ifl-gn ~- 3 '3 ‘ 5311309954 '- ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE 0N SENSORY AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CAKES AND BISCUITS By KaTherine Lee Duffendack Brys Three levels of microcrysTalline cellulose (MCC) were subsTiTuTed for flour in cakes and biscuiTs To lower The caloric densiTy of These producTs. The physical properTies and sensory characTerisTics of These producTs were compared wiTh conTrol producTs conTaining no MCC To deTer- mine The maximum level of MCC subsTiTuTion which would produce an accep- Table producT. FuncTional properTies of The flour-MCC mixTures were also TesTed using a farinograph and Visco-amylo-Graph. Farinograph sTudies showed ThaT The mixing sTabiIiTy was drasTically reduced for dough wiTh more Than 20% MCC subsTiTuTion. SubsTiTuTion of MCC for flour greale decreased slurry viscosiTy, however, sysTems con- Taining MCC and flour had greaTer viscosiTy Than Those wiTh an equivalenT amounT of flour alone. The lower mixing sTabiIiTy of The dough produced biscuiTs of lower qualiTy: drier, Tougher, and less flavorful. MCC subsTiTuTion did noT significanle change The pounds of force required To shear a gram of biscuiT. However, greaTer force was required To compress The biscuiTs conTaining 50% MCC subsTiTuTion Than had been required for biscuiTs wiTh 20 or 40% MCC subsTiTuTion. BiscuiTs wiTh increasing levels of MCC subsTiTuTion had progressively lower volume measuremenTs and crusT brownness. Sensory evaluaTion daTa was highesT for cakes conTaining 20% MCC subsTiTuTion. Cakes wiTh 0 or 40% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour were scored sligthy lower Than cakes wiTh 20% MCC subsTiTuTion. Cakes wiTh 60% MCC subsTiTuTion had scores significanle lower Than all oTher cakes. Physical TesTs indicaTed ThaT moisTness, Tenderness, and com- pacTness of cakes increased wiTh concurrenT increase of MCC. The cake sysTem could ToleraTe a greaTer proporTion of MCC subsTiTu— Tion for flour Than The biscuiT sysTem in This research To maximize caloric reducTion. SubsTiTuTion of 20% MCC for flour even improved The qualiTy of The lean cake formula, since The waTer-binding capaciTy of MCC increased The moisTure conTenT. SubsTiTuTion of 40% MCC for flour in The cakes and 20% MCC for flour in The biscuiTs produced producTs which were of good qualiTy and had 20 and 10% fewer calories respecTively. Higher subsTiTuTion levels had fewer calories, buT were less accepTable and of poorer qualiTy. THE EFFECT OF MICROCRYSTALLINE CELLULOSE ON SENSORY AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CAKES AND BISCUITS by KaTherine Lee Duffendack Brys A THESIS SubmiTTed To Michigan STaTe UniversiTy in parTial fulfillmenT of The requiremenTs for The degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE DeparTmenT of Food Science and Human NuTriTion I974 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The helpful suggesTions of Assoc. Prof. M. E. Zabik during The research and preparaTion of The Thesis are parTicularly appreciaTed. AppreciaTion is expressed To FMC CorporaTion, Marcus Hook, Pennsyl- vania; The STauffer Chemical Company, WesTporT, ConnecTicuT; and The Paniplus Company, Kansas CiTy, Missouri, for providing cerTain ingredienTs used in This sTudy. TABLE OF CONTENTS LisT of Tables . . LisT of Figures . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . MicrocrysTalline Cellulose. FuncTional PrOperTies of Flour FuncTion of Cake IngredienTs . FuncTion of BiscuiT IngredienTs . EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. Cake PreparaTion . . . . . . . BiscuiT PreparaTion . . . . . Objechve MeasuremenTs of Cakes and BiscuiTs. Specific GraviTy ViscosiTy. Baking Losses Volume. . . . . Shear and Compression DeTerminaTion . Color DeTerminaTion MoisTure DeTerminaTion Sensory EvaluaTion Cakes . . . . . BiscuiTs . Slurry ViscosiTy STudies . vii 10 13 13 15 17 17 19 19 20 20 21 21 21 22 22 Dough ConsisTancy STaTisTical Analysis RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Slurry ViscosiTy STudies . Dough ConsisTency . . . . Cake SysTem Sensory EvaluaTion of Cakes BaTTer CharacTerisTics . Volume lndices. . . . MoisTure and Tenderness of Cakes Cake Color . . . . . FuncTionaliTy of MCC in Cake SysTems Calorie ConTenT of Cakes BiscuiT SysTem . . Sensory EvaluaTion of BiscuiTs Volume, MoisTure and Tenderness of BiscuiTs . Color of BiscuiTs. Calorie ConTenT of BiscuiTs SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . APPENDIX . LITERATURE CITED 23 24 25 25 3O 31 33 34 36 38 42 42 45 47 47 50 55 55 60 64 65 67 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. LIST OF TABLES Cake Formulas BiscuiT Formulas ComposiTion of Slurries for Visco-amylo-Graph. ComposiTion of Dough for Farinograph TesTs. The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Farinogram ParameTers Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on The Sensory EvaluaTion of Cakes . . . . . . . . The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for Flour on Sensory EvaluaTion of Cakes1 . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on The BaTTer ViscosiTy and Specific GraviTy of Cakes. . . . The EffecT of SubsTiTuTing MCC for Flour on BaTTer ViscosiTy and Specific GraviTy of Cakes1 . Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on Cake Volume, SymmeTry, UniformiTy, and Shrinkage lndices The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Cake Volume, SymmeTry, UniformiTy, and Shrinkage lndicesI . . . . Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on Baking Losses, moisTure and Tenderness of Cakes . . . . . . The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Baking Losses, MoisTure and Tenderness of Cakes]. . . . . . Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on Crumb and CrusT Color MeasuremenTs of Cake . . . Color MeasuremenTs of Cakes prepared wiTh MCC SubsTiTuTion for Flour1 . I4 16 23 24 31 32 33 34 35 37 38 39 4O 43 44 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Caloric DensiTy of Cakes. . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on Sensory EvaluaTion of BiscuiTs The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Sensory EvaluaTion of BiscuiTsI . . . . . Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on Baking Losses, MoisTure ConTenT, Volume, and Tenderness of BiscuiTs The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Baking Losses, MoisTure ConTenT, Volume and Tenderness of BiscuiTs1 Analysis of Variance for DeTermining The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion for parT of The Flour on Crumb and CrusT MeasuremenTs of BiscuiTs. . . . . . . . . Color MeasuremenTs of BiscuiTs prepared wiTh MCC SubsTiTuTion for Flour] . . . . . . . Caloric DensiTy of BiscuiTs. . . . . . . vi 46 48 49 51 52 56 57 58 LIST OF FIGURES Scheme for Sampling Layer Cakes for Color, Compression, for Shear TesTs . . . . . Visco-amylo-Graph of a ConTrol Flour and WaTer Slurry (25% Flour) Visco-amylo-Graph for Slurries Modified To ConTain 80% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 20% MCC SubsTiTuTion . . . . . . . . . . . . . Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 60% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 40% MCC SubsTiTuTion . Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 40% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 60% MCC SubsTiTuTion . Score SheeT Used To EvaluaTe The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on ShorTened Cakes. . . Score SheeT Used To EvaluaTe The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on BiscuiTs . . . . . . vii 29 29 65 66 INTRODUCTION ObesiTy is a major healTh problem in The UniTed STaTes. Using in- surance sTaTisTics, Wagner (1970) esTimaTed ThaT 30% of The men and 40% of The women are 20% or more over Their respecTive desired weighTs. In 1972, Finberg reporTed ThaT 60% of The U. S. AdulT populaTion were over- weighT. AlThough half of These people were concerned wiTh Their weighT, only 20% were guarding againsT furTher gain and 10% were acTually dieTing To reduce Their weighT. DieTing regimes can be found quiTe frequenle in women's and oTher lay magazines. Group encouragemenT Through organi- zaTions such as "WeighT WaTchers" and TOPS (Take Off Pounds Sensibly) may provide moTivaTion To aid an individual's weighT reducTion program (Wagner, 1970). Calorie resTricTed dieTs may noT be successful as They do noT have eiTher The volume or The saTieTy value of a higher calorie dieT (Lee e1_ 91,, 1969). Pleasures associaTed wiTh eaTing musT be ignored if low calorie dieTs are To be effecTive (Wagner, 1970). The inclusion of micro- crysTalline cellulose (MCC) may aid in producing more accepTable low- calorie foods by adding volume To food while reducing caloric densiTy and by giving a feeling of fullness due To The waTer-binding capaciTy of MCC (Lee §I_§i,, 1969; Finberg, 1972). DieT foods reduce The caloric conTenT of The dieT. DieT sofT drinks, sugar subsTiTuTes and foods which conTain Them, are regaining populariTy (EngsTrom, 1974). These dieT foods are similar in qualiTy characTerisTics To a sTandard producT buT lower in calories. The food indusTry is also increasing iTs use of cellulose 1 2 derivaTives To serve as emulsifiers, sTabilizers, Thickeners, moisTure reTainers, and mechanical foamers in food sysTems and parTicularly in dieT-Type foods (Glicksman, 1969; Trauberman, 1961; Finberg, 1972). DiverTiculosis, ulceraTive coliTis, colonic cancer, gall bladder disorders, hiaTus hernias, non-infecTive diseases of The bowel, aTher- osclerosis and oTher diseases have been linked To insufficienT dieTary fiber consumpTion in economically developed counTries. (PainTer and BurkiTT, 1971; Harvey §:_§i,, 1973). lngesTion of dieTs low in dieTary fiber is usually accompanied by over consumpTion of refined carbohydraTes which when decomposed in The inTesTines by Escherichia coli and oTher organisms, can irriTaTe The guT and resulT in non-specific diarrhea (Cleave, 1973; Harvey §I_§i,, 1973). Over consumpTion of refined carbo- hydraTes and iTs resulTanT bacTerial acTion decreases The Time iT Takes The foods To pass Through The inTesTine in diarrhea paTienTs (Cleave, 1973; Harvey §i_§l,, 1973). WiTh consTipaTion The TransiT Time is increased which causes a drier feces due To