A METHODQLOGY 0F '{EACHENG OLYMPIC- CANOE RACiNG Thesis for the Degree of M. A. PMCHIGAN STATE UNWERSIW RENE A Pita?! 1967 o .mfc _ . Ir" MSU LIBRARIES RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wiT] be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. 7' {river m (3 ‘. l, . I be W“ . fig; (r7. v ABSTRACT A METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING OLYMPIC CANOE RACING by René A. Pilon Statement of Problem From this methodology it is hoped a program of Olym- pic Canoe racing can be developed for physical educators, coaches and instructors in order that the status of Olym- pic canoe racing in North America can be improved. Methodology The framework of the entire program, the overall phi— lOSOphy of the Sport, the statement of objectives (namely top paddlers for international competition), the develop- mental characteristics of beginners, a theory and training program and prerequisites for athletes entering the canoe- ing Sport have been compiled and developed for this study. The physiology required by this Sport was also described. Questions It Is Hoped This Methodology Will Answer 1. Where did Olympic canoe racing begin and who con- trols it? 2. How do we select a paddle? 3. What are the racing regulations? A. How do we select athletes? René A. Pilon 5. What are the material and formal pre- requisites for a paddler? 6. What is the role of the nervous system? 7. Which methods of breathing are best for paddling? 8. Are salt pills necessary when racing? 9. What are the psychological limitations ? 10. How does one paddle? ll. What are the modern theories of training? \ Method of Securing and Source of Data Information was obtained by discussions and corre- Spondence with various members of the International Canoe Federation, present and former coaches of the Canadian team, and Olympic athletes. The material used was also gathered from books found at the Michigan State Library, Inter- Library Loan, Personal Library. Visits were made to vari- ous peOple connected with paddling. Summary Generally Speaking the main facts derived from this study are: what the paddler is ready to learn, what he Should learn, and how he Should best learn. This should provide a realistic and scientifically based framework for continuity in methodology development. This research study has been approved for the Divi- sion of Physical Education and Athletics by (:SZOvyx&£Qh}A.Lk3-LL)£/£filt::b Professor df Physical Education A METHODOLOGY OF TEACHING OLYMPIC CANOE RACING By Rene A. Pilon A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation College of Education 1967 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his gratitude and appre- ciation to those who participated in the research and par— ticularly Mr. F. Clement, T. Dienstmann, B. Collins, M. Fiorito and also my Academic adviser Dr. Randolph W. Web- ster, without whose cooperation and patience this research would not have been possible. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS LIST OF CHARTS LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS LIST OF PICTURES. Chapter I. HISTORY OF CANOEING, AND THE INTERNATIONAL CANOE FEDERATION . . . Organized Canoeing. International Canoe Federation Statutes. I. Purpose of the Federation II. Membership. . III. The Congress. . IV. I.C.F. Committees V. I.C.F. Amateur Rule II. TERMINOLOGY AND EQUIPMENT Single-Blade and Double—Blade Paddles Length of Paddle in a C—Boat Length of Paddle in a K-Boat Classes and Building Rules Kayaks. Canoes. Limitations Measuring. Weighing Canoe Types The Racing Canadian Canoes The Racing Kayaks III. PREREQUISITES AND PROBLEMATIC IN CANOEING Prerequisites to Efficient Movement in Canoeing . Physical Prerequisites Mental Prerequisites Emotional Prerequisites iii Page ii vi . vii .viii H MN O\O\U'TU'IUL) I2 I? 114 14 15 15 l5 l6 17 18 19 19 22 22 Chapter Organization of Prerequisites and Controls Leading to Efficient Movement Problematic of the Paddler Nervous System Coordination. IV. PHYSIOLOGY RELATED TO CANOEING. The Physiology of ReSpiration . . Breathing Method for the C- Paddlers Breathing Method for the K- Paddlers Muscular Endurance. . . . . . Value of Taking Salt Pills Competitive Fear Extension of the PsychologiCal Limit. Second Wind . . . V. TECHNIQUE OF CANOE RACING . Basic Position to Double- Blade Paddling. Double- Blade Paddling Technique German Technique Swedish Technique Hungarian Technique Technique is not Encugh . Basic Position to Single- Blade Paddling. Czech Technique. . . . . . Canadian Technique. Modern Technique . Description of the Two Paddling Techniques The Hip and Shoulder Rotation Technique. The Waist Bending Technique. Summary of Waist Bending Technique Methods of Changin Direction VI. SCHOOL PROGRAM The History of Riverside Paddling Program Requirement for a Paddling Program in an Elementary School . Paddling—-An Elementary School Physical Education Program . . . . Advantages . Layout of a School Program Conditions Prerequisites iv Page 25 27 m C 33 33 36 37 39 40 Al A2 43 44 All 146 146 BO 51 52 53 524 55 56 57 57’ Chapter VII. MODERN THEORIES ON TRAINING. Training . Three Kinds of Muscle Contractions Isometric Paddle Action First Day. Second Day . Overload, Not Isometric Contraction, Counts. How Can Muscles Be Overloaded Annual Training Program for Canoeist. Today's Rational Type of Training. General Rule. The Four Periods of the Annual Program I. Preparatory Period II. Formation Period. III. Top Form Maintenance Period. IV. Transitory Period Water Training Program First Phase Second Phase. Third Phase . Fourth Phase. Fifth Phase BIBLIOGRAPHY Appendix A Films Available to C.C.A. Clubs and Prospective Club Groups. Appendix B Follow—Up Chart Appendix C International Canoe Federation Members Appendix D Canoe and Kayak Prices Appendix E Training Raft Appendix F Indoor Training Basin. Appendix G Using a Plank on a Raft 103 105 107 111 113 115 117 LIST OF CHARTS Chart Page 1. Prerequisites to Efficient Movement . . . . 24 vi Figure "\ImUl-D‘UUR) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Canoe Nomenclature, C-2 Kayak Nomenclature, K-2 Hands Position with a K-Paddle. Balance Trainer Corner of a Swimming Pool Balance Beam Training Pontoon in Swimming Pool vii Page 11 12 AS 47 66 67 91+ LIST OF PICTURES Picture Page 1. War Canoe (Lachine Racing Canoe Club) . . . 62 2. A Four-Man Crew, C-A (Lachine Racing Canoe Club) 6A viii CHAPTER I HISTORY OF CANOEING, AND THE INTERNATIONAL CANOE FEDERATION The term canoe has probably a legitimate Indian pedi- gree. Although it has reached us through a French agency in the form of "canot," there can be little doubt that it is the carib word "canaoa", the natives of San Salvador, at least, are said to have called small boats by this name when Columbus first landed there (16, p. 3A). The terms boat and canoe are used interchangeably not only in reference material but also in early descriptions of water craft. The first floating thing on which man rcde and trans- ported goods was an ordinary log. He first propelled this by means of hands and feet and later by the use of a pole. This is estimated to have been more than 12,000 years ago. Archeologists have excavated a boat in the Valley of the Nile which is thought to have been in use 10,000 B.C. The next step was the fashioning of a paddle which gave primate man greater speed than the pole. The dugout, which was a log hollowed out by means of stone tools or fire, followed the raft (15, p. 167). The various stages in the development of the canoe and related water craft listed chronologically, come, in general, 1. 2. UL) CDNChUl-ll‘ 10. 11. in the following order: The log propelled by hands and feet. The log propelled by a branch or pole. The raft (logs, brushwood or reeds fastened together by thongs). Platforms built on rafts. The raft propelled by a paddle. The sail (a Skin stretched on a pole). The dugout The canoe made by stretching bark or Skin on a framework. The canoe made of several pieces of wood stitched together with thongs or fibers. The canoe with bow and stern, bulging Sides, flat bottom, a keel piece and built up Side. The canoe with several pieces of wood, fastened together by wooden pegs (20, p. AOA-AO9). There is a long history in the building of water craft and canoe. I would recommend for such history, the work done by Evelyn Ezell Dobson on the "History and Devel- Opment of Canoes and Canoeing." Modern canoeing is a recreational Sport activity. It began in 1866 when the Royal Canoe Club was founded in England, and the Prince of Wales, later King Edward VII, became commodore. Its headquarters are at Kingston on the Thames. There is also the British Canoe Association which Was and still is an active organization devoted to cruising. After the English canoes were seen in Paris at the exhi— bition of 1867, others like them were built in France (5, p- 792). Modern canoeing as a Sport owes its popularity largely to two men in England who built canoes capable of being either paddled or sailed, and took long journeys in them: John Macgregor in the Roblkw between 1866 and 1869, and Benden Powell in the Nautibus (5, p. 792). Organized Canoeing A11 organized canoeing in the United States is headed by the American Canoe Association (A.C.A.). This body, founded in 1880, is divided into nine geographic divisions. Each division holds paddling and sailing races and there is an annual national meet, held at a different site each year according to the best interests of the association. This first local organization in the U.S., the New York Canoe Club, dates from 1871. In Canada the Sport is supervised by the Canadian Canoe Association (C.C.A., 1900)(5, p. 793). Every year there is an international competition, Canada vs U.S., the North American Championship started in 1953. The North American Canoe Racing Association was formed in 1966. The constitution of this association has now been approved by both A.C.A. and C.C.A. This associa- tion has the responsibility to conduct the yearly champion- ship regatta between the member countries as well as to promote interest in the Sport of canoeing. The world governing body is the International Canoe Federation (I.C.F.), formed in 19A5 as the successor to the Internationale Representationschaft des KanuSport (I.R.K., 1924) which was dissolved during World War II. The I.R.K. was responsible for canoeing becoming an Olympic Sport (5, p. 793). There are only two categories of racing canoe at the Olympics. The first form is the kayak which was used by the Eskimo. It has a rigid deck with a covering laced about the paddler and is prOpelled by a double blade paddle with a rudder or a sail. The second form is the Canadian canoe. It is similar to a small boat except that it is longer, narrow and sharp at both ends. It is propelled by a single blade paddle and does not have a rudder or a sail. For each of these categories there is also a Specially built racing canoe. The "K” kayak boat and ”C” racing boat are different in both origin and method of propulsion. The K-paddler, seated in the kayak, used the double—bladed paddle, whereas the C—paddler is in a half—kneeling posi— tion, with one knee resting on a bun using the single—bladed paddle. Both the racing kayak and canoe are under the ruling of the International Canoe Federation. The racing canoes were first introduced in Paris, at the 1924 Olympic. The first official Olympic regatta was held in Berlin in 1936, where nineteen countries and one hundred and twenty—one athletes took part. Frank Amyot, a young Canadian from Owam, won the first gold medal in C-l category. International Canoe Federation Statues I. Purpose of the Federation The I.C.F. is internationally known in these names: 1. In English: International Canoe Federation. 