as they were the first who could afford gardens. In contrast
the garden magazine of today“gdopted a popular tone. They strive to

appeal chiefly to the interests of the middle class American, although

105

they contain material Of interest to all plant fanciers. Articles on
how to landscape the small yard have replaced those concerning the care
of estates.

The popular trend in American gardening, known as "Do it yourself"
has been aided a great deal by the advanced garden tools and equipment.
The very simplest equipment first to evolve, such as the English aphis
brush, was reported in magazines with great enthusiasm. Today‘s com-
plex gardening equipment is accepted as a part of the garden; the care
of this equipment is a frequent subject in magazines.

The architect's promotion of outdoor living, as well as his use
of indoor planters, in modern homes has increased the interest in
ornamental plants. They have become a part of American life.

To return to the wisdom of earlier years it may be said that man‘s
taste for gardening today reflects Teschemacheris sentiment in 1835
when he began the first horticultural magazine. "The love of gardening
is natural to the human race. The inclination to seek enjoyment in
cultivating a garden is not only the delight of childhood, but also the

1
solace of old age."

 

1"Introduction," The Horticultural Register and Gardener‘s Monthly,
I (Jan., 1835), P- 1-

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Primary Sources:

The Agzicultural Museum. Vols. I-II. Georgetown, 1810-1812.

 

The American Agriculturist. Vol. I and Vol. X. New York, 18h3 and 1851.
The American Farmer. Vol. I and Vol. X. Baltimore, 1819 and 1828.

The American Garden. Vols. VI, XV, and XXIV. New York, 1885, 189b,
and 1903.

The American Horticulturist. Vol. I. Detroit, 1885.
The American JOurnal of Horticulture. Vols. I-II. Boston, 1867.
The Cultivator. Vol. I and Vol. X. Albany, 183h and l8bh.

The Farmer's Companion and Horticultural Gazette. Vol. 1. Detroit,

1853.

The Farmer's Register. Vol. 1. Richmond, 1853.

Flower Grower. Vols. XIII, XIV, XXIII, XXIV, XXXIII, XXIV, XLIII, and
" XLIV.'“New York, 1926, 1927, 1936, 1937, 19U6, 19h7, 1956 and 1957.

Garden and Forest. Vols. I and X. New York, 1888 and 1897.

The Gardener's Chronicle of America. Vols. XXXIII, XLIII, and LIII.
New York, 1929, 1939 and 19h9.

The Gardener's Monthly and Horticultural Advisor. Vols. II, XI and XXI.
Philadelphia, 1859, 1869, and 1879.

Gardening. Vols 1, X, XX, and XXX. Chicago, 1893, 1902, 1912 and 1922.
The Genesee Farmer and Gardener's JOurnal. Vol. III. Rochester, 1833.

The Genesee Farmeg, devoted to Agriculture and Horticulture. Vol. VI.
Rochester, 1855.

Home Garden. Vols. I-II and Vols. XIXeXX. New York. 19b3 and 1953.
The Horticultural Art JOurnal. Vol. I.'Rochester, 1886.

The Horticultural Register and Gardener's Monthly, Vol. 1. Boston 1835.

106

107

Horticulture. Vols. XXXVI, XXXVII, XLVI, XLVII, LVI and LVII. Boston,
1936, 1937, 19h6, 19h7, 1956 and 1957.

 

The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste. Vols. 1,
X, and XX. Albany,—18h6, 1855, and 186h.

Magazine of Horticulture. Vols. I, X, XX and XXX. Boston, 1835, 18h5,
1855, and 1865.

 

The Michigan Farmer. Vols. III and XIII. Jackson and Detroit, 18h5
and 1855.

The Modern Gladiolus Grower. Vols. III and IV. Calcium, 1916 and 1917.
Meehan's Monthly. Vols. I and X. Philadelphia, 1892 and 1900.

The New England Farmer. Vols. I-IV, No. 20. Boston, 1822-1825.

 

The New England Farmer and Horticultural Journal. Vol. X. Boston,

1832.

The New England Farmer and Horticultural Register. Vol. XX. Boston,
1851.

The Northwestern Farmer and Horticultural Journal. Vol. II. Iowa,

1858.

The Ohio Cultivator. Vol. V. Columbus, 18h9.

 

The Ohio Valley Farmer. Vol. III. Cincinnati, 1858.

Real Gardening. Vol. II. New York, 1939.

Pppular Gardening_and Fruit Grower. Vol. I. New York, 1896.

Vick's Monthly Magazine. Vols. I, X, and XX. Rochester, 1878, 1887,
and 1896.

Secondary Sources:

Bailey, Liberty Hyde. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. Vol. II.
New York: Macmillan Co., 19h7, pp. 1559-1560.

Barnett, Claribel R. "The Agricultural Museum, an Early American

Agricultural Periodical," Agricultural Histopy. Vol. II. (April,
1928), pp. 99-102.

108

Demaree, Albert Luther. The American.Agricu1tural Press,_1819-1860.
New York, Columbia University Press, 19Hl.

Duncan, Joseph George. The Michlgan Farmer, A Ceplury_of Agricultural
Journalism 18h3~19h3. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State
University, 1950. '

Mott, Frank Luther. A Histopy of American Magazines 17h1-l850. Vol. I.
New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1930.

Traub, Hamilton Paul. "The Development of American Horticultural
Literature, Chiefly Between 1800 and 1850," The Natippal Horti-
cultural Magazine. Vol. VII. (July, 1928), pp. 97-103.

Tucker, Gilbert M. American Agricultural Periodicals: An Historical
Sketch. Albany, New York, privately printed, 1909.

 

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