more waTer absorpTion by The inTesTine. This resulTs in a larger volume of feces which causes pressure and a wider diameTer colon which segemenTs less effecTiver. This colon is more suscepTable To diverTiculosis (PainTer and BurkiTT, 1971). Increased bulk in The dieT is prescribed because of iTs IaxaTive effecT, Therefore, reducing The TransiT Time of food Through The inTesTine. The reduced TransiT Time reduces The Time ThaT waTer can be absorbed by The colon, making The feces sofTer and Thus reducing The pressure (PainTer and BurkiTT, 1971; Harvey ei_§i,, 1973). Sudaravalli and coworkers (1973) ciTed earlier sTudies which showed ThaT The use of MCC caused a decrease in nuTrienT absorpTion and increased weighT loss. Sudaravalli and coworkers (1973) sTudied The incorporaTion 3 of 25% MCC in resTricTed calorie dieTs of obese raTs aTTempTing To de- crease The TransiT Time. The low calorie dieT wiTh MCC caused greaTer weighT loss Than The calorie resTricTed dieTs wiThouT MCC. No deleTerious effecT on niTrogen balance accompanied This weighT loss. lncorporaTion of MCC in foods may be beneficial because iT does noT conTribuTe calories buT does add dieTary fiber. Because of Their high caloric conTenT baked producTs are ofTen excluded from reducing dieTs. SubsTiTuTion of MCC for parT of The flour may reduce The caloric densiTy of cakes and biscuiTs so ThaT They could be included for occasional con- sumpTion on reducing dieTs, Thus increasing The saTieTy value of The dieT. The more palaTable The dieT The more likely an individual will follow a reducing regime. This sTudy evaluaTed The effecT of MCC subsTiTuTion for parT of The flour on The sensory and physical CharacTerisTics of cakes and biscuiTs. TasTe panelisTs evaluaTed The producTs for Tenderness, TexTure, moisT- ness, color and flavor. Physical TesTs included shear press deTermina- Tion for Tenderness and compressabiliTy, moisTure conTenT, color, and volume. MCC was subsTiTuTed To reducT The caloric conTenT of cakes and biscuiTs. The primary objecTive was To deTermine The level of MCC sub— sTiTuTion which would provide a good qualiTy producT wiTh maximum caloric reducTion. REVIEW OF LITERATURE In order To undersTand The feasibiliTy of incorporaTing MCC in baked producTs, The producTion, chemical properTies, and food uses of MCC will be reviewed. Since MCC is being subsTiTuTed for The flour in cakes and biscuiTs, The role of flour in cake and biscuiT sysTems as well as The funcTion of oTher ingredienTs in These sysTems will be reviewed. MicrocrysTalline Cellulose Cellulose is a polymer of glucose connecTed by/31-4 glucosidic bonds. The polymers are laid down naTurally in crysTal line areas which vary in size and are held in laTeral associaTions by hydrogen bonds, which are resisTanT To chemical re-agenTs. BeTween crysTalline areas are non-crysTalline areas which are hydrolyzable by acids and enzymes (Glicksman, 1969). Alpha cellulose is obTained by acid hydrolysis of fibrous planT maTerials, such as coTTon IinTers and wood pulp. Acid hydrolysis occurs aT The amorphous area. Refining of The alpha cellulose removes any im- purlTies and The remaining acid-insoluble, crysTalline residue is desig- naTed microcrysTaIline cellulose (MCC). MCC is characTerized by uniformiTy of lengThs of The consTiTuenT chains of The aggregaTes, which have a normal range of degree of polymerizaTion of 15 To 375 anhydroglucose uniTs. MCC is a fine, whiTe, odorless, crysTalline powder, which is edible yeT non-nuTriTive (BaTTisTa, 1962; Food Chemical Codex, 1971; Trauberman, 1961). 5 MicrocrysTalline cellulose has excellenT waTer absorpTive proper- Ties so ThaT formulaTions conTaining MCC can form sTable gels and firm gels wiTh 20% and 35% cellulose solids respecTively. The uses of cel- lulose concenTraTions lower Than 20% solids yields creamy colloidal suspensions. Microscopic fissures and holes in The crysTals of The dry parTicles conTribuTe To MCC's absorpTive properTies. Trauberman (1962) sTaTed ThaT These absorpTive abiliTies make The use of MCC excellenT for converTing oil-based foods and syrups inTo free-flowing granular powders. The food indusTry uses MCC To improve The qualiTy of a varieTy of food producTs. lncorporaTion of MCC in low—solids TomaTo sauce increases iTs coaTing abiliTy and makes The sauce more resisTanT To serum separa- Tion. MCC can also sTabilize and increase The body of oTher TomaTo prod- ucTs and foods conTaining These TomaTo producTs (Anon., 1970). Frozen desserTs and ice milks use MCC To reduce The formaTion of ice crysTals, To give superior dimensional sTabiIiTy and To aid in conTrolling The in- corporaTion of air inTo These producTs. OTher uses of MCC for sTabiIiTy are in salad dressings, canned salads, whipped Toppings, and non-dairy cream subsTiTuTes (Glicksman, 1969). MCC dispersed in a gel or in The dry form, which absorbs oil—based foods, can be incorporaTed inTo foods To reduce The caloric densiTy of The foods wiThouT impairing a producT's TasTe, TexTure, or appearance. MCC funcTions as a builT-in calorie conTrol mechanism when incorporaTed in foods (Anon., 1962). Many suggesTed uses for MCC are available, buT acTual uses in The reduced calorie foods have been limiTed. Lee and co- workers (1969) sTudied The effecT of MCC incorporaTions in muffins, cookies, and mashed poTaToes. Levels of MCC subsTiTuTion for flour were 0, 24, 40, and 53% for muffins and 0, 45, 67, and 100% for cookies. As.~ The MCC conTenT increased, There was a decrease in appearance, TexTure and 6 flavor scores. The percenTage moisTure of The baked producTs increased, buT sensory evaluaTion indicaTed These producTs were dry. All levels of subsTiTuTion were considered edible by The TasTe panel. In a follow-up sTudy, using boTh a normal-weighT and an obese TasTe panel, TesTing The same Types of cookies and mashed poTaToes, buT brownies insTead of muf- fins (PraTT §I_§i,, 1971), The obese panelisTs scored The foods conTain- ing MCC similarly To The non-obese panelisTs. FuncTional ProperTies of Flour WheaT flour provides Two major componenTs for The sTrucTure of baked producTs, sTarch and proTein. The principle proTein which is responsible for sTrucTure in baked producTs is gluTen, which is formed by The inTer- acTion of gluTenin and gliadin, proTeins of flour. Binding of gluTenin and gliadin is affecTed by The amino acid side chains of The proTeins; disulfide bonds of cysTine, hydrophobic binding of leucine, hydrogen bond- ing conTribuTed by The free amides of asparagine, gluTamine, and salT bridges beTween lysine and gluTamic acid residue. These proTein inTerac- Tions are responsible for The cohesive, elasTic, Three-dimensional gluTen neTwork (Paul and Palmer, 1972). The effecTs of gluTen, waTer-soluble proTeins, sTarch, and Tailings on cake qualiTy have been sTudied by frac- TionaTing and inTerchanging These componenTs (Donelson and Wilson, 1960; Baldi §I_al,, 1965). GluTen and waTer-soluble proTeins provide a neTwork which reTains air and carbon dioxide during early sTages of baking. As The proTein quanTiTy and qualify is increased, a sTronger neTwork is formed resulTing in more cohesive, exTensible doughs (Donelson and Wilson, 1960; Baldi e: l., 1965). ProTein sTaining has been used To show The disTribuTion of proTeins in The flour in relaTion To The ToTal proTein conTenT (Baldi §I_ 7 al,, 1965). The proTein was found To be disTribuTed in very Thin films which were conTinuous and inTermeshed wiTh denser areas of proTein. As The proTein conTenT of The flour was increased The proTein neTworks became larger, denser, and more numerous. The sTarch granules were enmeshed in The dense proTein areas (Baldi ei_ai,, 1965). Tailings are composed of waTer insoluble hemicelluloses, from The cell walls of The endosperm. These hemicelluloses are very hygroscopic and affecT The qualiTy of baked goods. Small amounTs of Tailings incor-' poraTed inTo doughs yielded sofT dough which lacked elasTiciTy (Baldi §i_ ai,, 1965). Cake volume is largely dependenT on The sTrucTural maTrix of proTein inTermeshed wiTh sTarch, buT is also affecTed by The propor- Tion and inTeracTion of sTarch and Tailings. Tailings inTerfere wiTh sTarch-sTarch binding Thus incorporaTion of Tailings produces a cake wiTh a finer TexTure (Baldi ei_§i,, 1965). STarch presenT in granules absorbs available moisTure. lnTermolecu- lar bonding beTween hydrophilic groups of The long chain sTarch molecules conTribuTe To sTabiIiTy of The sTarch granules. As a sTarch suspension is heaTed The associaTive forces among The sTarch molecules in The inTacT granule are disrupTed, The sTarch molecules hydraTe and finally become ge- laTinized. The hydraTion of The sTarch molecules causes swelling of The granules which Then allows Them To aggregaTe and increase The viscosiTy of The suspension (Schoch, 1941; Jongh, 1961; Shellenberger ei_§i,, 1966). Round sTarch granules elecTrosTaTicaIly bonded To The_gluTen gel layer as a conTinuous phase, form The sTrucTural neTwork for baked producTs. During baking The sTarch draws moisTure from The gluTen, providing a semi- rigid film surrounding The sTarch granules (SandsTed, 1961; Jongh, 196i; Baldi T l., 1965). Crumb properTies are deTermined by The degree of sTarch gelaTinizaTion as well as by The qualiTy and quanTiTy of gluTen, 8 waTer soluble proTeins and Tailings. The effecT of sTarch gelaTinizaTion is independenT of The oTher facTors (Jongh, 1961; Donelson and Wilson, 1960; Baldi ei_al,, 1965). Gas released inTo The air cells expands dur- ing baking and is enTrapped by The proTein neTwork which expands and rupTures wiThouT collapsing. The adherence abiliTy of The sTarch granule surface is also imporTanT (SandsTed, 1961). FuncTion of Cake IngredienTs ShorTened cakes rely primarily on shorTening for air incorporaTion. Carbon dioxide produced from baking powder or soda and acid reacTions is used To expand These air cells and hence expand The volume. 