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THE STANDARDS, TIME PERIODS, AND CONSEQUENCES
OF ADULT LITERACY TEACHING AS DETERMINED FROM

A SURVEY OF LITERATURE AND RESPONSES OF PRACTITIONERS

BY

Mushtaq Ahmed

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Communication

1965

\

Approved M

ABSTRACT

THE STANDARDS, TIME PERIODS, AND CONSEQUENCES OF ADULT
LITERACY TEACHING AS DETERMINED FROM A SURVEY OF
LITERATURE AND RESPONSES OF PRACTITIONERS

by Mushtaq Ahmed

This study was conducted to find out from agencies and individuals
active in the adult literacy field (1) the objectives of literacy teaching,
(2) the standard of functional literacy, (3) the period of instruction
required to attain the standard, and (4) the consequences of adult
literacy. The method used was a mailed questionnaire plus a review of
pertinent literature.

Judged from the national point of view, the following seem to be
the objectives of literacy teaching: (a) to help the individual to form
opinions about public affairs, (b) to help him to understand his culture
and modify his attitudes according to the demands of modern times, and
(c) to help him to produce more.

There was some evidence to show that a person should be considered
literate, i.e., able to meet the above goals, when he had acquired reading
and writing skills equivalent to the elementary fourth grade level. The
majority of the agencies and individuals seemed to agree with this standard.
The research evidence also indicated that the standard might be attained
after about 400 hours of instruction, using well qualified and trained
teachers and suitable teaching materials. But only five out of 20 agencies
and individuals considered this, or an even greater amount of instruction,

necessary to attain fourth grade level. The rest thought that this level

Mushtaq Ahmed

could be attained in periods as short as 36 to 240 hours of instruction.
It seems that the majority of the agencies do not see very clearly the
relationship between the standard of functional literacy and the in-
struction required to attain it. -

Regarding the uses of literacy, the majority of the agencies and
individuals were of the opinion that the literacy acquired in the class
was not used subsequently, resulting in gradual relapse into illiteracy
for a great many graduates of literacy classes. Judging the consequences
of literacy from a given set of behavioral changes, less than half of the
agencies seem to agree that literacy teaching is effective, and more than
half consider it ineffective. There was some research evidence to support
the ineffectiveness of literacy teaching.

It seems that the ineffectiveness might be due the fact that the
existing conditions of life do not demand the use of literacy, or perhaps
the ineffectiveness may be due to the way in which literacy teaching is

done 0

THE STANDARDS, TIME PERIODS, AND CONSEQUENCES
OF ADULT LITERACY TEACHING AS DETERMINED FROM

A SURVEY OF LITERATURE AND RESPONSES OF PRACTITIONERS

By

Mushtaq Ahmed

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Communication

1965

Acknowledgements

My thanks are due to Dr. D. K. Berlo and Dr. R. P. Harrison who
gave me detailed guidance in the preparation of the thesis. I am also
thankful to Dr. Russell Kleis and Dr. Cole 8. Brembeck whom I consulted
from time to time. I am eSpecially greatful to Dr. Bain, director,
International Communication Institute, who gave me financial assistance
to complete the work.

I am also obliged to the agencies and individuals who completed
and returned the questionnaires and to Dr. F. J. Rex of the World
Literacy and Christian Literature, Mr. Richard W. Cartright of the Laubach
Literacy fund, and Mr. John B. Bowers, assistant director of UNESCO, who
furnished me with addresses of agencies, sent the questionnaires to some
of them at their own expense, and supplied me with reference materials.

I also thank Mrs. Donna Stewart who rendered valuable assistance
in typing and mailing the questionnaires, and to Mrs. Shirley Sherman for

her efforts in typing the thesis.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ChapterI -INTRODUCTION.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ...... 0.0.0.0.... ...... l

1. Purpose Of the Stllchoooooooooo0.0000000ooooooooooo l
2. The problem of adult literacy ..... ....... .......... 1

Chapter II -THE PRESENT PRACTICE.0.00..0.0.000000000000000000000000 9

. Standard and the period of literacy teaching....... 9
. Motivation for learning to read and write.......... 35
. Consequences of existing literacy teaching......... #5
. The expected consequences.......................... 53

SOON?“

Chapter III - THE METHOD 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ..... O O O O O O O O O O I O ..... O O O O O O O 85
Chapter IV - RESULT. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 89
Chapter v - SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 11”

Chapter VI SUGGESTED AREAS OF RESEARCH............................ 118

ReferenceSOOCOOOOOOOOO.00.0.0.0...OO.O...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.... 131

Appendices.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.00...IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 135

iii

LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table l - Responses of the agencies to cooperation in
research endeavors........................................ 87

Table 2 - Maximum periods of teaching before the exam is held....... 90

Table 3 - The most and the least preferred reasons for wanting
' to become literate as ranked by the agencies.............. 91

Table 4 - The level of literacy acquired and its subsequent use..... 9a

Table 5 - Periods of literacy teaching by agencies expressing
different opinions on statements a and b.................. 95

Table 6 - Standards of examination set by group one and two......... 97
,Table 7 - Additional teaching facilities used by group one and two.. 99