2. In French: La Fédération Internationale de Canoe. 3. In German: Internationale Canu Foderation Abridgement: I.C.F., F.I.C. and I.C.F. The federation consists of those national canoe asso— ciations which are recognized in their reSpective country by the leading Sports organizations, or by the Olympic Com- mittee of that country, as the representative national canoe association and which have duty affiliated to the I.C.F. (8, art. 1). Duties of the I.C.F. a. To issue rules and regulations for the building and classification of racing kayaks and canoes. b. To issue rules and regulations to be followed in international canoe contests. c. To see that the statues and racing regulations of the federation are observed. d. To arrange for Continental and World Champion- chip contests. e. To make every possible effort to Spread water tourism and to promote this activity by facilitating international communications. f. To supervise the right of competitors to take part in international competitions. g. To settle disputes which may arise between member associations. h. To obtain international enforcement of dis— qualifications, reprimands or penalties inflicted (8, art. 5). II. Membership Application for membership in the I.C.F. shall be sent in writing to the Management of the I.C.F. together with the statues of the association, in duplicate, making the application and information regarding the number of its clubs and members. The application Shall be accompanied by the appropriate subscription for the current year. If the application is rejected, the amount paid will be re- funded. Election of members shall take place at the Congress. A majority of two-thirds of the votes is required. The Management of the I.C.F. is entitled to accept provisionally as a member an association applying for affiliation--subject to ratification by the next Congress (8, art. 6). III. The Congress The supreme authority of the I.C.F. is the Congress, formed by the delegates from the affiliated national asso- ciations. Each national association is entitled to send one delegate to the Congress and shall have one vote. The Congress Shall be under the chairmanship of the President or in his absence of one of the Vice—Presidents (8, art. 10). English, French, German as the official languages which Shall be used at Congresses, other meetings and cor- respondence with the I.C.F. English only is the official language for the issue of official documents, except the I.C.F. Slalom Rules which shall be in French. At a Congress each delegate is entitled to Speak in the language of his country, provided that his Speech is translated into one of the official languages by a competent interpreter (8, art. 21). IV. I.C.F. Committees The following Standing Committees of the I.C.F. Shall deal with specific activities of the federation: The Paddling Racing Committee. The Slalom Committee The I.C.F. Touring Committee. The Sailing Committee. The Committee for Propaganda and Information. The Committee for Sports Medicine. HiCDCLOU‘Q) All committees are reSponsible for their activities to the Board of Management (8, art. 35). V. I.C.F. Amateur Rule An amateur is a sportsman who devotes himself to the Sport of canoeing for his own pleasure and for his moral and physical well—being without deriving from this either directly or indirectly any material advantage. He is, therefore, not allowed: a. to advocate professionalism in any competitive Sport, taking into account the loss of earnings and the expenses caused by the participation in competitive events. b. to participate in competitions in which money prizes are given. c. to use championship titles for the purpose of financial or material gain which does not represent recompensation for actual work done; for instance the use of championship titles in the publicity of commercial firms (8, art. 41). The present secretary—treasurer is Mr. Olov Verher with his office at 11 Biblioteksgatan, Stockholm 7, Sweden. CHAPTER II TERMINOLOGY AND EQUIPMENT Like any other sport, canoeing has some words and phrases which are not used in general conversation. These words are used to describe parts of canoe (see Figures 1 and 2), techniques, training and competition, and therefore help the reader with the methodology of canoe racing. Back Water: Back stroke pushing the water forward. Bail: Remove water from a canoe. Bun: Kneeling pad, usually rounded a cushion. Bow: The forward part of the canoe. C: Canadian racing canoe. C—l: C followed by a number means the number of athletes in the canoe. Feather Blade: During the recovery the paddle is slightly parallel to the water. Freeboard: Part of the boat above the waterline. Gunwale: The part of a canoe where topsides and deck meet. J-Stroke: Paddling with a single-bladed paddle so as to steer at the end of each stroke. K: Kayak racing boat. K-l K followed by a number means the number of athletes in the boat. 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AG- 1.5 t 4 ll ktmhm a put C Tltuttttxaxtxxxxx: mew. kumJ \ .551 whens“ all“ N QQQ‘R WQ.‘ NW NQWSOQ J at 333 Ema I III 3,:«hutk $35. :33 as he: I. wkeuvwkefifiw .. .. u \VuWQ. fiw‘§§§k.\ _ _ . tome awwikoo‘h J 11 :1: rs T I V3,. 10000 Knifing: Left Side: Paddle: Right side: Seat Cover: Side Stroke: Stroker: Shaft: Stem: Stemband: Stern: Steer: Tape Rings: Wind Scoop: Stroke: 12 During the recovery the paddle is parallel to the canoe. The Side when facing forward or port. An implement with a broad blade used without support to propel and steer the canoe. The Side when facing forward or star- board. An apron to fit over the cockpit and around the canoeist. Stroke to pull the canoe Sideways. The movement of the blade through water. The person who sets the stroke for the crew. The long bar which joins the blade with the grip. The stern or bow of a canoe. Piece of wood joining the port and starboard of a canoe. The rear end of a canoe. To aim the boat in a direction Rings fitted at the neck of the blade, to mark hands position. Piece of wood affixed to the stern of the canoe to deflect air from the stern. Single—Blade and Double-Blade Paddles Length of Paddle in a C—Boat In selecting the right paddle, place the tip of the The length of the paddle, blade on the ground so that the hand grip reaches about eye however, will vary 13 according to the type of canoe raced and the paddler‘s position in the canoe. The paddle has to be very light and strongly built. Another method of determining a paddle of suitable length for average use is based on the length of the paddler's arms. Curl the second joints of the fingers of one hand around the grip and the second joints of the fin- gers of the other hand around the tip of the blade. For the average person this is equivalent to the eye—level measurement, and is more convenient to apply when kneeling in a canoe (1, p. 51). Length of Paddle in a K-Boat To select the right paddle, first place the blade tip on the ground, and then curl the second joints of the fin— gers around the tip of the other blade. The length of the double blade, however, will vary according to the kayak used and the paddler's position in the boat. The stroker usually takes a smaller paddle. A paddle should be as light as possible and Should be well protected with marine varnish. It Should have also adequate strength. The improperly coated paddle will soon become water logged. Varnish, however, will help to protect the paddle. 1A Classes and Building Rules reels All kind of building materials are permitted. Sec- tionS and the longitudinal line of the hull of the kayak must be convex and not interrupted. Steering rudders are allowed. The maximum thickness of the rudderblade must not be less than 1O mm. in the case of K-2 and K—l or 12 mm in the case of K-A, in cases where the rudder forms an extension to the length of the kayak (7, p. 1). Canoes All kind of building materials are permitted. Sec- tions and the longitudinal line of the hull of the canoe must be convex and not interrupted. The canoe must be built symmetrically upon the axis of its length. Steering rudders or any guiding apparatus directing the course of the canoe are not allowed. A keel, if any, must be straight, must extend over the whole length of the canoe and not ~ro- ject more than 30 mm below the hull. The C—l canoe may be entirely Open and must not be covered more than 15O cm. from the stem and 75 cm. from the stern, reckoned from the outer edge of the stem or stern to the furthest point of the edge of the deck for the fore or aft decks respectively open. The minimum length of the opening must be half of the boat length (7, p. 1, 2). 