0Ther basic ingredienTs are sugar, milk, whole eggs or egg whiTes, and flavoring. AeraTion of a plasTic shorTening and The baTTer is imporTanT in The qualiTy of layer cakes. The air cells formed during early mixing of The baTTer provide The cells for enTrapping leavening gases and wafer vapor formed during baking. More numerous and smaller air cells in The baTTer yield a finer TexTured cake (Handleman §i_§l,, 1961; Carlin, 1941; Kim and De RuiTer, 1968). Emulsifiers added To plasTic shorTening im- prove air incorporaTion and emulsificaTion of The baTTer. During The mixing and early baking period, The air cells which have been incorporaTed are sTabilized by The emulsifiers (WooTTon §I_§l,, 1967). PolysorbaTe 60 added wiTh emulsifiers in bread yields a drier dough by funcTioning To bind waTer molecules and by compeTing wiTh The flour for The moisTure. PolysorbaTe 60 also combines wiTh amylose To form insoluble complexes which increase viscosiTy of The baTTer (Langhans and Thalheimer, 1971). Purposes of sugar in baked producTs include sweeTening and moisTure reTenTion. Tailings and sugar inTeracT To affecT baTTer and cake sTrucTure (Baldi 21 al., 1965). BaxTer and HesTer (1958) indicaTed ThaT sugar has a 9 Tenderizing effecT by inTerfering wiTh gluTen developmenT. This occurs primarily Through compeTiTion of The gluTen and sugar for waTer. Sugar also has an inhibiTive effecT on heaT coagulaTion of gluTen proTeins. As The amounT of sugar is increased more sTress is placed on The proTein sTrucTure. Milk and eggs are The sources of liquid normally found in cake sys- Tems. The amounT of These ingredienTs affecTs The cake conTour and oTher qualiTy characTerisTics. Liquid funcTions To dissolve sugar and provide moisTure for sTarch gelaTinizaTion. The lean formula cake, developed by Kissell eliminaTing eggs and milk, has been used To sTudy The funcTion of ingredienTs (Wilson and Donelson, 1963; Miller and Trimbo, 1965). The quanTiTy of liquid required varies wiTh The proporTion of in- , gredienTs. Flours vary in Tolerance To differenT liquid levels (Miller and Trimbo, 1965). The sorpTive capaciTy of sofT wheaT flour decreases wiTh increasing proTein conTenT (Gur-Arieh ei_gi,, 1967). The defecTs in cakes which occur because of improper moisTure levels are sunken cenTers due To insufficienT liquid or peaked cake due To excess liquid (Wilson and Donelson, 1963; Miller and Trimbo, 1965). lnsufficienT waTer wiTh high concenTraTions of sugar depresses The gelaTinizaTion of The sTarch which produces a dry, coarse, granular crumb. However, if more liquid is pro- vided Than ThaT required To saTisfy The sTronger hydrophilic ingredienTs, The remaining waTer is available for excessive sTarch gelaTinizaTion, which yields a crumb which has cerTain gel-like CharacTerisTics (Miller and Trimbo, 1965; Wilson and Donelson, 1963). Cake formulas which include milk and eggs have a higher liquid requiremenT Than Kissell's lean cake formula due To The addiTional waTer—binding capaciTy of milk solids and ,egg albumin. A balanced cake formula musT supply sufficienT liquid To 9 Tenderizing effecT by inTerfering wiTh gluTen developmenT. This occurs primarily Through compeTiTion of The gluTen and sugar for waTer. Sugar also has an inhibiTive effecT on heaT coagulaTion of gluTen proTeins. As The amounT of sugar is increased more sTress is placed on The proTein sTrucTure. Milk and eggs are The sources of liquid normally found in cake sys- Tems. The amounT of These ingredienTs affecTs The cake conTour and oTher qualiTy characTerisTics. Liquid funcTions To dissolve sugar and provide moisTure for sTarch gelaTinizaTion. The lean formula cake, developed by Kissell eliminaTing eggs and milk, has been used To sTudy The funcTion of ingredienTs (Wilson and Donelson, 1963; Miller and Trimbo, 1965). The quanTiTy of liquid required varies wiTh The proporTion of in- gredienTs. Flours vary in Tolerance To differenT liquid levels (Miller and Trimbo, 1965). The sorpTive capaciTy of sofT wheaT flour decreases wiTh increasing proTein conTenT (Gur-Arieh §I_§l,, 1967). The defecTs in cakes which occur because of improper moisTure levels are sunken cenTers due To insufficienT liquid or peaked cake due To excess liquid (Wilson and Donelson, 1963; Miller and Trimbo, 1965). lnsufficienT waTer wiTh high concenTraTions of sugar depresses The gelaTinizaTion of The sTarch which produces a dry, coarse, granular crumb. However, if more liquid is pro— vided Than ThaT required To saTisfy The sTronger hydrophilic ingredienTs, The remaining waTer is available for excessive sTarch gelaTinizaTion, which yields a crumb which has cerTain gel-like CharacTerisTics (Miller and Trimbo, 1965; Wilson and Donelson, 1963). Cake formulas which include milk and eggs have a higher liquid requiremenT Than Kissell's lean cake formula due To The addiTional waTer-binding capaciTy of milk solids and egg albumin. A balanced cake formula musT supply sufficienT liquid To 10 provide waTer for boTh sTarch gelaTinizaTion and waTer for hydrogen bond- ing of The hydrophillic ingredienTs such as sugar and proTein. Milk and egg proTeins acT as sTrucTural agenTs in The cell walls. They also aid in Trapping gases AgeneraTed in The leavening process, and acT as buffers which limiT and moderaTe The overall response of flour To liquid. These ingredienTs also minimize flour differences yielding a more uniform producT wiTh greaTer Tolerance To errors (Wilson and Donelson, 1963; Berger, 1970). STabiIizaTion of The baTTer, which relies on several facTors, is imporTanT during early sTages of baking and Thermal seTTing. PolyvalenT caTions aid in keeping The shorTening and aqueous phases from separaTing; They also help To reTain leavening gases. Foaming properTies of soluble proTeins sTabilize The fluid baTTer during early baking. Emulsifiers funcTion To aid in air incorporaTion and hold The air in by forming a plasTic-like membrane aT The shorTening—waTer inTerface. Emulsifiers also prevenT The shorTening from inhibiTing The foaming properTies of soluble proTeins during mixing (Howard §:_§l,, 1968). During baking The emulsified baTTer Thermally seTs forming a rigid, porous expanded sTrucTure. As The TemperaTure of The baTTer rises several changes Take place. The faT melTs releasing The air incorporaTed inTo The viscous emulsion Thickened by sTarch gelaTinizaTion and proTein coagulaTion. During baking The waTer is absorbed by sTarch, proTeins, and sugar; however, sTarch absorbs The major porTion of The waTer allowing The final porous sTrucTure To be formed (Howard, ei_gi,, 1968). FuncTion of BiscuiT IngredienTs BiscuiTs are a simpler sysTem which rely on flour, faT, and liquid for sTrucTure and qualiTy. Desirable biscuiTs have a large volume and 11 flakey TexTure. Flakiness in biscuiTs is The resulT of sheeTs of gluTen which have been separaTed by sTeam. The gluTen layers are developed by manipulaTion of The dough afTer The liquid is added. FaT funcTions by compeTing for The surface of The flour wiTh The liquid of The sysTem. The waTer inTeracTs wiTh flour proTeins To creaTe a gluTen neTwork. HydrogenaTed faTs wiTh beTa prime crysTals cover a large furface area and Thus are good shorTening agenTs. The coaTing of The flour parTicles wiTh faT inTerrust The gluTen neTwork which is more imporTanT in biscuiT qualiTy Than sTarch gelaTinizaTion. As The faT conTenT increases The biscuiTs become more Tender. A faT wiTh a low specific graviTy is desir- able for shorTening biscuiTs, while a faT wiTh a high specific graviTy is beTTer for oTher pasTries (MaTThews and Dawson, 1963; Berger, 1970; Griswold, 1962; Paul and Palmer, 1972). Flour exhibiTs a sTrong affiniTy for faT. The oil finding capaciTy of The flour increases as The proTein conTenT increases. Aged and bleached sofT wheaT flours bind enough oil To form a gel-like proTein-oil- waTer complex wiTh a low specific graviTy. Freshly milled and unbleached flours do noT have This same oil binding capaciTy as aged or bleached I., 1963). flours (Shuey §I_ Fine, even crumb is desirable in biscuiTs, buT volume developmenT should noT be aT The expense of The evenness of The grain. Proper manipu- laTion is necessary To develop The desired amounT of gluTen. FaT, by breaking up some of The conTinuiTy of The sTarch and gluTen neTwork, weakens The dough sTrucTure. The faT is spread inTo Thin parallel layers. MoisTure conTenT is imporTanT in developing The flakiness which is produced during baking when The sTeam which is formed separaTes The layers along The naTural lines of cleavage formed by The faT. A more Tender pasTry may be produced by using oil insTead of plasTic shorTening, buT The producT may be crumbly 12 and greasy. In The dough of a pasTry, The relaTively dry gluTen and sTarch compacT during baking inTo a hard refracTory mass (MaTTil, 1964; Hirahara and Simpson, 1961; Griswold, 1961). EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Cakes and biscuiTs were prepared conTaining microcrysTaIline cellulose which was subsTiTuTed for flour on a volume basis. To deTer- mine The equivalenT weighT of MCC and an equal volume of flour, boTh were weighed 25 Times during preliminary experimenTaTion. Thus, iT was deTermined ThaT The volume of 10 gm of flour was equal To The volume of 6.gm of MCC. ExTra waTer equivalenT To 41% of The weighT of MCC used was added To cakes and biscuiTs conTaining MCC, To compensaTe for The increased waTerholding capaciTy of MCC (Lee §I_gl,, 1969). The ingredienTs used for each sysTem were from common loTs and The dry ingredienTs were weighed for all five replicaTions of each series be- fore baking was sTarTed. The milk was reconsTiTuTed on The day iT was used. Cake PreparaTion To maximize caloric reducTion, a lean cake formula was selecTed and is presenTed in Table 1. This cake formula was Then modified To conTain 0, 20, 40, and 60% MCC subsTiTuTion (volume basis). Cake baTTers were prepared using a KiTchen Aid mixer, model K5-A, wiTh a roTary speed of 2.3 Times The planar speed for which rpm is reporTed. The shorTening and emulsifier were creamed for one minuTe aT a speed seTTing of 8 (220 rpm). All The sugar was Then added and creamed for 15 seconds aT a speed seTTing of 2 (76 rpm) afTer which The speed seTTing increased To 8 and creaming conTinued for 4.75 minuTes. The remaining dry ingredienTs were sifTed 13 14 TABLE 1. Cake Formulas Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh PercenTage of MicrocrysTalline Cellulose Flour WeighT lngredienT 'o% 20% 40% 60% 0% MCC grams Flour‘ 300 240 180 120 100 MCC2 - 36.5 73.1 109.6 - ShorTening3 75 75 75 75 25 Sugar 255 255 255 255 85 E994 120 120 120 120 40 Milk5 285 285 285 285 95 Baking Powder (SAS Double AcTing) 12 12 12 12 4 SalT - lodized 4.8 4.8 4.8 4.8 1.6 Vanilla - exTracT6 5 5 5 5 1.7 Emulsifier7 6 6 6 6 2.0 DisTilled WaTer - 15 30 45 - gAll purpose, enriched, bleached and bromaTed. Avicel PH101, FMC, Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania. 3HydrogenaTed vegeTable oil, wiTh meThyl silicone. 