Table 8 - Qualification and training of teachers employed by
group one arid two...0..0.000000000COCOCOOCCOCOOOCOCO0.0... 100

Table 9 - Standards of literacy agreed to by group one and two...... 101
Table 10 - The consequences of literacy teaching..................... 103

Table ll - The "effective" and "non—effective" group and some
consequences of literacy teaching......................... 105

Table 12 - The "effective" and the "non-effective” group and the
consequences re superstitious beliefs..................... 107

Table 13 — Standards of literacy accepted by the agencies and the
indiVidualSIOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0... 110

iv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1. Purpose of the study

 

This is a survey of some of the problems and practices in adult
literacy teaching, based on a study of relevant literature and the replies
to a questionnaire mailed to agencies and individuals active in the field.
The main purposes of this survey are to find out:

1. What are the expressed or the implied goals of adult literacy and
how much instruction seems to be necessary to attain these goals,
as determined by the literature?

2. What are the practitioners' definitions of literacy and how much
instruction do they think is necessary to attain that standard?

3. What are the students' purposes in wanting to become literate?
What are the consequences of adult literacy teaching as determined

by a survey of the literature and as perceived by the practitioners?

The study is limited mainly to an examination of the standards,
the goals, and the payoff of adult literacy teaching. Related problems
such as the organization of a literacy campaign, its financing, and the
production and distribution of teaching materials have not been studied.
2. The problems of adult literagz

a. The extent of illiteracy and UNESCO'S proposal for a universal literagy

campaign.
More than two-fifths of the 700 million of the world adult pOpulation

15 years old and above were illiterate around 1950 (lzlu). About 15 per cent

2
of the world's illiterate adult population lived in Africa, about 75
per cent in Asia, 1+ or 5 per cent in Europe, USSR and Oceania (Appendix A).
In 1962, there were about 500 million adult illiterates in UNESCO'S
67 member states of Africa, Asia and Latin America (2:7 ) (Appendix B).

UNESCO convened several conferences in these regions which were
attended by high level officials of the governments concerned. This
resulted in the resolution of the General Conference of UNESCO at its
twelfth session (Dec., 1962). The resolution requested the General
Assembly of the United Nations to make provision for making two-thirds of
the world's illiterate adults between the ages of 15 and 55 functionally
literate (239). The campaign would have taken 10 years and would have
-cost $1.9 billion (2:62), or $5.25 to $7.35 to make one person functionally
literate ( 2:61). The cost was calculated on the basis of one hour of
instruction per person per day for one year ( 2:58).

Adam Curle, in his comments and pr0posa1 on the UNESCO campaign,
suggested that school construction and teachers training costs erred on
the high side and estimated that it would cost $1.3 billion or $3.90 to
$u.95 per person ( 3:27).

The member states had sponsored the resolution because they believed
"in the right to education as one of the fundamental rights of man as set
forth in article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights," and
because they shared the View of the General Assembly that "mass illiteracy
acts as a brake upon the advance both of individual countries and of human

society as a whole along the path of economic and social progress" 0:8 ).

In spite of the belief in the fundamental right of man to educate
himself, the prOposal for a universal campaign has been deferred at least
for the time being. Member states felt that the problem of adult
illiteracy was not of such a high priority as to call for international
assistance. But efforts to reduce adult illiteracy continue to be part

of government programs in 54 of the 67 RESCO member states (235).

b. The perceived objectives of adult literacy

Literacy is considered by many as a major factor in retarding the
political prOgress of both individuals and societies. UNESCO regards an
illiterate person as "outside public affairs" (2:37). The director of the
Fundamental Centre India considers talks about efficient functioning of
a democratic system of government in a country with high illiteracy as
"empty words without content" (435). Gerardo Flores of the Philippines
regards literacy the basis of effective citizenship:

That effective citizenship depends much upon literacy

is a basic assumption particularly in a democratic country,

where the political power and reSponsibility is assured

only when those who assume the duties and wield the

prerogative of sovereignty are at least functionally

literate (5:2u).

Frederick Breitenfeld refers to Plato's conception of democracy
which requires an enlightened citizenry:

Plato suggested that democracy is a most dangerous social

experiment. He contended that the burden of responsibility

in such a government structure falls upon the individual

citizen, and that this requires that the public be

enlightened, interested and participant (6:u5).

The point of view that an illiterate person is outside politics

seems to find support in Lerner's study of Middle Eastern countries ('7).

According to him, the symbols of modernity are urbanization, literacy,
and media participation, which lead to psychic mobility and skills to
empathize. A person lacking in these characteristics is a "traditional"
who will have no opinions on public matters because "the traditional
man has habitually regarded public matters as none of his business" (7:70).
Lerner is also of the opinion that "constrictiveness" is the trait of a non-
literate, non-urban person. Analyzing the reSponses of a poor 30-year-old
illiterate worker in a village near the Black Sea, he found that the
worker was uninterested in things foreign. He wished to listen to the
newspaper read occasionally, not to form Opinions about what was happening
in the country, but "solely to be informed what the big peOple of the
country were doing." He considered "the big people" his masters (7:150 ).