15 Limitations K-l K—2 K—u C-1 C-2 C-lO 520 650 1100 520 650 1100 cm. max. length 51 55 6O 75 75 85 cm. min. beam 12 18 3O 16 20 so kg. min. weight All measures in cm. and all weight in kg. (7, p. 1). Measuring The length of a kayak or a canoe must be measured between the extremes of the stem and the stern. Stem-bands or other protection of the stem or stern, if any, are to be included. Any rudder forming a continuation of the length of a kayak is not to be included in the measurement. The beam of a kayak or a canoe must be measured at the widest partu Rubbing strake, if any, is not to be included in the measurement (7, p. 2). Weighing No alterations in canoes and kayaks are permitted after the measuring and weighing and before the competition has taken place. All loose outfittings Shall be removed from the kayaks during the weighing except for permanent rudders, the steering devices belong to them, and fixed seats. When canoes are weighed, all fittings other than permanently attached floorboards, widescoops and thwarts must be removed. The first four boats in the final race as well as all boats which have qualified for one more 16 race shall immediately after the race be measured and weighed again (7, p. 2). The C-4 and war canoe (C-lA) races are not included in Olympic, International, World Championship competitions. The C-8 is included in the International and World Champion— ship competitions. The 0-4 racing canoe: maximum length,2O feet; minimum beam, 30 inches; minimum depth, 10 1/2 inches; minimum weight, 70 pounds. The C—lu racing war canoe: maximum length, 30»feet; minimum beam, 36 inches, minimum weight, if built prior to l9Al—-l7O pounds, if built subsequent to l940--19O pounds (3, p. 14). Canoe Types Today, freedom of movement during the paddle strokes grows more and more important due to the advances in paddling technique. Consequently, the widest point of the canoes is located so far aft that canoes are very narrow at their bow and middle part. At the widest point the freeboard is so high that the width can be reduced above the water level. The narrow bow develops until there is just room enough for the canoeist. Unfortunately, the Speed in rough water and even also in calm water is affected by this. The fineness tends to be too low, planing effect no longer exists and the buoyancy is kept within a larger wetted sur— face than before. The solution to this problem is to add l7 buoyancy to the bow below the gunwale, and at the same time to keep therunrowness where it is advantageous to the paddle work. In latest canoes the bow sections continuing edge- less into the deck and the arched freeboards are deflecting the bow wave much better than the earlier vertical ones (18, p. 28). In racing canoes only the Speed counts, but as Speed also includes rough water performance, seaworthiness comes into consideration. Due to the high Speed and the long nar— row hull, racing canoes cut through the waves rather than climb over them. In rough water they are almost constantly swash and even in the wake from competitors the deck occa— sionally cleaves the water. To avoid this, we need extremely high freeboards but as the wind resistance must be the lowest possible they have never been introduced (18, p. 28). The Racing Canadian Canoes C—1 and C-2 began developing later than the kayaks, but then continued until they had not the slightest likeness with traditional Canadian Canoes. All that is left is the Canadian beam of 75 cm. being located like a sort of rudi- ment far aft and high above the water line. In a racing single, 75 cm. is also an enormous width, which interfers with proper steering. The beam can be measured anywhere on the canoe and so it only influences the grinwale Shape, whereas below the water line the canoes are exactly as 18 narrow as the kayaks. Even if this means a larger wetted surface the directional stability gained is essential to the steering. Turns are made by leaning the canoe (18, p. 30). The RacinggKayak The racing kayak include K—l, K-2, and K-A. Earlier the size of wetted surface was considered as being nearly fixed and almost impossible to bring down. Nevertheless, it has decreased about Six per cent compared with the 1950 boats. A still narrower and deeper section is too unstable and has proved no advantage in the speed. Rocker generally decreases the wetted surface but increases the change of trim. A rocker line being flat at its middle and curved more and more intensively towards the ends provides the best results. The K-1 is especially sensitive to changes in the rocker—-a quarter of an inch can be felt in performance. Too much makes the kayak bounce in the spurts and too little makes it feel "dead" and harsh running over the racing dis— tances (18, p. 28). Planing features such as deep and flat aft sections are efficient only to a smooth paddling style. In the latest K-l and K-2 planing forms only exist in so far as the center of buoyancy is worked deeper in the hull towards the stern. In a K-A no planing or lifting effect is pos- sible: here the frictional resistance is stiu more impor- tant than in the K-1 and K-2 (18, p. 29). CHAPTER III PREREQUISITES AND PROBLEMATIC IN CANOEING Prerequisites to Efficient Movement in Canoeing In canoeing all basic physical laws to movement are applied but cannot be overlooked. There are certain phy- sical, mental and emotional prerequisites that must be recog- nized and dealt with as the need arises. Physical Prerequisites The degree to which movement can be effective may be influenced by body build, reaction, strength, power, flexi- bility, endurance, acuity of the senses and water conditions. The importance of each of these is dependent upon the move- ment task to be performed. For example, reaction time is important in canoeing. Ibaction time, of course, is tied in with the physical acuity of the senses and many mental abilities. Without acute senses and the ability to make quick decisions, reaction time would be Slow. In a race of 500 m. or lOOO m. if the athlete does not respond fast enough, automatically he loses few seconds and this may be enough for him to lose the race (2, p. 13). Strength, on the other hand, is extremely important to many tasks of the pushing and pulling type action done 19 20 by the canoeist. For example, if a beginner canoeist is weak, then the coach or instructor must develop his strength or power. Power is the maximum weight which can be lifted by a muscle indicates its absolute muscle power. The length of time during which this weight can be lifted consecutively indicates the endurance. Exercises leading to muscle power are those which re- quire the pushing and pulling of the blade through water or the overcoming of resistance. The weight represented here is the pushing and pulling of the blade through water. Sometimes the muscles are too weak to do the action of pushing and pulling then the beginner will take a Shorter and a slower stroke. The quantity of pushing and pulling action, the resistance to the movement and the time of application must be increased gradually. Power building exercises should, therefore, begin on a gradually increasing scale so that the negative phase can be avoided. The practice of exercises should be done regu— larly to improve his initial capacities of pushing and pulling movement. The principle of buoyancy equilibrium, leverage and application of force are all importance in canoeing just as they are in understanding swimming. Application of swimming can be helpful in learning canoeing and vice versa. A canoe is buoyed up by a force equal to weight of the water diSplaced. The racing canoe does not have air chambers running from low to stern, like in a Sponson. 21 This is the reason why the stability is so difficult in a racing canoe. The racing canoe are made in various sizes and shapes. In Europe they build racing canoe according to the build of the athlete so that they will be more effec- tive. But they are still made according to the I.C.F. rules. Both the canoe and the paddle are levers and all the principles of leverage apply. The canoe is a lever of the first class with its fulcrum at its center of gravity. The center of gravity shifts according to the weight and the position of the athlete in the canoe. The paddle, like the shovel, is a combination of levers. The resistance is offered by the water and thus is always applied against the blade of the paddle. The lower hand is the fulcrum for any force applied by the tap hand (first class lever) and the top hand is, at the same time, the fulcrum for the force applied by the lower hand (third class lever) (2, p. 304). When an athlete enters a canoe, the center of gravity must be considered. If the canoe is to remain in equili- brium this certer of gravity of the total weight must be over the base of support. Since the base of the canoe (the keel plus a few inches on either side) is narrow from port to starboard and long from bow to stern, the canoe lacks stability from side—to-side but is extremely stable from end to end. It is important for the paddler to keep his weight as low as possible to reduce the rotatory tend— ency resulting from a high center of gravity. To keep the center of gravity over the base it is necessary to step 22 into a canoe directly over the keel. This will reduce the rotary force inherent in a high center of gravity (2, p. 30A). It is important to keep the center of gravity over the base from port to starboard; the athlete must kneel in the center (from Side-to-Side) of the canoe keeping his owr center of gravity over the base of support. When there is more than one athlete like in a C-2, C-A, C-8 or war canoe, it is important that all keep their weight centered. It is possible, of course, to balance a canoe by all athletes kneeling slightly off-center in opposite directions. The balance of the canoe is very important. It has a more or less rounded bottom and tapering ends. Obviously all weight should be over the base or evenly distributed on each side of it. Wrong position of the athlete makes the canoe very unstable, kneeling near the bow or the stern charges the center of gravity and it is difficult to balance the boat. If the athlete is too much in front in his canoe, the bow is heavily loaded, the weight canter shifts forward, the bow dips deeper in the water, and steering becomes more difficult. If the athlete is back too much in his canoe, the stern is heavily loaded, the bow is lifted out of the water and is more subject to the effect of the wind (17, 18). U) p . Mental Prerequisites Through the years the paddler has built up a Spatial concept of the distance that he can reach. The length of his arm is familiar to him and he can quickly judge how far he can reach with the paddle. The improvement of that reach can be done by teaching him the right position for a better reach. We may ask him to increase the length of stroke from 2M inches to 36 inches or maybe even more or less according to the length of his arms. In the long-run, teaching time could be saved if, when a new implement is introduced, some time