PATTERNS OF ATTiTUDES TDWARD PERSPECTNES OF UFE: A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE BNXTEE} STATES MD 3APAN- Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICE-“BAN STATE UNWERSITY ROSARHA MARGARET HUME 1967 I ‘__t- .‘t. ,. ‘ Jam.“ 1 was. i , 24;: 9-: a» '- fit at: '1? .J'Hr'f- . ' ..Q ‘5' .‘ ,_ Afifisz‘k‘ 7‘ H .. w E ll._ .3. ~ 1. :Uvm h. . \ 1|. mun.» L.” r .-..,.—.‘~1—’—.~-,~.~.~.‘.I ~-E_..«-.-y- . .. -—.-. —.._ Office of the Dean College of Communication Arts and Sciences Michigan State University East Lansing, MI 4882a RETURNING MATERIALS: 1V1ESI_) PIace in book drop to nggARJES remove this checkout from Jeszggsgsn_ your record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date stamped beIow. f @6432? If) ”1”} 1" . . .7 1 ml 54 02mg ABSTRACI' PATIERNS OF ATTITUDES TOWARD PERSPECTIVES OF LIFE: A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN By Rosarita.Margaret Hume This thesis reports the results of a factor analysis of data concerning attitudes toward perspectives of life and changes in these perspectives as viewed over time. The purpose of the study was to isolate and compare respondents in their patterns of attitudes in the United States and Japan. The data used were stratified samples drawn from random. samplings of the populations of the United States and Japan. These samples were stratified by male and female, and by dichotomizing at the median to create low and high groups for age, education, family income and size of the community in whidh the respondent lived. The portion of the questionnaire used in this study contained twenty—seven attitude items, which were scored by the respondent on the relevancy and importance of the item.to him. Some of the items repre- sented views over time of the same attitude area. The attitudes studied were the respondent's View of the following areas: his con- ditions of life, his hopes for his native country, his worries about the fUture, his influence with other people, whether he likes and is liked by others, his desire to be doing new things, his ability to do anything he wants, his ability to make his life happier; and the importance to him.of religion, of his fandly, his country, his work, his community, and of his political party. Rosarita Margaret Hume The patterns of attitudes discussed in the thesis are the three— factor solutions for each country. An analysis of variance for each factor was done to determine the effects of the five demographic vari- ables, singly or in combination, on the factor. The factor analyses of the attitude items revealed three separate and distinct patterns of attitudes fer each country. Two of the Japanese factors showed significant relationships to one of the United States factors. The analysis of variance revealed some demo- graphic relationships to the various factors, but not as many as were expected. The thesis discusses the factors, or patterns of attitudes, in three areas: the personality type revealed by the factor array of items, its relationship to the items of general agreement for the country, and the items that serve to separate each factor from.the others of the same country. The areas of similarity between United States factor and the two Japanese factors related to it are also examined. finally, the thesis advances some hypotheses on the partial failure of the demographic data to act as simple, discriminating vari- ables. For the United States, only one of the three factors showed a simple relationship to the demographic variables. It was a female factor. For Japan, one factor was male; one was related to low educa- tion; and one, to high education. A number of the multiple inter- actions that were disclosed offered little toward.interpreting or delineating the factors. PATTERNS OF ATTITUDES TOWARD PERSPECTIVES OF LIFE: .A EACTOR.ANALYSIS OF'THE UNITED STATES AND JAPAN By Rosarita Margaret Hume A.THESIS Submitted to MiChigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements fer the degree of NESTER OF ARTS Department of Communication 1967 Accepted by the faculty of the Department of Comrunication, College of Communication Arts , Michigan State University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree. Guidance Conmittee: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to thank Dr. Hideya.Kunata who served patiently as _ graduate study and thesis advisor; Dr. Kumata and Dr. Frederick B. Waisanen for the use of the survey data; and Dr. Erwin P. Bettinghaus and Dr. Gerald R..Miller. I amnespecially indebted to Dr. Gordon A, Sabine for the help and encouragement which made this graduate progranlpossible. And to Albert D. Talbott for data.processing and Mrs. Ruth Langenbacher for the typing and preparation of the thesis. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . LIST OF TABLES INTRODUCTION Chapter I. BACKGROUND AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY . Some Areas of Contrast Patterns of Attitudes in the United States and Japan II. METHOD Five Nations Study The Attitudes Data Sampling The Meaning of "Low" and "High" Factor Analysis Analysis of Variance III. RESUETS: The United States Consensus Items United States: Factor I United States: Factor II United States: Factor IV. RESUDTS: Japan Consensus Items Japan: Factor I Japan: Factor II Japan: Factor III III iii ii 10 10 10 12 13 13 1M 17 21 25 25 26 30 33 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter V. RESULTS: Cross—Cultural Relationships Demographic Characteristics of the Factors U.S. Factor I and Japan Factor II U.S. Factor I and Japan Factor III Sunnary VI. SUMMARY The Factor.Analysis The.Analysis of variance Cross-CUltural Relationships Discussion Implications fer Future Study REFERENCED BIBLIOGRAPHY .. APPENDIX I — Items Drawn from.the Final Fiehd Version of the Survey Interview Questionnaire . APPENDIX II - Sub-Effects Tables fer Factorial with Replicates Design . . . APPENDIX III — Varimax Rotation Analysis iv Page 36 37 37 38 38 NO 40 N1 H2 H2 45 N7 N8 53 60 Table 10. 11. 12. 13. 1”. 15. 16. LIST OF TABLES Medians of the Samples: Japan and Uhited States Consensus Items: United States United States—-Factor I: Descending.Array of Z-Scores United States-—Factor I. Items and Z—Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding.Arrays of United States Factors II and III . . United States--Factor II: Descending Array of Z—Scores . United States--Factor II. Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of United States Factors I and III . . United States--Factor III: Descending Array of Z—Scores United States-~Factor III. Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of United States Factors I and II . . . Consensus Items: Japan Japan-—Factor I: Descending Array of Z—Scores . . Japan-—Factor I. Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of Japan Factors II and III . . . . Japan4—Eactor II: Descending.Array of Z—Scores Japan——Factor II: Items and Z—Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of Japan Factors I and III . . . . Japan--Factor III: Descending Array of Z—Scores Japan——Factor III. Items and 2- Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of Japan Factors I and II . . . Correlations between Factors . v Page 11 13 15 16 19 2O 22 23 25 27 29 31 32 3M 35 36 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table I Demographic Data Related Significantly to United States Factor II . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ia. Interrelationship of Sex, Education and Income Ib. Interrelationship of Age, Education and Community Size ' Ic. Interrelationship of Education, Income and Community Size II Demographic Data Related Significantly to United States Factor III . . . . . . . . . . . IIa. Relationship of Sex IIb. Interrelationship of4Age, Income and Community Size . . . . . . . . . . III Demographic Data Related Significantly to Japan Factor I . . . . . . . . . IIIa. Relationship of Sex IIIb. Interrelationship of Sex and Education IIIc. Interrelationship of Age and Community Size IIId. Interrelationship of Education, Income and Community Size IIIe. Interrelationship of Sex, Age, Education and Community Size IV Demographic Data Related Significantly to Japan Factor II . . . . . . IVa. Relationship of Education IVb. Interrelationship of Age and Income IVc. Interrelationship of Education, Income and Community Size V Demographic Data Related Significantly to Japan Factor III . . . . . Va. Relationship of Education VI Rotated Factor Loadings: Three—Factor Solution for United States . . . . . . . . . . . . VII Rotated Factor Loadings: Three-Factor Solution for Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 53 53 53 54 54 54 54 55 55 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 57 58 58 6O 62 INTRODUCTION The purpose of this thesis is to isolate and compare patterns of attitudes in the United States and Japan. The attitudes dealt with.here are those concerned with perspectives of life and changes in these per— spectives as viewed over time by the reSpondent. The patterns of attitudes are revealed by factor analysis whiCh isolates respondent- clusters on the attitude items. The patterns discussed here are the three—factor solutions for each country. The three factors, or patterns of attitudes, fer eaCh country are analyzed to determine whether sex, age, education, family income or community size are related to a given factor. The data on these five demographic areas were held constant in the analysis to eliminate the biasing effects of skewness of the populations. The analysis compares the factors within the countries and be— tween the countries. By the nature of factor analysis, the three factors within each country are independent of each other, but do show Aagreement on some items, called the consensus items. The across- nation analysis is to determine whether relationships exist in patterns of attitudes of the two countries, and the nature of these relationships, if any. CHAPTERI BACKGROUND AND DESIGN OF THE STUDY _ Patterns of beliefs and attitudes within cultures have been the traditional concern of anthropologists. For most.Americans, these studies have assumed the status of curiosities--the quaint mores of iso- lated, primitive peoples-ewhiCh had little relationship with them.and their dealings with others. In fact, the idea that people are the same all over the world would seem.to be a.natural viewpoint fer Americans to hold, because it is a logical outcome of their history. In the United States, as in no other country in the world, peoples of many cultures have joined to— . gether, become assimfilated and fermed a new culture. That this has taken place with a surprisingly small amount of