From evidence in Turkey, Iran, Egypt, Lebanon and Syria, Lerner
came to the conclusion that the "traditional does not participate in
shaping policy; nor does he feel that he 'should'... participate; nor is
he particularly interested in... participating. For him, enlightenment
signifies insecurity, and practical wisdom counsels ignorance" ( 7:151).

Secondly, literacy is considered important for the social develop-
ment of man. It is argued that literacy makes it possible for him to
understand his culture and provides incentive for further progress.
Emphasizing the cultural aspect of literacy the UNESCO Caribbean Commission
observed that:

Illiteracy is at once a symptom and a cause of the deeper

evils of ignorance: ignorance of almost all that man has

discovered through centuries of efforts and which can

enable him to adjust himself better to a constantly changing
environment ( 8:14).

Johnstone's recent survey of adult education in the United States
reveals the interesting pointthat education leads to the desire for further
education; the more education, the more participation in self-improvement
courses. Regardless of types of occupation and level of income, persons
having higher education participated more in adult education activities
than persons having less education (9 ).

Thirdly, illiteracy is considered a block in the communication
system of a society striving for modernity. Lewis observes that even
the working of a small factory depends upon its system of communication
in which every worker from the sweeper to the managing director is called
upon to participate (10:137 ). In a country-wide develoPment program,
the illiteracy of the people may serve as a block in the communication
process. The development authorities may function almost without feedback
from the illiterate receivers who thus may become the weakest link in a
chain of communication and development.

Finally, it is emphasized that illiteracy has adverse effects
on the economic life of the individual and the country. Reduction of
illiteracy is thought essential "to organize more effectively the
production capacity of many people" (10:1H ). Illiteracy is regarded
_a "great barrier to social and economic development" (11:271 ). It is
said to have an adverse effect on the national economy, reducing national
income and lowering farm production (1235” ).

But the monetary return of adult literacy seems to be a complicated
question. The UNESCO proposal (2) examined the economic aSpects of the

program in detail and concluded that "though much can be said to Specify

the benefits of literacy, a monetary statement suitable for comparison

with cost cannot be obtained" (2‘6” ). The main difficulty in calculating
the economic return of literacy, according to Harbison, is the impossibility
of ascertaining how much is really consumption and how much represents
investment (13:1l ). Perhaps for this reason, expenditure on literacy

has so far been relegated to the category of "social service" and has not
been regarded as an investment. Thus "education" has seldom been able to
claim more than four per cent of the gross national product of most of

the underdeveloped countries (2:35_).

Now, however, there seems to be a trend among economists to regard
expenditure on education as an investment and not as "social service".
They put forward the point of view that the return of the expenditure
on education should not be measured in purely economic terms; rather it
should be regarded a long term investment in human resource development.
Sudhir Sen, an outstanding Indian economist, feels that:

Outlay for education and research are now regarded as the

best national investment and, in the long run, the

biggest booster of the gross national product. This is

overwhelmingly true of the developing countries where

without education, economic progress would be inconceivable.

For them, freedom from ignorance remains a precondition for

freedom from want. As a result, mass literacy in those

countries remains an urgent primary task (1“313 ).

In support of his views, Sen quotes Galbraith who expressed the
Opinion at the Rajasthan University convocation in 1961 that expenditure
on education should be regarded an investment and not a "social service".

Galbraith further stressed the point by declaring that "nowhere in the

world is there an illiterate peasantry that is progressive and nowhere is

there a literate peasantry that is not" ( 14:13). Sen also thinks that
population, which is growing at a frightening rate, can never be checked
unless the people can realize that "this upsurge of pOpulation is
jeOpardizing their future economic prospects" and "they can never realize
this as long as they remain illiterate" (14:14).

Perhaps the strongest support for Spending on education comes from
Harbison who, agreeing with Alfred Marshall that "the most valuable of
all capital is that invested in human beings", argues that human resource
develOpment is the key to the total develOpment of a country. In his
Opinion, to measure the return of human resource develOpment solely in
the economic terms is misleading because "the aSpiration for develOpment
is much more than a desire for economic progress. It is a quest as well
for status, prestige, recognition and social and political modernization"
( 13:2 ). The development of human resources of a country should therefore,
in his Opinion, be judged in economic as well as in political, social and
cultural terms:

Human resource development is the process of increasing the

knowledge, the skills, and the capacities of all the peOple

in a society. In economic terms it could be described as the

accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in

the develOpment of an economy. In political terms, human

resource develOpment prepares people for adult participation

in political process, particularly as citizens in a democracy.

From the social and cultural point of view, the development

of human resources help peOple to lead fuller and richer lives,

less bound by tradition (13:2).

On the other hand, he warns that a purely humanistic approach, e.g.,
education for citizenship, education for life, to meet the ends of

political justice "distorts the true meaning of modern man and modern

societies" (13:2).

In his article, "Some Aspects of Educational Planning in Under-
developed Areas," Adam Curle points out the tremendous differences between
the per capita income, standard Of health, rate of literacy, and life
expectancy among the wealthier countries of the world and the underdeveloped
countries. Commenting on the foreign aid that has gone to these countries,
Curle expressed the Opinion that "viewed as a whole, the results have been
disappointing" (15:293). He argues that:

The character of this help has been largely based on the
assumption that the chief lack of the underdevelOped

countries was capital, and the technical personnel required

to form the capital. The assumption is now being vigorously
challenged by many economists, who maintain that underdevelopment
is not merely an economic but also a social phenomenon (15:283 ).