were taken to help the paddler gain the new spatial concept. Perhaps some of these problems have arisen because it has been taken for granted that these new Spatial concepts are developed immediately and automat— ically (2, p. 15). Besides the ability to judge Spatial relations and timing, there are many other mental prerequisites to effi— cient movement (see Chart I). The ability to solve motor durations and to make quick adaptive decisions, to remember past movement experiences so that they can be applied and to understand the mechanics of effective movement are all important (2, p. 15). Emotional Prerequisites In Spite of the physical and mental equipment of the paddler, teaching will not be effective unless there is a feeling of need for, or desire to learn, the particular 2A .pcoso>oz pSOHOHmwm on mopfimfizvononmnl.H unwno .Nama .ho: ammmuam .uoauos< cuuoz no moafiaao Hoowuo: .mufiupwfievm SH momfiouoxm capsoquuona ”and: .msauxe .amuoco Mo ousuuecooxo unwed on» cud: :oHpoouac nsoowuucd>uo pace on» ca .pcuom msoomcpco>ua pace on» nwsouzu a“ mango 0» was omoquso hoasoauuaq on» an enhance» munch on» ouncOum ou muc06m>oa couucaouooo uo madcaneoO use BZMIWbo: BzmHonmm .oocmsomm cocoa» and no“: ououuouca case: was» coancmu huuaaoooccd uuao>u scan: acoEo>oe < :=.pcoe hfixufisv coaoamoo -o>oe unmade c :« aoaousa Hauo>om uo nonuowOS ecu :ouuooufiu mcacoauocsu voocdacn ado: ecu awed» Ham: one: owcazo o» audaanc 20HB<2Hnmooo nBHAHo< \J mnocauuoum acoamboa huuucsao>CH .m acoav>oa uou mean as «when moon uo coauoxau cauncop hudm cocoons: no noduoscou awoa vac nauu acoao>oa awash no coduacuouao no coauoouav coauuucofiuo coo: omoausa coon uoooEH no moon 0» wounded mono omuoaou no mcfiEHu Op cofiuuaou ca racquoauacoo no u acme mucosaom : hood whouuoou huu>nuw Ho noncoo /( oocosuou no>oa uo M. comma :oHue «e . 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Hagan on» a coauueau asap amuse . .luouuom no \ :oHuoouHe ahead on \\ semen: ouawou uo woman .uou vow: u oocoumfic ho cocoooum .w muoonno moa>os owesw .m nuoaouu mcofiudaou Hofiuoom oufifiasma> .N Hacoduoso maoanoum acuoa o>aon madnusunac macamaoou o>wumaoa guano 0113 .H uo monoun< .a op huHHHn< Aaoq mso>uos oauonpnocdx goo» one“ -HSCHaoenu unasomoa nuouavso Mano sous» .xc:up .ucac huouauwowou Mcounu> Hana 0» hpaaan< .pmd»3.ofluufim anuuao. ends unqauo .ocav adsnab auuoco oaeaczn nouasozm-suu nowa> vacuwuo coupouom .m noncom no haado< .m noxom «canons: .3 cumcouum .m huaaapaxoam .w oocouscon .H gHmwmm . < 25 canoeing Skill involved. Discussion of purpose followed by teaching through problem solving is an excellent method for making the paddler aware of the necessity for following the principles basic to the particular task and creating a realization of need and a desire to learn (2, p. 16). The coach or instructor must also recognize the fact that disturbing emotional factors may block efficient move- ment. This is tremendously important in teaching canoeing when fear of loss of support, the unstability in the canoe cause great retardation of learning. Fear must also be recognized in a case of a bad weather condition, lack of confidence of other partner(s). In fact, Simply fear Of something new can be involved in most any movement Situation. There may be also in the emotional prerequisites presence of a need for, or desire to learn or perform, the skill (2, p. 16). Organization of Prerequisites and Controls Leading to Efficient Movement An attempt to chart the organization of the various prerequisites and controls that lead to efficient movement can be found in Chart 1. This chart Shows clearly the im— portance of the nervous system to human movement. Obviously, efficient movement is impossible without its smooth func— tioning. In any movement all of the systems of the body are brought into play and work through the nervous system to produce balance, timing and muscular control which lead to what has been termed agility and coordination, and 26 finally, when coordinated movements are combined to produce the force required by the particular purpose and to apply it at the most advantageous point and in the most advantageous direction with the least expenditure of energy, to efficient movement. The agility in canoeing is not a very important factor because of the kneeling and sitting position which the paddlers have in their racing canoes (2, p. 18). The importance of coach, instructor and paddlers under— standing of the basic mechanical principles—-principles of balance, force production, and control—-iS obvious. While body Size, Shape, strength, and so forth, are factors in the determination of the success attainable in phySical per— formance, the degree to which an individual can approach his potential depends upon the way in which he uses his physical, mental, and emotional equipment (2, p. 18). The degree of success in most physical activities is determined by the manner in which forces are applied. Through more effective use of available forces, a small man can outpaddle a larger man, a short statured paddler can outpaddle a taller paddler, a person with Short arm can paddle faster than another with long arm, and a weak muscle person can paddle faster than a strong muscled person. 27 Problematic of the Paddler Synoptic table of necessary potential of the paddler. Subject: Optimal dimension expected of him. Paddler: The necessary potential. His Capacity: Unknown at the dcginning. Problematic Material dimensions: Formal dimensions: PrOprioceptive Exterioceptive means Reaction Time: Voluntary Involuntary Muscles: Perceptions: Speed Spacial—temporal Relaxation Reference adapta- tion Skill Receptiveness: Resistance Inward: Strength attitude of Articulations: mind Flexibility Outward: Solidity Intensity Dimension Bones: Contrast Repetition Rigidity Movement Solidity Movement: Lightness Distance Acuity of senses: Similarity Lack of symmetry Relationship between the plan of move— ment and the execution of movement. 28 Exterior forces: Weight of corporal segments Weight of the paddler External resistance Inertia Atmospheric conditions Mechanic elements: Movement: uniform accelerated rotational Forces: centrifugal centripetal Equilibrium of forces: parallelogram of forces (Torque) Work and resistance: level reactions (Newton laws) friction power Energy potential kinesthetic Force momentum Simple machine Weight: *Universal attraction (Newton laws) Form Rhythm Association phenom— ena Visible movement Memory: Kinesthetic and mental Imagination: Productive Reproductive Deliberate Thought: Concept, abstrac- tion, dynamic's genesis Affective Life: Emotion Affective feeling Simple feeling Affective state Affective disposi— tion Complex affective reaction Adaptation: Topographical milieu Physical milieu Social milieu 29 equilibrium of bodies Motivations: law of falling bodies ‘ simple pendulum Physical needs Psychological needs Affection needs Security needs Conviction needs Actualisation needs Independence needs Newness needs Social needs: participation approbation (13; p. 33) etc. / "Nervous syStem"\ Balance Control Timing Control Muscular Control Stationary base With outside Voluntary move- object of ment sequence Moving base body parts nvoluntary movement ,//,,//”//////I steadiness \ Efficient Movement ’/////’/////;;ractical Dimension‘\\\\\\\\L Agility Coordination Balance Control Timing Control Timing Control Muscular Control Muscular Control (see Chart I, p. 25) 30 The efficient movement is the combining of coordinated movements to produce the force required by the particular purpose and to apply it through the most advantageous point, in the most advantageous direction with the least expenditure of energy (10, p. 629). Perfection of movement is the most prominent results of training. It is also the most specific. The most im— portant by—product of the develOpment of Skill is the economy of effort which the more purposeful use of the muscles entails, thus reducing the total load and at once postponing fatigue (19, p. 199). Nervous System The nervous system is the central, the intercommunica- tion system of our body. The nerves are the connections from the central nervous system to muscles and glands. Through the nervous system every part of the body is directly or indirectly in potential communication with every other part. This means that stimulation of any sense ending may result in nerve impulses being delivered, ultimately, to any or all muscles or glands. Coordination is undoubtedly the greatest and most lasting change which training induces in man takes place in the nervous system, namely changes in behavior. Among these changes only those that manifest themselves in "muscles learning" or improved coordination need enter this discussion. Objectively, these improvements have been measured in two ways. The increased mechanical 31 efficiency or reduced work cost of the trained state have already been discussed. The approach consists of analyzing the movements of the athletes by the well-known Slow-motion film or the television replay of the movement (19, p. 196). There is a great deal of evidence that improvement is due entirely to better coordination. The improvements in mechanical efficiency which come with practice are really a measure of the effect of training on the central nervous system and not a measure of improved metabolism in the sense of more economical intracellular activity. A poorly coordinated man consumes more oxygen because he is actually doing more work than the well coordinated man (19, p. 193). There is, besides the nervous system, another great coordinating or integrating mechanism, namely, the endocrine system composed of eight glands of internal secretion. All of them exert most profound influences over the entire body. There are two integrating mechanisms on whose activities the development of the individual and the expression of his personality is ultimately dependent. The one is nervous, the other chemical. It is easier to see how "mind may affect the body," sometimes called the psychogenic origin of disease or other body changes (19, p. 51). Coordination Coordination is the well timed and well balanced func— tioning together of several muscles in a given movement. 