4Purchased on each day of baking, Grade A medium. 5ReconsTiTuTed spray dried whole milk - 128 9 dried milk + 946.4 g disTilled waTer. Measured in milliliTers. 7Panelmul 318, Paniplus Company, Kansas CiTy, Missouri. l5 TogeTher and added along wiTh The milk soluTion (milk, vanilla and exTra waTer, when appropriaTe). Mixing was conTinued for 15 seconds aT speed 1 (52 rpm) and Then for 45 seconds aT speed 4 (152rpm). The _eggs were added lasT and The baTTer was beaTen for 15 seconds aT speed 2 followed by 45 seconds aT Speed 6 (184 rpm). The bowl was scraped before The addiTion of each new ingredienT. ApproximaTely 400:10 grams of baTTer was weighed To The nearesT _ gram inTo Tared 8-imch aluminum pans, ThaT were pregreased and lined on The boTTom wiTh waxed paper. The pans were Tapped on The counTer 10 Times To dislodge large air bubbles. Two cakes were made from one baTch of baTTer per replicaTion of each variable. The cakes were baked aT 177°i6OC (3500F) for 35 minuTes in a 30-inch General ElecTric deck oven equipped wiTh a VersaTronik conTroller wiTh The grid seT on medium. AfTer The cakes had cooled for 30 minuTes To room TemperaTure They were weighed To The nearesT gram in The pans To deTermine percenTage of baking loss. They were Then removed from The pans and cooled an addi— Tional 30 minuTes before being placed in plasTic bags on paper plaTes. The ends of The bags were TwisTed, folded over, secured wiTh a rubber band and sTored for TesTing on The following day. BiscuiT PreparaTion BiscuiTs were prepared wiTh four levels of flour subsTiTuTed wiTh MCC (0, 20, 40, 50%) using a modified AACC meThod 10-31A (1969), as ouT- lined in Table 2. The dry ingredienTs were sifTed TogeTher Twice and Then mixed for 30 seconds aT Speed seTTing of 1 (52 rpm) wiTh a KiTchen Aid mixer model K5—A. The milk, oil, and exTra waTer, when appropriaTe, were shaken vigorously in an up and down moTion for 30 seconds in a sToppered 250 ml erlenmeyer flask. The liquid ingredienTs were added TABLE 2. 16 BiscuiT Formulas Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh PercenTage of MicrocrysTalline Cellulose Flour weighT IngredienTs 0% 20% 40% 50% 0% MCC grams Hour1 228 182.4 136.8 114.0 100 MCC2 - 27.4 55.6 69.5 - VegeTable 011 50.2 50.2 50.2 50.2 22 MiIk3 148.2 148.2 148.2 148 2 65 Monocalcium PhosphaTe4 3.4 3.4 3.4 3.4 1.5 Baking Soda 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.3 SalT - lodized 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 2.0 DisTilled WaTer - 11.3 22.8 28.5 - 1 2 All purpose, enriched, bleached and bromaTed. Avicel PH 101, FMC, Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania. 3ReconsTiTuTed Non FaT Dry Milk - 100 g NFDM + 900 g disTilled waTer. 4CA(H2PO4)2, STauffer Chemical Co., WesTporT, ConnecTicuT. 17 To The dry ingredienTs and mixed for 20 seconds using speed seTTing of 1. The dough was placed onTo a ligthy floured board and flaTTened by hand To approximaTely 1 inch, Then sheeTed To 3/8 inch using a NaTional ManufacTure l-pound (5-inch) Teflon coaTed sheeTing-roller. The bis— cuiTs were cuT wiTh a 5.1 cm (2-inch) diameTer circular cuTTer, placed on an ungreased cookie sheeT and baked in The 30—inch General EIecTric deck oven aT 204Oi2O C (4000 F) for 17 minuTes. The biscuiTs were cooled for 20 minuTes and sTored in a plasTic bag which had The end TwisTed, folded over and secured wiTh a rubber band. Two baTches of each subsTiTuTion level were made To prevenT loss of leavening gases which were found To occur during preliminary sTudies of The biscuiTs prepared in one large baTch. ObjecTive MeasuremenTs of Cakes and BiscuiTs BiscuiTs were evaluaTed on The day They were baked. All objecTive measuremenTs of The cakes excepT specific graviTy, baTTer viscosiTy, and baking losses were performed on The day afTer baking. Figure 1 illusTraTes The sampling procedure used To obTain cake pieces for color, shear and compression TesTs. Specific GraviTy The cake baTTer was TesTed for specific graviTy by averaging The weighT of waTer deTermined 4 Times in a meTal cup of known weighT. The waTer was poured inTo The cup and leveled by placing a piece of glass across The Top of The cup. The baTTer was poured inTo The same cup and leveled wiTh The sTraighT edge of a meTal spaTula. The weighTs of The equal volumes of cake baTTer and waTer aT room TemperaTure (240C) were compared. 1 I l l I l l I J r--_-----_- I l l l l l 1 L (:> Samples for Compression TesT [:J Samples for Shear TesT Samples for Color MeasuremenTs Figure 1. Scheme for Sampling Layer Cakes for Color, Compression, for Shear TesTs 19 ViscosiTy The viscosiTy of The cake baTTer was measured using a Brookfield Synchro-lecTric ViscomeTer, model RVT, on a helipaTh sTand, model C. A B-spindle was used and The cross piece depTh varied from approximaTely one To Two inches. The helipaTh sTand was allowed To run Through iTs ascending and descending cycle once and Then observed for one cycle. The mosT frequenT reading was used as The value in calculaTion To converT The Brookfield reading To poise. Baking Losses The percenTage of baking losses of boTh The cakes and biscuiTs were calculaTed by deTermining The weighT of The baTTer or dough, and The weighT losT during The baking and cooling periods. The following formula was used To calculaTe percenTage baking losses: PercenT Baking Loss = (weighT of baTTer or __ (weighT of cake or dough before baking) biscuiT afTer baking) welQhT of original baTTer or dough x 100 Volume The cakes were cuT in half and measured using a TemplaTe according To The AACC meThod 10-91 (1969), To obTain shrinkage value and indices for volume, symmeTry, and uniformiTy. The volume of The biscuiTs was deTermined in duplicaTe by rape seed displacemenT. The volume of a small loaf pan was deTermined by filling The pan wiTh rape seed, leveling The seeds wiTh a spaTula and Transfer- ring The seed To a graduaTed cyclinder. This procedure was repeaTed wiTh a biscuiT in The pan and The difference of The volumes obTained was used as The volume of The biscuiT. 20 Shear and Compression DeTerminaTions An Allo-Kramer shear-press aTTached To a model E2EZ-recorder was used for boTh shear and compression TesTs. A 3000 pound ring wiTh a range of 5 for The cake samples and 20 for biscuiTs, wiTh a down sTroke Time of 43.3 seconds were used for boTh TesTs. The TesTs were run in duplicaTe. A whole biscuiT of a 5.1 cm square piece of cake weighed To The nearesT 0.1 grams was sheared using The sTandard shear compression cell. The force needed To shear The sample was calculaTed as follows: ring x range x reaging Force (lb/gm) = sample weighT x 104 The Top porTion of The succulomeTer cell, 5.6 cm in diameTer was used To compress The samples To 0.93 cm. The heighTs of whole biscuiTs or cake samples cuT wiTh a 5.1 cm diameTer circular cuTTer were measured To The nearesT 0.01 cm wiTh a caliper. Because of varying heighTs of The samples The force was calculaTed per cenTimeTers compressed, using The formula: ring x range x reading Force (lb/gm compressed) = >cm of sample compressed x 104 Color DeTerminaTion The color of boTh The crusT and inTerior of The cake sample and whole biscuiTs were measured using a HunTerlab Color Difference MeTer, model 025. For cake samples The insTrumenT was sTandardized wiTh The yellow Tile (L = 83.0, a = -3.5, bL = +26.5); while The whiTe Tile (L: 94.8, a = -0.7, L L bL = +2.7) was used To sTandardize The insTrumenT for biscuiT color deTer- minaTion. A piece of cake approximaTely 2 x 3 inches was cuT from each layer cake as illusTraTed in Figure 1. This piece of cake was sliced 21 horizonTally To obTain an even surface for The inTerior color measure- menT. The samples were placed in a glass dish over The 3-inch diameTer opening and The sample and dish were covered wiTh a black can while The measuremenT was made. The biscuiTs were spliT in Two To obTain a smooTh surface for The crumb color measuremenT. MoisTure DeTerminaTions To obTain a homogeneous sample for moisTure deTerminaTion, a cenTer piece of cafe or a whole biscuiT was ground in a blender for approximaTe— ly 20 seconds, unTil Thoroughly ground. DuplicaTe samples of approxi— maTely Two grams were dried under vacuum according To AACC meThod 44-40 (1969). The dried samples were allowed To cool in a descicaTor unTil weighed. Sensory EvaluaTion Cakes One of The Two cakes of each level of MCC subsTiTuTion was used for an 11—member TasTe panel evaluaTion. Preliminary evaluaTions were run To familarize The TasTe panelisTs wiTh The score card. On each evalua- Tion day The TasTe panel members were served a piece of cake from each level of subsTiTuTion, cuT 5/8 x 2 inches and labeled wiTh random numbers. Panel members were asked To evaluaTe each sample of cake for color, Ten- derness, TexTure, moisTure, flavor, and general accepTabiliTy. A 7 poinT scale was used wiTh 7 being excellenT, 4 fair, and 1 unaccepTable. A score card (see appendix) wiTh The CharacTerisTics described aT each of The Three levels of accepTabiliTy was given each TasTe panel member. 22 BiscuiTs An eleven member TasTe panel was served half of a biscuiT of each subsTiTuTion level of MCC used. BiscuiTs were labeled wiTh random num- bers and heaTed for 15 seconds in a microwave oven (LinTon lndusTries, model 500 015). PanelisTs were Trained To evaluaTe biscuiTs for appearance, TexTure, Tenderness, moisTure, flavor, and general accepTa- biliTy using a 7 poinT scale wiTh 7 as excellenT, 4 fair, and 1 unaccep- Table. QualiTy descripTions which were given for each characTerisTic aT The Three levels of accepTabiliTy are in The Appendix. Slurry ViscosiTy STudies The effecT of The MCC on The viscosiTy of a flour slurry was deTer- mined using a Brabender Visco-amylo-graph, model VAV 1, wiTh The bowl roTaTing 8T 75 rpm. The slurries were prepared aT room TemperaTure and run for a 45 minuTe heaTing cycle, wiTh The TemperaTure rising from 250C To 92.5OC aT The raTe of 1.50C per minuTe afTer which The 92.500 Temper- aTure was mainTained for 15 minuTes. Then a conTrolled cooling cycle was run wiTh The TemperaTure decreasing 1.50C per minuTe for 45 minuTes. A 25% slurry was prepared using 100 grams of flour as The conTrol. The subsTiTuTion levels of 20, 40, and 60% MCC were prepared having The same raTio of flourzMCCzwaTer as The cake sysTems, buT were calculaTed so The ToTal weighT was 100 grams, (Table 3). A consTanT 400 grams of waTer were added To all MCC subsTiTuTion levels To make The slurry. Slurries were also prepared using The same amounT of flour and waTer as in The previous series, buT wiThouT The MCC, To sTudy The viscosiTy of The flour per se, in order To deTermine The effecT of MCC on viscosiTy. BoTh series were run in duplicaTe. 