He makes the point that the chief need of underdeveloped countries
is a large body of peOple with changed attitudes, and education is the
chief medium of attitude change:

TO my mind countries are underdeveloped because most of
their people are underdeveloped, having had no Opportunity
Of expanding their potential capacities in the service Of
the society. The main reason for this lack Of Opportunity
lies within the social structure and can only be remedied
when there are enough peOple with a new attitude toward
society. Education in its various forms is the chief
vehicle for changing attitudes. I therefore hold that

the emphasis should not be so much on using people to build
resources, but on using the resources to produce the people
(15:300 ).

CHAPTER II

THE PRESENT PRACTI CES

From the preceding discussion, the Objectives of adult literacy
seem to emerge as follows:

A literate person:

1. Will have Opinions on public affairs,

2. Will be able to understand his culture, developing a new

attitude in tune with the demands of modern times, and

3. Will be able to produce more.

We will examine some of the present efforts to make adults literate
and see what appears to be the minimum standard of literacy after which
it might be expected that the literate adult will be able to attain the

above objectives.

1. The standard and the period Of literacy teaching

a. The standard.

 

The standard of literacy teaching, the period of teaching in some
Of the literacy drives, and the standard recommended by UNESCO are shown
in Appendix C. We can see from this appendix that the standards and the
periods Of teaching differ considerably. Koregaon (India), Tangynika,
and the Philippines provided fOr three months or approximately 72 hours of
training only. After this period of training, Tangynika expected the "new
literates" to be able to write an "original composition" and the
Philippines expected them "to read the newspaper and periodicals and write

familiar notes and notices". 0n the other hand, Traiber's experience in

10

Guatemala shows that, with superior teachers and regular attendance,

it will take about 11 months or 220 hours to attain the ability Of

reading the newSpaper. Turkey expected the new literates to be able

to read at the primary school level after five months or approximately

120 hours of teaching, whereas the US Army program, using superior teachers

and teaching materials, planned to raise the standard Of the soldiers to

the fourth grade level in between 216 to 252 hours of teaching. Venezuela and

Bombay considered only four months (96 and 132 hours respectively) enough

for "becoming literate" and Northern Nigeria was satisfied with only

#0 hours of teaching. Cuba elected to provide systematic teaching of

primary school subjects up to the third and sixth grade levels. Russia

did not consider that illiterate adults would be able to take part in

the "industrial, social and political life" Of the country unless they

had had education up to the fourth grade level in 330 hours of instruction.
The UNESCO experts committee's recommendation avoids mentioning

the period Of teaching and thus lacks specificity. It can, of course,

be argued from UNESCO's definition that if the ability of signing one's

name or reading a simple passage is what is required "for effective

functioning in one's group and community and for active participation in

the life of one's country" that amount of literacy is functional literacy

for that person. (In the discussion of the objectives of adult literacy,

we have seen that literacy is considered desirable because it will enable

the individual to raise productivity, participate in public affairs and

understand his culture. It seems doubtful that a very low level of

ll

literacy will helpthe individuals to engage in the above activities in
most countries except, perhaps, in secluded corners. The countries of
Asia, Africa and Latin America, where illiteracy is high, seem to be
anxious to modernize and catch up with the developed nations of the
world. In these countries, a very low level of literacy is not likely
to help the so-called "new literates" much in the modernization process.

This raises the question of the minimum standard of literacy
before which the adults would not be normally expected to attain functional
literacy, or the ability to use literacy to raise productivity, participate
in public affairs and understand their culture.

Gray conducted a study in the United States making comparisons
between the oral and silent reading abilities of 151 adults with that
normally achieved by children during the same period of schooling. He,
found that "most of the adults who had received less than three years of
schooling were unable to score at all on the tests. By the time they left
school they were not able to read with much ease or efficiency. Because
they later read very little, if at all, they lost the ability" (16:27).
Gray, therefore, concluded that "the equivalent in reading achievement
of that normally acquired in four years of school, and preferably five,
was essential" ( 16:27).

The Philippines provides a constitutional guarantee of four years
of free and compulsory primary education to all children. Flores con-
ducted a nationwide survey (5) in 19u8 to find out whether this period

(A years) was sufficient for fhnctional literacy and effective citizenship.

12

For the purposes Of the study he defined "functional literacy" as:
1. Ability to read and interpret satisfactorily reading matter,
such as ordinary letters, newspapers, notices and signs,

ads and tax receipts.
2. Ability to write an ordinary letter.
3. Ability to make computations involving the four fundamental
rules and to solve problems of day-to-day living.
The survey included 6974 pupils in grades II, III, IV, V, VI
and the first year Of high school, and 6052 adults who had
completed grades II, III, IV, V, VI, and VII. 0n the average
the adults had left school from 15 to 17 years previous to the
testing and were 25 to 35 years of age.