32 The function of a group of muscles is well balanced if the necessary degree of contraction is matched by an adequate degree of decontraction in the antagonists. Normal move- ments of joints are produced by the concerted action of several muscles. These are made up of contractions of one group and decontractions of another. Changes of muscle length and tone occur in varying degrees. The Simplest movement, therefore, constitutes a combination of many dif- ferent muscle actions in several muscles and muscle groups. This constitutes a movement pattern. The movement pattern in canoeing is our stroke (10, p. 629). CHAPTER IV PHYSIOLOGY RELATED TO CANOEING The Physiology of Respiration First, there are two important phases in the respira- tory movement——the inhalation or inspiration and the exhala- tion or expiration of the air from the lungs. The inhala- tion is the action to draw (in, especially) into the lungs. The exhalation is to breathe out; it is the most important phase for the competitor. The oxygen consumption in canoe- ing is enormous due to the muscles' work for this type of activity. The best method of breathing is a combination of the inferior (abdominal) and superior (costal) method of breathing. The application of this combination is called the total or complete respiratory movement. It is the function of the respiratory organs to bring oxygen to all body tissues and to remove carbon dioxide. It is clear that the lungs, ribs, diaphragm, and related areas, can only play the initial part in capturing oxygen and the final act in carbon dioxide elimination. After the oxygen has entered the alveoli of the lungs, it is picked up by the blood and pumped by the heart to all parts of the body. Thus it is Obvious that the circulatory system has as much to do with respiration as has the respiratory 33 3A system prOper, Not only must the blood be pumped to the periphery, the main function of the heart, but it must also be brought back again. The heart alone is incapable of returning the blood from the periphery without assist from other units of the body. Its force is Spent almost entirely in overcoming the resistance to flow in the arterial system. In the capillaries there remains less than 20 per cent (12 to 32 mm. mercury) of the original pressure imparted to the blood by the heart. This is not enough to bring the blood back to the heart (19, p. 122). The two most important factors aiding this return flow are: first, the contracting and relaxing of Skeletal muscles and, second, the respiratory movements. The first factor operates to bring blood out of the arms, legs, and trunkwall into the large veins of the shoulders, neck, and abdomen. From here on it becomes the task of the reSpiratory appara- tus to help bring the blood to the heart (19, p. 123). The lungs form, virtually, the inner wall of an air- tight two—walled jacket. A deflated basketball and bladder could serve as our model if there were an airtight connec— tion between the protruding valve stem and the outer cover or hide. The valve stem would represent the trachea. If now the opposing walls of the ball cover were pulled apart, air would enter the bladder through its trachea. But even before this happens there would develop a Slightly negative pressure in the Space between the bladder and inner surface of the ball cover. This is a most essential fact. Now to 35 apply this Simple illustration: The Space between the bladder and cover correSpondS to the thoracic cavity which is really no more of a cavity than is the space between the bladder and inner surface of the ball cover. But this cavity contains also the heart and the large and thin-walled veins leading to it. CorreSponding to the cover of the ball is the bell-jar shaped thorax separated from the abdomen below by the Sheet-like diaphragm. The thorax enlarges its diam— eter by the raising of the ribs and its length by the descent of the diaphragm. Both movements tend to produce a negative pressure in the thoracic cavity, that is, not only the process Of respiration occurs but also the action of the blood returning from veins to the heart. Because the lungs are elastic and therefore tend to contract there is always a remnant of this negative pressure in the thoracic cavity, except during forceful expiration or when reSpiratory pressure is applied against a closed glottis. Thus blood is being sucked into the thorax, although at a lesser rate, even between inspirations. The descent of the diaphragm, further, not only helps to produce a negative pressure in the thorax but it also simultaneously puts positive pressure on the abdominal organs including veins. One could imagine no more ideal pump arrangements (19, p. 123). It is important to breathe the air in from the nose because of the nose's action. The nose regulates the intake volume of air, cleans the air and also modifies the tempera— ture of the air. This breathing method is more difficult 36 than the method done through the mouth. The nose's breathing cannot be used during vigorous exercises especially during races because there is not enough oxygen to produce power, strength and energy. The nose—breathing method Should be taught because it is the ideal method, especially due to the nose's duties. Breathinngethod for the C—Paddlers With this type of canoes, the stroke is divided into four phases. First phase: We have the reach and the entry of the paddle at a 9O degree angle in the water. Second phase: We have the pushing and pulling action of the paddle. Third phase: We have the steering of the boat by the paddle. Fourth phase: We have the recovery with the paddle. It is recommended to do one full respiratory movement per stroke. The average strokes per minute is 55, this means that there should be 55 complete respiratory movements per minute. Due to the large amount of respiratory move— ments it is necessary to force the complete exhalation of air to have the necessary oxygen intake to produce energy. The inhalation ends with the first phase of the stroke, when the paddle enters the water. The exhalation starts at the beginning of the second phase when the power and energy to move the canoe is produced by the athlete. This phase requires a large amount of muscle work to produce the neces- sary power so the exhalation has to be done correctly. The exhalation continues during the third phase of the stroke which is the steering of the boat. At the beginning of the fourth phase the exhalation ends and the inhalation begins with the recovery of the paddle. It is very important to exaggerate the exhalation to have a complete respiratory movement. During the recovery the paddler straightens the upper part of the body, expands his chest so the inhalation develops automatically. The thoracic cage and the dorsal muscles are relaxed. This secures a good position for a deep inhalation. The paddler satisfies his oxygen need with a deep inhalation during the recovery and at the beginning of his stroke. During training the athlete may breathe through the nose and also at every second stroke because the oxygen need is less. During competition every stroke must be matched with a complete respiratory movement which includes a deep inhalation and an exaggerated exhalation. It is recommended that before the end of any type of race (5OO m., lOOO m., relay races, and especially for the 10,000 m.) the athlete Should exaggerate his exhalation due to the need for more oxygen consumption to Sprint the end of the race. _§£§gthing Method for the K-Paddlers In the kayak canoes, the paddler does not pair every Stroke with a full respiratory movement. The top kayak athlete paddles around 9O strokes per minute. The breathing method of the C—paddler gives a better opportunity for breathing due to the different phases of the 0-stroke. The kayak paddler has to produce a continuous effort due to his stroke which is done consecutively on each side of the boat. It is very difficult to prescribe the exact amount of reSpi— ration movement that he has to do per minute. The K-paddler should secure himself in the boat before he leaves the wharf to have the best favorable condition for correct breathing. He should be seated high enough in the boat to insure proper breathing. This raised position will vary according to the type and kind of boat that he is using. The athlete has to secure his stability in the boat to put all his power into the paddle action, to facilitate an easier breathing. The good-technique of paddling in kayak is related with a good breathing method. If the athlete in his seating position leans too much forward, he will limit his respiratory move— ment. Another limitation in his respiratory movement occurs when the athlete bends his legs too much, this may be caused because his foctrest and his adjustable seat are too clos to each other. These causes have a certain effect on the diaphragm muscle which is very important in a complete res— piratory movement. The K—paddler should lean forward in the boat so that he has to adjust both the footrest and seat to EiVe him the best position for his stability and for his es— Piratory movement. During the race the athlete should make a Complete respiration, placing attention of a deep exaggerated exhalation. The athlete who does not exhale com— pletely, is forcing the inhalation which results in a poor breathing method and the athlete is struggling for Oxygen. During various races the athlete has to pay more attention to the start and the finish of the race because it demands more oxygen consumption to produce power which comes only by a deep exhalation. If during a race the athlete wants to increase his power, he has to prepare himself with a deeper and faster exhalation and then increase the speed ard the power of his stroke.l Muscular Endurance Best results are gained when the exercise is strenuous. Muscles grow larger and stronger only when taxed by increas— ingly greater demands. Under such conditions there is en— largement or hypertrophy of the constituent muscle cells or fibers. The resulting increase in cross-section is accom- panied by a corresponding increase in strength. Recent studies in Sweden have demonstrated that especially in animals the thickening of fibers is accompanied by the devel— opment of more capillaries. This increased capillarization may amount to 50 per cent and obviously contributes its share to the improved "muscular endurance" of the enlarged muscles. But these thickening of muscle fiber and the in— crease in number of capillaries are reversible. In animals, lPersonal traduction from Granek, lstvan; Kajakosas— Efifliggg, Budapest, 1906. #0 all of the increases due to sixty days training disappeared completely in ninety days of subsequent rest. Strength ard endurance built in youth will not persist throughout