friction gives Americans further evidence of the basic similarity of peoples. Only recently, with advances in transportation and communication bringing more people of varying cultures together, has this idea been subjected to fUrther scrutiny. Now, the study of beliefs and attitudes within and across cultures has become the concern of sociologists, psydhologists, come municators, even businessmen. Indeed, the very factors that have increased this interest in dif- ferences among cultures--i.e., transportation, communication and greater mobility of peoples--may well be the ones that eliminate the differences. This study is concerned with patterns of attitudes'in two widely dissimilar cultures: the traditionally hierarchical, homogeneous and formalized culture of Japan and the traditionally egalitarian, 2 3 heterogeneous, less structured culture of the United States. These two cultures have been interacting to an ever-increasing degree. So much so, in fact, that it has prompted conjectures about the results of this interaction ranging from Bernard RudofSky's (1965) 4Americanization" of Japan to Richard Hughes' (1966) "Orientalization of the West." Some Areas of Contrast Of the many areas of contrast between the cultures of the United States and Japan, six of the most striking areas that would seem.to be highly related to the patterns of beliefs and attitudes studied here will be discussed briefly. First, Japanese culture has been highly codified. Smith, in Smith and Beardsley (1962), cites the fbrmal codification of kinship relationships as dating from AD 701. However, family registers were required as early as AD 645. Eventually, Rudofsky (1965) points out, almost every area of Japanese life was structured by civil code from housing to which members of which families were allowed to eat the then scarce rice. Second, the extended kinship system in Japan is not only patri- archal, but also corporate in nature, according to Befu, in.Smuth and Beardsley (1962). The accepted use of adoption, preferably of an adult, insures the continuation of the family even.when blood kinship no longer exists. This corporate family structure has a.much.more complex.mani- festation composed of hierarChy of families, some of which.may be non- kinship families. This corporate family structure is still very strong in some areas, but the shift from.patriarChal to nuclear family systems is moving rapidly. 4 Third, the Japanese personality structure, as seen by Doi in Smith and Beardsley (1962), is Characterized by dependency needs so strong that the Japanese have developed a.whole vocabulary system around these needs. In addition, he points out, the Japanese find it hard to believe that there is no word for amae£u_(a.verb meaning to depend and presume upon another's benevolence) in European languages. It may be that the elaborate indebtedness systemn and.its attendent giri, whiCh Pearl Buck (1966) characterizes as the moral imperative that makes Japanese "beholden," is a manifestation of these dependency needs. Fourth, the Japanese educational system is unusually competitive. The criteria for success or failure in the system are examinations which begin with entrance examinations fer certain.highly desirable kinder- , gartens. Vogel (1963) mentions that special schools have been opened in Tokyo to prepare three- and four—year olds for these examinations. Both Vogel (1963) and Dore (1963) indicate that the key to upward mobility for and to the middle class lies in the educational system. The built-in stresses of this highly competitive system can readily be related to the fact, according to De Vos in Smith and Beardsley (1962), that suicide has become the single highest cause of death for individuals under thirty. Fifth, the employer/employee relationship in Japan is character— ized by a.high degree of commitment on both sides, as shown in Vogel's (1963) analysis of the role of the "salary" man. The employer in the large firms offers the employee job security and training for advancement within the firm. The employee, in turn, seems to identify almost com— pletely with the firm, even to his friendships with the "company gang." The lack of job mobility across firms reflects the high value placed on loyalty of the employee to the employer and of the employer to the employee. 5 And sixth, the social position of women in Japan remains sub- servient. Although, as Koyama.discusses in Smith and Beardsley (1962) the New Constitution of 1946 set ferth the principle of respect for individual dignity and equality of the sexes, there has been resistance by the farmlpopulation and by older people. He concludes that, on the whole, the legal reform has had good effects on the improvement of the woman's social position. However, Dore (1963) and Vogel's (1963) in- dependent studies of urban Japan indicate that her position is changed muCh less in.kind than in degree. These six areas of contrast are indicative of the wide differences between the cultures of Japan and of the United States. However, two major forces have been operating to narrow these differences. Japan itself, beginning with the Meiji Restoration of 1868, has been contin- ually making intensive efforts to modernize and.westernize the nation. The second force is the United States. Japan's New Constitution of 1946, a result of the American occupation and pacification efforts, legislated sweeping changes in her social system. That the realization of these reforms has lagged behind the legislation of them does not lessen the impact of this effort to westernize the Japanese social structure. Patterns of Attitudes in the United States and Japan The purpose of this study is to isolate patterns of attitudes in the United States and Japan, and to determine which demographic factors differentiate among the respondents related to the various patterns. The attitudes dealt with here are those concerned with perspec— tives of life and Changes in these perspectives as viewed over time by the respondent. 6 The attitudes viewed over time were: the respondent's conditions of life, his hopes fer his native country, his worries about the fUture, his influence with other people, whether'he likes and is liked by others, his desire to be doing new things all the time, and the importance of religion to him. On the first six attitude areas, the respondent scored the item.as he viewed it five years ago, as he views it now, and as he thinks he will View it five years from now. The importance of religion item was scored as the respondent viewed it five years ago and as he Views it today. Two attitude items were scored on where the respondent views hime self at the present time. These were: his ability to do anything he wants and his personal ability to make his life happier. Finally, the respondent rated the relative importance of five social institutions with himself. For these five items, the respondent was asked to view himself at the midpoint of the scoring system.and to score the institution as more important, less important, or equal in importance to himself. The five social institutions so rated were: his political party, his community, his family, his country and his work. To complete wording of these attitudes items as used in the field survey can be fOund in Appendix I. The patterns of attitudes discussed here are the three—factor solutions fer eadh country. Eadh factor represents a grouping of persons around a common pattern of scoring the attitude items. Thus, a factor can be viewed as a hypothetical person possessing the particular pattern of attitudes. The three factors for eaCh country represent the three major patterns of attitudes of this sample of respondents. The description of these hypothetical persons involves two areas: 7 first, the patterns of attitudes, their similarities and differences, and second, the kinds of people who make up these hypothetical persons. In this study, the patterns of attitudes for each country are analyzed in three ways. First are given the consensus items, Tables No. 2 and No. 9. These are the attitude items of general agreement among the three factors for each country. These indicate the commonly held attitudes of the three hypothetical persons. Second, are the patterns of attitudes themselves. These are ordered in terms of acceptance fer eadh factor, from.those most highly accepted to those most rejected. These patterns are given in the tables headed "Descending Array of Z—Scores"--Tables Nos. 3, 5, and 7 for the United States factors and.Tables Nos. 10, 12, and 14 fer Japan. This provides a.hierarChy of item.acceptance fer each factor or type of persons. Tlird, are the attitude items that differentiate the factors. These are the attitude items that indicate how the one factor differs frcmlthe others. These are given in the tables headed "Items and Z— Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays ..."—-Tables Nos. 4, 6, and 8 for the United States and Tables Nos. 11, 13, and 15 fer Japan. Thus, the analysis isolates the three major patterns of attitudes, compares the similarities among the patterns, and determines the at— titude items that most differentiate eaCh pattern from.the others. These patterns of attitudes can be viewed as being held by hypothetical types of persons. The next question becomes, who is this hypothetical person? For this second area of identification, the three factors were analyzed to 8 determine whether sex, age, education, family income, and the size of the community in which the correspondent lives were related to each factor. The results of this analysis are given in the discussion of each factor. The condensed tables of the results of this analysis reaching the level of significance are given in Appendix II. For the final phase of this study, the three factors for each country were compared for cross-cultural similarities. This analysis determined whether'relationships exist in patterns of attitudes of the two countries and the nature of these relationships. In summary, this is a study to isolate and compare some patterns of attitudes within the United States and Japan, to identify the demo— graphic characteristics of those holding the patterns of attitudes, and to identify similar patterns of attitudes between the United States and Japan. CHAPTER II METHOD Five Nations Study The raw data used fer this project were taken from a study of five nations by Hideya Kumata.and F. B. waisanen. The five nations study was a cross—cultural study of attitudes, and views toward life and its problems, of the people of the United States, Mexico, Costa Rica, Finland, and Japan. The respondents in eaCh nation numbered approximately 1,000 and were drawn from the population by random sampling techniques. This study used the section of the data concerned with attitudes about the perspectives of life collected in the United States and Japan. The Attitudes Data This section of the five nations study contained twenty—seven items scored by the respondent on each itemfs relevancy and importance to him. These items are discussed in the preceding Chapter and can be found in their entirety in Appendix I. The scoring system.used was the ladder score. The respondent placed the individual items on the position of the ladder that best conveyed the relevancy and importance of the items to himn The ladder scores ran from the bottom rung, which.was zero, to the top rung, given a score of ten. Each itemlin.eaCh of the time periods examined was judged individually. 