The table below shows his major findings.
Functional Literacy Tests Given to Adults and Children

Highest grade

 

completed Reading Arithmetie__v Writing‘ Language
percent of percent Of percent rated percent rated

cases scoring cases scoring good or fair good or fair
83% or higher 80% or higher
adults child- adults child- adults child- adults child-

ren* ren ren ren

II 6.7 6.5 5.6 2.3 39.6 39.4 20.9 18.5
III 18.9 21.4 15.0 4.2 59.7 62.3 35.0 44.9
IV 31.2 39.2 24.7 13.0 71.7 75.0 52.0 65.3
V 42.4 61.2 33.9 31.1 76.8 85.0 64.2 83.5
VI 62.2 69.7 51.0 44.6 89.0 89.7 80.6 87.0
VII 70.2 63.9 89.8 85.7

*for children, grade II will mean 2 years 6 months, grade III will mean
3 years 6 months, and so on.

13

It will be seen that, except for the children of grade II,
children in all the other grades scored higher than the adults in all
subjects except arithmetic. The low scores of adults might be due to
disuse or because the children of each comparable grade had had six
months more education. But it does not seem that any of the adult group
had forgotten literacy skills to a great extent since their scores
compare well with children's scores. The adults having only second
grade education did equally well in all subjects and better in arithmetic.
Therefore, the second explanation seems more probable. If we rule out
the lowering of abilities to any great extent because of the lapse of
time, the performance of adults who had even four years of education
seems very unsatisfactory. Only about one-third of them scored more
than 80 percent of the total marks in reading, about one-fourth in
arithmetic and, while 71 percent were considered good in writing, only
half of them were considered good in language. A great majority of them
performed well only after seven years of schooling.

0n the basis of this study, Flores recommended seven years of
education for children instead of the constitutional guarantee of four
"to make a learner functionally literate and for useful citizenship."

0n the basis of his experiences in Egypt, Khatir recommended in
his proposal to UNESCO that functional literacy cannot be achieved before
adults acquire the same abilities of the 3 Rs which a child does after
six years of schooling (1?).

From Appendix C it will be seen that the US Army program provided

14

education up to the fourth grade level, and Cuba provides education
up to the third and the sixth grades.

A study conducted in India by Gadgil (18) (the Gokhle Institute
of Politics and Economics) in 1941, seems pertinent in showing the rates
of relapse into illiteracy and retention of literacy skills after the
completion of different elementary school grades. The study was under-
taken to investigate causes of relapse into illiteracy of the primary school
dropouts in a particular district. About 2500 adults between the ages of
15 and 45 were tested. The sample was drawn from the ex-pupils of different
types of rural schools who had completed grades II, III and IV between the
years 1911 and 1936, i.e., the sample covered exppupils of 25 years.

The test to measure the lapse into illiteracy "was deliberately
put at a very low level of attainment". (18:14 ). It consisted of three
small paragraphs in simple Marathi (Appendix D). The paragraphs were
selected from books eSpecially produced for new literate adults by the
government of the state. These were printed on one sheet in fairly bold
type. The test consisted in a person reading any one, or parts of more
than one (in case he found one paragraph difficult) with understanding,
i.e., when the reader was able to convey, in the main, what the passage
communicated" (18:12). "Fluency of reading or correct pronunciation were
not taken into account. It was laid down to be sufficient, if while a
person was reading aloud, others could follow what he was reading" (18:14).

TO measure writing ability, two lines from any one of the passages

selected were dictated. "In the test almost no attention was, of course,

15

paid to correct orthography. Not only was the correct writing of

compound letters and of long and short vowels and nasals neglected but

also any corruption in the writing of words which fOllowed from the

current rural usage was also neglected. The omission of a letter in writing

was also condoned if this was clearly the result of insufficient attention

and not an indication of the inability to write the letter" (18:14 ). The

investigators were conscious of this low level of measurement. As they

themselves Observed: "It must be said that the writing ability test defined

a very low level of attainment and that even with a slightly more rigorous

measure perhaps as many as 5 percent of the total number of persons would

have, in addition, been adjudged as not retaining writing ability" (18:15).
The results of the investigation are shown below.

Survey Results Classifying the Standard
at the Time Of Leaving School

 

Standard Literate* Semi literate* Illiterate* Total
II , number 503 132 117 752
percent 66.9 17.5 15.6 100
III number 741 69 34 844
percent 87.8 8.2 4.0 100
IV number 818 17 9 844
percent 96.9 2.0 1.1 100
IV number 230 l - 231
passed percent 99.6 0.4 - 100

 

*literates - those who had passed both the reading and the writing tests,
. were regarded as not having lapsed.
semi
literates - those who passed the reading test but not the writing test, were
- regarded as having lapsed.

illiterates - those who failed to pass either test were regarded as having
lapsed.

16

It will be seen from the above results that out of those who
passed the II standard, 33.1 percent relapsed into illiteracy and out
of those who passed the III standard 12.2 percent relapsed. Only a very
small percentage relapsed among those who had completed the III standard
and had entered the IV. But there was only one case of relapse among
those who had passed the IV standard. "The partial relapse was due to
the inability in writing of the person tested owing to an injury to his
arm." On the basis of the study the researchers concluded that: "on
the whole it might be said that literacy is lasting among pupils who have
passed the III standard and gone into the IV" (18:35).

