AN 15'? EXPOE in SChQQl AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO SHOW THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MICHIGAN DRIVERS BY AGE, SEX AND EXPOSURE IN MILES OF *MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATION BY Frederick E. Vanosdall AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Police Administration and Public Safety 1966 APPROVED: ‘Viilifd T. Galjggépghgififign 'Bernardfl. h-n 1/ ll“, 4]. .L// 560 'aymon3 eGrande Thi: dfi‘a'en f0 r ‘ "as Collect were renewi six State E located in Of MiChiga] Drivers C0} of birth, drove duri wintry an E2: gwiped b: SE‘Jenten ‘1 ' C41 drlQJeJ ABSTRACT AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO SHOW THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN.MICHIGAN DRIVERS BY AGE, SEX AND EXPOSURE IN MILES OF MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATION by Frederick E. Vanosdall This study purports to determine the number of miles driven for an average week during the daytime, nighttime, and in the country and City by Michigan drivers according to age. Exposure information, the number of miles driven, was collected from 6358 Michigan drivers at the time they were renewing their Operator and chauffer licenses. Twenty— six state authorized driver license examination stations, located in the metropolitan, urban, suburban and rural areas of Michigan were selected to participate in the study. Drivers completed questionnaires requesting their name, date of birth, sex and an estimate of the number of miles they drove during an average week, in the daytime, nighttime, country and City. Exposure data was transferred to IBM cards and grouped by sex and then into seventeen age groups; drivers seventeen to twenty years of age were separated year by year, all drivers twenty years of age and older were grouped into fosrteen gr: daz'time. nifi flea: age of driv: determine t' 32536 date iniicated t ARCS... hub.;buti: a- u. -. we ergo; SEX . Frederick E. Vanosdall fourteen groups in five year intervals, with average weekly, daytime, nighttime, country and City mileage. Mean and Standard deviations were calculated for each age of driver, by age, sex and the five areas of exposure to determine the central tendancy and dispersion of the ex- posure data. The results of these calculations clearly indicated that exposure data does not fall in a normal distribution and that there was a large degree of dispersion. Tables and graphs were prepared to Show the changes in the amounts and types of exposure for each age group and sex. The study concludes that there are some relation- ships between age and exposure. These relationships are not absolute, but provide a basis for comparison and analysis of other data from drivers' records, accident statistics, and evaluation of drivers who have completed driver education programs. A}; IN? U) I '1 m N '9 in School AN INTRODUCTORY STUDY TO SHOW THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN MICHIGAN DRIVERS BY AGE, SEX AND EXPOSURE IN MILES OF MOTOR VEHICLE OPERATION BY Frederick E. Vanosdall A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE School of Police Administration and Public Safety 1966 The WI MI. 31.111016 Aidance this The w: Esrdon H. She Center, for h value of this In t‘r Billie 5. F3: Richards-on: 2*. ACKNOWLEDGMENT S The writer wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Mr. Raymond T. Galvin and Dr. Bernard J. Kuhn, under whose guidance this study was completed. The writer also desires to extend his appreciation to Gordon H. Sheehe, Director of the Highway Traffic Safety Center, for his support and interest that contributed to the value of this work. In the initial steps of this study, Congressman Billie S. Farnum, then Deputy Secretary of State, and Lee C. Richardson, Director of the Division of Driver and Vehicle Services, supported plans to conduct a part of the study in state authorized driver license examination stations, for which the writer is indebted to them. Special recognition is deserved by the Automotive Safety Foundation for the fellowship which made possible the course of study in Highway Traffic Administration and this thesis. Many persons in the Michigan Department of State, Police and Sheriff's departments rendered technical as— sistance, for which the writer extends his sincere thanks. From his example and contributions to this and other studies concerning basic information about drivers and other ii Lzzomatlon \ ;: grass. aspects of traffic accident prevention, Glenn M. Schultz has encouraged this writer to continue in the manner he initi— ated, to encourage others to examine the need for basic information upon which to base future prOgress in safety programs. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . Statement of the PrOblem Purpose of the Study Limitations of the Study Need for the Study Definition of Terms Used Exposure Daytime Nighttime Country City Organization of the Remainder of the Thesis II. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Historical Review of the Studies The Connecticut Study The Pennsylvania Study Lauer's Study in Iowa Congressional Interest in Traffic Safety and Exposure Data Heath's Study in New Jersey iv PAGE 10 10 ll 12 l4 19 20 23 25 III . Iv . Chapter Billion's Study in Schenectady, New York The Bureau of Public Roads Study The California Negligent Operator Study Limitations of Previous Studies Success of Previous Studies III. THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . Determining the Study Sample . . . . Selection of Participating Stations Questionnaire Design Pilot Testing the Questionnaire Evaluating the Questionnaire Distribution of the Questionnaire Collecting the Exposure Data Limitations of the Study Presentation of the Data Stability of the Exposure Data IV. COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Screening Questionnaires Transferring Data for Machine Processing Grouping the Data for Study . Analy sis of Grouped Data Comparing Exposure Data fOr Drivers 24, 34, and 53 Years Of Age 26 29 31 32 34 37 38 4o 41 42 42 43 45 45 47 48 49 49 50 51 63 64 Page ' 3 ‘- ‘ §U\\ ‘5‘“ VII- 11 Chapter Page V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Comparisons between Male and Female Exposure Rates . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Average weekly Mileage . . . . . . . . 70 Daytime Mileage . . . . . . . . . . . 7O Nighttime Mileage . . . . . . . . . . 70 Country Mileage . . . . . . . . . . . 71 City Mileage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Characteristics of Male Drivers . . . 71 Characteristics of Female Drivers . . 72 Comparisons between Male and Female Drivers under Twenty Years of Age . 72 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Need for Further Research . . . . . . . . 76 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 vi .u . :'-n'e .‘ \ nvbb II. III. Table II. III. VI. VII. VIII. IX. LIST OF TABLES Drivers Compared by Exposure and Accident Status Distribution Plan for Questionnaires to Twenty-Six Driver License Examination Stations Total and Mean weekly Mileage for Michigan Drivers According to Sex and Age Group Daytime and Mean Weekly Mileage for Michigan Drivers According to Sex and Age Group Nighttime and Mean weekly Mileage for Michigan Drivers According to Sex and Age Group Country and Mean Weekly Mileage for Michigan Drivers According to Sex and Age Group City and Mean weekly Mileage for Michigan Drivers According to Sex and Age Group Summary of Mileage Driven weekly in the Day- time, Nighttime, Country and City The Percentage of Michigan Drivers, 24 Years of Age and Their Exposure in Miles per week The Percentage of Michigan Drivers 34 Years of Age and Their Exposure in Miles per week vii Page 28 44 53 54 55 56 57 58 66 67 Table Page XI. The Percentage of Michigan Drivers 53 Years of Age and Their Exposure in Miles per week . 68 XII. Mean Mileage for Drivers Seventeen to Nineteen Years of Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 XIII. A Table of Mean and Standard Deviation Mileage for All Michigan Drivers . . . . . . . . . . 89 XIV. A Table of Mean and Standard Deviation Mileage for Male Drivers . . . . .1. . . . . . . . . 93 XV. A Table of Mean and Standard Deviation Mileage for Female Drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 viii LA.) gTv Figure LIST OF FIGURES Annual Mileage of Men and WOmen in Different Age Groups (Connecticut, 1938) Mean Annual Mileage of Negligent Operators by Age Group (California, 1959) Distribution of Michigan Drivers Average weekly Mileage into Daytime, Nighttime, Country and City According to Age Group . Distribution of Michigan Male Drivers Average weekly Mileage into Daytime, Nighttime, Country and City According to Age Group Distribution of Michigan Female Drivers Average Mileage into Daytime, Nighttime, Country and City According to Age Group 6. Additional Figures Contained in Pocket of Thesis Reported Mileage by 24 year old Drivers - Average weekly Mileage I Reported Mileage by 24 year old Drivers — Daytime Mileage Reported Mileage by 24 year old Drivers — Nighttime Mileage ix Page 17 33 6O 61 62 «1.4 .I . ‘I‘n 1.. DH 4 ul‘ 7/" V sll§ 17. Q: 74 Figure 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Reported Mileage by 24 year City Mileage Reported Mileage by 24 year Country Mileage Reported Mileage by 34 year Average weekly Mileage Reported Mileage by 34 year Daytime Mileage Reported Mileage by 34 year Nighttime Mileage Reported Mileage by 34 year City Mileage Reported Mileage by 34 year Country Mileage Reported Mileage by 53 year Average weekly Mileage Reported Mileage by 53 year Daytime Mileage Reported Mileage by 53 year Nighttime Mileage Reported Mileage by 53 year City Mileage Reported Mileage by 53 year Country Mileage old old old old old old old old old old old old Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Drivers Page .. "J‘ ‘1"! “VJ nu.‘ .. u: LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 B. Letter to Selected Driver License Examining Stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 C. Tables of Means and Standard Deviation Mileage for Michigan Drivers . . . . . . . 