life without practice (19, p. 63). Researchers conclude that the trained man differs from the untrained man in his ability to supply adequate amounts of oxygen to the active muscles so that the reduction of lactic acid shall take place on the Spomzof its production. The lactic acid is produced in exercising muscle. Even the trained man has his limit. When this is reached the lactic acid gets into the blood and here diSplaces CO thus reducing 2 the blood's efficiency in carrying this waste product to the lungs for elimination. No doubt the heart and blood vessels are primarily responsible for oxygen delivery. It is in— creasingly evident that improvement of their functioning is the essential fact in training for endurance (19, p. 105). Value of Taking Salt Pills 4 Sometimes, during hard work at high temperatures, to: much salt may be lost as a result of excessive perspiration. Canoeing does produce such perspiration especially during competition and hard training practice. This may cause ir- terference with nerve function, resulting in cramps or inter; ference with heart function, which in turn causes collapse. Salt pills are to keep the salt concentration of the blood 3N3 tissues up to normal level. It is probably unlikely that a person who eats balanced meals regularly will ever Ml be short of salt. The taking of salt pills is an extra safety measure. Some people feel better because of using them (19, p. 347). To endure, the body must rid itself of the waste prod- ucts and excessive heat. This usually presents no special problem at normal temperatures, but at high temperatures it appears that the body must learn still another adjustment if it would survive. The heat generated in the muscles is brought to the skin by the blood. Here, also, the sweat glands are stimulated to greater activity. The evaporation of the perspiration takes heat from the peripheral blood vessels and skin. Thus even at temperatures of 100—120 degrees F. it becomes possible for a person actually to ”refrigerate” himself down to approximately body temperature. This requires a lot of perspiration and therein lies a danger. Sweat normally contains sodium chloride. With pro— fuse sweating too much of this salt may be lost and this may lead to heart failure (19, p. 17). Competitive Fear The old fear that competitive sports may be overdone and become a detriment to the heart no longer need concern us. There is ample evidence that a sound heart cannot be damaged permanently by physical exertion no matter how stren— uous. The high school star who fails to produce at the college level may have burned out his interest, surely not #2 his heart. Obviously a thorough physical examination must precede and guide all strenuous participation (19, p. 6M). Extension of the Psychological Limit A person's ultimate performance is limited by the phy- siologic capacity of the organs involved. But usually.long before this physiologic limit is reached, performance is reduced or discontinued. This stopping point is the psy— chologic limit and is conditioned by slight aches, respira- tory distress, and many mental factors, such as fear of cverdoing, parental warnings, and boredom. Its appropriate role is that of a safety factor to prevent overstrain. Too often, however, it stops exercise short of overloading the physiologic mechanism sufficiently to stimulate growth. Thus some peOple have never driven themselves into second wind. Competition against others, against a scoring table, or against a previous record; other factors, such as music, an audience, an instructor, or a compelling desire to become fit, are effective in extending this limit. Success— ful athletes reduce the distance between their psychologic and physiologic limits to a minimum. This is probably one of the most important concomitants of athletic training (19, p. 27M)- One seldom produces work up to one's physical maximum limit but instead up to one's psychological limit. Re- searchers'findings appear to support the thesis that in every voluntarily executed, all—out maximal effort, 43 psychologic rather than physiologic factors determine the limits of performance (see the problematic p. 27). Because such psychologic factors (including pharmacologically induced ychic states) are readily modified, the implications of '"O U) this position gravely challenges all estimates of fitness and training effects based on testing programs that involve measures of all-out or maximal performance. And because the home and school play decisive roles in the formation of restraining mechanisms, there are also implications for education of the young. Second Wind The onset of second wind is accompanied by a reduction in vital capacity and a much increased absorption of oxygen from the lungs. Apparently this marks the time when the ieart catches up in forwarding the blood that has been ac- cumulated in the large veins, into the lungs and the left heart. There may be other vasomotor adjustments associated with the establishment of second wind.(l9, p. 92). Canoe racing demands Split—second responses to un- predictable opponents or to passing moods. This call fcr agility and initiative. This stimulus of competition in athletic or its counterpart, the dervish type of emotion (wandering) often experienced in the dance, are prominent in this group. These often drive the individual into second—wind. The consequent changes in the structure and function of heart and lung account for the improvement in cardio-respiratory endurance (19, p. 64). CHAPTER V TECHNIQUE OF CANOE RACING The technique of canoe racing is divided into two classes of events: double-blade paddling and the single- blade paddling. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the movement of the stroke in both categories. Basic Position for Double-Blade Paddling To double-blade, the paddler sits amidship on a low seat, astride the keel facing forward, stroking first on one side and then the other, with a paddle that has a Spoon— shaped blade on each end. The paddles are usually made in one piece, so that when the blades are turned almost at (‘f‘ “h angles to each other, the spoon face of one side is LJ. ,. C‘ r pressing against the water, while the opposite and.returning blade is feathered and cuts edgewise through the air. A paddle constructed for feathering with the right hand has a reversed 90 degree relation of blades from one designed for left-hand control. The control hand maintains a firm grip on the shaft most of the time, while the other hand permits the shaft to turn in its loosened grip when the blade is being feathered on its return for another stroke (see Figure 3). 44 45 ‘7 fi 4 O 0 ¢ O$&‘w W “s «m Figure.3.——Hands position with a K—paddle. 46 Double—blade paddling appears deceptively easy. A new paddler often does very well without instruction, learning enough by observation to make paddling a pleasure. His mistakes are not very noticeable and do not interfere very much with satisfactory progress over the water. A new man is introduced to racing by putting him on the water in a canoe or touring kayak with a double-bladed paddle. He feels a welcome sense of security due to the lower center of gravity of the sitting position as opposed to half kneeling in a single-blade paddling, and particularly with the broad beam stable feature of a canoe or touring kayak. Moreover, he has simple control of direction through the symmetry of movement and alternate side paddling. Before permitting the athlete to use a racing kayak he should train himselffbr balance (see Figure 4)(ll, July, 1960). Double-Blade Paddling Technique German Technique The basic principle of German technique is: the stroke does not start in the shoulders, but in the hips. The movement runs from the hip muscles over back and chest to shoulders and on to the upper and forearem. The body— work is supported by corresponding legwork, the leg oppo- site to the pushing hand is stretched in rhythm with the stroke and the foot is pressed against the footrest. 47 48 1. Sit upright in the boat. Do not lean forwards or backward. Do not pull up the shoulders--let them hang loose. Do not look into the cock- pit or to the bow: this tends to endanger the straight running of the boat. 2. Legs should be slightly bent with closed knees and heels while the toes point outwards. Do not press the knees against the washboard. 3. The work of the body starts by moving the hip in the direction of the first stroke--at the same time sway the shoulder in a forward and downward direction. Simulta- neously with this movement the hand brings the paddle forward at eye level and in a straight line in the direction of the gunwale. The hand must not keep too tight a grip around the loom of the paddle. Hold the paddle loosely between thumb and forefinger. The paddle has no joint, and if you hold the paddle too tight, the cramped movement will in due course lead to strained muscles in the forearm. The back of the hand forms one line with the forearm. Do not lift the elbow-—keep it as low as possible. Do not move the hand in the direction of the centre line of the boat. Don't forget: at the beginning of the turn of the hips the trunk of your body must be upright. 4. When the arm is straight, bring the hand with the paddle straight down. Just before the blade (which is still 49 horizontal) dips into the water turn it by a quick 90 degree flick of the wrist of the other hand. Do not turn the blade at the beginning of the stroke. No matter which way the paddle is feathered, the turning of the blade must always be done with the hand which pulls opposite to the stroke. 5. The blade must be dipped into the water smoothly and not with a splash and just outside the wave which runs from bow to stern. The blade when entering the water must be vertical. If the blade enters the water too closely to the boat, the paddle tends to make, in the first and last quarter of the stroke, a slight semi-circle which changes the direction of the boat with a reduction of speed. 6. Now the pulling hand graSps the paddle firmly and moves it in a straight line backwards. The blade must re— main in the water, fully covered, until the end of the stroke. The stroke is carried out in the main with a powerful pulling movement from the hip and shoulder muscles. The stroke ends level with the hip or at the most three inches after the hip. Do not use the elbow to lift the blade out of the water. In the meantime the other arm and hand have been brought into the starting position, and a proper start of the next stroke lifts the blade automatically out of the water. Using the elbow brings the paddle into an unfavor- able starting position for the next stroke. 