It should be noted here that during the years in which these exp
pupils were in school the pupils spent almost all their time in learning
the 3 Rs as the activity-oriented curriculum was not in vogue then. Secondly,
as the researchers themselves admit, the tests measured a very low level

of attainment.

b. The period of teaching

If the level of achievement equivalent to the 4th grade of elementary
school is considered the minimum standard of functional literacy in most
cultures, one very important question arises: how long will a normal adult
take to attain that level of achievement? It is generally accepted that
an adult will take less time than a child. But how much less? This becomes
a crucial question as the literacy classes are set up and financed on the
basis of the duration of the teaching period. In some countries the total

period is divided into stages, e.g., pre-literacy and post-literacy, or

17

first, second and third stages Of literacy. Usually in the first

stage, the teacher introduces the alphabet and provides a certain amount of
primer reading and writing practice. Generally it is assumed that since

the person can recognize the letters and put them together to verbalize

the word he has become "literate." Therefore, class teaching and attendance
is considered necessary only in the first stage. In the subsequent stages
the learner is usually left to his own devices. In our experience the
result of this system of teaching is that the great majority of the students
discontinue reading and writing with the discontinuance of class teaching.
The skills which they acquire in the first stage are so rudimentary that
they cannot be applied to any practical purpose. Therefore, by the minimum
period for the attainment of functional literacy we mean the period of class
teaching (as in the case of children).

We have come across very little evidence concerning the question of
how long an adult takes to attain the 4th grade level except the following:
1. The US Army program of literacy teaching during World War II is con-
sidered an outstanding example of short-term successful literacy teaching.
We will discuss this program in detail both to examine the factors leading
to the success of the program and the results themselves. The discussion
is based on the following two sources:

a. Eli Ginzberg's study "The Uneducated" (l9), and,

b. Samuel Goldberg's "Army Training of Illiterates in

World War II" (20).
During World War II, 716,000 men (about half whites and half

Negroes) were rejected from the Army service because they were adjudged as

18

"mentally deficient." What it virtually meant was that they had such a
low level of education that they could not be expected to perform their
military duties. In May, 1941, the Army adOpted a new policy which laid
down that "No registrant in the continental United States will be induced
into the military service who does not have the capacity of reading and
writing the English language as commonly prescribed for the fourth grade
in grammar schools." (20:64 )

Prior to June 1, 1943, there were a large number of training units
which tried to raise the level of education of the marginal recruits. In
June, 1943, these units were reorganized into 24 large Special Training
Units, and they were established at reception centers. The main purpose
of these STUs was to raise the level of education of the different types
of illiterate men (illiterates, Grade V men, physically handicapped, and
mentally disturbed) to the fourth grade level and provide them with basic military
training within 8-12 weeks. Only in special cases could a recruit stay
at the STUs for 16 weeks. The STUs were closed on December 31, 1945.

From June 1, 1943 until the close of the units, 302,838 illiterates,
54 percent whites and 46 percent Negroes, were received at STUs (20:169).

Of these the following number had qualified at the close of the units.

19

Number of Persons Who Qualified
and Were Discharged From the STUs

 

 

length of period Whites Negroes Total Percent
less than 30 days* 60,824 48,221 109,045 42.5
30 to 60 days* 48,614 42,619 91,233 36.5
60 to 90 days* 21,177 22,089 43,266 17.0
90 to 120 days* 4,366 6,362 10,728 4.0

Total 134,981 119,291 254,272 100.0

4persons __discharged**
24,826 19,673 44,499

 

*Neither Goldberg nor Ginzberg have stated anywhere in their books the
period of instruction per day. Homer Kempfer states the total period of
instruction as 216-252 hours for the entire duration of the course (21:98)

i.e., for 12 weeks. It might be remembered that the man were sent to the

STUs mainly for literacy training. Therefore, the period given by Kempfer

appears to us rather short. It works out as 3 hours per day (84 days minus

12 Sundays = 72 days). What were the soldiers doing the rest of the day?

According to Goldberg they were expected to spend about one-third of the

time in military training. If we include the military training within

the regular working hours, even then the working hour for a day comes

to only four hours. We tried to find out the period of instruction per day

through Army manuals and Goldberg. The MSU library was not successful in

x getting the manuals on loan and the letter to Goldberg was returned to us

undelivered. '

We suspect that the soldiers spent 8 hours per day in the STUs, out of which

they would have spent about five and a half hours per day (2/3rd of the time)

in literacy training. The basis of the suspicion is as follows:

1. The instructors of the STUs were required to undergo training in the

troop schools for indoctrination and in-service training. Regarding
the time to be Spent by the instructors in the troop schools the basic
MObilization Training Program for the STUs states as fOllows:
The Operation of trOOps schools is considered an indispensable
part of the training program. Training will be provided for all
instructors to prepare them to conduct the military and/or
academic training prescribed by this prOgram and to insure that a
high level of instruction is maintained. The time required for
troops schools should be in addition.to.the.regular 8-hour
training day. (20:2417Y.
(underline ours)
The last sentence indicates to us that the soldiers were required to

 

 

 

20

It will be seen from the above table that 85.1 percent graduated
and only 14.9 did not. Of those who graduated, 79 percent did so in 60
days or less.