10 Sampling The original samples of Japan and the United States were: Japan, 990 respondents; united States, 1528 respondents. From.these, 64 respondents fromleach country were selected on a random basis from stratified groupings of the original samples. The stratification of the samples was done in order to hold constant the five demographic variables, thus eliminating the biasing effects of skewness of the populations. The demographic variables be- lieved most likely to contribute toward patterns of attitudes were sex, age, education, income and the size of the community in whiCh the re- spondent resides. The samples were stratified by male and female, and by diChot— omizing at the median to create low and high groups fer age, education, family income, and community size. This created 32 cells for eaCh country's respondents. Two respondents were randomly selected from.each cell. The Meaning of "Low" and "High? The fellowing table indicates where the median fell in each of the original samples. The somewhat higher'median age than the national averages reflects the fact that only respondents of 20 years old and over were interviewed. Factor Analysis The factor analytic model used in this study, in effect, con- structs hypothetical types of persons based on the way the actual re- spondents scored the items. It is a Q—analysis. 11 Table No. l. Medians of the Samples: Japan and United States Japan _Lo_w an Age 35 and under 36 and over Education 8 years and under 9 years and over Income under 400,000 yen ($1,100) 400,000 yen and over Community Size under 25,000 25,000 and over United States aw. ma Age 42 and under 43 and over Education 10 years and under 12 years and over* Income under $5,000 $5,000 and over Community Size under 100,000 100,000 and over * There were no respondents with 11 years of education. The preliminary analysis involves the submission of the matrix of intercorrelations of the 64 respondents to factor analysis, so that a principal axis solution is obtained. The principal axis solution is then submitted to Varimax rotation. The respondents fer each country were analyzed separately. The preliminary analysis resulted in factor—loading tables fer the one—factor to the ten-factor solutions fer Japan. The three- factor solutions fer both countries were selected fer factor analysis and the analysis of variance, since they seemed to be both.most cCherent and distinct. The rotated factor loadings for the three-factor solution can be feund in Appendix III. 12 The factor loadings were converted to factor arrays of the items by weighting eaCh respondent's scoring of an item.by his loading on the factor. The resulting sums of weighted reSponses for eaCh item.in the factor were then converted to z—scores and ordered from.the most accepted items to the most rejected fer eaCh factor. These factor arrays are given in the tables headed "Descending Array of Z-Scores ..." The items that differentiate eaCh factor from.the other two for each country are given in the tables headed, "Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than Corresponding Arrays." The items on which there is agreement among the three factors are ' given in the tables headed "Consensus Items." These consensus items are those in.Which the difference between the largest z—score given an item by one of the factors and the smallest is less than 1.00. The three—factor solution fer the United States fhrnished 44 per cent of the variance: that of Japan furnished 48 per cent of the variance. Analysis of Variance Finally, an analysis of variance fer each factor was done to determine the effects of the five demographic variables--i.e., sex, age, education, family income, and community size--singly or in combination on the factor. .A significance level of .05 or better~was chosen. Appendix II contains a condensed sub-effects table fer all sources of variance reaChing the level of significance. CHAPTER III RESULTS: The United States Consensus Items The consensus items are the items of general agreement across the three factors. They hypothetical persons in the separating factors _ give the consensus items scores that differ from.eaCh other by less than a z—value of 1.00. In the table below are the eight items on which the three United States factors find agreement. Table No. 2. Consensus Items: United States. Average Z-Score Present - Importance of religion 0.41 Past - Importance of religion 0.40 work - Things more or less important -0.03 Community — Things more or less important —0.22 Is able to do anything he wants (now) -0.62 Political Party - Things more or less important -0.63 Present — Influence with people -0.77 Past — Influence with peOple -0.98 The consensus items reflect a general pattern of attitudes that . gives some importance to religion in the past and present. work, the community and, especially, the political party are less important than the respondents. There is also agreement among these three United States 13 l4 factors that the respondents are not able to do anything they want now, that they have little or no influence with peOple in the present, and that they had even less influence with people in the past. There was no general agreement on the fhture outlook of the respondent's influence with people. United States: Factor I Factor I of the United States sample is a general factor that has no statistical relationship to sex, age, education, family income or community size, or to any combination of these demographic character— istics of the population. This, then, is a pattern of attitudes held by a generalized segment of the United States respondents. Table 3 gives the descending array of z-scores fOr this factor. Frcmtthis table, it is apparent that the hypothetical person.holding this pattern of attitudes is characterized by high values set on family, country, on the fUture outlook of worries about the fUture and hopes fOr his native country, and by the extremely low values given to the desire to be doing new things all the time, whether in the past, present or fUture. This hypothetical person is also Characterized by a generally positive outlook; only nine of the twenty-seven z-scores are negative. However, this is not unbridled enthusiasm; twenty of the scores fall within a z-value of 1.00 of the mean. i As contrasted with the other two United States factors (see Table 4), the hypothetical person of Factor I worries about the future in all three time periods studied. He rates more highly his past and present conditions of life, his country and.his family than the other two factors. And his extreme rejection of the desire to be doing new things all the 15 Table No. 3. Uhited States--Factor I: Descending Array of Z—Scores Family — Things more or less important than respondent 1.36 Country - Things more or less important than respondent 1.12 Future - worries about the future 1.03 FUture - Hopes for native country 1.01 Future - Conditions of life 0.78 Present - worries about the fhture 0.74 FUture — Person likes and is liked by others 0.71 Present - Conditions of life 0.67 Present - Hopes for native country 0.60 Present - Person likes and is liked by others 0.55 Past - Person likes and is liked by others 0.46 Past - worries about the fUture 0.41 Past - Importance of religion 0.35 Past - Hopes for native country 0.25 Past - Conditions of life 0.21 Present - Importance of religion 0.10 Has personal ability to make his life happier (now) 0.07 work - Things more or less important than respondent 0.04 Future - Influence with people -0.l7 Ckmmunity — Things more or less important than respondent —0.42 Present - Influence with people -0.44 Is able to do anything he wants (now) -0.76 Past - Influence with people -0.84 Political Party — Things more or less important than respondent —0.98 FUture - Desire to be doing new things all the time —2.06 Present - Desire to be doing new things all the time —2.36 Past Desire to be doing new things all the time —2.44 16 Table No. 4. United States--Factor I: Items and Z—Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of United States Factors II and III. Average of Differ— Items Greater than All Others Z-Score other Z's ence Present — worries about the future 0.738 -1.374 2.111 Past — Worries about the fUture 0.413 -1.485 1.898 Future - Worries about the fhture 1.032 -0.579 1.611 Present - Conditions of life 0.667 —0.523 1.190 Past — Conditions of life 0.214 -0.720 0.934 Country — Things more or less important 1.118 0.438 0.681 Family - Things more or less important 1.360 0.690 0.670 Present - Influence with people -0.437 —0.929 0.492 Past - Influence with people —0.838 —l.053 0.216 work - Things more or less important 0.039 —0.060 0.099 Items less than All Others Present — Importance of religion 0.104 0.557 —0.453 Political Party — Things more or less important —0.978 -0.450 -0.528 Past - Desire to be doing new things —2.443 0.295 -2.738 Enture — Desire to be doing new things -2.057 0.823 —2.880 Present - Desire to be doing new things -2.360 0.621 -2.981 17 time is indicated by a difference of 2.7 to 2.98 of his z—scores on these items from the averages of the other two factors. On the consensus items, the Factor I person rates more highly, but sti11.negatively, his past and present influence with people; he equates the importance of work with himself; he ranks lower, but still positively, the present importance of religion; and he rejects his political party even.more than the others do. To summarize, the hypothetical person who makes up Factor I of the United States is a family- and country-oriented person Who is satis- fied with his conditions of life, but who worries about the fhture and always has. These worries about the future would certainly seem.re— lated to the fact that he has no desire to do new things and never has had. He seems well satisfied with the status quo and.his worries