23 TABLE 3. ComposiTion of Slurries for Visco-amylo-Graph TesTs Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose lngredienT 0% 20% 40% 60% Flour .(grams) 100 82.3 63.6 43.7 MCC (grams) - 12.6 25.8 39.9 ExTra DisTilled WaTer (ml) - 5.1 10.6 16.4 DisTilled WaTer (ml 400 400 400 400 Dough ConsisTancy The sTudy of The consisTancy of The dough as affecTed by MCC was run using a Brabender Farinograph wiTh a measuring head model 3-S-300 and a dynamo-meTer Type PL211 as ouTlined by Shuey (1972). The slow speed was used wiTh The blades roTaTing aT 63 and 31.5 rpms. A consTanT 300 grams of flour mixTure (flour and MCC) were used and MCC subsTiTuTion levels of O, 20, and 30% were used To give similar raTios of flourzMCC as had been used in The biscuiT sysTem, (Table 4). Use of MCC subsTiTuTion levels higher Than 30% were noT possible since insufficienT flour remained To give a consisTency reading. The opTimum flour absorpTion levels were deTermined by Trial runs. The flour-MCC mixTure was mixed for one minuTe before The waTer was added as rapidly as possible from The bureT aTTached To The insTrumenT. When all The waTer was added The sides of The bowl were scraped wiTh a plasTic spaTula and The cover placed on The bowl. All farinograms were run for 15 minuTes. The bowl was Thoroughly cleaned and dried before The nexT run. Each subsTiTuTion level was run in TriplicaTe. 24 TABLE 4. ComposiTion of Dough for Farinograph TesTs Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose IngredienTs 0% 20% 30% Flour (grams) 300 260.4 236.9 MCC (grams) - 39.6 62.1 DisTilled WaTer (ml) 184.8 202.2 207.0 PercenT AbsorpTion 61.1 67.4 69.0 STaTisTical Analysis Mean values, sTandard deviaTions, and analysis of variance were com- puTed. Duncan's MulTiple range TesT was used To sorT ouT significanT differences revealed by analysis of variance (Duncan, 1957; Rohlf and Sokal, 1969; Sokal and Rohlf, 1969). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Slurry ViscosiTy STudies The Visco-amylo-Graph was used To deTermine The effecT of MCC subsTi- TuTion on The viscosiTy of flour slurries. STarch gelaTinizaTion is pri- marily responsible for The increase in viscosiTy ThaT occurs as a flour— waTer mixTure is heaTed (Figure 2). AlThough all unmodified sTarch slurries are suscepTible To shear effecTs causing a decrease in viscosiTy once maximum gelaTinizaTion has been reached, flour conTains amylase which rapidly degrades The highly swollen amylose molecules resulTing in The formaTion of numerous shorTer chain fragmenTs (Brown and Harrel, 1944; Magurs g: gi,, 1957). These shorTer chain fragmenTs have smaller spheric waTer aTTracTions and Thus do noT conTribuTe significanle To increasing The sysTem's viscosiTy as did The parenT molecules. Therefore, The Thin- ning of a gelaTinized flour sysTem is much greaTer Than ThaT of a wheaT sTarch sysTem alone. As The sTarch slurry cools, The viscosiTy is increased due To The hydrogen bonding in gelaTion (Magurs §i_gl,, 1957). A comparison of The amylograph curves in Figures 3, 4, and 5 wiTh ThaT in Figure 2, shows ThaT The maximum viscosiTy of The sysTems decrease subsTanTially as The amounT of MCC subsTiTuTion for flour increased. MCC subsTiTuTion has a much smaller effecT on The final viscosiTy of The slurry. NeverTheless, The daTa in Figures 3, 4, and 5 indicaTe ThaT The slurries conTaining MCC are more viscous Than The corresponding slurries wiTh only an equivalenT proporTion of flour. The iniTial rise in viscosiTy for The sysTems wiTh MCC and flour also occurred aT a sligthy lower 25 26 Figure 2. Visco-amylo—Graph of a ConTrol Flour and WaTer Slurry (25% Flour) Figure 3. Visco-amylo-Graph for Slurries Modified To ConTain 80% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 20% MCC SubsTiTuTion 27 6001 $50: 480‘ 4207 360‘ 300‘ 240‘ 180“ Viscosity (Brabender Units) I 120 ' 60 ' 0 I I I I I I I I I I 1 O 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Time (minutes) *6001 7; "54° . u ‘ ————— without MCC .E:QEO‘ D — 6 420- ,0 d 5 . .c. 3.66 ‘ cc .. ’iscosity (Br -9.ij i. D l 2 7 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Time (minutes) Figure 3. 28 Figure 4. Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 60% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 40% MCC SubsTiTuTion Figure 5. Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 40% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 60% MCC SubsTiTuTion 29 600. - .- N >540. Mlth MCC 3 ‘ ----- without NCC .4 480- : - :3 8 420: '2 o 360 ,0 m - IS 300 5‘ 240- 'H - U) 8 160- m ‘ d 17-1 .2 120. ‘ d 60- I I I I I I I I l I I 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Time (minutes) 600- 3? 540: with MCC H _-- . 'E 439- without MCC P 4 H 420' ,2 . 5 360‘ D a 2 53 3009 f? 240- .fl - U) 8 180‘ m i "-1 > 1204 I I I I 0 10 26 30 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 110 Figure 5. Time (minutes) 28 Figure 4. Visco-amylo—Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 60% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 40% MCC SubsTiTuTion Figure 5. Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 40% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 60% MCC SubsTiTuTion 29 600. u .' \7 f\ 540_ Hith MCC 3 "I ----- WithOUt MCC -H 480- G - :2 8 420: '2 o 360 ..D m ‘ E 300 5‘ 240 .H ‘ U) 8 1&0~ W ' .1 1H " 12°- 60‘ .l I I I I j r I I 7 l 1 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Time (minutes) with MCC ----- without MCC Units) Viscosity (Brabender _— ’-- -- -—-—— --- _--- - ~‘~ -~- -——--——--—- " --—---—---- -- 0 f I I l 6 16 26 36 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 110 Figure 5. Time (minutes) 28 Figure 4. Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 60% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 40% MCC SubsTiTuTion Figure 5. Visco-amylo-Graphs for Slurries modified To ConTain 40% of The Flour in The ConTrol Slurry and wiTh 60% MCC SubsTiTuTion 29 600- - w x 540. Mlth MCC 3 ‘ ----- WithOUt MCC "-1 480‘ G . :2 8 420: '8 o 360 ,D m - S 300 5‘ 240 -r-I ‘ U) 8 130' m ' 4 :H )1 yzo. 60‘ 4 7 I I T I I l I ' 1 ' 0 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 100 110 Time (minutes) with MCC ----- without MCC Units) Viscosity (Brabender -—— -- ——- —- — _— -——- -‘~ ‘~ -- -----—--- 0 IT I I I 6 16 26 36 40 so 60 70 80 90 100 110 Figure 5. Time (minutes) 30 TemperaTure Than ThaT for flour slurries alone. The waTer absorpTion capabillTies of MCC have been previously reporTed (Trauberman, 1962). AlThough The iniTial rise in viscosiTy in sysTems conTaining MCC occurred aT a sligthy lower TemperaTure, heaT appeared To have liTTle effecT on The swelling properTies of MCC. Increasing The subsTiTuTion level of MCC broughT abouT sligthy greaTer differences in Brabender uniTs beTween The flour and MCC curves and The flour curves, per se. However, The waTer absorpTion properTies of MCC exerTed much less effecT on The vis- cosiTy of The sysTem Than did Those of gelaTinized flour which The MCC replaced. Dough ConsisTency The farinograph is used To deTermine The mixing CharacTerisTics and mixing Tolerance of flour in dough sysTems. The CharacTerisTics measured are relaTed To The proTein quanTiTy and qualiTy. The arrival Time, which is when The curve crosses The 500 BU line, measures The raTe aT which waTer is Taken up. As The proTein conTenT increases The arrival Time increases. The peak Time is The Time iT Takes for The dough To reach maximum consis- Tency and minimum mobiliTy. STabiliTy is The Time The curve remains on The 500 BU line. IT indicaTes maximum mixing Time of The flour in a dough (Shuey, 1972). Originally iT was planned To sTudy dough consisTency aT 20, 40, and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion levels; however, iT was noT possible To sTudy 40 or 50% subsTiTuTion levels. As shown In Table 5, when MCC was subsTiTuTed for 20% of The flour, peak Time and sTabiIiTy were increased. Even Though The MCC diluTed The flour proTein conTenT iT did noT appear To have a deTrimenTal influence on dough sTabiIiTy. SubsTiTuTion wiTh 30% MCC for flour sligthy decreased The peak Time buT greale reduced dough sTabiIiTy. The arrival 31 Time decreased progressively indicaTing ThaT The waTer was Taken up pro- _gressively quicker as The amounT of MCC was increased. A 30% diluTion of flour proTein conTenT wiTh MCC may have conTribuTed To The drasTic re- ducTion in mixing Tolerance and loss of cohesive and adhesive properTies of dough. The laTTer Two characTerisTics are viTal To obTaining good farinograms. TABLE 5. The EffecT Of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Farinogram ParameTers Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose MeasuremenT 0% 20% 30% Arrival Time (min) 1.0 0.8 0.5 Peak Time (min) 2.0 2.5 1.5 STabiliTy (min) 7.5 11.5 3.8 Muller (1968) coaTed a farinograph bowl and blades wiTh parafin, emphasizing The need for adhesion To The bowl and paddles, To obTain a good farinogram. ATTemst To use 40 and 50% level of MCC subsTiTuTion . gave curves which were erraTic and non-readable. This supporTs The Theory ThaT adhesion To The bowl and paddles is necessary for farinograms. IT also appears ThaT cohesion wiThin The dough is essenTial. Cake SysTem To maximize caloric reducTion a lean cake formula (low in sugar and faT) was selecTed as The conTrol cake. These cakes were Then prepared wiTh 0, 20, 40, and 60% MCC subsTiTuTion for The flour. In order To measure The effecT of This MCC subsTiTuTion, physical characTerisTics of 32 >+___505058 +0 _0>o_ +50050a _ 05+ +0 +cmo_+_cm_m* mm_. o_mo. ow_. 