To test the capacity Of men for the purposes of the Army, it gave
new soldiers the Army General Classification Test and classified them
into categories. This test measured vocabulary, arithmetic and block-

counting. The categories in which the men used to be placed were as

 

follows:
Categories in Which the Men Used to be Placed
According to the AGCT.

standard score Armygrade classification categggy
130+ I very rapid learners
110-129 II rapid learners
90-109 III average learners
70-89 IV slow learners

Below 69 V very slow learners

(20:42)

The 85.1 percent of the men who graduated from the STUs were

classified in the following categories as determined by the AGCT.

 

Spend 8 hours per day in getting training at the STUs.

2. The complaint of the soldier regarding the length of the period of
training (page 28), though what the soldier means does not seem to
be clear.

3. An ex-army American citizen told the author in a discussion regarding
the STUs program that all educational programs in the Army were on
8 hours a day basis and that military training was done in extra
time. He was not sure of the pattern in the STUs.

It will be interesting to find out the period of instruction in the STUs.
If it was about five and half hours per day then it will mean that the 79
percent who qualified in 60 or less than 60 days spent from about 165 to
330 hours in getting literacy training.

**4067 not accounted for as they were transferred to non-duty status.

21

Categories in Which Qualified Men were Placed

Percent of men_graduated from STUs

AGCT grade White Negro Total
I .00 .00 .00
II .04 .01 .03
III 1.17 .32 .77
IV 69.49 50.76 60.69
V 29.30 48.91 38.51
Total 100.0 100.0 100.0
(20:261)

It will be seen that about 61 percent of the men qualified at the
Army IV level (which was approximately equal to the school grade IV (20:279)),
were adjudged by the Army test as "slow learners" and about 39 percent
as "very slow learners." The Army accepted that the fourth grade reading
ability represented only a "reasonable critical level for selectees" (202279)
but perhaps accepted the standard because of the pressing demand for men
for active duty. As we shall see later, several men complained about
the short duration of the training program. But according to Ginzberg
"from the military point of view this was not a shortcoming since many
of the men were able to perform at a generally satisfactory level after
a period of instruction of no more than two months" (19‘135).

It seems a remarkable achievement to gain the fourth grade level
in 60 days or less by the great majority of men possessing nil to various
levels of literacy. The Army did not pin its faith on any particular

system of teaching as embodied in a primer, as many who adopt short-cut

22
methods seem to do. On the other hand, the Army provided the best
possible learning situations. Some of the factors which accelerated
the learning process seem to be as follows:
1. The men had a strong incentive to learn to read and write, not only
because success in the exam was a prerequisite to being absorbed in the
Army, but also because writing was often the only means by which they
could communicate with their families.
2. The teaching of literacy and military techniques were integrated.
The men had Opportunities to apply immediately what they learned in the
class.
3. The classes were taught by well qualified and highly trained teachers
and regularly supervised by highly qualified persons. The qualifications

of teachers employed by the STUs is shown below.

Number and Qualification of Teachers

 

Educational
Background ' Qualifications
uniformed teachers civilian teachers

Ph.D or Ed.D degree 8 -
Master's degree 90 5
Graduate work* 55 ll
Bachelor's degree 233 23
3 years of college 7 91 -
2 years of college 37 -
1 year of college 37 -
High school graduates 37 -
Did not complete H.S. 12 -
Miscellaneous - -
Total 600 46

*not culminating in graduate degree.

23

To ensure high standards of training, the supervisors and the in-
structors were required to participate in continuous in-service training
courses. Three courses were held at the national level, several at the
command level, in addition to regular weekly courses for most of the in-
structors in the 'Troop Schools' in each STU. It was Specified in the
Mobilization Training Program for STUs that these troop schools were to
function as an "indispensable part of the training program... for all
instructors to prepare them to conduct the military and/or academic training
prescribed by this program and to insure that a high level of instruction
is maintained." (20:241) The wide range of topics covered in the service
courses is given in Appendix E.

The qualification and training of teachers in the usual literacy
drives, some of which also claim to turn out functional literates in short
periods, is, on an average, 5-6 years of schooling, followed by a training
of 1-2 weeks. Some claim to have invented such fool proof methods that
"a teacher can be trained in the method within two hours only." (2233 )-
Sometimes even a barely literate person is considered educated enough to
"teach" the illiterates as was the case in the Ghana mass literacy drive
of 1952. In one instance, when the enthusiasm of the women to become
literate became too great to resist "everyone from the lorry driver's
mate to the cinema van crew was pressed into service to teach literacy."
(23:85) The Christian Council Of Churches which was helping in the campaign
appealed to all its iterate members to serve as teachers and stressed that,
"It is not only those who have reached standard 7 who are needed, but

anyone who can read and write the vernacular. You will not have to stand

24

up and teach large classes, but, rather sit down with small groups and
individuals." (23:194)

4. The Army used a large number of teaching materials, well graded and
Specifically written for the program, including visual aids. It also
provided continuous pedagogical guidance to the teachers through teachers'
manuals and periodical publications (see Appendix B).

We may now examine the background of the men who qualified from the
well planned short courses of the STUs to get an idea of the level of
reading and writing which they finally attained.