88 xi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION As annual traffic accidents and deaths have in— creased, more and more attention and financial support has been given to studies on the elements of traffic accidents; the driver, his vehicle and the roadway. The wealth of information produced by these studies has contributed to an increased level and scope of understanding of the traffic accident problem. In 1958 the United States Congress' interest in this problem prompted the appointment of a special congressional sub-committee on traffic safety. State officials and repre- sentatives of private enterprise were invited to appear be- fore this committee to report on the efforts being made to reduce the death toll on the nation's highways. State officials were questioned about the progress being made on specific improvements in traffic safety efforts. Some inquiries concerned the existence and use of information which would show if there were any relationships between drivers' age, exposure, and accident involvement. At that ,5-.;+4 b‘ an. \ .I‘ ‘ 7“. 37* .3. .. GJ J 1: is e () Eh . vehicl *L mfi A: nu" I“es aw LQLlO time, the officials were unable to give answers that would clarify these relationships because they did not have data on driver exposure. It soon became evident from the special sUb— committee hearings that "If accidents are to be related to highway, vehicle, and human factors in a meaningful fashion it is essential that relative exposure of people and vehicles to accidents be measured."1 Several measures Of accident exposure have been de— ve10ped, but no single measure is the best under all Circumstances. Progress in safety research has shown the usefulness of " . . . the widely accepted measures of exposure vehicle—miles of travel i.e., the number of vehicles using the highway multiplied by the length of the highway in miles."3 Existing research has also shown that exposure infor— mation is making an important contribution in the analysis of traffic accidents; for comparison of various highways, vehicles and drivers; for economic analysis of highway lSpecial Sub—committee for Traffic Safety, The Federal Role in Highway Safety, A Report to the 80th Congress, lst Session, Document No. 93., United States Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1959), p. 25. 21bid., p. 25. 3Ibid., p. 25. ppravem as a fac in. 913;] Live: I ' 4 "on. IE. Sbuk ”AF-E A'nn ‘c..'.’v‘ib '\ n- GS.) . C a :31 J- H t. “e-LI improvements and others uses.4 Exposure has been identified as a factor to consider in determining the types of actions in programs of driver improvement administered by state driver license agencies. However, to date there have been few studies which have shown the relationships between drivers'ages, sex, and exposure in the number of miles driven during the daytime, nighttime, in the country or in the City. Studies completed through 1965, have considered various aspects of exposure, but none has treated these five aspects of exposure simultaneously. IA STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM gggtement.gf the Problem. Significant information on the number of miles people drive is very limited. The lack of this information is partially due to the limited methods for collecting it. Direct interviews with drivers is one of the best methods, however it may not assure re— liable information because drivers must estimate the number of miles they drive. Authorities in the trucking industry, responsible for the study and analysis of traffic accidents involving their equipment, maintain detailed records on drivers and their exposure. Ibid., p. 25. vvnv:~ sC.uv a ..'.' .IA: u..-\-u iri'JEI Avfg_' 15.6; as; Studies primarily concerned with determining the relationships between drivers records of traffic violations, traffic accidents and miles driven have provided limited ex- posure information by different age groups of drivers. One of the most recent studies of drivers, reexamined because they had a poor driving record, reported that on the average, both male and female reexamined drivers drove sig— nificantly more miles [P < .001] than their counterparts in the general driving pOpulation.5 And also "For the re- examined male drivers, comparison with the average male driver showed that significantly fewer drove an average of 10,000 miles per year, while considerably more reexamined males drove 22,500 or more miles per year."6 The findings of this study indicated that further research is needed on annual mileage and also by type of 7 exposure. II. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY The principal Objective of this study is to describe as accurately as possible the number of miles of operation of motor vehicles by Michigan drivers. 5R. S. Coppin and G. Van Oldenbeek, The Fatal Accident Re—Examination Program in California, Report No. 23, California Department of Motor Vehicles, Sacramento, California (January, 1966), p. 16. 6Ibid., p. 16. 7Ibid., p. 16. selecte the ape He is. Emphasis is given to five variables, arbitrarily selected as impinging upon the hazards to be encountered in the operation of a motor vehicle and isolated according to the following conditions and circumstances: 1. 2. The age of the driver. The sex of the driver. The number of miles of operation of a motor vehicle in a typical or average week. The number of miles of Operation of a motor vehicle in a typical or average week in reference to the presence of, or degree of light, called the daytime or nighttime. The number of miles of Operation of a motor vehicle in a typical or average week with reference to the Site of that Operation being in the country (rural) or in the city (urban) area. III. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY There were believed to be other important variables which affect the occurrence of motor vehicle difficulties (accidents and/or traffic violations, warnings or arrests), such as the driver's socio—economic status, occupation, education, residence, and other factors which have either direct or indirect influence upon driver behavior. NO at— tempt was made to consider, or in any other way use these variables. These factors were considered beyond the scope of the study which gives its principle attention to exposure and the driver in terms of the universal constants of age and sex. IV- NEED FOR THE STUDY Several studies, presented in Chapter II, have re— ferred to the relationship between exposure and traffic accident involvement and/or traffic law violations. While these studies have identified the need for exposure data, their most important contribution to this study has been to focus attention on the value of exposure data as a basic factor necessary for analyzing the effectiveness of driver education, driver licensing, and traffic law enforcement programs. This study was undertaken for the purpose of ful- filling the following needs: 1. To establish, as accurately as the methods followed permit, typical or average numbers of miles that may be expected of licensed drivers according to their age. 2. To provide driver license administrators, or comparable officials, responsible for decisidns affecting drivers' privileges to drive, a new instru— ment with which to more effectively evaluate the seriousness of drivers' records of traffic violations and/or accidents. F.- n:...; -.Aq(‘:l L5 ‘ w CI! 0 1 a» D) '1 Ac 3. To provide an additional basis for study and analysis of traffic accident data. The literature indicates that "exposure" has taken on many meanings and connotations. Teth in driver edu— cation refer to exposure as the hazards and conditions af— fecting driving at night, in the city and country.8 Re- searchers have found it necessary to define exposure where ever it has been a factor in research and analysis.9 Businesses and industries have concepts of exposure based upon their respective interests. For example, the insurance industry has several types of exposure Classified according to area, occupation, age, sex, density of vehicles where insureds live or drive and the purpose of his driving. The traffic engineer has qualified his comparisons between 8Leon Brody and Herbert J. Stack, Highway Safety and .Qriver Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall InC., 1956), p. 29. 3rd Printing; Center for Safety Education, Man and the Motor Car (New YOrk: Prentice Hall InC., 1956), pp. 267-8 & 123; Maxwell Halsey and Leslie Silvernale, Let's Drive Right (Chicago: Scott Foresman and Company, 1954), pp. 268, 200—1 & 371; American AutomObile Association, Sportsmanlike Driving (Washington, D. C Kingsport Press Inc. , 1955), pp. 32, 264 & 312. 9Ross A. McFarland, Roland C. Moore, and A. Bertrand warren, Human Variables in Motor Vehicle Accidents, A Review of the Literature, Harvard School of PUbliC Health (Boston: 1955), pp. 12- 40. Academy of Science - National Research Council, "Health, Medical and Drug Factors in Highway Safety," Proceedings 9; the Second Highway Research Corre- lation Conference, Publication No. 328 (washington, D.C.: 1954), p. 39; Harold E. Elliott (ed.), Medical Aspects 9; Traffic Accidents, Proceedings of the Montreal Conference, 1955 (Toronto: Sun Life Assurance Company), p. 310. \ acc: 'ze ‘ .6. u I o.-' 1 .e a 5 I6 4'3... C» H\U find 3. . . a C Q» a o L 5 ad. MP. .1 :4 Cu "1.. W». 3 .a . e .m C &L . ab AL» - . a .. I I accidents and exposure by stating that "To compare hazard, accident comparisons must be based on eXposure."10 Generally, three rates of exposure have been recog- nized by safety people. They are based on population, vehicle registrations and mileage, with "exposure to acci— dents" defined as the mileage rate or vehicle miles.ll These are the present standards used nationally in the assessment of traffic safety activities conducted by state agencies having responsibility for accident prevention programs. This study attempts to provide more specific infor— mation on exposure and where that exposure occurred. There is already some acceptance that there are different types of exposure; this study also attempts to Show relationships be- tween different types of exposure and driver age and sex. V. DEFINITION OF TERMS USED It has been shown that "exposure" does not have a precise definition to which there has been universal ac— ceptance by persons engaged in traffic safety activities. Therefore in this study exposure will be defined as follows: 10Henry K. Evans (ed.), Traffic Engineering Handbook, Institute of Traffic Engineers (New York: Peter F. Mallon InC., 1950), p. 120. llIbid., pp. 120-121. D I Expgsure. In this report, "exposure" will mean the amount of operation of a motor vehiCle in miles during a typical or average week by a licensed operator or chauffer. This broad meaning of "exposure" will then be divided into four areas or categories which Will be defined as follows: Daytime. In this report "daytime" will mean "the time between sunrise and sunset."12‘ . Nighttime. In this report "nighttime" will mean 13 VarioUs conditions "any other hour than daytime.