about the future may well be that he fears this may change. United States: Factor II Factor II of the United States showed no simple relationships of the demographic data significant at the .05 level or above. However, three interactions were statistically significant. One of the relation- ships significant to this factor was that of sex to education to income. This indicates that the Factor II pattern of beliefs is related to females of high education and high.income, and to males of disparate education and income (that is, to males of low education and high income and to males of high education and low income). The second significant relationship was one of age to education to community size. This indicates a relationship to Factor II of low age, low education in small communities and of low age, high education 18 in large communities . The third was the interaction of education with income and with community size. This interaction suggests a relationship of peOple of disparate education and income in small communities to this factor. The pattern of attitudes , as shown in Table 5 , that make up the hypothetical Factor II person indicates a marked desire to like and be liked in the past, present and future. This person is also family— and country—oriented but has negative feelings about his hopes for his country, especially in the past and present. He gives little importance to worries about the future in any time period. He is not satisfied with his past and present conditions of life, but is more optimistic about the future. As contrasted with the other two factors on Table 6 , the characteristics already indicated are even more marked. In addition to liking and being liked by others, he ranks his personal ability to make life happier positively while the others factors rank it negatively. He also ranks, similarly, his future influence with people and his com— munity. He gives more importance to religion in the past and present than the other factors do. On the negative side, he rejects both worries about the future and hopes for his native country in any of the time periods studied. On the consensus items, he ranks more highly, but still negatively, his ability to do anything he wants and his political party. He ranks even more negatively than the others his past influence with people. On the whole, the hypothetical person who makes up Factor II is more religious than the others and feels that he is very well liked. He has a somewhat optimistic view of the future, expecting improvements 19 Table No. 5. United States-—Factor II: Descending Array of Z-Scores FUture - Person likes and is liked by others 1.79 Present - Person likes and is liked by others 1.44 Past — Person likes and is liked by others 1.29 Family — Things more or less important than respondent 1.13 Country - Things more or less important than respondent 1.03 Future - Conditions of life 0.84 Present - Importance of religion 0.82 Has personal ability to make his life happierCnow) 0.64 Past - Importance of religion 0.55 FUture - Desire to be doing new things all the time 0.46 Present - Desire to be doing new things all the time 0.40 Past - Desire to be doing new things all the time 0.27 FUture — Influence with people 0.26 Crmmunity — Things more or less important than.respondent 0.24 Work - Things more or less important than respondent -0.04 Future - Hopes for native country -0.20 Is able to do anything he wants (now) —0.24 Present - Conditions of life —0.43 Political Party - Things more or less important than respondent -0.44 Past - Conditions of life -0.55 Present - Influence with people —0.70 FUture - worries about the future -0.86 Past - Hopes for native country -l.01 Past — Influence with people —1.20 Present — Hopes for native country -l.25 Past — Worries about the fUture -2.05 Present - worries about the future -2.19 20 Table No. 6. United States--Factor II: Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of United States Factors I and III. Average of Differ— Items Greater than All Others Z—Score other Z's ence Future — Person likes and is liked 1.794 0.283 1.510 Past - Person likes and is liked 1.289 0.007 1.282 Present — Person likes and is liked 1.440 0.160 1.281 Has personal ability to make his life happier 0.635 -0. 312 0.9m FUture — Influence with people 0.258 -0.557 0.816 Community - Things more or less important 0.241 —0.444 0.686 Present — Importance of religion 0.822 0.198 0.624 FUture — Conditions of life 0.837 0.234 0.603 Is able to do anything he wants —0.240 —0.804 0.564 Political Party — Things more or less important —0.443 —0.718 0.275 Past - Importance of religion 0.554 0.321 0.233 Items Less than All Others Past — Influence with people -l.201 -0.871 —0.330 Future — WCrries about the fUture —0.858 0.366 —l.225 Past — worries about the fUture -2.050 —0.253 —l.798 Past - Hopes fOr native country -l.007 0.893 —l.900 Future — Hopes fOr native country —0.204 1.938 -2.142 Present - worries about the fUture —2.195 0.093 —2.287 Present — Hopes fOr native country —l.252 1.573 -2.825 21 in his conditions of life and his influence with people, but does not worry about the fhture and never has. .All this is coupled with a negative outlook on his hopes for his native country in any of the time periods studied. United States: Factor III Factor III Showed one simple relationship to the demographic data. It is female at the .01 level of significance. The other significant relationship was an interacting one of age to income to crmmunity size. This interaction indicates a relationship to the factor of people of low age and low income in small communities, of high age and high income in small communities, and of high age and low income in large communities. The hypothetical person who makes up Factor III (as seen on Table 7) has markedly higher hopes for his native country and a.much greater desire to be doing new things all the time. But the most outstanding feature of this pattern is its negative side; nineteen of the twenty- seven items are scored negatively. He feels most negatively about his influence with people in any of the time periods studied. However, this pattern is not one of extreme pessimismu twenty-two of the scores fell ‘within a z-value of 1.00 of the mean. In contrast with the other two factors (see Table 8), Factor III rates lower fifteen of the twenty—seven items. In fact, it rates negatively eight of these fifteen items which the average of the other two factors rate positively. This hypothetical person feels he is not liked by others, while the other two feel that they are. He rates his country as less important than himself, but has high hopes for its fhture. 22 Table No. 7. United States-—Factor III: Descending Array of Z—Scores. FUture - HOpes for native country 2.86 Present - Hopes for native country 2.55 Past - Hepes for native country 1.54 Future - Desire to be doing new things all the time 1.19 Present - Desire to be doing new things all the time 0.84 Past - Desire to be doing new things all the time 0.32 Past — Importance of religion 0.30 Present — Importance of religion 0.29 Family — Things more or less important than respondent 0.25 work - Things more or less important than respondent -0.08 Future — Person likes and is liked by others -0.15 Country - Things more or less important than respondent —0.15 Present - Person likes and is liked by others —0.23 Future — worries about the future -0.30 Future - Conditions of life -0.32 Past - Person likes and is liked by others —0.45 Political Party - Things more or less important than respondent -0.46 Community — Things more or less important than respondent -0.46 Present - worries about the future -0.55 Present - Conditions of life -0.62 Has personal ability to make his life happier (now) -0.69 Is able to do anything he wants (now) -0.85 Past — Conditions of life —0.89 Past - Influence with people —0.9l Past - worries about the future -0.92 Future - Influence with people -0.95 Present — Influence with people -l.16 23 Table No. 8. United States--Factor III: Items and Z—Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding.Arrays of United States Factors I and II. Average of Differh Items Greater than All Others Z-Score other Z's ence Present — Hopes for native country 2.549 -0.327 2.876 Future — Hopes for native country 2.862 0.405 2.457 Future - Desire to be doing new things 1.185 -0.798 1.983 Past - Hopes fOr native country 1.538 -0.380 1.917 Present — Desire to be doing new things 0.840 -0.979 1.820 Past — Desire to be doing new things 0.319 -l.086 1.405 Items Less than All Others work — Things more or less important —0.080 —0.000 —0.080 Past — Importance of religion 0.295 0.450 -0.155 Is able to do anything he wants -0.845 -0.501 -0.344 Community — Things more or less important -0.465 —0.091 —0.374 Present - Influence with.peop1e -1.161 —0.567 —0.594 Past — Conditions of life —0.889 —0.169 -0.720 Present — Conditions of life —0.621 0.121 —0.742 FUture - Influence with people -0.946 0.045 -0.991 Family — Things more or less important 0.248 1.246 —0.998 Has personal ability to make his life happier -0.693 0.352 —1.044 Future — Conditions of life —0.316 0.810 -1.l26 Country — Things more or less important —0.153 1.074 -1.227 Present — Person likes and is liked -0.232 0.995 -1.227 Past — Person likes and is liked -0.449 0.876 -1.325 Future - Person likes and is liked -0.145 1.253 -1.398 2L4 He feels he has no ability to make his life happier and is unhappy with his conditions of life. He eXhibits a marked desire to do new things. On the consensus items, this person ranks work and the community lower than the others do. The past importance of religion, his ability to do anything he wants, and his present influence with people are also rated lower than the consensus. In summary, Factor III is a.female factor characterized by a moderately pessimistic viewpoint. This hypothetical person is particu- larly uncertain about her’relationship with other people-eWhether she is liked and.whether she has any influence over them. These characteristics are coupled with extremely high hopes fOr her country (the two highest z—scores of all three factors were this factor's scores on present and future hopes) and a great desire to do new things. CHAPTER IV RESULTS: Japan Consensus Items The consensus items given in the table below are the items of ‘ general agreement among the three factors for Japan. The criterion fOr consensus is a difference of less than a z-value of 1.00 between the scores given an item. There were seven items of agreement fOr the Japanese factors. Table No. 9. Consensus Items: Japan. Average Z—Scores Future - Hopes f0r~native country 1.19 Past — Hopes for