00—. Nmo. mmo. NF LOLLm 6N_. omoo. Rmo. 6mm. _mm. 6+0. m co_+oo__oom *omm.m *omwm. *mvm._ *mmo.m *vmm.m *wmm. v _0>05 co_+:+_+m53m oozuo_50_cm> 0+ _m+0H >+___50+aooo< 50>o_m 053+m_02 mmoccoocoe 053+x0+ Lo_oo _mcocoo soUoocm oocm_cm> +0 +0 oocmoo 005:0m ocmzom 500: L:o_m 05+ +0 +508 50+ co_+:+_+m5:m 002 +0 +00++m 05+ mc_c_E50+0Q 50+ 00:0_50> +0 m_m>_mc< moxmo +0 co_+m:_m>m >50m50m 05+ :0 .© m5m+___50505a +0 _0>0_ +c0o50a _ 05+ +0 +500_+_5m_m* __o.o mm_o.o wmo.o omo. mm 5055m m_o.o *_m+o.o mmo.o omm. m eo_+oo__aom *ovo.o mmoo.o emo.o *_o_.© m _0>05 co_+:+_+05:m oozu0_50_5m> mm _0+o+ x005. x0oc_ x0oc_ x0oc_ 0mmxc_55m >+_E50+553 >5+0EE>m 0E:_o> 5000055 0050550> +0 +0 005m0o 005:0m 050:0m 500: m0o_uc_ 0mmxc_55m 0:0 .>+_E50+_c: .>5+0E8>m .0E:_o> 0500 50 530_5 05+ +0 +505 50+ co_+:+_+m53m 002 +0 +o0++m 05+ m5_5_E50+0o 50+ 0050_50> +o m_m>_0c< .o_ m5m<+ 38 TABLE 11. The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Cake Volume, SymmeTry, UniformiTy, and Shrinkage lndices Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose Index 0% 20% 40% 60% Volume (cm) 11.4 : .32a 10.9 s .34b 9.6 i .33C 8.3 i .23d Symmetry (cm) 0.4 i .17a 0.3 i .14ab 0.3 i .20ab 0.2 i .21b Uniformity (cm) 0.2 s .138 0.2 i .15a 0.2 s .148 0.2 i .09a Shrinkage (cm) 1.4 t .128 1.4 1 .05a 1.4 i .128 1.2 a .09b 1Mean and sTandard deviaTion for 5 replicaTions. Values marked wiTh same superscripT are noT significanle differenT. (060.01) (Duncan, 1957) cake. As The proTein conTenT of The flour decreases, less of a gluTen maTrix was formed To hold in These leavening gases. Even Though higher MCC subsTiTuTionllevels produced more viscous baTTers, The resulTanT cake sysTems may have lacked The gluTen neTwork essenTial for gas reTenTion (Howard §I_gi,, 1968). The highly viscous baTTers of cakes wiTh MCC sub- sTiTuTion may have also reduced air cell mobiliTy and normal baTTer dyna- mics during baking, Thus conTribuTing To a decreased volume. Cakes wiTh 60% of flour subsTiTuTed wiTh MCC had collapsed cells and were compacT in appearance subsTanTlaTing The Theory ThaT The gluTen maTrix was noT sTrong enough To hold The released leavening gases. MoisTure and Tenderness of Cakes Analysis of variance esTablished significanT differences (pé0.0l) among all parameTers (Table 12). MoisTness of cakes was evaluaTed as a 39 >+___ooao5e +6 _o>o_ +eoo5oa 0.5 65+ +6 +eoo_+_em_m* we. woo. __._ mm. mm 5055m 4+.o Nm_. *o+.m o+m.e m eo_+oo__oom *oo._ Nmo. *mo.m *onm._ o _0>05 co_+:+_+05:m oozu0_5m_50> om _0+OF co_mm05QEoo mm05m +c0+coo m0mmO5 5005m 053+m_oz mc_xmm 5000055 00:0_50> +0 +0 005m0o 005:0m 050:0m 5002 m0xmo +0 mm0c50oc0+ ucm 053+m_oz .m0m005 mc_xmm co 5:o_5 05+ +0 eo_+s+_+mosm go: +o +oo++m 65+ me_e_e56+oo 5o+ ooem_56> +50q 50+ +o o_o>_oe< .N_ mum<+ 40 sensory characTerisTic (Table 7), from baking loss daTa, and by The mois— Ture conTenT deTermined by drying cake samples under vacuum (Table 13). During baking, cakes conTaining The highesT MCC subsTiTuTion levels losT significanle more moisTure Than did The oTher cakes (Table 13). The per- cenTage moisTure conTenT of The cakes increased as The degree of MCC sub- sTiTuTion increased from 0 To 60%. The cakes wiTh 60% MCC subsTiTuTed for TABLE 13. The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Baking Losses, MoisTure and Tenderness of Cakes Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose TesT 0% 20% 40% 60% Baking Losses 11.5 i .568 11.8 i .668 12.0 i .338 13.2 s 1.5b (%) Moisture Content 26.8 i .78a 28.1 i .78ab 29.4 i .72C 29.5 s 2.1bc 1%) Shear Press 2.11 i .15a 1.66 s .11b 1.35 i .16C 1.08 i .18d (lb/gm) Compression 6.52 i .99a 6.15 i .76a 7.16 i .14ab 7.72 s 1 3b (lb/cm) 1Mean and sTandard deviaTion for 5 replicaTions. Values marked wiTh same superscripT are noT significanle differenT. (pé0.01) (Duncan, 1957) flour losT significanle (p50.01) more moisTure during baking Than did any of The oTher cakes yeT had The highesT moisTure conTenT; This is pos- sible since The baTTer conTained more liquid To allow for The increased waTer-binding capaciTy of MCC. The TasTe panel scored The cakes wiTh The highesT level of MCC significanle lower (Table 7) indicaTing ThaT The cakes were overly moisT and gummy. The TasTe panelisTs felT The conTrol 41 cakes were sligthy dry, probably due To The low sugar conTenT. The wafer- binding capaciTy of MCC, as demonsTraTed here, improves The qualiTy of The cakes wiTh 20% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour. However, when greaTer Than 40% MCC was subsTiTuTed for flour, The cakes conTained excess moisTure resulT- ing in a gummy TexTure which was considered undesirable. As The amounT of MCC increased significanle less force was required To shear The samples of cake (Table 13). This indicaTed ThaT The samples became more Tender as The proporTion of MCC in The cakes increased. This is probably due To The progressively lower amounTs of flour proTeins available To creaTe a sTrucTure and resisT shearing. The TasTe panel re- sulTs agree in ThaT some members felT ThaT The conTrol showed some resis- Tance To Tearing, while The cake wiTh 60% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour was regarded as crumbly. ‘All cakes in This sTudy were prepared wiTh all pur- pose flour which forms boTh a sTronger gluTen and a greaTer amounT of gluTen Than cake flour. Use of all purpose flour would generally cause a Tougher producT for The conTrol. This was also augmenTed by The reducTion of normal Tenderizing agenTs, i.e. sugar and shorTening, To produce a low calorie conTrol cake. Use of MCC diluTed The proTein which produced more Tender cakes, however, aT The 60% subsTiTuTion level The cakes were Too Tender and were found To be crumbly. The amounT of force required To compress a cenTimeTer of cake gradual- ly increased as The degree of MCC subsTiTuTed for flour increased (Table 9). An increase In force required To compress The cake is indicaTive of a decrease in The open TexTure of an angel cake sTudy (Funk §i_ai,, 1969). CompressabiliTy values indicaTes ThaT as The MCC increased The openness of The cell sTrucTure decreased sligthy. The TasTe panel's commenTs showed a similar Trend for The TexTure evaluaTion of The cakes. The con- Trol cake and cake wiTh 20% MCC subsTiTuTion were scored as having good 42 TexTure wiTh only occasional scores of irregular or large air cells. The cakes wiTh 40% MCC subsTiTuTion were evaluaTed as someTimes sligthy com- pacT whereas The cakes wiTh 60% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour were usually e- valuaTed as compacT. This increase in compacTness shows The impaired abiliTy of The diluTed gluTen neTwork To provide sTrucTure. Cake Color Analysis of variance (Table 14) showed no significanT differences in crusT and crumb color of cakes conTaining 0 To 60% MCC subsTiTuTion (Table 15). Use of The HunTer Color Difference MeTer To measure The color of The flour and MCC, per se, showed ThaT The flour was less whiTe and sligthy more yellow and green. These slighT color differences were probably off- seT by The yellow of eggs and The brown of The vanilla in The cake baTTer as well as pigmenTs produced by carmelizaTion and The Maillard reacTion during baking. FuncTionaliTy of MCC in Cake SysTems The funcTion of flour sTarch may be equally or more imporTanT Than ThaT of The flour proTeins in The overall characTerisTics of The cake sysTem, especially when The cake sysTem conTains an ingredienT such as an emulsifier which aids in suspending The sTarch granules. The polar moieTies of The monoglycerides in emulsifier sysTems inTeracT wiTh The polar groups of The sTarch molecules, Therefore, physically separaTing The sTarch granules and prevenTlng Their inTeracTions (Handleman gi_al,, 1961). The granular swelling which occurs afTer gelaTinizaTion TemperaTure is reached is irreversible (Schoch, 1965), and The amounT of This swelling affecTs boTh The final volume and The TexTural characTerisTics of The cake. MicrocrysTalline cellulose may funcTion similarly To sTarch in iTs abiliTy To bind waTer. BoTh MCC and sTarch are polymers of glucose and, 43 >+___50505a +0 _0>0_ +c0o50q o._ 05+ +0 +c0o_+_cm_m* om._ mo.+ wm.m mn._ mmm.m mn.n NF 50550 00.5 N_.v *mm.em *mn._m +0_.m *vo.0m m co_+0o__a0m 00.0 mm.o mm._ wo.m v_m._ ooo.m v _0>05 co_+:+_+mnsm 002”0_50_50> 0+ _0+0H 55 50 5 55 50 5 +0350 55350 $000050 0oc0_50> +0 +0 005000 005300 050:0m :00: 0500 +0 m+c0E05nm00z 5o_o0 +0350 050 5E350 co 5:o_5 05+ +o +50Q 50+ 50_+:+_+05:m 002 +0 +00++m 05+ mc_c_E50+0o 50+ 0oc0_50> +0 m_m>_0c< .e_ m5m+___565656 +6 _6>6_ +56o566 6.5 65+ +6 +56o_+_56_m* n00.0 mmo.0 000.0 000.0 000.0 0m0.0 N_ 5055M 0+.0 0+.0 00.0 +N.0 N_.0 _m_.0 m co_+00__a0m *Nm.0 *0m.N *m0.N *No.0 *_0.0 *00.0 0 _0>05 co_+:+_+m5:m 002”0_50_50> 0+ _0+0H >+___50+a000< 5o>0_m 053+m_02 000550050+ 053+x0+ 0050500aa< _050500 6000050 0oc0_50> +0 +0 005000 005:0m 050:0m 500: m+_:om_m +0 co_+0:_0>m >5Omc0m 5o 566.5 65+ +6 +566 56+ 56_+a+_+65sm 002 +6 +o6++m 65+ m555556.66 56+ 6656_56> +6 6_6>_65< .+_ m5m<+ TABLE 18. 