‘I Can cause a darkness similar to the early hours of the "nighttime," such as severe thunderstorms, ex- treme fog, or smoke moving across a highway. In- structions were included in this study explaining that "nighttime" would be considered anytime head— lights on a motor vehicle were necessary. Country. In this report "country" will mean any area other than city. The extension of urbanization and suburban developments into rural areas make it difficult for drivers to know where "country" begins or ends. Therefore any sUburban area outside the City limits will be considered "country." 12J. Stannard Baker and William R. Stebbins, Jr., .Qictionary of Highway Traffic (Evanston, Illinois: Traffic Institute, NOrthwestern University, 1960), p. 44. 13Ibid., p. 140. 10 City. For the purpose of this investigation "city" will mean the area within the boundaries of the city limits. VI. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS Progress in developing measurements of accident ex— perience and driver behavior through surveys and research projects, reviewed in Chapter II, call attention to exposure as an influential factor in the interpretation of study results. Plans for and problems associated with the collection of exposure data are presented in Chapter III. An explan- ation of the study's limitations and the stability of the exposure data collected in 1959 have been prepared for the reader here. Data in this study was organized to facilitate the use of graphs and tables to emphasize the differences between each area of exposure by the sex and ages of drivers. To further describe the relationships and differences between the data, two summarizing constants, the mean and standard deviation were employed. The results of these analyses, with graphs and tables are reported in Chapter IV. The final chapter, contains the Findings, Con— clusions and Recommendations, supported by the Conclusions and Findings. inte : a: “A?+ diVL( 1", 1.1“ fE:‘ 1 «as CHAPTER II A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Interest in informal surveys about driver behavior developed in motor vehicle departments and law enforcement organizations soon after the popular movement to build better highways. Following WOrld War II, traffic accidents increased rapidly and resulted in more and highly developed approaches for the study of Characteristics which contribute to the accident. Formal scientific research projects were con- ducted by universities, federal agencies concerned with pUblic health, and professional researchers. All have been interested in studying driver behavior and the related factors which influence driver performance. Several studies have called attention to the im- portance of exposure information and some have mileage data incorporated into a formula for evaluating driver performance. Books for driver education in high schools have re- ferred to various types of exposure, briefly. Generally it has been used as a factor to control the matching of drivers being studied. In some studies, the amount and where the motorist drive has become valuable information for evaluating v .p . E C ”A. H...» we? bun-A fl av U- av“: Ho-‘ '0‘ p- -.:v‘ An in“ "‘ q~u ex. t. u. n. . h\\ 1L4 \IU 12 the relationships between factors such as levels of traffic density and driver fatigue; identifying the Change in driver behavior under various degrees of stress as volume increases; or driver response during various types of distractions while driving. The following chapter contains a comprehensive re— view of studies which show the increasing importance placed on exposure by researchers concerned with driver behavior and traffic accidents. I. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE STUDIES Scientific research in the area of traffic safety has been evaluated in this way: A great many major studies involving the human element have been made. Generally they have at— tempted to (1) determine a unique human character- istic that is associated with accidents, (2) de— termine the effect of countless influences or conditions upon subject's action or reaction, (3) determine the behavior of humans as a group in the actual driving scene, and (4) suggest, propose, attempt or take action based upon such determin- ations.l4 The first studies of driver behavior were products of private business and government agencies interested in each of the basic elements of the traffic accident picture; the driver, the vehicle, and the highway. These studies aroused motor vehicle administrators to the need for research 14United States Congress, House Committee on,Intere. state and Foreign.Commerce, Investigation 9f Highwgy Traffic Accidents, The Federal Role lg Traffic Safety (Washington, D.C.: 1959), p. 30. ‘z’ea .' \- A. \d": E- JE 13 which could be used to help control the rapidly rising deaths caused by traffic accidents. During the 1930's, numerous studies and surveys were conducted in the interest of accident prevention. Their findings focused attention on vehicle mileage, occupational use of cars, drivers' annual mileage, and mileage for owners residing in unincorporated or incorporated areas. The re- sults brought about improvements in the quality of govern— ment services to the public.15’l6’l7’18 Recent research on the human factors in traffic accidents has indicated the value of studying social and psychological pressures and their influence upon driver be- havior. Some of the studies in these areas have selected driver exposure, in terms of miles driven annually, as a basis for measuring driver performance. Tests to measure psychological abilities, mechanical aptitudes, intelligence, attitudes and emotional stability have been used in attempts to predict drivers' chances of being involved in traffic 15McFarland, op. Cit., p. 38. 16Ibid., p. 40. 17"Average Annual Mileage and Number of Trips per year by Occupational Groups," Automobile Facts and Figures (New York: Automobile Manufacturers Association, 1941), p. 58. 18Harry R. DeSilva, Why HE Have Automobile Accidents, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1942), pp. 12—14. -u Iflfi‘31 Gybl to 5:: ' & tne . :twa 31TH dange 3351? V‘- 53:01 flue: EXPBJ Pf‘ce Kali: 1944; lCZi( 14 19’20’21 However, these studies were not designed accidents. to show whether there was any relationships between the ages of drivers, their rates of exposure and their performance on the tests. Where exposure had been considered most useful, it was used to control the selection of drivers and to match them with others having similar degrees of exposure. Twenty years ago Harry DeSilva wrote, "a driver's annual mileage provides a rough indication of the number of dangers he encounters . . . " and " . . . a knowledge of ex- posure is basic to any study of relative accident suscepti— bility.”22 His interest in driver exposure is shown in his thorough examination of various types of exposure in his book, Why;we Have AutomObile Accidents. The Connecticut survey. In 1938 the Connecticut Motor Vehicle Department mailed 15,000 questionnaires to 19M. A. Kraft and T. W; Forbes, "Evaluating the In- fluence of Personal Characteristics of the Traffic Accident Experience of Transit Operators," Highway Research Board Proceegingg g; the 24th Agnugl Meeting (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Science - National Research Council, 1944), Pp. 278—291. 20D. J. Moffie, et a1., "Relations Between Psycho— logical Tests and Driver Performance," Highway Research Board Bulletin Number-69 (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Science - National Research Council, 1952), pp. 17-24. 21Earl David Heath, "The Relationship Between Drivers Records, Selected Personality Characteristics and Biographi- cal Data of Traffic Offenders and NOn-offenders" (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, New York University Center for Safety Education, 1958), p. 6. 22Harry R. DeSilva, Why we Have Automobile Accidents (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1942), pp. 7-11. drive I: a::;de: 1113:: 1361‘: Cate: a 'V Lt. I i T (,1) 1%: -‘ [-1 . \. p. «1) (II 15 drivers requesting information concerning their age, sex, accident experience, annual mileage and occupation. This information was used to Show relationships between drivers, their number of accidents and annual mileage. Results of this survey reported by DeSilva showed that: 1. Driving was less pleasureful for drivers of advanced age, 2. Drivers between the ages of 25 and 29 drove more than any other age group, 3. WOmen drove less than men, and 4. YOunger drivers with less experience had more accidents.23 These findings may have been influenced by the . . . larger than normal proportion of well—to—do urban ’ . I O 24 O I drivers who answered the questionnaire . . . , " and Indi- cated a typical weakness of the questionnaire method of collecting data. Opinion poll authorities point out there is no assurance the respondents (returning question— naires) will be representative of the whole population."25 Ibid., p. 27. Ibid., p. 27. 25Scott M. Cutlip and Allen H. Center, Effective Public Relations (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, InC., 1958), p. 106. ex; of 5-.., -qfi-¢\ . A- the ‘J ac V; «5 Wu ‘a 1a., 16 The Connecticut survey did show interesting trends of exposure for male and female drivers. Figure 1 indicates the unusually high annual mileage for the 25 - 29 year old age group males, as a contrast to the females. WOmen made a gradual increase, after a rapid growth during the teenage years, that continued until they reached 40 - 44 years of age. Their mileage became more erratic, declining sharply at times, while men, declined very slowly beginning at age group 35 - 39 years of age. In 1948, an Eno Foundation sponsored study provided results which agreed with DeSilva's concept about the re- lationships between exposure and accidents. It concluded that "There is a wide range in the driving exposure (M.V.M.), the aCCident experience and the violation record of the accident repeater(s). The best indication of the serious- ness of the repeater‘s record is his accidents and vio- lations per 100,000,000 M.V.M."26 (M.V.M. meaning Motor Vehicle Miles.) Efforts have been made to improve and clarify mis— understandings that arise when exposure and motor vehicle traffic accident rates are compared. Sidney J. Williams and Alan D. Beatty " . . . pointed out that vehicle mileage does not adequately measure the exposure to motor vehicle 26Herbert J. Stack, Personal Characteristics_g§ Traffic Accident Repeaters (Saugatuck, Connecticut, The Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Control, 1948), p. 50. 