native country 0.35 Has personal ability to make life happier —0.06 Future - Influence with people —0.10 Present - Hopes fOr native country -0.40 Past — Influence with people —0.4l Present - Influence with people -0.79 The consensus items reflect agreement on hopes for the native country, influence with people, and the ability to make life happier. This area of agreement involves high hopes for the future of the country along with someWhat high past hopes for the country. However, at the present time, there is a someWhat negative feeling about hopes for the country. In addition, the consensus indicates little 25 26 confidence in the ability to influence peOple in the past, even less in the present, and a more optimistic, but still negative, outlook for the future. There is also general agreement that the respondent's ability to make his life happier is slightly negative. Japan: Factor I Factor I of the Japanese sample showed one simple relationship to the demographic data that was significant. Factor I is male. There were fOur significant interactions of the demographic data. One indicated that when sex and education are taken into account, females of high edu- cation are related to this factor, while the relationship of sex to education does not differentiate between the males. On the second inter- action of age and community size, community size has no influence on the weighting of the young, but between the older groups, those in the larger communities are related to this factor. A.more complex interaction was significant for education with in- come and community size. The main relationship indicated was that high education, high.income and large community size were related to the factor, while the opposite polarity showed no relationship. In small communities, there is an indication that high education and low income are related to this factor. (See Table IIId in Appendix II.) An even more complex interaction of fOur demographic items—~sex, .age, education, community size-ewas also statistically significant, but incapable of interpretation. (See Table IIIe in Appendix II.) The most noticeable Characteristic of this factor is that it ranks work, country, family, political party, and the community in that crder'as more important than the respondent. (See Table 10.) 27 Table No. 10. Japan—-Factor I: Descending Array of Z—Scores work - Things more or less important than respondent 1.77 Country — Things more or less important than respondent 1.30 Family - Things more or less important than respondent 1.25 Future - Desire to be doing new things all the time 1.04 Future - Hopes for native country 1.00 Political Party" - Things more or less important than respondent 0.89 Past - Desire to be doing new things all the time. 0.77 Community — Things more or less important than respondent 0.75 Is able to do anything he wants (now) 0.69 Has personal ability to make his life happier (now) 0.33 Present - Desire to be doing new things all the time 0.23 Past - Hopes for native country 0.19 Future - Influence with people 0.15 Future - Conditions of life 0.11 Future - Person likes and is liked by others 0.08 Future - worries about the future —0.09 Past — Person likes and is liked by others -0.25 Past — Influence with people —0.35 Present — Person likes and is liked by others -0.49 Past - worries about the future -0.55 Present - Conditions of life -0.67 Past - Conditions of life —0.68 Present - Worries about the future -0.74 Present — Hopes for~native country -0.81 Present - Influence with people -l.05 Past — Importance of religion -2.41 Present -2.47 — Importance of religion 28 In addition, this hypothetical person rates highly his future desire to be doing new things and his future hopes for the country, while rating his present hopes for his country quite negatively. He sees no relevance of religion, either in the past or present, to himself and feels he has no influence with people now, but expects this influence to be positive in the future. In comparison with the other two factors, as shown on Table 11, this pattern of attitudes is one of extremes. Ten of the twenty-seven items are given z-scores higher than the other two factors; while twelve are given z—scores lower than the others. In addition to the Character- istics mentioned, the Factor I person gives positive rating to his desire to be doing new things in any time period, to his ability to do anything he wants and to make his life happier; while the averages of the other factors were negative on these items. He gives lower scores fOr all time periods studied to the importance of religion, whether he likes and is liked by others, to his worries about the future and to his hopes for his country. .Although he scores his past and future hopes for his native country positively, the scores are muCh lower than those given by the other factors. On the consensus items, he rates his personal ability to make his life happier and his future influence with people higher than the con- sensus. He rates his hopes for hisnative country in all time periods and his present influence with people lower than the consensus. In summary, the hypothetical person of Factor I is a male who scores his attitudes at either end of the Spectrum.more extremely than his colleagues. The extremely low z—score given.religion would indicate an irrelevancy of it to his life at the very least, and, perhaps, an 29 Table No. 11. Japan--Factor I: Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding Arrays of Japan Factors II and III. Average of Differ— Items Greater than All Others Z-Score other Z's ence Political Party' — Things more or less important 0.889 —1.554 2.442 Future — Desire to be doing new things 1.045 —0.912 1.957 Past - Desire to be doing new things 0.773 —1.098 1.871 work — Things more or less important 1.765 0.223 1.543 Present - Desire to be doing new things 0.234 —0.998 1.232 Ctmmunity — Things more or less important 0.751 -0.329 1.080 Country - Things more or less important 1.303 0.277 1.026 Is able to do anything he wants 0.691 -0.314 1.005 Has personal ability to make his life happier 0.331 —0.253 0.584 Future — Influence with people 0.146 -0.225 0.371 Items Less than All Others Past - Hopes fOr native country 0.188 0.426 —0.238 FUture — HOpes fOr native country 1.001 1.282 -0.281 Present — Influence with people -l.048 —0.664 -0.384 Present - Hopes fOr native country -0.808 -0.203 -0.606 FUture - WOrrieS about the fUture -0.086 0.612 -0.699 Present - worries about the future -0.742 0.197 -0.939 Past — worries about the future -0.554 0.421 —0.975 Future — Person likes and is liked 0.084 1.232 -l.149 Present — Person likes and is liked —0.491 0.713 -1.204 Past - Person likes and is liked —0.249 1.205 -1.454 Present — Importance of religion —2.466 —0.378 -2.088 Past — Importance of religion —2.415 -0.075 -2.340 30 antipathy to religion, at the most. This person feels that he is not liked by others and that he has no worries about the future—-both of these in all three time periods studied. He ranks above himself all five of the social institutions——a viewpoint not shared by the other factors. Finally, he expresses a fairly strong future desire to be doing new things. Japan: Factor II Factor II showed one simple relationship to the demographic data. It is related to low education at the .01 level of significance. An interaction of age and income was also highly significant. This indicated a relationship of peOple of low age and high income, and of peOple of high age and low income to this factor. The other interaction that reached statistical significance was one involving education, income and.crmmunity size. This seems to in- dicate that in smaller communities, the factor was related to low edu- cation regardless of income; while in the larger communities, the factor has an inverse relationship of education to income. The main characteristic of the hypothetical person of Factor II is that not only does he rank the importance of religion highly, he is the only one ranking religion positively. (See Table 12.) He also places the highest value on his family, While ranking work and country highly. Negatively, he Shows a laCk of desire to be doing new things at any time and a dissatisfaction with his conditions of life. In contrast with the other two factors (see Table 13), seven of the ten items that he ranks lower are given negative z—scores; while the other factors score them.positively. In addition to the characteristics mentioned above, this table indicates his feelings of inability to do 31 Table No. 12. Japan-~Factor II: Descending Array of Z-Scores. Family — Things more or less important than respondent Past — Importance of religion Future — Hopes for native country work — Things more or less important than respondent Country - Things more or less important than respondent Present - Importance of religion Future - Person likes and is liked by others Past - Person likes and is liked by others Community — Things.more or less important than respondent Present - Person likes and is liked by others Past — Hopes for native country Past — worries about the future FUture - worries about the future Present — worries about the future Present - Hopes fOr’native country Future - Influence with people Future - Conditions of life Has personal ability to make his life happier (now) Past PolitiCal Party — Things:more or less important than.respondent Is able to do anything he wants (now) - Influence with people Past — Conditions of life Present — Influence with people Present - Conditions of life Present - Desire to be doing new things all the time Future - Desire to be doing new things all the time — Desire to be doing new things all the time Past 1.85 1.40 1.37 1.33 1.30 1.02 0.97 0.93 0.68 0.40 0.25 0.23 0.08 —0.16 —0.37 —0.42~ —0.44 -0.60 -0.71 -0.76 -0.76 —O.85 —0.9l -l.06 -1.51 -l.59 —1.64 32 Table No. 13. Japan——Factor II: Items and Z-Scores Greater or Less than the Corresponding.Arrays of Japan Factors I and III. Average of Differb Items Greater than All Others Z-Score other Z's ence Past - Importance of religion 1.397 —1.981 3.378 Present — Importance of religion 1.015 —2.119 3.135 Family - Things more or'less important 1.846 0.452 1.394 Future - Hopes fOr native country 1.369 1.098 0.271 Items Less than All Others Past — Influence with people -0.712 -0.264 —0.448 Future - Influence with people —0.419 0.058 —0.477 Has personal ability to make life happier -0.597 0.212 -0.808 Past - Conditions of life -0.847 0.027 —0.874 Present - Conditions of life -l.056 —0.090 -0.965 Future — Conditions of life -0.443 0.723 -l.166 Is able to do anything he wants -0.763 0.413 -l.l76 Present - Desire to be doing new things -l.5l2 —0.125 —1.387 Past - Desire to be doing new things —l.644 0.111 ~1.755 Future — Desire to be doing new things -1.591 0.406 -1.997 what he wants and to make his life happier. On the consensus items, he rates someWhat higher his future hopes fOr his country. 