50 Do not move the blade too far back. If the elbow is brought behind the body, the mechanics of the stroke result in breaking the speed and the remainder of the move- ment remains without any effect whatsoever. This description of the German technique was done by Werner Boehle (Germany) member of the I.C.F. paddling racirg committee (6, 1960, 61). Swedish Technique The new technique was first introduced in 1938 by Karl Wilmark. His technique is based on the idea of letting the paddle do its work, in a way, underneath the hull so as to reduce as much as possible the sheering effect of each stroke. This method creates a very high stroke and a slow striking rate-—a technique which looks very easy, but is actually very tiring and requires well trained shoulders since with each stroke the arm has to lift the paddle high over the head. From the starting position over the head the blade enters the water with such a powerful blow that the watersxflashes into the competitor's face. Thhswasthe origin of the Swedish style. The high stroke was to a certain extent maintained later, but in due course the driving momentum was transferred into a more swinging movement, the back was brought into play through a swaying movement from the hips and the stroke was lengthened by proper stretching of the pushing arm. This technique was adOpted practically in all countries from the forties onward, with the one proviso, of course, that most top paddlers developed, to a varying degree, their own personal style. One can hardly claim that Frederiksson has used it very 51 much though certain elements of it can be found even in his paddling—~just as was maintained that in Szollosi's highly personal technique one can discover some elements of the new technique. This is charac- terised by a low seat, short paddle, long stretched- out and low stroke in which the driving force lies in what I have called short, quick pushes like "upper cuts" in which the whole body sways to and fro. The description of the Swedish technique was done by leif Anderson (Sweden) (6, 1960, 61). Hungarian Technique The normal Hungarian paddling technique is as follows: 1. The body position is approximately the same as described by Werner Boehle--except perhaps the Hungarians lean their body more forward in an approximately 100 — 150 angle. The right arm is stretched, the blade is at right angles to the longitudinal axis of the boat and close to the hull, the left hand is above the shoulder and the body is turned to the right and the right knee slightly raised. The paddle enters the water quickly. 2. The pulling arm pulls the blade close to the hull while the left arm pushes the paddle at eye level until approximately the center line of the boat. The work of the arms is supported by a turn to the right of body and shoul— der--at the same time the right leg is being stretched and the left knee raised (just as in cycling). The leg work supports the work of body and shoulders. 3. The paddle is lifted out of the water when the left hand has reached the hip line. 52 4. The right hand goes up, the blade is turned and moved up to the shoulders while the left hand reaches the starting position. Of course, individual paddler's adjust this technique to their own requirements. The description of the Hungarian technique was done by lstvan Granek (6, 1960, 61). Technique Is Jot Enough However, technique is not all, says Istvan Granek. ,ven the most perfect technique must remain uneffective if not combined with fitness and strength," and Leif Anderson concludes in agreement: "Technique is not decisive. All the competitors whom I have mentioned have shown that they could reach the t0p no matter which technique they adopt” (6, 1960, 61). Basic Position to Single-Blade Paddling The racing fraternity single-blades on one knee be- eaus it allows a longer, more vertical stroke, and there (I) is freedom to rotate the body through a longer are. The canoe wobbles around freely under one knee, trimming itself to the least wetted surface and streamlined plane, especially in rough water. Use the knee on your paddling side, turn your back foot pigeon-toed so that a broad area of your knee supports your weight. Kneel erect, head up, chin over kneeling point, and face slightly diagonal to the keel with the shoulder Opposite the kneeling knee turned forward. 53 Keep little weight on the front foot except as needed for balance or when pressing sideways to sweepstroke. Pressure on your back foot tips the canoe laterally and is a great annoyance to a crew (tandems and fours). A one—man single-blader places his knee directly over the keel. For crew work the men kneel closer to the gun- wale. This separates the men laterally, permitting a crew to kneel so that each following man can cross his front leg over the back leg of the man in front. This position allows the stroke-path of each pair to reach almost as far fore and aft on one side as the other. Close proximity is best for trim, timing, control of direction, and to nullify to some extent the normal tendency of the stern man to turn the canoe (11, July, 1960). gzechoslovakian Technique The significance of this technique is that the whole effort is done in a pulling position. The athlete leans forward from his waist and his knee bends a little. His hands push the paddle down into the water and pull it back. At the beginning of the pull the body straightens up, the supporting leg stretches out and the arms are straightened. When the paddle gets close to the body the pulling and pushing arms bend. During the recovery both arms lift the paddle out of the water and they are ready for the next stroke. 54 .Canadian Technique The Canadian technique is based in the strength pro— duced in hip and shoulder rotation during the pulling and pushing movements. At the beginning of the stroke the pushing arm is straightened and the pulling arm is bent at the elbow and both arms are involved in pushing down the paddle into the water. The pulling of the paddle harmonizes the hips and shoulder rotation with the pulling of the bend- ing arm and the pushing forward of the top arm. During the recovery the pulling and pushing arms lift up the paddle in front of the body; the pulling arm reaches forward and the top arm comes close to the shoulder with an elbow bend. In other words, this is similar to one cycle of the kayak pad— dling technique. The body stands still during the stroke, only the upper part of the body moves, the hip and the shoulder turn sideways. The arms pull and push the paddle only during the stroke. The recovery starts when the paddle has passed the kneeling leg. So the paddle stays longer in the water than with any other technique, and the number of strokes per minute is reduced. Modern Technique Today the hip and shoulder rotation technique, the waist bending technique, or a combination of the two are used. Between the two canoeing techniques there are no major differences. With the hip and shoulder rotation technique the center of gravity is stable and the boat 55 glides on the water. In the waist bending technique, the center of gravity moves forward and backward (at every stroke), therefore the boat bounces on the water. One of the main advantages of this technique is that all the body muscles are involved in every stroke. Some athletes, in short distance racing, use the waist bending technique from the start up to ZOO m. and for the next BOO m. they use the hip and shoulder rotation technique. For the last 300 m. they switch back to the waist bending technique. They use the hip and shoulder rotation technique to speed up the boat at the start and at the end of the race. All the body muscles are involved in the strokes and this will help in- crease boat Speed. In Europe the canoe builders especially design the boat according to the technique used by the paddler so as to avoid bouncing particularly when the pad- dler is using the waist bending technique. ve Description of the TWo Paddling Techniques One centers on the force produced by the hip and Shoulder rotation and the other on the bending of waist and the straightening up of the body; both will move the canoe forward. The two paddling techniques allow enough freedom to develop your own paddling style. The Hip and Shoulder Rotation Technique This technique is recommended for tall athletes with a well developed upper body and large, strong muscles. This paddling technique relies upon the pulling and pushing of the arms and the rotation of hip and shoulder. The Kneeling Position.-—In the C—l boat, the athlete kneels amidships on the keel. The body is perpendicular to the direction of the boat, the kneeling thigh is in line with the body and the kneeling foot is placed at a ZOO to 300 angle towards the side of the boat. The front foot is resting on the platform and is pointed toward the paddling side In the C—2 boat, you kneel closer to the side of the boat. The closer the athlete is to the water, the more power he can produce. The body is straight forward in the direction of the boat. The distance between the two paddlers is greater than usual because this technique requires more room for the recovery. The legs'position is the same as in ‘he 3—1. The Waist Bending Technique All the body muscles are involved in moving the canoe The technique is designed for weaker paddlers due to the fact that there is no Special group of muscles involved to move the canoe. The heavier athlete in the 0—1, with an especially designed canoe can use this method and obtain very good results. The Kneeling Position.——In the C—l boat, the athlete kneels amidships and the body is turned slightly to the 57 paddling side. The thigh of the kneeling leg is in line with the body and the lower part of the leg is placed at a 450 angle on the side of the boat and the foot is placed in the footrest. The front leg is stretched forward and the foot is pointed toward the paddling side and resting on the plat- form. In the C-2 canoe, the paddlers kneel to the side of the boat and the leg position is the same as in the C—l. Summary of the Waist BendinggTechnique All the muscles of the body are involved during the stroke. The athlete catches the water with a great force and he puts his whole weight on the paddle at the beginning of the stroke. The athlete using this technique does not care about the smooth movement of the boat, but he concen— trates on the strength and speed of the stroke to shoot the boat forward. The boat's bouncing movement occurs because of the displacement of the center of gravity. This technique is highly recommended for short distance races. Methods of Changing Direction There are three principal methods for changing the direction ( or keeping direction) in a race. They are the hook stroke, the push-over and the draw stroke. The ”hook” is a corrective wedge action applied to the last third of a regular stroke after the paddle has 2Personal traduction from Granek, Istvan, Kajakosas— kenuzas, Budapest, l966. 