17 .mm .m .33: .28 can 333 snow 3:8» 305 mucwpfloo< OHHQOEODQ¢ m>mm MM.N£3 .m>HHmon .m muumm Ammma .ODOAHOOCCOOV mmbomw mud BZHMMhhHQ ZH zmzoz n24 2m: mo mu¢MQH2 quzzm H wusmflm mo #0 mm gm aw fig mm gm mm TN ma Inc now Imm Iom Imw low Imm Iom ImN ION lea P _ p . _ L _ _ _ _ _ 4 1| l 600 .m zmzoz .I T 000 .3 T 80.3 T 2m: r. 80.8 AVERAGE ANNUAL MILEAGE ”A i ,.1,.' !H.H A9 H.“ “U: JJ . a “in .hl‘ my» & .. .NU a . . .~ .In 7 . A v 34 7,‘ AU Va ‘ . 331’s A V 18 | U 0 I I O ' I 2 7 aCC1dents in Situations 1nvolv1ng more than one vehicle." They set forth four principle classes of motor vehicle accidents: 1. Collisions with pedestrians. 2. Collisions between motor vehicles. 3. NOncollisioB accidents and fixed object collisions. 8 4. All other types. Beatty's discussion of these accidents was directed towards providing a method or plan by which to combine various factors of exposure, primarily people and vehicles, or vehicle miles, as a better way to measure accident . 29 experience. Other researchers have defined exposure in various ways. Dunlap referred to exposure as the " . . . frequency of the existance of a situation which may or may not result 30 in an accident." McFarland observed that drivers "differ widely in their exposure, even though they have equal records one may have driven many more miles than the other or under vastly different circumstances."31 27Alan D. Beatty, "The Measurement of Exposure to Motor Vehicle Accidents,".Traffic Engineering, XXIX (March, 1959)) p0 19. ZBIbid. 29Ibid. 30Jack L. Dunlap,_An Analysis of Risk and Exposure .ig Automdbile Accidents, A Report Prepared for the Com- mission on Accidental Trauma, Armed Forces Epidemiological Board, Office of the Surgeon General (Stamford, Connecticut: Dunlap and Associates Inc., 1953), p. 2. 31 McFarland, op. cit., p. 12. l9 DeSilva emphasized the importance of exposure when considering " . . . the number as well as the comparative danger of the external hazards encountered when driving."32 He also noted that " . . . the high exposure driver should not be allowed to use the highways unless he can drive not merely as well as the average driver but better."33 The Pennsylvania study. Pennsylvania Motor Vehicle authorities conducted a survey program in 1954, using ap- proximately the same procedure followed in the Connecticut Survey. Their questionnaire was expanded to include personal opinions of drivers. The purpose of the study was to determine the rela- tive incidence of accidents among Pennsylvania's drivers. It was intended to provide data concerning the number of miles driven by residents, according to age group and sex. A representative sample of 1976 drivers was selected using a system of 105,000 Random Digits. Questionnaires were mailed that requested information about each driver's age, sex, driving experience, accident involvement, annual mileage, driving habits and opinions of traffic laws. Analysis of the data from 1019 completed question— naires, showed that: 32DeSilva,.gp. cit., p. 32. 33mm. 20 1. Men were involved in 580 accidents per 100,000,000 miles while 2. WOmen were involved in 450 accidents per 100,000,000 miles of travel. These differences were partially accounted for by the author's statement that ”It is possible . . . men drive for longer hours than women . . . becoming more fatigued and that men do most of the driving when road and traffic 34 This kind of infor— conditions are relatively hazardous." mation, with the breakdown of mileage driven by age groups and sex, offered the Pennsylvania authorities more thorough understanding of what was happening to their drivers, and their response to the traffic laws. Lauer's study in Iowa. Dr. A. R. Lauer designed and conducted one of the first studies in driver behavior and driver exposure using statistical techniques to control and analyze data. Lauer had noticed that many people had arrived at "faulty conclusions concerning young drivers, women drivers and older drivers and their roles in the accident 34Pennsylvania Motor Vehicle Operator Study, "The Characteristics of Pennsylvania Drivers, Including sex, age, driving experience, miles driven, traffic accident involve— ment, habits and opinions" (Harrisburg: Department of Revenue, 1954), p. 2. (Mimeographed.) w:1 a; .,. Dbl "‘1 (I) 2: (I) 21 picture."35 He believed a study of accidents in Iowa could untangle some of these conclusions. On this basis a five year study of Iowa drivers was undertaken. The goal of his study was to disprove these erroneous beliefs. Two hypotheses were presented in his study: Reported accidents are distributed evenly through- out the driving population according to the density of the population, age and the number of licensees and Accidents are distributed evenly throughout the driving population on the basis of miles driven by each age group. The methodology used for selecting drivers to participate in this study involved the use of 1,300,000 drivers' records in the Iowa Department of Public Safety. One driver out of every 200 was selected and sent a question- naire requesting information about his annual mileage, numbers of miles driven during the daytime and nighttime. Personal data such as age, sex, residence and driving record was taken from the official record. Questionnaires were mailed to 7692 drivers. Results from 1419 questionnaires were used in the study. Returned questionnaires were divided into two equal groups and analyzed. Charts were prepared showing the 35A. R. Lauer, gt a1., "Age and Sex in Relation to Accidents,” Highway Research Board Bulletin Number g9, Road— User Characteristics, Presented at the Thirty-First Annual Meeting, January, 1952 (washington: 1952), p. 25. 36Ibid. AW" v-4 . - - v-‘Ou "i... n: l (3; f) Lu “6- u a... u..- 22 relationships between these groups. Data on each driver was organized into age groups showing the percentages of drivers with the highest mileages, annually, for daytime, nighttime and according to sex. Lauer's study showed that there were some signifi- cant relationships between the ages of drivers and the frequency of accidents. This was found, however, in only three age groups: 1. Male drivers between 18 - 23 showed an age— accident relationship, significant at the five per cent level. 2. Male drivers between 33 — 35 showed a relation— ship between age and accidents, at the one per cent level of significance. 3. Male drivers between 54 - 56 had the same level of statistical significance as those 33 - 35.37 Lauer found he could not prove his hypotheses. It was however, one of the first studies to establish sta- tistically significant relationships between driver age and accident involvement, equated for mileage. As a result of his study, Lauer suggested that the techniques he used in the study might have application in spotting "areas of poor enforcement, low accident reporting indices, or other conditions affecting highway safety."38 Ibid., p. 31. 38 Ibid., p. 32. 23 Interest in traffic safety research at the uni- versity level appeared to increase following Lauer's work. The next decade was to see a more intense interest and action exerted by professional researchers, university organizations, personnel and government agencies at the state and federal level. Congressional interest in traffic safety and ex- posure data. Traffic safety officials in government and industry began appearing before a Sub-committee on Traffic Safety, designated by the House of Representatives Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. It was to be concerned with traffic safety and the progress of safety in highway transportation. Hearings started in 1956 were directed by the Sub-committee Chairman, Representative K. A. Roberts,39 who established an agenda including (1) vehicle construction and design, (2) the human factors in highway accidents, (3) legislation, (4) law enforcement and (5) highways.4O Officials of state government and representatives of private industry were asked about the safety of the highways, vehicles and drivers, the accident rates and the availa- bility of information regarding exposure of drivers according to their ages. 39The New York Times, June 5, 1956, p. 28:2. 4QIngo, August 4, 1956, p. 17:2. In- y': \12' .b‘n n q“. Mr v- ~.. *0 m n: 'I‘J / Z7 'ry 24 Representative Beamer, sponsor of the legislation providing states with authority to enter into traffic safety compacts, such as the Vehicle Equipment Safety Compact and the Driver License Compact, asked James E. Nicholas, General Manager of the Indiana Motor Truck Association, " whether or not you have any information indicating the per- centage of accidents of any type that truck drivers have as contrast to the drivers of other vehicles per thousand miles or million miles, whatever the basis might be . . . ?"41 Mr. Nicholas did not have any data or an answer for the question. Later in the hearings, Harold Kaiser, Chief, Accident Records Section for the Ohio Department of Highway Safety, was asked: Do you find that certain age groups are more prone to have accidents? . . . Mr. Kaiser (in reply) the mere breakdown of the driver population of Ohio by age groups is not the complete answer. You must know, for example how many miles they drive whether more teenagers or one specific age group drives more miles in rural areas than they do in cities; do young drivers drive more of their mileage at night 4 Mr. Kaiser knew of the need for exposure information and statistics according to age, but it had not been studied adequately and the answers were not available. 41United States Congress, House Committee on Inter— state and Foreign Commerce, Inyestigation 2; Highway Traffic AccidenE§,,Hearings before Sub—committee, 84th Congress, 2nd Session (washington: Government Printing Office, 1957), p. 869. Ibid., p. 636. Cu .ah ‘1. 