49 of BiscuiTs The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Sensory EvaluaTion Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose CharacTerisTic 0% 20% 40% 50% Appearance 5.9 i .268 5.1 i .36b 3.9 i .25C 3.2 i .32d Texture 5.9 i .19a 5.3 i .37b 3.9 i .18C 3.3 i .15d Tenderness 5.7 i .16a 5.3 i .34a 3.9 i .23b 3.5 i .40b Moisture 5.5 s .318 5.1 i .198 4.3 i .11b 3.9 i .18b Flavor 5.9 i .23a 5.4 5 .31a 4.7 i .25b 4.1 i .35C General AccepTabiliTy 5.7 i .173 5.1 5 .38b 3.9 i .28C 3.3 6 .19d 1Mean and sTandard deviaTion of 5 replicaTions; 7 poinT scale, 7 opTimum. Values marked wiTh same superscripT are noT significanle differenT (pé0.01) (Duncan, 1957) 50 The flour subsTiTuTed wiTh MCC. PanelisTs' commenTs were ThaT The bis- cuiTs wiTh 40 and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion were Tough, dry, and lacked flavor. The TasTe panel resulTs did noT show any biscuiT characTerisTic improved by The subsTiTuTion of MCC for flour, whereas improvemenT had occurred wiTh 20 and 40% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour in The cake sysTem. Volume, MoisTure and Tenderness of BiscuiTs Analysis of variance esTablished significanT differences (p 0.01) among all parameTers (Table 19). MoisTure for The biscuiTs was also assessed by Three meThods: baking loss, moisTure conTenT, and sensory evaluaTion. Baking losses of The biscuiTs significanle (p 0.01) increased up To The 40% MCC subsTiTuTion level, as shown in Table 13. The moisTure conTenT increased wiTh The addiTional MCC subsTiTuTion, buT This increase was noT significanT, excepT in The biscuiTs conTaining 50% MCC subsTiTuTion level. TasTe panelisTs raTed The moisTness of biscuiTs conTaining 40 and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour significanle lower Than ThaT of Those con- Taining 0 and 20% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour. The panelisTs indicaTed ThaT biscuiTs wiTh higher levels of MCC subsTiTuTion for flour were drier, especially The crusT, subsTanTlaTing The work of Lee and coworkers (1969). Occasionally a panelisT commenTed ThaT The biscuiTs conTaining higher levels of MCC subsTiTuTion were Too moisT or gummy, parTicularly Toward The cenTer. Since The biscuiTs wiTh The higher levels of MCC acTually had higher moisTure conTenTs (Table 20) a moisT or gummy producT mighT be ex- pecTed. BiscuiT size was evaluaTed using Two measuremenTs: heighT in cenTi- meTers and volume as deTermined by rape seed displacemenT. SubsTiTuTing 50% of The flour wiTh MCC produced biscuiTs which were significanle smaller Than The O and 20% subsTiTuTion levels (Table 13). AlThough biscuiTs 51 >+___565656 +6 _6>6_ +566566 6.5 65+ +6 +56o_+_56_m* 00+ 0+.0_ m.0 m0 om._ 0_._ mm 50550 *m0_ *00.nm m.m0 *00_ *mm.mm m>.0 m co_+0o__a0m *00m 0m.__ *+.0+ *om_ *00.0 *om.0_ 0 _0>05 co_+3+_+053m 002"0_50_50> 0m _0+OH 50_0005aeo0 00050 +50_0I 0E3_o> +50+co0 000005 50050 053+0_oz 05_x0m 8000050 0oc0_50> +0 +0 005000 005300 050300 5002 .0+_300_m +0 000550uc0+ 050 .0E3_0> .+c0+co0 053+0_oz .000005 055500 50 530_0 05+ +0 +505 50+ co_+3+_+053m 00: +0 +o0++m 05+ 05_c_s50+00 50+ 0oc0_50> +0 0_0>_0c< .m_ m5m<+ 52 TABLE 20. The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion on Baking Losses, MoisTure ConTenT, Volume and Tenderness of BiscuiTs Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicroggysTalline Cellulose TesTs 0% 20% 40% 50% Baking b Losses 17.6 s 0.81a 18.9 i 0.94 21.7 s 1.6C 21.5 i 1.3C (percenT) MoisTure b Content 20.7 i 1.6a 22.1 i 2.0a 22.2-: 2.7a 24.7 i 1.5 - (percenT) Volume 62 i 11.1a 62 i 6.7a 56 + 12.7ab 48 i 12.1b (cc) Height 3.0 5 .19a 2 9 i .14a 2.5 i 12b 2 2 i .20C (cm) Shear Press 16.8 i 1.78 18.7 i 3.08 21.1 : 3.5a 20.1 i 5.38 (lb/gm) Compression 52.6 i 8.8ab 48.0 i 11.4a 44.9 i 8.1a 65.5 i 23.1b (lb/cm) 1Mean and sTandard deviaTion for 5 replicaTions. Values marked wiTh The same superscripT are noT significanle differenT (p£0.01) (Duncan, 1957) 53 conTaining 40% MCC subsTiTuTion were smaller Than Those conTaining lower levels of MCC subsTiTuTion The differences were noT significanT. The biscuiT heighT decreased as The proporTion of MCC increased wiTh biscuiTs conTaining 40 and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour being significanle lower Than Those wiTh lower levels of MCC. Differences in heighT accounT for mosT of The differences in volume, neverTheless The biscuiTs wiTh a higher level of MCC subsTiTuTion ap- peared To have a sligthy larger diameTer, buT This was noT measured. Volume and heighT of biscuiTs is aTTribuTed To sTeam and leavening gases released during baking. This separaTes The layers of dough creaTed by The gluTen neTworks coaTed wiTh faT. Early release of leavening gases and insufficienT gluTen neTworks To reTain The gases would decrease The volume. The diluTion. of The flours proTein by addiTion of MCC reduces The amounT of gluTen presenT To form neTworks. The sTarch componenT of wheaT flour and sTarch-like MCC which lack The funcTional properTies of flour gluTen proTein. Consequenle increasing The proporTion of MCC re- sulTed in loss of volume and flakiness in biscuiTs. The resulTs of The farinograph sTudies also showed ThaT as The propor- Tion of MCC subsTiTuTion for flour increased a less cohesive dough was formed. GluTen which is necessary To provide cohesiveness and elasTiciTy To The dough is diluTed by MCC. The qualiTy characTerisTic of biscuiTs are adversely affecTed when a less elasTic and cohesive dough is formed. The volume may be decreased because The dough ls noT elasTic and cohesive enough To expand, and consequenle, The sTeam, carbon dioxide, and air are allowed To escape wiThouT funcTioning To separaTe The dough layers. The amounT of force required To compress each cenTimeTer of The bis- cuiT did noT follow The expecTed paTTern of increasing compressibiliTy values as The biscuiT volumes were lowered which resulTed from The 54 increasing level of MCC subsTiTuTion for flour (Table 13). The biscuiTs were expecTed To be more compacT as The volume decreased, buT The force required To compress The biscuiTs dropped insignificanle up To The 40% MCC subsTiTuTion level Then rose significanle for biscuiTs wiTh 50% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour. BiscuiTs wiTh 50% MCC subsTiTuTion were definiTe- ly more compacT Than Those conTaining lower amounTs of MCC. Reasons for decreased force required To compress biscuiTs wiTh 20 and 40% MCC subsTi- TuTion for flour is noT clearly undersTood. An increase in compacTness was expecTed because of The lower volume buT daTa did noT supporT This assumpTion. The TasTe panelisTs indicaTed ThaT The biscuiTs conTaining 20 and 40% MCC subsTiTuTion lacked flakiness, where as aT The highesT subsTiTuTion level The biscuiTs were scored as being compacT. The abil- iTy of MCC To absorb oil may have inTerferred wiTh The funcTional proper- Ty of oil To shorTen and separaTe The gluTen sTrands. Even Though The force required To shear The biscuiTs increased as The amounT of MCC increased, These Tenderness values were noT signifi- canle differenT (Table 13). The TasTe panel indicaTed a gradual decrease in biscuiT Tenderness as levels of MCC subsTiTuTion increased. However, commenTs indicaTed ThaT The crusTs Tended To be Tough, especially for The biscuiTs wiTh 40 and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion. The discrepancy beTween The Two evaluaTions may be because whole biscuiTs were sheared. The crusTs Toughness may have been more similar among variables Than The crumb Tender- ness, and The TasTe panel could differenTiaTe beTween The parTs of The biscuiTs' Tenderness, whereas, The shear press based on maximum peak heighT could noT. Tenderness is usually associaTed wiTh The amounT of gluTen developmenT. As The proTein was diluTed wiTh higher subsTiTuTion of MCC for flour, The biscuiTs should have become more Tender. Since The biscuiTs became Tougher 55 as The amounT of MCC increased, This indicaTes ThaT oTher facTors may cause The increased Toughness. The compacTness and dryness or facTors which also influenced Them may have had an affecT on The TasTe panelisTs percepTion of Tenderness. MuTual sTarch-sTarch binding if in excess would also have an effecT (Baldi §i_al,, 1965). Color of BiscuiTs Analysis of variance esTablished significanT difference (pé0.01) among some of The crumb and crusT color measuremenTs (Table 21). The crusT color of The conTrol biscuiT was significanle darker Than The biscuiTs wiTh MCC ,) while The biscuiTs conTaining MCC had a small amounT of greeness (—aL), however, (Table 22). The conTrol biscuiT had a slighT degree of redness (+a These values were very low and The difference was noT significanT. The yellowness of The biscuiT crusT decreased wiTh increasing amounTs of MCC subsTiTuTion for flour. NeiTher ligthess (L) nor greeness (-aL) of The biscuiT's crumb showed any significanT differences among variables. The crumb yellowness (+bL) was significanle lower for The biscuiTs wiTh 40 and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion Than Those wiTh 0 and 20% of The flour subsTiTuTed wiTh MCC. MCC does noT imparT The color ThaT flour does. IT lacks The pigmenTs in flour and does noT conTribuTe The proTeins or carbonyl compounds which inTeracT during baking To cause browning. WheTher MCC inTeracTs wiTh oTher ingredienTs or componenTs To produce browning reacTion is noT known, buT iT does noT appear To conTribuTe significanle To crusT browning in baked producTs since The biscuiTs conTaining higher levels of MCC subsTiTuTion were paler Than The conTrol biscuiTs. Calorie ConTenT of BiscuiTs Caloric densiTy of The biscuiTs was calculaTed on The basis of a 25 gram biscuiT from composiTion daTa in Handbook 8 (WaTT and Merril, 1963). 56 >+___565656 +6 _6>6_ +56o566 6.5 65+ +6 +56o_+_5m_0* _0._ 00.+ 0m.m 0N. NN.+ 00.0 N+ 50550 06. 00.0 0m.0m 0+. _0.N 00.0+ 0 co_+0o__50m *00.0+ 00._ *00.0m *00.N 00. 00.m m _0>0_ co_+3+_+0530 002"0_50_50> 0+ _0+0H 5000050 0050_50> 55 56 5 55 56 5 +6 +6 005000 005300 +0350 55350 .0+_300_0 +0 0+50E0530002 50_00 +0350 050 58350 50 53o_0 05+ +0 +566 56+ 56_+s+_+6560 552 +6 +66++0 65+ 05_5_s56+65 56+ 6656_56> +6 656>_65< .PN 55m<+ 57 TABLE 22. Color MeasuremenTs of BiscuiTs prepared wiTh MCC SubsTiTuTion for Flour Level of Flour SubsTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose Color MeasuremenT 0% 20% 40% 50% Eklmfii L 45.73 i 3.21a 47.91 s 1.49a 46.34 i .388 47.60 i .90a aL -1.29 i 1.08a -1.70 : 1.18a -0.79 i .30a -1.62 6 .12a DL 10.62 i .79a 10.35 i .57a 8.93 i .48b 9.07 i .46b 9:25: L 39.06 i 2.07a 42.28 s 2.66b 45.08 1 .37b 46.02 i 11b aL -0.68 i 0.728 -0.05 i 1.47a -0.23 i 61a -0.85 i .68 DL 15.87 i 1.02a 14.98 i 1.67a 11.47 1 .14b 12.22 i .27b 1Mean and sTandard deviaTion for 5 replicaTions. Values marked wiTh The same superscripT are noT significanle differenT 2L = ligthess, aL (pf0.01) (Duncan, 1957) = redness and greeness, bL = yellowness 58 Since The average weighTs of The 5.1 cm (2 in.) diameTer biscuiTs varied, The caloric values were also calculaTed for The average weighT biscuiT aT each subsTiTuTion level and are summarized in Table 23. The weighT of The biscuiTs decreased as The amounT of MCC in The formulaTion was increased. The average biscuiT weighTs were 27.5, 27.4, 24.2, and 22.5 grams for The 0, 20, 40, and 50% of The flour subsTiTuTed wiTh MCC, respecTively. TABLE 23. Caloric DensiTy of BiscuiTs Level of Flour SubSTiTuTed wiTh MicrocrysTalline Cellulose Caloric EvaluaTion 0% 20% 40% 50% 25 Gram BiscuiT 91.8 83.1 74.8 68.9 Averaged weighT BiscuiT 100.7 90.0 72.4 62.0 PercenT calories reduced from 0% for averaged weighT BiscuiTs - - 9.9 28.2 38.5 for 25 gram biscuiT - - 9.5 18.5 24.9 The caloric reducTion of The biscuiTs for 20 and 40% subsTiTuTion levels is noT quiTe as high as for The cakes compared To The sTandard yellow cake on a weighT comparison. The caloric conTenT of an average weighT biscuiT exhibiTed greaTer reducTion Than The 25 gram biscuiTs of The same MCC subsTiTuTion level because The biscuiTs weighed less wiTh in- creasing MCC subsTiTuTion. The cellulose conTenT was higher Than in The cake sysTem because The biscuiTs have a higher proporTion of flour in The basic formula. In The biscuiTs wiTh 20, 40, and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour, The MCC conTenT 59 is 6.4, 13.1, and 16.5%, respecTively. If Two biscuiTs of The average weighT for The 20, 40, and 50% subsTiTuTion levels were eaTen 3.5, 6.2, and 7.4 grams of cellulose would be added To The dieT, respecTively. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS MicrocrysTalline cellulose was subsTiTuTed on an equal volume basis for a porTion of The flour in cake and biscuiT sysTems. SubsTiTuTion lev- . els of 0, 20, 40, and 60% MCC for flour in a lean formula cake sysTem and I 0, 20, 40, and 50% MCC for flour in a biscuiT sysTem were evaluaTed by sensory and objecTive meThods. The TasTe panel scored The cakes wiTh 20% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour highesT for all characTerisTics, whereas, The conTrol cakes and cakes wiTh 40% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour were scored sligthy lower buT The differences were noT significanT. The cakes of The 60% MCC subsTiTuTion level were scored significanle lower for all characTerisTics evaluaTed. ObjecTive TesTs of The cake baTTer showed an increase in baTTer viscosiTy and specific graviTy as The propor- Tion of MCC increased. Cooking losses and moisTure conTenT boTh in- creased wiTh higher subsTiTuTion levels of MCC. The cakes were more Ten- der, compacT, and had less volume wiTh increased amounTs of MCC. The crumb and crusT color was noT affecTed by The addiTion of MCC. Caloric densiTy was decreased approximaTely 14, 20, and 25% for cakes wiTh 20, 40, and 60% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour, respecTively, when compared wiTh a sTandard yellow cake. TasTe panelisTs scored all characTerisTics of The biscuiTs progres- sively lower as The amounT of MCC subsTiTuTed for flour was increased. The biscuiTs generally became Tougher, drier and had less flavor. The shear press showed no significanT differences in The Tenderness. Progres- sively less force was required To compress a cenTimeTer of biscuiT as The 60 61 amounT of MCC subsTiTuTion level increased up To The 40% level, afTer which The required force increased. As in The cake sysTem The baking losses and moisTure boTh increased wiTh increased subsTiTuTion of MCC for flour. The volume also decreased wiTh addiTional MCC incorporaTion as if did in The cake sysTem. SubsTiTuTion of MCC for parT of The flour resulTed in significanT color difference, The crusT color values for ligthess increased and for yellowness decreased, as did The crumb yellowness values. BiscuiT caloric densiTy was reduced abouT 10, 28, and 39% for 20, 40, and 50% MCC subsTiTuTion for flour respecTively, when biscuiTs of average weighT for The subsTiTuTion levels were compared To The conTrol. Dough consisTency was sTudied using a farinograph and MCC subsTiTu- Tion for flour of 0, 20, and 30%. The arrival Time decreased wiTh in- creased MCC subsTiTuTion, while The peak Time and sTabiIiTy increased for The 20% subsTiTuTion level and decreased for The 30% subsTiTuTion level. The Visco-amylo-Graph was used To sTudy viscosiTy of 25% flour in waTer slurries. SubsTiTuTion of 0, 20, 40, and 60% MCC for flour were TesTed, showing a decreased viscosiTy wiTh increased amounTs of MCC. Slurries wiTh equivalenT reducTion of flour wiThouT subsTiTuTion of MCC showed ThaT The presence of MCC added To The viscosiTy of The slurries conTaining iT. Micro—crysTalline cellulose may be successfully subsTiTuTed for parT of The flour To reduce The caloric densiTy of baked producTs. The amounT which may be incorporaTed and sTill provide an accepTable producT is dependenT on The sysTem used. The cake sysTem was capable of carrying a higher percenTage of MCC subsTiTuTed for flour and sTill produce good qualiTy producTs. BiscuiT qualiTy decreased rapidly wiTh increased subsTiTuTion of MCC for flour. 62 The maximum caloric reducTion for producTs in which good qualiTy was mainTained was 20% less calories for The cake sysTem using a cake wiTh 40% of The flour subsTiTuTed wiTh MCC and 10% less calories for biscuiTs conTaining 20% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour. Corresponding amounTs of cellu- lose which could be added To The dieT by ingesTing These foods is 7 grams per 100 grams of cake conTaining 40% MCC subsTiTuTion and 3.5 grams per 2 biscuiTs of average weighT made wiTh 20% MCC subsTiTuTed for flour. The caloric densiTy reducTion may be considered small, buT would be beneficial in ThaT eaTing small amounTs of baked producTs occasionally may make a dieT more Tolerable Than iT would be when omiTTing These foods. YeT The calories consumed would be less Than from ingesTion of a similar quanTiTy of The foods wiThouT MCC incorporaTed. ConsumpTion of baked producTs wiTh MCC raTher Than higher caloric normal biscuiTs and cakes, would probably be beneficial To The general public as well. Their consumpTion would increase The dieTary fiber componenT of The dieT which would be beneficial in lighT of The increasing incidence of diverTicular disease, colonic cancer and oTher relaTed diseases. The amounT of MCC which can be successfully used is dependenT on The sysTem and The componenT of flour which is mosT imporTanT for The qualiTy characTerisTics of ThaT baked producT. The producTs in which The gluTen maTrix plays a viTal role, The incorporaTion of MCC is limiTed as subsTi- TuTion diluTes The flour proTein producing producTs of lower accepTabiliTy as was seen in The biscuiT sysTem. The proporTion of flour To oTher funcTional ingredienTs is also an imporTanT facTor. If The gelaTinizaTion of The flour-sTarch conTribuTes significanle To The qualiTy of The prod- LkrT and if oTher ingredienTs such as milk and eggs are also presenT in Thee producT as They are in baTTer sysTems, The MCC may Take over some of 63 The funcTionaliTy of The sTarch and higher levels of MCC subsTiTuTion may be incorporaTed. w Rah-r -'- SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Research inTo The funcTionaliTy of MCC and iTs inTeracTion wiTh oTher ingredienTs would be beneficial since liTTle informaTion is This area is available. Since diluTion of The proTein resulTed in biscuiTs of lower qualiTy; sTudies should be conducTed evaluaTing incorporaTion of gluTen wiTh MCC or oTher ingredienT supplemenTaTion which mighT funcTion To form a rigid Three-dimensional sTrucTure. This would provide a greaTer varieTy of usable producTs wiTh MCC subsTiTuTion and/or allow for greaTer MCC incor- poraTion and hence greaTer caloric reducTion in producTs already sTudied. DifferenT meThods of mixing The ingredienTs can affecT The producT qualiTy; The sTudy of differenT mixing meThods for producTs conTaining MCC may lead To improved producT qualiTy CharacTerisTics. ln addiTion use of oTher lower calorie counTerparTs for oTher ingre— dienTs as sugar and possibly faT would lower The caloric conTenT, if an accepTable producT were produced. APPENDIX CharacTerisTic Color TexTure Tenderness MoisTure Flavor Seven PoinT Scale Sample Color SCORE SHEET FOR SHORTENED CAKES ExcellenT pale yellow in— Terior, brown crusT, even color numerous, fine uniform air cells, Thin cell’ walls Tears easily, cuTs evenly wiThouT Tearing sofT and moisT, velveTy rich, sligthy vanilla, sligthy sweeT Fair sligthy Too pale or dark, very sligthy marbled, uneven color small air cells wiTh some large cells, Thick and Thick cell walls Tears wiTh slighT resisTance, cuTs wiTh a liTTle crumbling slighTIy dry or moisT sligthy Too bland or sweeT, or noT sweeT enough, very slighT off flavor UnaccepTable very pale or dark marbled, uneven color (inTerior and exTerior) large irregular air cells, Thick cell wall compacT or Tunneled Tough, resisTs Tearing, crumbles when sliced dry, gummy soggy Too bland, Too sweeT, noT sweeT enough, off flavors, carmeli- zaTion 1 - unaccepTable 4 - fair 7 - exeellenT General TexTure Tenderness MoisTure Flavor AccepTabilitg _l _J 5 _I 5.1 Please indicaTe defecT for scores of 4 or lower. Figure 6: on ShorTened Cakes Score SheeT Used To EvaluaTe The EffecT of MCC SubsTiTuTion CharacTerisTic Appearance TexTure Tenderness MoisTure Flavor SCORE SHEET FOR BISCUITS ExcellenT Fair Top crusT--pale, CrusT--sligthy golden brown, sligthy rough, smooTh or rough sides--sTraighT surface, spoTTed slighTIy spoTTed Uniform small gas holes, rela- holes, some large Tively Thin cell cells, sligthy walls, crumb-- peel off in T00 dark or pale, Irregular gas Thick cell walls, only sligthy sheeTs of layers, flaky crumb i.e. OuTe flaky r crusT-- ExTerior--slighT|y crisp yeT Tender, Too crisp, some liTT le resis- resisTance when UnaccepTable CrusT--Too pale or Too dark, Too rough or smooTh surface, sides noT sTraighT, exces- sively spoTTed Large and/or irregular gas holes, Thick cell walls, noT flaky, crumb doesn'T peel OuTer crusT-~Too crisp, briTTle, Tough resisTance Tance when biTTen.blTTen. lnTerior-- when biTTen InTerior-- Tender sligthy Tough, very liTTle re- some resisTance sisTance when when biTTen biTTen SofT and méisT Mild flavor, slighT baking powder flavor Seven PoinT Scale Sample Appearance sligthy Too dry, sligthy Too moisT Bland, moderaTe off flavor 1 - unaccepTable 4 - fair TexTure Tenderness MoisTure InTerior--Tough resisTance when biTTen, crumbly Very dry, very moisT or gummy Too bland, pro- nounced off flavor, soapy, biTTer 7 - excellenT General Flavor AccegTabiliTy _J J _J 5.1 _l _l 51 _J _J 5] .J +1 .1 J J _I 51 ._l _J _J 13 J Please indicaTe defecT for scores of 4 or lower. 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