'He rates lower than the consensus his influence with people in the past and in the future, and his ability to make his life happier. In conclusion, the hypothetical person of Factor II is a less educated person Who is highly religious and has a strong orientation to family, work and country. He shows no desire to do new things at any time in his life. In his personal relationships, he feels that he likes and is liked by others, but has no influence on them. He is dissatisfied with his conditions of life and sees himself as having little ability to do anything he wants or to make his life happier. 33 Japan: Factor III Only one relationship of the demographic data to this factor was found to be significant. This factor is related to high education. From Table 14, it is apparent that the hypothetical person who is Factor III places a high value on whether he likes and is liked by others. He is quite optimistic about his future conditions of life and his future hopes for his country. He expects to worry more about the future in the future than he does now or did in the past. His political party, his come munity, work, and country and his family are all less important to him.than he is. Religion in the past or in the present has little relevancy for him. In comparing this factor with the others on Table 15, it can be seen that he is highly satisfied with his conditions of life, especially in View of the negative z-scores of the other two factors. He feels more positively that he likes and is liked by others and worries more about the future. Finally, the five social institutions of work, political party, community, country, and family not only are ranked lower than the other factors rank themn but also are ranked negatively While the other factors rank them positively. 'On the consensus items, he gives a higher, but still negative score to his present and past influence with peOple, and his present hopes fOr his country. He also rates higher than the consensus his past hopes for his country. In summary, the hypothetical person of Factor III is more highly educa- ted and seems to be enjoying better conditions of life. He feels he is well liked and has more influence over people than the other factors indicate. While the other factors show few worries about the future, the Factor III does worry about the future. And finally, in contrast to the others, he rates himself as more important than the five social institutions studied. 34 Table No. 14. Japan--Factor III: Descending Array of Z—Scores. Future - Person likes and is liked by others 1.50 Past — Person likes and is liked by others 1.48 Future — Conditions of life 1. 33 Future - Hopes for native country 1.19 Future - Worries about the future 1. l4 Present - Person likes and is liked by others 1.03 Past - Conditions of life 0.74 Past - Worries about the future 0.62 Past — Hopes for native country 0. 60 Present - Worries about the future 0.56 Present - Conditions of life 0 .49 Is able to do anything he wants (now) 0.13 Has personal ability to make his life happier (now) 0.09 Future - Influence with people -0.03 Present — Hopes for native country —0 . 03 Past - Influence with people -0.18 Future - Desire to be doing new things all the time -0.23 Family - Things more or less important than respondent —0.34 Present - Influence with people -0.4l Present — Desire to be doing new things all the time -0.48 Past — Desire to be doing new things all the time -0.55 Country - Things more or less important than respondent -0.74 Work - Things more or less important than respondent -0.89 Community - Things more or less important than respondent -1.34 Past - Importance of religion -l.55 Present - Importance of religion —l.77 Political Party - Things more or less important than respondent —2.35 35 Table No. 15. Japan—-Factor III: Items and Z-Scores Greater or less than the Corresponding Arrays of Japan Factors I and II. Average of Differ— Items Greater than All Others Z—Score other Z's ence Future - Conditions of life 1.335 -0.165 1.500 Past - Conditions of life 0.735 -0.764 1.499 Present — Conditions of life 0.488 -0.862 1.351 Past — Person likes and is liked 1.482 0.339 1.143 Future - Worries about the fUture 1.140 —0.001 1.141 Present — Person likes and is liked 1.031 -0.048 1.079 Present — worries about the future 0.557 -0.452 1.009 Future - Person likes and is liked 1.499 0.525 0.975 Past — worries about the future 0.617 -0.164 0.781 Present — Influence with people —0.414 -0.980 0.566 Present — Hopes for native country —0.033 —0.591 0.558 Past — Hopes for native country 0.605 0.218 0.387 Past — Influence with people —0.176 -0.532 0.356 Items Less than All Others Family — Things more or less important —0.345 1.547 —1.891 Country — Things more or less important —0.744 1.300 —2.043 Community — Things more or less important —1.343 0.718 —2.061 Political Party — Things more or less important —2.351 0.066 —2.418 WOrk - Things more or less important —0.888 1.549 —2.437 CHAPTER V RESULTS: Cross-Cultural Relationships Simple correlations were run between all of the factors for the United States and Japan. The factors fOr the United States and, separately, those for Japan showed significant correlations, indicating that the three factors for each country were distinct and unique. However, significant relationships between one factor of the United States with two of Japan appeared. Table No. 16. Correlations between Factors. United States Factor I -—- Factor II .02 -—- Factor III .01 .01 —-- Japan Factor I -.17 .17 .12 --— Factor II .70** .32 .17 .00 —-- Factor III .41* -.01 .04 .03 —.00 --- U.S. I U.S. II U.S. III Japan I Japan II Japan III 3Fp < .05, r = .39 as p < .01, r = .49 As can be seen from Table 16, United States Factor I is related significantly to Japan Factor II and Japan Factor III. The coefficient of correlation is .70 between this United States factor and Japan Factor II; that between United States Factor I and Japan Factor III is .41. Both of these coefficients reaCh a level of significance of .05 or better. 36 37 Demographic Characteristics of the Factors United States Factor I is a general factor that furnished no significant relationships with the five demographic variables studied-- sex, age, education, income and community size--either alone or in any combination. Thus, U.S. Factor I would seemlto be a pattern of attitudes held by a generalized segment of the United States public. Japan Factor II is a low—education factor. Interactions between _age and income, and education with income and.crmmunity size were also significant, and are more thoroughly described in the preceding chapter. Japan Factor III is a high-education factor, furnishing no other significant relationships between the demographic variables and the factor. U.S. Factor I and Japan Factor II In comparing Tables 3 and 12 fOr similarities in patterns between these two factors, the most apparent are the top rating given the family and the lowest ratings given the three items concerning the desire to do new things all the time. The other similarities in the patterns lie in their hopes fOr their native countries, whether they like or are liked by others, and in their ability to do anything they want. The outstanding dissimilarities are in the three conditions of life items and in the pattern of the worries about the future items. I These two factors give identical rankings to the following items: first, the importance of the family; seventh, the ability to like and be liked by others in the future; tenth, the ability to like and be liked by others in the present; twelfth, worries about the future in the past; and twenty-seventh, the desire to be doing new things in the past. 38 Thus, these two factors share the highest regard for their families, and a strong feeling for their country and their future hopes fOr their country. They both feel it is of some importance to like and be liked by others. They share a.rejection of the desire to be doing new things all the time. And finally, they both feel unable to do any— thing they want. U.S. Factor I and Japan Factor III In comparing Tables 3 and 14 for similarities in patterns between the two factors, the only identical ranking was given to the fourth- ranked hopes fOr native country in the future. Four similarities in patterns are apparent: those concerning conditions of life, worries about the future, influence with people, and the personal ability to make life happier. The outstanding dissimilarities are in the items on the importance of family and country, on whether they like and are liked by others, and on the ability to do anything they want. Thus, these two factors share a general satisfaction with.their conditions of life in any time period. They both.worry about the future in the past, present, and future. They share high hopes for the future of their country and a mid-point view on their ability to make their lives happier. Finally, they share a somewhat negative View on their influence with people. Summary These "gener " Americans of Factor I share with the low-educated Japanese of Factor II a strong family and country orientation, coupled with a rejection of the desire to be doing new things. These Japanese are most dissimilar from.these Americans in their dissatisfaction with 39 their conditions of life and their comparative lack of worry about the future. The more highly educated Japanese of Factor III share with these Americans satisfaction with their conditions of life and a tendency to worry about the future. They are most dissimilar from the Americans in the top importance they place on liking and being liked by others, on their satisfaction with their ability to do what they want, and on their comparative rejection of family and country. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY The Factor Analysis The factor analyses of the attitude items of the United States sample and of the Japan sample revealed three separate and distinct respondent—clusters on attitude items for each country. These patterns of attitudes could be delineated and have internal consistency. The characterizations revealed by these patterns of attitudes are dis- cussed in Chapters 3 and 4. The internal consistency of these patterns of attitudes can be seen in the way related items--especially the items concerning the same subject in different time periods—-tended to cluster together in the factor array. In addition to the individualistic patterns of the attitude items themselves, separate tendencies in the way items were scored appeared. In comparison with the other United States factor, Factor I tended to be more positive in outlook and Factor III tended to be more negative. United States Factor II presented a mixed picture in that the total number of items it rated higher than the other factors was _ greater than the total of Factor I; however, the total number it rated lower was also greater than Factor I, but not half as large as the total number for Factor III. In comparison with the other Japanese factors, Japan Factor 11 was more negative, while Japan Factor III was more positive in outlook. 40 41 Japan Factor I presented a picture of extremes, being more negative than the negative factor and almost as positive as the positive factor. An interesting cross—cultural difference appeared in the manner of scoring the six attitude items that were viewed over time-~the past, present and the future. With two exceptions, the United States factors ranked the perspectives of eaCh item from.the future as highest, the present as next higher and the past as the lowest z—score given. The Japanese factors, with four exceptions, ranked the future as highest, the past as next higher, and the present as the lowest. The Analysis of Variance A sample design in.whiCh five demographic variables were strat- ified by diChotomizing at the median.was Chosen for three reasons: first, because stratifying farther than the dichotomy was beyond the limitations of the particular computer program.being used; second, be- cause extending the stratification would leave some cells unoccupied by the complete sample; and third, because holding constant these demo- _ graphic variables would tend to bring out the simple underlying relation— ships between the demographic variables and the factors. The analysis of variance of the United States factors revealed only one simple relationship of the demographic variables to one factor. U.S. Factor III was female. U.S. Factor II had three separate inter- actions of three variables that were related to it. And U.S. Factor I had no simple relationships that even approaChed statistical significance. Each of the Japanese factors had one simple relationship that was significant. Japan Factor I was male. Japan Factor II was related to low education. And Japan Factor III was related to high education. 42 Cross—Cultural Relationships, United States Factor I was found to be related to a significant degree to Japanese Factors II and III. Each of the Japanese factors bears a.resemblance to different aspects of the personality type repre— sented by United States Factor I. A.discussion of these similarities can be found in Chapter V. No other resemblances among the personality types represented by the factors were found. Discussion Distinct patterns of attitudes, or personality types, were found for each country, and two cross-cultural relationships between these personality types were discovered. However, although simple relationships of four of the factors to demographic variables were found, the anticipated results of the sample design were far greater. The multiple interactions that were disclosed offer little toward delineating the factors, and less toward prediction or projection of the results. The fact that the demographic variables did not discriminate to the degree expected will be examined in three aspects: the choice of the variables, the diChotomizing of the variables, and the question of whether the patterns of attitudes generated by the type of questions used are functions of the demographic variables. The demographic variables chosen were sex, age, education, family income and.crmmunity size. Of these, sex was a discriminating variable in both countries and education was a discriminating variable in Japan. If the level of probability were lowered to .15 or better, a relation- ship for age, income and community size can be found for eaCh variable to one factor. Thus, it would seemlthat these variables do discriminate, 43 although at a low level. The method of diChotomizing the variables is much more suspect than the variables Chosen. Sex, whiCh offers no options on where to diChotomize, was a discriminating variable in both countries. Because of the nature of the questionnaire, respondents under twenty years of .age were not interviewed. The resulting median age for the United States was 42 years and for Japan.was 35 years. By dichotomizing at these high medians, the differences betweenjmimilaniage, if there had been any, would certainly have been.minimized. Education was a discriminating variable in Japan, but not in the United States. The median number of years of sChooling for Japan was eight years, fOr the United States ten years. Both of these were school— leaving years for eaCh of the countries at the time of the survey, and probably reflect the general population. It would seem likely that a . generally high educational level, as in the United States, would tend to show fewer educational differences when diChotomized at the median. Dichotomizing a generally lower educational level at the median.would tend to create two groups whose level of education is much.more dis- parate, and thus more discriminating, as occurred in Japan. lIncome was not a discriminating variable in either country. The medians of the samples do not reflect the general populations of the countries. The median for the United States sample, $5,000, was lower than that of the general p0pu1ation. The Bureau of Census estimated the median of annual family incomes in 1964 as $6569, as reported in the WOrld.Almanac (1966). The median fOr the Japanese sample, $1,100, would seemlto be very high. Dore's (1958) report of monthly family expenditures of his sample in.a Tokyo ward would indicate a median income far below 44 that figure——only three of his 17 families had an income reaching or exceeding this figure. Thus, it would seem that, if income has any effects as a discriminator in attitude patterns, these effects would be minimized considerably by including lower incomes in the upper half and upper incomes in the lower half, when dichotomizing the groups . A similar problem is apparent in the dichotomizing of community size. Both medians are higher than is true for the general population. Exact figures were not available at the time of this writing. However, the World Book Encyclopedia (1958) reports the Japanese population as 62 per cent rural, which would make a median town size of 25,000 seem very high. For the United States, the 1960 census, as reported in the World Almanac (1966) , showed more than 45 per cent of the p0pu1ation living in communities of under 50,000, which would make a median of 100,000 seem high. Thus, any urban-rural differences that might have shown up with a lower population figure as the dichotomizing point were not revealed. Finally, there is the question of whether the patterns of at— titudes generated by the types of questions used are functions of the demographic variables studied. For the United States, it is apparent that more is operating in the formation of patterns of attitudes than simple relationships to sex, age, education, income, or community size. Only one of the three factors showed a simple relationship (to sex), while the factor furnishing the largest proportion of the variance showed no relationships to any one of or any combination of the demo- _ graphic variables . The other factor showed three complex interactions of the variables that. give little insight into the nature of these discriminatory interactions . Since the design of the analysis tends 45 to maximize the effects of these variables and emphasize the simple relationships, the results fOr the United States indicate something more complex than these basic demographic variables is involved in the fOrmation of these patterns of attitudes. For the Japanese, however, simple relationships of sex to one factor and education to the other two factors were revealed. In fact, education acted as a clear-cut discriminator on both sides of the di— chotomy-—the type of result that was expected to appear more often. Therefore, it is suggested that fromla.homogeneous people with a long tradition of codified behavior, suCh as the Japanese, differences in patterns of attitudes may be functions of variables as basic as the extent and quality of education. While, on the other hand, from.a heter— Aogeneous people with a background of many cultures and a tradition of regional differences, as the Americans are, differences in patterns of attitudes may be functions of such multi—dimensional variables as to defy an analysis based on simple relationships. Implications for Future Study The most important result of this study was the isolation of separate and distinct factors, patterns of attitudes that could be Characterized as definite personality types with a high degree of internal consistency. The fact that these factors were isolated indicates that these factors are present in the populations represented by the samples. However, the distribution of these factors and the identification of the persons making up these factors are both elements for future study. The first step in future study should be the investigation of the complete samples for the United States and Japan for the presence of 46 these factors and for indications of their prevalence among the general population. If, as seems likely, the analysis of the complete samples indicates that these are common factors in the general populations, further field work will most probably be necessary to determine the actual distribution of these factors. Once the factors have been isolated, the second field survey becomes much simpler, since the only areas of investigation now involved are how the respondent identifies with the factors, and the demographic characteristics of the respondent. The reasons for suggesting future studies of this scope are the implications ftmicrmmunicators furnished by the personality types of the factors. For an example from the United States factors, just one facet of one factor implies some major barriers to a widely used ad— vertising appeal. U.S. Factor I, WhiCh cannot be identified by basic demographic variables, rejects the desire to do new things to a degree that reaches close to a z-value of -3.0. As for Japan, the factor significantly related to high education, Factor III, rejects all five social values studied-—family, work, country, crmmunity, and political party—-and yet has a generally more positive outlook in comparison with the other Japanese factors. Therefore, toward the goal of more effective communication, it would seemlwell worth pursuing and identifying further the personality types identified by this study. \\ REFERENCED BIBLIOGRAPHY Borton, Hugh. "Japan." The World Book Enoyclopedia. Chicago, 111.: Field Enterprises Educational Corp., 1958. VOl.9: 3972-3985. Buck, Pearl. The Literary Sampler: 'I Am Insulted, I Am Grateful.’ Saturday Review. Vol. XLIX, No. 40: 60. Oct. 1, 1966. Dore, R. P. City Life in Japan; A:Study of a Tokyo ward. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Un1versity of CaIifornia Press, 1963. Hughes, Richard. The Orientalization of the west. ‘Saturday Review. Vol. XLIX, NO. 41: 47-48, 82. "Median Family and workers' Incomes Continue Rise." The WOrld Almanac and Book of Facts. New York, N.Y.: New York World— Telegram.and The Sun, 1966. P. 382. Rudofsky, Bernard. The Kimono Mind; An_InfOrmal Guide to Japan and the Japanese. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday 8 Company, Inc., 1965. Smith, Robert J. and Beardsley, Richard K. Japanese Culture; Its Development and Characteristics. Chicago, 111.: Aldine PubliShing Company, 1962. "U. S. Population Urban, Rural, White, Nonwhite." The World Almanac and Book of Facts. New York, N.Y.: New YOrk.World-Telegnmm and The Sun, 1966. P. 324. Vogel, Ezra F. Japan's New Middle Class; The Salary Man and His Family in a_Tokyo Suburb. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Un1versity of CalifOrnia Press, 1963. L47 APPENDIX I Items Drawn From the Final Field Version of the Survey Interview Questionnaire 48 APPENDIX I Items Drawn.From the Final Field Version of the Survey Interview Questionnaire Demographic Data 1) Sex 2) Age 3) Education: number of years completed. 4) Income: family's total annual income including, rents, interests, wages, salaries and other sources. 5) Community size: size of place of residence. Items Conditions of Life 1) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top stands a person who is living the best possible life and at the bottom stands a person who is living the worst possible life. Where did you stand five yearsvago? 2) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top stands a person.Who is living the best possible life and at the bottom stands a person who is living the worst possible life. Where do you stand now? 3) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top stands a person who is living the best possible life and at the bottom stands a person who is living the worst possible life. What step do you think you will be on fiVe years from now? Hopes for Native Country 4) Here is a.picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top are your greatest hopes for your native country and at the bottom are your worst fears for your native country. What step did your native country stand five years ago? 5) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top are your greatest hopes for your native country and at the bottom.are your‘worst fears for your native country. What step does your country stand on now? 6) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top are your greatest hopes for your native country and at the bottom.are your worst fears for your native country. Where do you think your native country ‘will stand five years from.now? 49 Worries about the Future 7) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top of the ladder stands a person who is completely free from worry about the future . At the bottom stands a person with many worries about the future. Where did you stand five years ago? 8) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the tOp of the ladder stands a person who is completely free from worry about the future. At the bottom stands a person with many worries about the future . Where do you stand now? 9) Here is a picture of a ladder. Suppose at the top of the ladder stands a person who is completely free from worry about the future. At the bottom stands a person with many worries about the future. Where do you think you will stand five years from now? Influence with People 10) Here is a ladder. Suppose at the top of the ladder stands a person who has very much influence over people at work, with neighbors , friends and people of that sort . At the bottom of the ladder is a person with little or no influence over others . What step did you stand on five years ago in the amount of influence you had? 11) Here is a ladder. Suppose at the top of the ladder stands a person who has very much influence with people. At the bottom of the ladder is a person with little or no influence over others . Where do you stand right now? 12) Here is a ladder. Suppose at the top of the ladder stands a person who has very much influence over people at work, with neighbors , friends and people of that sort . At the bottom of the ladder is a person with little or no influence over others . What step will you be on five years from now? Person Likes and Is liked by Others 13) Here is a picture of a ladder. At the top stands a person who likes other people very much and other people like him. At the bottom of the ladder is a person who doesn't like other people and other people don't like him. What step would you say you stood on five years ago? 14) Here is a picture of a ladder. At the top stands a person who likes other people very much and other people like him. At the bottom of the ladder is a person who doesn't like other people and other people don't like him. Where do you stand right now? 50 15) Here is a picture of a ladder. ‘At the top stands a person who likes other people very much.and other people like him. At the bottom of the ladder is a.person.who doesn't like other people and other people don't like him. Where do you think you will stand five years fromgnow? Desire to Be Doing New Things All the Time 16) Here is a picture of a ladder. .At the top of the ladder stands a person who wants to do new things all of the time. He wants life to be exciting and always changing although this may make life quite troublesome. At the bottom.is a person who wants a steady and un- Changing life. What step did you stand on five years ago? 17) Here is a picture of a ladder. At the top of the ladder stands a person who wants to do new things all of the time. He wants life to be exciting and always changing although this may make life quite troublesome. .At the bottom is a.person who wants a steady and un- changing life. What step do you stand on now? 18) Here is a picture of a ladder. At the top of the ladder stands a person Who wants to do new things all of the time. He wants life to be exciting and always Changing although this may make life quite troublesome. .At the bottom is -a person who wants a steady and un— changing life. What step do you think you will stand on five years from.now? Importance of Religion 19) Here is a ladder. At the top stands a person who is very religious. To him, religion is an important part of much of his every- day life. At the bottom is a person Whose religion does not enter into all parts of his everykprlife. What step did you stand on five years ago? 20) Here is a ladder. At the top stands a person who is very religious. To hing religion is an important part of muCh of his every- day life. At the bottom.is a person Whose religion does not enter into all parts of his everyday life. What step do you stand on now? Things Mere or Less Important than Respondent 21) Imagine that you are in the middle step of the ladder right now. On the top steps of the ladder are things WhiCh, in your judgment, are more important than you as an individual, and on the bottom.steps of the ladder are things less important than you as an individual. On.what step would you put the political party you prefer? 51 22) Imagine that you are in the middle step of the ladder right now. On the top steps of the ladder are things which, in your judgment , are more important than you as an individual, and on the bottom steps of the ladder are things less important than you as an individual. On what step would you put your community? 23) Imagine that you are in the middle step of the ladder right now. On the top steps of the ladder are things which, in your judgment, are more important than you as an individual, and on the bottom steps of the ladder are things less important than you as an individual. On what step would you place your family? 2’4) Imagine that you are in the middle step of the ladder right now. On the top steps of the ladder are things which, in yow judgment, are more important than you as an individual, and on the bottom steps of the ladder are things less important than you as an individual. On what step would you put your country? 2 5) Imagine that you are in the middle step of the ladder right now. On the top steps of the ladder are things which, in your judgment, are more important than you as an individual, and on the bottom steps of the ladder are things less important than you as an individual. On what step would you put your work? Is Able to Do Anything He Wants 26) Here is a ladder. At the top of the ladder stands someone who has all the opportunity and chances he wants to do anything he wants. Down at the bottom stands someone who can' t do anything he wants to do. Where do you stand now? Has Personal Ability to Make His Life Happier 27) Here is a ladder. At the top stands someone who can do very much to make his life happier. At the bottom stands someone who can do very little to make his life happier. Where do you stand right now? APPENDIX II Sub-Effects Tables for Factorial with Replicates Design 5 3 APPENDIX II Sub—Effects Tables for Factorial with Replicates Design The fOllowing selection of tables is limited to the ones, as indicated by the analysis of variance, in whiCh the F—statistic of the source of variance reaches a probability of .05. Tables Ia—Ic. Demographic Data Related Significantly to United States Factor II- Ia. Interrelationship of Sex, Education and Income. Source of Variance Standard Sex Education Income Frequency Mean Deviation Female Low Low 8 0.388 0.25]. Low High 8 0.225 0.280 High Low 8 0.374 0.255 High High 8 0.312 0.202 Male Low Low 8 0.025 0.287 Low High 8 0.323 0.216 High Low 8 0.358 0.319 High High 8 0.173 0.262 F—Statistic = 5.016 d.f. = 1 p < 0.03 lb. Interrelationship of Age, Education and Community Size. Source of Variance Community Standard Age Education Size Frequency Mean Deviation Low LOW Low 8 0.1+37 0.223 Low High 8 0.133 0.200 High Low 8 0.27” 0.314 High High 8 0.uu1 0.224 High Low Low 8 0.151 0.271 ' Low High 8 0.2u0 0.329 High Low 8 0.299 0.220 High High 8 0.203 0.302 F—Statistic = 6.351 d.f. = l p