25 The early hearings in 1956, were accurate indicators of the interest to be shown in the field of traffic safety in later years. Heath's Study in New Jersey. In researching the re- lationships of drivers with and without poor driving records, Heath used exposure in annual mileage, to match drivers in each of the good and bad driver groups. In preparation for the selection of drivers for his study, Heath collected exposure information from drivers in various occupations. The average mileage of these drivers was prepared into a guide showing the average mileage for each occupation, along with a description of the type and amounts of driving for each occupation. This guide was used by drivers participating in his study, to more accurately estimate their exposure. Exposure data was important as a measure and basis for determining whether more experienced drivers acquired more violations or were involved in more accidents than less experienced drivers. The process of matching drivers, ac— cording to their rates of exposure and experience was one of Heath’s most difficult tasks and he echoed Stewart's comment that " . . . any attempt to control these variables beyond a pOint is reduced to a hopeless state of absurdity."43 43Robert C. Stewart, "An Evaluation of the Driver Edu- cation Program in the State of Deleware in Terms of Per— formance Records of Participants of this Program" (Dover, Delaware: State Department of Public Instruction, 1956), p. 7. 26 However, Heath's study enabled him to determine that " annual mileage has little effect on accident experience but violation experience seems to increase with driving .. 44 exposure. Billion's Study in Schenectady, New york. C. E. Billion designed and directed a study of 810 drivers for the United States Bureau of Roads and the New York Department of Public WOrks. The purpose of this project as set forth in two hypotheses was: (1) "To determine those attributes that may be casually associated with driver behavior; and (2) To prove that drivers responsible for motor vehicle accidents have different personal, social and driver characteristics than drivers who have not had accidents."45 One of the basis for evaluating driver performance was driver exposure. Drivers participating in this study were selected by a random-sampling of city blocks, residences, families, and drivers within families. 44Earl David Heath, "The Relationship Between Driving Records, Selected Personality Characteristics, and Biographi— cal Data on Traffic Offenders and an—offenders" (Doctoral Dissertation at the Center for Safety Education, New York City University, 1958), p. 6. 45C. E. Billion, "Community Study of the Character- istics of Drivers and Driver Behavior Related to Accident Exposure,"-Highway Research Board=Bulletin Number 172 (washington, D.C.: National Academy of Science - National Research Council, 1958), p. 36. a a :- 27 Trained interviewers conducted in depth interviews with drivers, recording personal, social, and driving history. Data concerning the number of miles driven was re- quested of each driver and diaries provided to record future mileage more accurately. This study was unique. Trained observers scored the performance of 571 drivers as to their Obedience to traffic laws, reactions to traffic situations and demonstration of safe driving practices as they drove to work. Drivers were grouped together by annual mileage as shown in Table I. This shows three levels of annual mileage, the numbers and percentages of drivers involved in accidents and determinations as to their responsibility for these accidents. To determine the responsibility for accidents, a group of judges were selected who were qualified to ex- amine accident information and the driver's role in it and then determine who was responsible for the accident. Among the positive aspects of this study was the use of the Thurstone Temperament Schedule for the selection of such personality traits as " . . . impulsiveness and socia- bility . . . in combination with the biographical items of age, marital status, education, occupation, number of positions held during the 5-year period preceeding examination, reasons for terminating previous employment, and annual salary."46 The results of Billion's work did not prove 46Ibid., p. 18. «a .m. 00H cam m hm OH mm mm How 00H cum 0 0H ca hm om ham ooo.awanaoa.ma roam 00H cum 0 ma m cm om Hmm ooa.malaooh ESHUwz OOH 0mm m o m Hm om mvm ooonlo 304 X quEsz X HmQEsz X quEsz X quESZ mwaflz Hmuoe muHHHQHmcommmmlcoz wpflaflnflmcommmm mucmcfloofi msomwumu ucwcfloum pcwcfloom oz musmomxm v...:mh.rH.¢>H_m BZMQHUUG QZ< mmbmomxm Mm afimzou mmmE/HMQ: H mafia . 5‘ I SI 1v . [‘7‘ 1.“ SEC Unit "C1 \1 29 either of his hypotheses. His findings, however resembled Heath's, showing a relationship between exposure and drivers records. From his work, Billion concluded: From a comparison of the driving records of traffic offenders whose driving experience was less than 50,000 miles per year with those whose driving ex- perience was in excess of this amount, it appears that annual mileage has little effect on accident ex- perience, but that violation experience seems to in— crease with exposure.4 This study followed a well planned design for col- lecting and analyzing data, with later followeup techniques. The technique of establishing three major ranges of exposure may have, however, detracted from the sensitivity of the analysis relating exposure to accident involvement and responsibility. (The Bureau 2; Public Roads Study. This study was initiated as an operational study of traffic accidents to be conducted in areas selected geographically, so the con— ditions affecting driving and other data required for the study, would be representative of all the regions of the United States. The objective was " . . . to determine the relation- ships among drivers and vehicle characteristics and traffic accident frequency."48 To accomplish this objective a new research technique was devised. 471bi ., p. 18. 48Special sub-committee on Traffic Safety, 9p. cit., p AV, V‘C 3O Particular care was taken to devise a method— olOgy that would include miles of driving as a measure of accident occurrence. This is one of the first comprehensive approaches to a study of the driver, vehicle, and highway characteristics as a system that has taken account of travel mileage for exposure. Information was recorded from 290,000 drivers who traveled more than 317 billion miles over thirty—five sections of typical roadways, 600 miles in length and under every conceivable condition. Traffic accident records accumulated for three to four years on the sections of highway included in the study were reviewed and classified into areas of driver and vehicle characteristics. This information was then matched with comparable data collected from drivers who traveled the same portions of highways being studied, but had no accidents. As one method of evaluating this research, a unit of measurement was developed and called "the accident involve- ment rate" it represents the number of involvements that occur for every 100 million miles of highway travel.50 One of the principal findings of this study was the amounts of exposure of drivers by sex, age and general infor— mation about driving at night and in the daytime. Ibid., p. 71. Ibid., p. 72. r; ‘1- 31 Sex and age of drivers affected the prOportionate distribution of travel on main rural highways. Female drivers performed only 13 per cent of the day travel and only 7 percent of night travel. Male drivers be— tween 20 and 55 years of age performed the greatest amount of travel per registered driver - older drivers reduced their travel even more at night.5 From this intensive study of travel and accidents on rural highways, there is much evidence to show the value of the driving characteristics of drivers in other traffic environments. The California Negligent Operator Study. As one phase of a continued research program, this study was designed " . . . to determine to what extent if any, the driving records of negligent drivers improved following an interview with a driver improvement analyst and the resultant action "52 Approximately 5,000 driver improvement cases were re— viewed of which 4081 cases were selected for the study group. Data was tallied identifying each driver, his record before a corrective interview, annual mileage, the action taken, and his subsequent record. Saficcidents.9n Main Rural Highways Related 39 Speed, Driver, and Vehicle, A Report by the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads (Washington: Government Printing Office, July, 1964), p. 2. 52R. S. Coppin and Ira Samuels, "Characteristics of Negligent Drivers," Control 2; the Negligent Driver, Part I. A Report for the Division of Driver Licenses, California Department of Motor vehicles (Sacramento: 1961), p. 3. (Mimeographed.) 32 The negligent operator mileage data was used to calculate mean mileages for each age group of drivers. This analysis showed that negligent drivers drove more than a random sample of applicants renewing their licenses.5 Graphically the California data on mean mileage, shown in Figure 2 closely resembles the comparable profile in Figure 3 showing Michigan drivers' mean weekly mileage. The findings of this study enabled California driver licensing authorities to make numerous comparisons between negligent operators and average drivers,54 as to age, occu- pation, sex, annual mileage, driving records before and re— cords after the actions taken in the driver improvement interview. These comparisons provided California Licensing Authorities with necessary information to evaluate the effectiveness of their driver improvement personnel and the driver improvement program. II. LIMITATIONS OF PREVIOUS STUDIES The early studies were conducted to learn more about drivers' habits, their uses of vehicles, destinations and numbers of miles driven and did not attempt to establish controls or analyze the data collected by statistical 53Vision Research Project, Department of Motor Vehicles, State of California, Research Report No. 2, Octdber, 1959. 54Coppin,gp. cit., p. 4. 