58 been pulled beyond midship. It is intended to compensate for the deviation caused by paddling on one side. It is a continuous smoothly executed stroke which moves the canoe forward and at the same time applies just the proper amount of effort to pry the stern over and cause the bow to aim back on course. The hook—stroke is pulled through verti— cally, especially in the lateral plane. The top hand is extended out over the gunwale and the blade is even paddled under the hull. The wedging is done by turning the top hand so that the thumb points forward. This rotates the blade so that its inside edge moves rearward and outward. The wedge is started gradually when the lower hand has passed the hip. Hooking too soon will move the whole canoe side- ways. An extreme hook is performed by actually levering the paddle across the gunwale by pulling the top hand in and down over the keel. The recovery is made by guiding the paddle into skimming attitude with the top hand and whipping the paddle forward above the surface of the water. Make use of the wind and waves and trim your canoe to avoid hooking. In crew work the bow—man reaches more for— ward than normal and may push over stroke whenever the stern- man hooks. Corrections are initiated by each paddler stroking further forward or aft as required. The,stern—man who normally paddles the canoe around to the other side, begins and ends his stroke forward of his usual place and the bow-man aft of normal. This minimizes the inherent weak— n ss of staggering the power in crew paddling. When a (D 59 choice is available the least retarding means is used to control direction. When paddling alone, reach out and draw the bow into the desired direction, continuing into a hock stroke. In practice, always support one action by the other, the degree depending on the magnitude of the change in course. In racing, the paddler uses Sweeps, draws, push— overs, and hooks in minimal amount, in order to substract as little as possible from forward Speed. Pushovers, or as racing paddlers refer to them, ! ”paddling wide,‘ are used by a bow man to complement the hook stroke (by a stern man) when an extreme change in direction is required. The paddle is thrusted into the water as close to the hull as possible and is swept outwards as the paddle is pulled through. The effect is to push the bow sideways. Draw strokes are performed by thrusting the blade into the water at arms—length distance from the gunwale, with the blade parallel to the keel, and drawing in to the gunwale. Their main application is at the starting line and during landing. They may also be used in modified extent in movirg the bow or stern sideways during a race. The top of the paddle must be held out over the water and the lower arm ex— tended so that the paddle is vertical at the start. This is maintained as nearly vertical as practicable during the draw. The recovery is made over the surface by knifing the blade out toward the stern and then swinging it into the next draw. For an underwater recovery, the top hand turns the 60 forward edge of the paddle away and the paddle is knifed rack and turned irto position without removing it from the water. Draw and scullirg strokes are used to move the entire canoe sideways, principally at the starting line. In scul- ling the blade is held, as for the draw stroke is concerned, and moved fore and aft, vertically, in the same path (like a vertical windshield—wiper) at right angle to the direction the canoe is to be moved. To move sideward, present the blade at a M5” angle to the keel, and move it in three foot lires parallel to the keel. At the end of each stroke the blade is turned with the tOp hand so that the inner edge becomes the outer edge. The pressure is always applied or the inside face of the paddle. To move back sidewards, the procedure is reversed and the pressure is applied to the outside face of the blade so that the paddle will move in toward the gurwale. To move sideward ir crew work, one pad— dler does the apposite side—paddle stroke of the other. When cre partrer draws, the other pushes over. When one sculls forward, the other sculls in a reverse manner. To pivot, each paddler does the same stroke on opposite sides of the canoe since one is forward and the other is aft of center (ll, July, l960). CHAPTER VI SCHOOL PROGRAM The History of Riverside Paddlinngrogram The Mississauga Canoe Club embarked upon a school pro- gram two years after its inception. The club was limited in its quantity of equipment, Space and members; and had. failed to gain a point at the Canadian Canoe Championships in the Junior and juvenile divisions. To create an interest in paddling in the area the M.C.C. turned over all of its equipment, without charge, to Riverside Public School. By using a war canoe, one instruc- tor was able to teach the basic skills of paddling to four- teen boys at a time. Two teams were created of fourteen boys to a team, selected from grades seven and eight; one group paddled in the morning before school and the second paddled after school (see Picture 1). By the end of June, thirty boys were able to paddle, with varying degrees of efficiency, and paddling was gaining in popularity with some of the boys. More than half of the group left the school system to go to a High School which had a rowing program and were lost to paddling. As a result of a lack of organization and coaching help at the club level, little use was made of the young paddlers the first 61 62 Anzac mocmo mcfiowm msanomqv .mccsoq oma no pnwflmz SSEHGHE m mm: one .mcH3 monocd mm gwcoa pooh om ma pwon mane .cawzmxoo no cawpmmo a mafia “@053 no: amelqwmussom w ma mHnBII.H .on .8 a! i 1 I Hm? I I- - ," 'J.‘% ' .‘JUIIJJ IV‘ I., O . a o a 0a a - In a l 0"... 63 year but in Spite of this, three boys were found to be still involved in paddling five years later, to the extent that they were winning at the National Championships. The following year the program was resumed in the fall, and, whereas during the first year the Sport was intro- duced to a group totally inexperienced in paddling, the second year began with a nucleus of semi—skilled paddlers. By the end of the school year, the boys were introduced to Singles, tandems and fours (see Picture 2). The Mississauga Canoe Club appears to have intensified its interest in the juvenile age bracket at this time. A great deal of stress and time was put upon the team and three boys were taken directly from the school program, to round out the club crew. Mississauga success that year at the Nationals in the juvenile races added impetus to the school program. Members of the winning juvenile crew turned out at the elementary school in the morning on their way to school and after four each day. The program was then reor- ganized on a team basis with the High School boys acting as team leaders and trainers for their own crews. This practice greatly increased the number of students which could be put on the water so the program was extended to the grade Six level. With the added assistants the school instructor was able to give more individual attention to those who were SXperiencing difficulties and to those who showed exceptional ability. 6h Anzac unwaoz ESEHCHE m was cam .wCOH pom“ om on» CH woman; mocmo mafiomm mcfinoqu .m undom on o pawn ammo monocfi moa .moHS monocfi Mm ma Cam and: wcHHoumm zmpo castnzom flso anancm ma “womfl .mm nnn0poov .coflpmwoOmw< cmflcmcmo SOME .nnoom .m .m nonscoo nannnnu non .osflp wasp um mammaflm>m poc ohm mamasoflpuwa Hasm coflcs co hppoom oxflz >9 ocmamcm Eoum oophoaefl coon o>mc m_xw>mm .oo.omw mmocmo umz apmoo, mom oo.nm$ mH owpwco HmEnoz zHOpomm .m.o.m mooaga HH< .omuflsvou ma mspxo mCApmuo .oanmoflammm ma .mspxm mmxme Homaoflcsz new HmHoCA>0nm «Xme moamm ammooom mosaoCH mpmon oopsoommscme cmflomcmo mo.mmofipm .oomwoMQCH coon o>mc mmoflxa mosupm one oo.ommw oocmo mm: m% 00.0mmw oo.mmma on.onw 3-0 ii oo.ommw .oH oo.mmmw .sa oo.mmma .sH oo.oomw .Hm wennma m-o oo.ommw .oH oo.mmma n-mfise 00.0mmw «sang H-o oo.omwa sscmzm 3-x oo.omnw nHHnnHm Am oo.mmma nfiannflm oo.o::fi annfiao m-x oo.owm$ nmncsm oo.mwma unncnom 00.0mma Amsumov umpcflom aux M.CO .Uimltmmmw ..mmmwwwmmww ..><.w.mwmommm .tco WMMwmmmmwfl .003 and mmflgpmsoCH .oo mafiomowpmmm .ao wHHH: mwzom mmm hoaxum OOHHm mnwoasoz Hmflpuw:UCH mmmawosnflm Homucmz mwxm>oooum .< APPENDIX E TRAINING RAFT USING A PLANK ON A RAFT 113 114 i APPENDIX F INDOOR TRAINING BASIN 115 INDOOR TRAINING BASIN Training basins such as the Hungarian Canoe Federation's in Budapest, shown below, permit year round conditioning of the muscles; they also allow study at close quarters of the mechanics of the paddle stroke, and correction of possible faults and weaknesses. There are other basins in Finland, Austria and East Berlin. To simulate natural conditions the water must be kept moving at the correct Speed. (Kayak, 1,000 m: A.30 min; Canadian, 1000 m: 5.30 min). This requires careful design of tank proportions. The units float in the water but are kept in position by retaining forks. Mirrors are fixed on the end walls. The Austrian basin has been installed model, but it, too, incorporates the idea of keeping the water moving. The paddle unit looks like a shortened K-A, floats on the water but on both ends bolts are fixed which slide up and down between two uprights. Normal sized paddles are used. The AMERICAN cmoms'r - July, 1961 116 APPENDIX G USING A PLANK ON A RAFT 117 118 ...t, -- 39. .29 x§$§k mxxwx Q wathozk kuswauckkakkk. ........:_.-.H...§m..uumwuww .Hr H T \\\\\ \\ \\c\\‘\\\ \x.\\A\\\\\.\ I \\\\‘ .\\ \‘\\\ \‘ ..\\\\\\.\\..\\\,\x\\\. x \ \\ u\\\\... + Ii. Ill! lullL .... ..._. “...m...» B. n... :1 4.... .-._...______.._ thaw.- .35.. ...-....,-.-!-..i a. A. :+\N a? 1i (523‘ N e. E H W V M‘ t \ A I R.A. Pilon M.A. 1967 111111111111111111" 111111111 31293 10731 6485