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NIGHTTIME, IN THE .COUNTRY AND CITY ' 58 Class Night- 4 Drivers weekly Daytime time Country City N 6,358 5,845 4,747 3,882 5,739 I Miles 1,390,512 938,505 365,647 567,646 731,203 M 218.32 160.56 77.02 146.22 127.40 N 4,474 4,101 3,484 2,959 4,038 II Miles 1,234,666 828,403 330,339 520,466 634,892 M 278.26 202.00 94.78 175.89 157.22 N 1,885 1,744 1,262 923 1,701 III Miles 155,846 110,102 35,308 47,180 96,311 M 82.67 63.13 27.98 52.19 56.42 59 city mileages. A color code was selected to help identify each of the types of exposure, as shown here: Black Average weekly Mileage Red Daytime weekly Mileage Blue Nighttime weekly Mileage Green Country weekly Mileage Brown City weekly Mileage Figure 3 indicates the characteristic trends of exposure according to age groups and for the different types or areas of exposure for each age group. Figures 4 and 5 show the contrasts in the amounts of driving reported by male and female drivers. Basically, there are two major differences between the male and female driver: (1) one in the gross difference in the numbers of miles being driven and (2) in the amounts, or pr0portions, of driving occurring in each of the exposure areas. When Figures 4 and 5 are compared, the difference in rate of exposure is clearly defined, but also equally well defined is the female's far more stable pattern of exposure, with its gradual incline until age group 65 - 69, when all areas except nighttime (blue) decline. Later, a sharp drop occurs for nighttime mileage at age 70-74. Further comparisons between the male and female drivers will be presented as part of the Findings in Chapter V. 6O mDOMO mu¢ OB 02H9m0004 MBHU 024 $282500 «MSHBBNUHZ «HEHBMEQ OBZH HQflMHHE NHXHHS fl0¢2m>¢ ho ZOHBDmHMBmHQ mmm>HMQ 2<0H20H2 m mmeHh mmDOMO m04 mmm>HMQ mm em as as me am mm em me ea mm am am am nmm mom .ums .mos nmm woo nmm mom mme woe Hmm mom Hmm mom IOO IOOH IOOH loom fomm ,fioom 10mm roo¢ AVERAGE MILES PER WEEK 61 99090 90¢ OB O2H9MOUU¢ MBHU 92¢ MKBZDOO «HSHBBEDH2 «HEHBM¢9 OBZH 90¢99H2 M92993 90¢29>¢ 90 20H899HMBmH9 mmm>Hm9 9H¢E 2¢0HEUHZ ¢ mmeHh mmbomw 90¢ mmm>Hm9 am am as as me am am am me we mm em mm em .nmm _-om .ums .10» .umo__-om .umm .uom .ume .uoe .umm .uomtumm cuom I. OOH .I OOH .\\\\\ .1 com II OON OOm 1| Omm II 00% AVERAGE MILES PER WEEK 62 99090 90¢ 08 02H99000¢ NBHU 92¢ 9992900 92H8890H2 «92HBM¢9 OB2H 90¢99HE NH9993 90¢99>¢ 90 20H899H980H9 099>H99 HH¢299 2¢0H90HZ 099090 90¢ m99>H99 Om flm Oh fin OO ¢O OO flmm flmm WOO OON flow flOO flOO m 9990H9 Ofl fiOfi ill/1‘ OO OOH OOH OON OON AVERAGE MILES PER WEEK 63 IV. ANALYSIS OF GROUPED DATA In order to compare the same types of data from two sources and distinguish differences between them, a brief and fairly complete numerical description was needed to show the degree of central tendency and dispersion of the data. Two constants afford this type of description, the mean and standard deviation.61 The mean and standard deviation were selected for use in this study because they are accurate measures of central tendency and dispersion. The formulae used are shown here: Z3Nf_(x) N 2 2 _ (2m S.D. = 1V/ ZN N N Calculations for the mean and standard deviation were completed for each age, up to age 70* for both male and female, for the average weekly mileage, and daytime, night— time, country and city mileage. The results of these calcu— lations were prepared in tables and are contained in Appendix C. 61C. R. Richardson, An Introduction pg Statistical Analysis (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1944), p. 142. 62Albert E. Waugh, Elements_gf Statistical Method (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1945), p. 145. * for drivers over age 70 were not computed when N') 15. 64 Two observations can be made from these tables in Appendix C concerning (1) the many age groups that have a consistantly large value for the mean and , and (2) the frequency with which age groups showed a mean and in various exposure areas, that were nearly equal in magnitude. These observatiOns indicate that there was a high degree of dispersion in the data. The characteristics of dispersion can be seen in the histograms prepared to show the exposure characteristics of three ages of drivers. V- COMPARING EXPOSURE DATA FOR DRIVERS 24, 34, AND 53 YEARS OF AGE Actual driving experience or exposure has long been presumed to change with age, increasing as drivers become older. By Observing the study data, such changes seemed to exist. To show these changes more precisely, exposure for drivers 24, 34, and 53 years of age were selected. These ages tend to be typical of youthful drivers, the young family drivers, and the older drivers, respectively. Each of these ages probably has a more clearly defined and different need from the others. Profiles of exposure for these age groups were pre— pared from Tables IX, X, and XI. These profiles are found in a special supplement in the pocket section of this thesis. In this supplement, graphs showing exposure in each area were prepared on separate acetate sheets, color coded to 65 designate the area of exposure. These materials enable the reader to compare exposure profiles of each age, identified by a distinctive line, and note the similarities and differ- ences among them. For example: these profiles ShOW’that more younger drivers drove less than older drivers, as shown by the percentage of younger drivers that drove less than 100 miles per week. A higher percentage of older drivers drove more miles than younger drivers. As shown by the per- centage of older drivers that drove more than 100 miles per week. When using these materials, the reader should note the legend on the grid, over which the transparent graphs are placed. Using the code, to select the age of driver and type of exposure for examination, place the transparent ace— tate graph over the grid in such a manner that the vertical and horizontal scales match. Additional graphs may be used as overlays to compare other exposure characteristics. Tables IX, X, and XI follow. 66 0.00H HOH 0.00H OO 0.00H OO 0.00H ONH 0.00H ONH Ogdeoe N.m w h.m HH OOO O.H N O.H N OOO m.N m O.H H O.H N >.¢ O OOO m.N m 0.0 w m. H O. H OOm O.m v m.h O N.h O n.¢ O OOm O.m w O.m N H.H H N.m v O.m O OON N.m NH m.HN m e.O O e.O m O.HH as OON ¢.O HH N.mH O m.O O ¢.¢H OH N.OH ON OOH m.ON mm O.HH m O.¢H OH O.¢N Om N.OH ON OOH O.m¢ SO 0.0¢ Hm m.Nn OO O.hm 5% N.Om Om OO X .2 x. z x. z X .2 x .z Mama Ham mmHHz meHS wOHHz mOHHE mmHHz_ mOmeHz CH muHU muucsoo OEHuHAOHz OEthm9 memmz musmomxm (IH‘II I‘ 1" All I, ll 9993 999 m9HH£.2H 999m0999 9H998 92¢ 90¢ 90 m9¢99 vN m99>H99 2¢0H90H2 90 90¢9290999 999 NH 999¢B 67 O.OOH OOH O.OOH OOH O.OOH OOH O.OOH OOH O.OOH OOH OHOHOO N.H N s.m O H.m O O.m O OOO O. H O.H N O. H O. H OOO O.m O s.m O O.H N O.m O O.m O OOO O. H O. H O. H O.H m OOO s.m O O.N m O.m O s.O O OOO N.m O O.O O O.H NH H.H NH OON O.O OH O.H O H.m O O.HH OH O.OH ON OON H.O OH O.H O H.m O O.OH OH H.OH NH OOH O.HN Om O.mN ON O.OH NN O.NN Om H.HN Om OOH O.HO ON H.mO HO m.ms OO N.Om Om O.Hm mm Om O. z N. z .x. z s z e z Nam: 8m OOHHz OOHHz mmHHz mmHHs OOHHz mmmeHz OH 99.5 muucsoo wEHuHEOHz OEHHKHOQ 939wa O.H5mo9x9 All (1' 9993 999 99.929 2H 9990099 9H9HBH. 92¢ 90¢ 90 m9¢99 .vm m99>H99 2¢0H90H2 90 90¢.H290999 999. N 999¢B 68 0.00H HO 0.00H MO 0.00H OO 0.00H Oh. 0.00H HO, OHOBOB >.m m OOO O.H H 3.N N N.H H OOO N.O m 0.0 m O.H H 0.0 O OOO O.N N O.H H 0.0 O NNO O OOO O.H H O n O 0.0 O H.HH O OOO 0.0 O O.H H H.O O 0.0 h OON 0.0H HH O.h O m.O O 0.0H mH N.NN OH OON O.NH O 0.0 O m.O O O.mH OH H.HH O OOH 0.0N OH N.Om OH O.HN OH m.ON OH 0.0H OH OOH 0.0N HN 0.0m OH 0.00 NO O.HN OH O.NH OH OO O .z X .z X .z x. .Z x .z 9003 Hmm mmHHE OOHHE mmHHE OOHHE OOHHS. OOmmHHS CH muHo muncsoo OEHHNSOHZ OEHu9m9 9H9003 0H5m09x9 9993 999 m9HHE.2H 99900999 9H999 92¢ 90¢ 90 m9¢99 mm m99>H99 2¢0H90H2.90 90¢B290999 999 H9 999¢B CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS I. SUMMARY This study provides the first descriptive data on driver exposure for Michigan drivers. Average rates of ex- posure for each area in the daytime, nighttime, country and city are prepared by driver age and sex. Michigan[@ale drivers represented 70.35 per cent of- the drivers in the study sample and female drivers 29.65 per cent. These drivers reported average weekly mileage Which indicated that male drivers drove 88.8 per cent of the tOtal miles and female drivers drove 11.2 per cent:( The typical Michigan driver averages about 218 miles per week, which if projected to an annual estimate is 11,336 miles. Approximately 67 per cent of this amount was driven during the daytime and 33 per cent at night. '[Male drivers averaged 278 miles per week, or 14,456 miles per year. Of this amount, approximately~68 per cent was driven in the daytime and 32 per cent at night. //"\ 70 Female drivers averaged 83 miles per week, or 4,316 miles per year. Of this, an estimated 76 per cent was driven in the daytime and 24 per cent at night] Comparisons between male and female exposure rates. Considering the ratios of exposure between male and female drivers, the following observations were made regarding the number of miles reported by those cooperating in this study and shown in the tables and figures in Chapter IV, Col- lection and Analysis of the Data. Average weekly mileage. Males drove nearly three times as far as females, until they reached the 60 — 64 year old age group; between 64 - 79 males drove about twice as much and at 80 - 84, the ratio increased to five times the mileage reported by females. Daytime mileage. Males drove nearly four times the amount females within the 20 - 34 year old age groups re- ported; then three times as much until they reached the 50 — 54 age group. From 55 - 74 male mileage decreased and fe- male mileage increased, still males showed twice female mile— age. Both males and females in the 75 - 84 age groups, drove fewer miles, but males continued to drive twice as much as females. Nighttime mileage. Males consistantly drove several times the amounts of mileage estimated by female drivers, 71 until age 65 - 69. From 20 — 64 years of age, males drove three times to four times the mileage reported by females. This ratio decreased to two to one, for ages 65 - 69. At age 70 - 74 the two sexes reported equal numbers of miles. After age 75, few miles were reported by females. Country mileage. As has been indicated in other areas of exposure, males continued to drive between three and four times more than females, until they reached age 50 - 54. Then the ratio dropped to nearly two to one and con- tinued at that ratio until age 80 - 84, when no mileage was reported by females. City mileage. Males drove nearly three times as many miles as females until they reached 55 - 59, from 60 - 74 they drove twice as much and after age 74, few miles were reported by either sex. Characteristics 2; male drivers. The growth and de— cline in each area of exposure as shown in Figure 4 on page 61 indicates the following patterns of exposure for male drivers, in Michigan. Male drivers between 20 and 29 show a gradual in- crease in the number of miles they drive in all areas, ex- cept the nighttime. Nighttime driving appears to be at a plateau until drivers reach the 45 - 49 year old age group. The peak mileage for all areas of exposure is reached at this 45 — 49 year old age group, except city mileage 72 which peaks at 50 — 54 years of age. A gradual decline in exposure follows the peak until the 60 - 64 age group. Thereafter, the number of miles in all areas drop rapidly until they reach the 75 — 79 age group. Subsequently the weekly, daytime, nighttime and city mileage increase sharply to 80 — 84 age group, then drop in the same manner. Characteristics 9; female drivers. In Figure 5 on page 62 the general driving characteristics of female drivers, in Michigan, reflect a more stable and gradual growth in miles driven until they reach age 65 - 69, except for the areas of daytime and city mileage which begin to de- crease at age 60 - 64. More pronounced decreases in driving appear and continue at age group 70 — 74. Comparisons between male and female drivers, under 20 years 9: age. The following information, represents ex- posure data from a relatively small group of drivers, be- cause few persons 17 and 18 years of age have a license to renew. Michigan's minimum age for an operator's license is 16, and is issued for a three year period. This accounts for the sudden increase in numbers of drivers at age nine- teen. There are two primary characteristics in these younger drivers. 1. Eighteen year old male drivers doubled the number of miles reported for seventeen year olds. Examining 73 the various areas of exposure, eighteen year old males drove five and one—third times more daytime mileage; five and three-fourths times more city mileage than seventeen year olds. Nearly equal rates of exposure were found for both the nighttime and country exposure areas for seventeen and eighteen year old drivers. In every exposure area, the number of miles reported by the nineteen year olds was less than that of the eighteen year olds. However, only the nineteen year old age group contained a sample size that could be considered a repre— sentative group. 2. Females between the ages of seventeen and twenty, were few in number and reported mileage in each area that showed the same general characteristics as those of the males. Large increases in mileage were reported by eighteen year olds; the marked reduction in mileage for nine- teen years of age, was similar to that reported by the males, but less extreme. Table 12, on page 74 presents the relationships be— tween ages and exposure more concisely. However, this data, because of the small sample of drivers in these age groups, should not be interpreted as being representative of all other youthful drivers. 74 TABLE XII MEAN MILEAGE OF DRIVERS SEVENTEEN TO NINETEEN YEARS OF AGE weekly Daytime Nighttime Country City Age Mileage Mileage Mileage Mileage Mileage _M_AL__E_ 17 108 37 108 110 35 18 243 191 119 132 202 19 117 104 85 117 100 FEMALE 17 26 19 7 5 25 18 78 43 53 50 61 19 59 37 27 44 40 75 II- CONCLUSIONS This study based upon 6358 questionnaires completed by Michigan drivers renewing their driver licenses, was con— ducted to describe rates of exposure for drivers of each age, for an average week, during the daytime, nighttime, in the country and city. Several conclusions have been determined as a result of this study. 1. Drivers will complete questionnaires requiring de— tailed information about their driving activities during the daytime, nighttime, and in the country and city. Michigan drivers have approximately the same level of exposure from age twenty-five through sixty-four. Daytime mileage is usually double nighttime mileage. Female drivers, drive fewer miles, but drive more consistently in all areas of exposure for a longer period of time than males do. Male drivers, drive from three to four times as much as female drivers, generally until the time when most employers recognize a retirement age of approximately sixty-five years. 'Exposure data, as determined in this study does not follow a normal distribution curve. The exposure characteristics within all age groups of Michigan drivers is widely dispersed. 76 III. NEED FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The findings have shown the general characteristics of all Michigan drivers, and the exposure trends of male and female drivers. Two recommendations are suggested for imple- menting these findings: 1. All drivers records and estimates of exposure veri- fied by comparing them to the exposure tables pre- sented in this study, and 2. all traffic accident and violation records for drivers be evaluated by comparing them to exposure rates for their respective age groups. Several areas deserve consideration for future study. Certain factors, such as the influence which marital status, education, residence, occupation and socio-economic status may have upon when, where, and how much male or fe— male drivers drive, were considered beyond the scope of this study. Further study is needed in order to more accurately establish the amount of exposure for drivers under nineteen and areas of exposure in which they drive. Some of the characteristics of exposure for older drivers also warrant additional study. A study that would provide reasons for fluctuations in exposure during the later years of life. 77 The present study indicates that there are some re- lationships between age and exposure. These relationships are not absolute, but provide an avenue of exploration and a basis for comparison and improving of analysis of drivers' records, accident statistics, and evaluation of drivers who have completed driver education programs. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS American Automobile Association. Sportsmanlike Driving. Washington, D.C.: Kingsport Press Inc., 1955. Baker, J. Stannard. Driver Improvement Through Licensing Procedures. Prepared for the Committee on Driver Licensing of the American Association of Motor Vehicle Administrators. washington: 1950. , and William R. Stebbins. Dictionary g; Highway Traffic. Evanston, Illinois: Traffic Institute, NOrthwestern University, 1960. Brody, Leon, and Herbert J. Stack. Highway Safety and Driver Education. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice- Hall Incorporated, 1956. Center for Safety Education, New York University. Man and the Motor Car. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Incorporated, 1956. Cutlip, Scott M., and Allen H. Center. Effective-Public Relations. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice—Hall In— corporated, 1958. Diott, Harold E. (ed.). Medical Aspects g: Traffic Acci— dents. Proceedings of the Montreal Conference. Toronto: Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada, 1955. DeSilva, Harry R. Why we Have AutomObile Accidents. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1942. Evans, Henry K. Traffic Engineering Handbook. New York: Peter F. Mallon Incorporated, 1950. Halsey, Maxwell and Leslie Silvernale. Let's Drive Right. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1954. 79 Mann, William A., Edward W. Pepyne, and Horace C. Hartsell. Better Driving. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Incorporated, 1958. McFarland, Ross A., Roland C. Moore, and Warren A. Bertrand. Human Variables_ln Motor Vehicle Accidents. A Re— view of the Literature. Boston: Harvard School of Public Health, 1955. Richardson, C. H. .An Introduction_§g Statistical Analysis. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1944. Stack, Herbert J. Personal Characteristics 9: Traffic Acci— dent Repeaters. Saugatuck, Connecticutt: ENO Foundation for Highway Traffic Control, 1948. Travers, Robert M. W. _An Introduction_tg Educational_3§— search. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1958. Wallis, Warren and Harry V. Roberts. Statistics, A New Approach. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1959. Waugh, Albert E. Elements g; Statistical Method. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1943. B. PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT, LEARNED SOCIETIES, AND OTHER ORGANIZATIONS Bureau of Public Roads, Highway Statistics, 1963. United States Department of Commerce. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office, 1965. Coppin, R. S. and R. S. Peck. The Totally Deaf Driver in California Part_;l. Report No. 16. California De— partment of Motor Vehicles. Sacramento, California: 1964. COppin, R. S., and G. Van Oldenbeek. The Fatal Accident_3§- examination Program in California, Report_Ngn_23. California Department of Motor Vehicles. Sacramento, California: 1966. Freeman, Frank, Charles E. Goshen, and Barry G. King. ‘Ihg Role_gf Human Factors_in Accident Prevention. Pre- pared for the Accident Prevention Program, United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare. washington: Public Health Service, 1 August, 1960. 80 Goldstein, Leon G. Research Variables in Safe Motor Vehicle ,Qperation: .5 Correlation Summary 9f Predictor Vari- ables and Criterion Measures. The Driver Behavior Research Project. washington: George Washington University, June, 1961. National Conference on Uniform Traffic Accident Statistics. Uses_gf Traffic Accident Records. Saugatuck, Connecticutt: ENO Foundation for Highway Traffic Control Incorporated, 1947. President's Committee for Traffic Safety. Highway Safety Action Program. Washington: U.S. Government Print— ing Office, 1960. Motor Vehicle Administration. A Committee Report of the President's Committee for Highway Safety. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960. Solomon, David. Accidents gn Main Rural Highways Related 39 Speed, Driver and Vehicle. United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Public Roads. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1964. The Federal Role in Highway Safety. House Document No. 93. 86th Congress, lst Session. washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1959. United States House of Representatives Committee of Inter- state and Foreign Commerce. Hearings gn Investi- gation 9f Highway Traffic Accidents. 84th Congress, 2d Session. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1957. . Hearings gn Research Needs_in Traffic Safety. 85th Congress, 2d Session. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1958. Vision Research Project. Report No. 2. California Depart— ment of Motor Vehicles. Sacramento, California: 1959. C. PERIODICALS Automobile Manufacturers Association. Automobile Facts and Figures. Detroit: 1965. Automobile Manufacturers Association. Automobile Facts and Figures. New York: 1939. pp. 40-41. 81 Baldwin, David N. "Types of Exposure According to Traffic Conditions," 1944 Proceedings 9f the Institute 9; Traffic Engineers, 15th Annual Meeting. Chicago, October 2-4. Washington: Institute of Traffic Engineers, 1945. Battey, Alvin D. ”The Measurement of Exposure to Motor Vehicle Accidents," Traffic Safetnguarterly Research Review. 29:19—22, March, 1959. Beadenkopf, William G. and Walter E. Boek. "Some Epidemio— logical Aspects of Motor Vehicle Accidents," National Academy 9f Sciences - National Research Council. 1954. Publication No. 328. Billion, C. E. "Community Study of the Characteristics of Drivers and Driver Behavior Related to Accident Exposure,“ Driver Characteristics and Behavior Studies, Presented at the Thirty-Sixth Annual Meeting Highway Research Bulletin_Ng._112. Washington, D.C.: 1958. , Campbell, B. J. "A Comparison of the Driving Records of 1100 Operators Involved in Fatal Accidents and 1100 Operators Selected at Random," Traffic Safety - Quarterly Research Review, 53:6—27, September, 1958. DeSilva, Harry R. "Age and Highway Accidents," Scientific Monthly, XLVII:536—545, June, 1938. Kraft, M. A. and T. W. Forbes. "Evaluating the Influence of Personal Characteristics on the Traffic Accident Experience of Transit Operators," Highway Research Board Proceedings_gf the 24th Annual Meeting, National Academy g; Sciences - National Research Council. washington, D.C.: 1944. Lauer, A. R. et a1., Structure and Characteristics of the .Qriving Population, A Study of Age and Sex in Relation to Accident Susceptibility. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College, 1950. Lauer, A. R. et a1., "Structure and Characteristics of the Driving POpulation," A Study of Age and Sex in Re- lation to Accident Susceptibility. Prepublication copy, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, 1950. Lauer, A. R. "Age and Sex in Relation to Accidents," High- way Research Board Bulletin_NQ..§Q. Washington, D. C.: 1952. 82 Miller, H. Gene and Jack Recht. "Rural Travel and the Death Rate," Traffic Safety, 63:12—14, November, 1963. Moffie, D. J., Andrew Symmes, and Charles R. Milton. "Re— lationship Between Psychological Tests and Driver Performance," Highway Research Board Bulletin N9. .69. Washington, D.C.: 1952. Schumate, Robert P. "A New Approach to the Analysis of Accident Distribution," Traffic Safety, 53:22-25, September, 1960. Uhlaner, J. E., Leon G. Goldstein, and N. J. VanSteenberg. "Development of Criteria of Safe Motor Vehicle Operation," Highway Research Board Bulletin N9. 69:1-16. Washington, D.C.: 1952. D. SPECIAL REPORTS Chalfant, Milo W. and Gerald F. King. Report 9; Studies.gn the Effectiveness 9: Driver Improvement Procedures. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Highway Traffic Safety Center. 1960. Coppin, R. S. and Ira Samuels. Control g: the Negligent Driver, Part I: Characteristics 2; Negligent Drivers. A Report for the Division of Driver License, California State Department of Motor Vehicles, by the Division of Administration, Re— search and Statistics Section. Sacramento: 1961. Dunlap, Jack L. _An Analysis 9; Risk and Exposure in Auto— mobile Accidents. A Report for the Commission on Accidental Trauma, Armed Forces Epidemiological Board, Office of the Surgeon General. Stamford, Connecticutt: Dunlap and Associates Incorporated, 1953. King, Gerald F. The Age Characteristics g; Michigan Drivers. East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University Highway Traffic Safety Center. (Mimeographed.) 1958. Stewart, Robert C. .An Evaluation g; the Driver Egucation Program_lfl the State 2; Delaware, in Terms g§_§§r- formance Records 9f the Participants 9: this Pro- gram. A Report to the State Department of Public Instruction. Dover: 1955. 83 E. UNPUBLISHED Clark, James A. "Perceptual—motor Speed Discrepancy and Deviant Driving." Unpublished Master's thesis, The Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1959. Heath, Earl David. "The Relationship Between Driver's Records, Selected Personality Characteristics and BiOgraphical Data on Traffic Offenders and Non— Offenders." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, New York, New York University, 1958. pp. 1-120. Pennsylvania Department of Revenue. "Pennsylvania Motor Vehicle Operator Study. The Characteristics of Pennsylvania Drivers." Harrisburg: 1954. (Mimeographed.) F. NEWSPAPERS The New York Times, June—September, 1956. APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE 85 HOW MANY MILES DO YOU DRIVE! To the best of our knowledge, no one has ever ASKED our drivers how far they travel by car, and the Michigan Depart- ment of State, as in other states, would like to know. To get the facts, we are asking your cooperation by answering the questions below. we are requesting the information of persons who are renewing their driver licenses and, when the facts are assembled, we will have some very interesting figures as to how much the average Michigan driver travels in a week, during the day, at night, in the country, and in the city. We sincerely thank you for your cooperation. Lee C. Richardson, Director Driver & Vehicle Services Division Michigan Department of State ggESTIONNzggg Name Date of birth Male Married Female Single Occupation How many miles do you think you drive: During the average week miles Of the above total, how much is: During the day miles At night (when headlights are needed) miles How much of this driving is: In the country miles In the city (within the city limits) miles Please leave this with the examiner who will forward it to Lansing. APPENDIX B LETTER TO SELECTED DRIVER LICENSE EXAMINING STATIONS 87 May 14, 1959 To the Principals of 26 Selected Driver License Examining Stations: As an important step in a continuing study of the habits of motor vehicle drivers which is being made in Michigan and in other large states, we are requesting your assistance. It is important that we know, from the drivers' own state— ments, just how much they drive each week, during the day, at night, in the rural areas, and in cities, and we know of no way we can better obtain the figures than at the examin- ing station at time of renewal of their licenses. Therefore, it will be very much appreciated if you will give each applicant for renewal a questionnaire and ask him if he will be good enough to fill out same and return it to you for forwarding to me. Please impress upon the licensee that it is to be on a voluntary basis only. Yours very truly, Lee C. Richardson Director - Driver & Vehicle Services LCR:dm APPENDIX C TABLES OF MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATION MILEAGE FOR MICHIGAN DRIVERS 89 O0.0NH OHH OOH O0.0NN OOH OHH H0.00 OO HOH O0.00H OOH OOH O0.00N OON OOH OO O0.00H OOH OOH H0.0NN OOH NHH O0.0HH OO OOH OH.HHN OOH OOH O0.00N OHN OON OO HO.HNH ONH OOH OO.HON OOH OHH OH.NOH OO NOH OO.HON OOH OOH OO.HON ONN NON NO O0.0HN OOH HOH O0.00N OOH OOH OH.OOH OO OOH OH.OON NOH OOH O0.0HO OON OOH HO OO.NOH OHH OOH ON.OHN OOH OO N0.00 OO ONH O0.00N NOH OOH O0.00N OHN OOH OO O0.00H OOH OOH H0.00H OOH OO OO.NO OO HNH O0.00H OOH OOH ON.ONN ONN HOH ON O0.0NH OOH OOH OH.OOH OOH OO O0.00H OO OHH O0.00H HOH OOH O0.00N NON OOH ON ON.OOH HNH OOH O0.00H OHH HHH OH.OO HO OOH OH.OOH OOH OOH NO.NON OON OOH ON O0.00H OOH OOH OO.NOO NON OO O0.00N OOH OHH O0.0NN OOH OOH OH.OON OON NOH ON HH.OOH NOH OOH NN.HNN OOH OO O0.00 OO OO O0.00N OON OHH NH.OON OON HNH ON N0.0NH NHH ONH O0.00H OOH HO N0.00 OO HOH OH.OOH OOH ONH OO.NHN OOH OOH ON ON.OOH OHH OOH OO.HOH OO OOH ON.NO OO OOH OH.NOH ONH OOH N0.00H OOH OOH ON O0.00H ONH OOH O0.00N OOH OO OO.NOH OO OO O0.00H OOH OOH O0.00N OON OHH NN O0.0NH NOH OO O0.00H OOH OO OO.HO OO OO H0.00N ONH OO O0.00N OOH OO HN ON.OO OO HO O0.0NH OO OO O0.00 OO OO ON.OOH HOH OO O0.00H OOH OO ON O0.00 HO OOH N0.00H OO ONH O0.00 OO OOH O0.00 NO OOH OO.NOH OOH OON OH OO.HOH NOH OH O0.00 ONH OH H0.00 OOH OH OH.OOH OOH OH H0.00H OON OH OH O0.0H ON O O0.00 OO O O0.00 HO O OH.OH ON O OH.OO HO O OH 9m 2 2 9O 2 2 9O 2 2 9O 2 2 9O 2 Z OHHU Ouucsou OEHHHQOHZ OEHHOOO OOOOHHS mmfl cH cm>HHQ OOHHS OcHHsn cw>HHQ mmHHE 9H9m03 O.HO>HH9 m99>H99 2¢0H90HE 99¢ 909 90¢99HS 20HB¢H>99 99¢92¢Bm 92¢ 2¢92 90 9Hm¢B ¢ HHH9 999¢B 9O OO.HOH OOH OO O0.00H OOH OO O0.00 OO OO H0.00H HOH OO O0.0HN HON OO OO OO.HOH OOH OO N0.00N OOH OO OO.HHN NOH OO OO.NNN OOH OO O0.00N OON HOH NO OH.OON OOH OO O0.00H ONH OO O0.00 OO NO O0.00N OOH OO OH.OON NHN OOH HO O0.000 OOH OOH OH.OOH OHH OO OH.OO OO OO OH.OOH HOH NOH HN.HOO OON NHH OO O0.00H OOH OO HH.OON OOH OO N0.00 HO OO OO.NON OON OO OO.NON HON OO OO O0.0NH ONH OOH H0.00N OOH OO OH.OOH OO HO O0.00N HOH OHH N0.0NO OON ONH OO O0.00H ONH OOH O0.00H OOH OO OO.NO OO OO OO.HOH NOH OHH O0.00N OHN HNH OO O0.00H OOH NO H0.000 OOH OO NH.NOH OOH OO O0.00H OOH OO OO.HOO OON OO OO O0.00H OHH OHH O0.00N OOH NO NO.NOH OOH HO OO.NOH OOH OOH N0.00N OON ONH OO NH.NHH HNH HOH O0.00H OOH OO OO.HO OO OHH O0.00H HOH OOH ON.OOH HON OOH OO O0.00H HOH OOH OO.NNO HON OO O0.00H NOH OHH H0.00H NOH HOH O0.0HO OON OOH OO O0.0NH OOH HOH OO.NNN OOH OHH HH.OO OO OHH OO.NOH OOH OOH O0.00N NON OOH NO O0.00H OOH OOH O0.00H OOH HOH OH.OO NO OOH ON.OOH OOH OOH O0.00N ONN OOH HO OO.NOH OHH NOH O0.00H OOH OO O0.00 OO OHH OO.NOH OOH OOH O0.00H OON OOH OO ON.OOH OOH OOH O0.00H OOH ONH OO.HOH OO NOH O0.00H OOH OOH O0.00N OON OOH OO O0.00H HOH OOH O0.00N OOH OO O0.00H NOH ONH O0.00N OOH OOH OH.ONO OON OOH OO O0.00H NHH OOH O0.00H NOH OOH OH.OO OO OOH OH.NOH OOH NOH H0.00H HOH OOH OO O0.00H OOH OOH OH.OON OOH NOH H0.00H OO OHH O0.00H OOH OOH O0.00N OON OOH OO O0.00H OOH NOH OOHOOH OOH OO NNHONH OO OOH ONWOHN OOH OOH OOWOHO OON OOH OO 9m 2 2 9m 2 2 9m 2 2 9m 2 2 9m 2 2 OHHU Ouucsou OEHHHHOHZ - OEHHOOQ wOmeHZ OOO - CH cw>HHQ mmHHz OcHHsn cm>Hun meHE OHMOOS m.um>HHQ GOSCHHGOU II . 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