The men who attained the "fourth grade" level in 120 days or less
were not totally illiterate. The table below shows the previous education
of men who were processed at the reception centers from Dec. 1, 1942, to
Dec. 31, 1942, and classified as "illiterate".

Highest Grade Completed by Men Processed at

Reception Centers and Classified "Illiterate"
(all types) Between Dec. 1, 1942-Dec. 31, 1942

Highest School

 

Grade Completed Number Percent
12-4 3713 21.6
3 3304 19.3
2 3569 20.8
1 2650 15.4
0 3925 22.9
Total 17,161 100.0 (20:74)

It should be noted that these men were processed before June 1, 1943,

25

to Dec. 31, 1945. It is not known whether these were the men who were

sent to the STUs, and who later qualified between June 1, 1943 and

Dec. 31, 1945. However, all the men at all the STUs were given an

initial grade placement test and were placed in graded classes according
to their existing levels of literacy. The class levels were roughly
equivalent to the first four grades of elementary school (20:75). The
following tables show the number of men and their initial level of literacy
in 14 STUs, drawn as a representative sample from all STUs.

Initial Grade Placement of Men in Five
STUs (1943)

Initial Grade

 

Placement Number Percent
IV* 233 29.5
III 130 16.1
II 153 19.0
I** 289 35.9
Total 805 100.0
(20:75)

Initial Grade Placement of Men in Nine
Different STUs (1944-1945)

Initial Grade

 

Placement Number Percent
IV* 404 27.0
III 281 18.8
II 291 19.5
1* 518 34.7
Total 1494 100.0
(20:76 )

*very slow learners
**might be regarded as totally illiterate

26

These tables show that about 45 percent of the trainees who qualified
from the STUs already had education up to the III and the IV grade level,
and about 54 percent between grades II and I. It should, however, be
mentioned that the majority of those placed in Grade IV were "Grade V
men" (very slow learners) as classified by the AGCT. This may mean that
though they had had education up to the IV grade they had forgotten the
skills of reading and writing, perhaps because of disuse. Compared to the
Maharashtra (India) ex—four graders (18) this is somewhat surprising. The
median age of the Army men was about 24 years. (20:73 ) This means that
they left school about 14-15 years previously. On the other hand the
Maharashtra adults had left school 25 years ago and had made little
use of reading and writing, but not one had relapsed into illiteracy.

The success of those who qualified during the short period of Army
training can now be judged in better persPective. The success may be
partly due to the fact that a large number of these men had once acquired
the skills roughly equal to those that the program sought to impart as
pointed out by Goldberg:

It is well to bear in mind, however, that approximately

45 percent of entering trainees started at the third-

and fourth-grade levels. (20:275)

But on the whole, the success of the Army prOgram was "phenomenal."
Of those who were initially classified at the first grade level and who
were, in fact, totally illiterate, 61.6 percent learned to read at the
fourth grade level in sixteen weeks of instruction (20:277).

Six years after demobilization, an evaluation was undertaken to

27

find out if the men liked the classes and if the classes helped them get

along better in the Army and in civilian life (19:127). The Army records

that existed after the war permitted a sampling of the trainees of three
units only. The sample consisted of 400 men, 200 whites and 200 Negroes.
0f the 400, 92 had failed in the program and 308 had qualified. Out of

the 400, 26 percent had had less than four years of Schooling (19:96).

The questionnaire was sent to 328 men. Of those who received it (260),

just over half of them replied. According to Ginzberg, there was no doubt

that the "overwhelming burden of the replies as to whether the Special
training had contributed to the soldiers adjustment in the Army was
favorable." ( 19:128 But as we are interested in the reading and writing
ability attained by the men, we will focus on this point only.

(1) From their replies it seems that at least some of them had acquired
satisfactory standards and could write well as the following extracts
show:

a. "They helped me understand about army life and also helped me
to write home. If I hadn't gone to school I wouldn't have
been able to write home."

b. "I could scarcely write my name when I went into service.
After my schooling 1 did all my writing."

(2) Some. felt that the classes were helpful, but the period was too
short; for example:
a. "My wife is filling this out for me, I don't have enough education
to fill it myself. So as you see I need more education bad if

possible."

b. "I think the ideal of the classes was good but they was not
long enough. 0 o o I!

28

(3) Some that felt the classes did help them in learning to read and
write could express themselves only with difficulty:

a. "1. I wood not have been any good at all because I could not
write ny name before I went in the army. The army has help
me a lots in meny ways.

2. it Learn me how to write and Spell Just I want to no more
about Those Things - which I did not have a chance to get in

my going up days."

b. "I was just a country boy and I didn't get much school but
when I went in the army I couldnt write my name, but just as
you see I can write and by that you know that the school is
Helping me and other to My daddy taking sick and I Hand to
work and didn't get much education But now I h0pe that you
will understand.

Listen I will like for you to do something for me we got to
set in school from 5-30 in to 11-30 at night and dont have
no break I want you to try and do some thing about it.
Because it is Heart on us and work every day. Please.

Sinc"

(4) Some wrote that the classes did not help them and it is evident from

their writing, for example:

"dear sur.

I have just Rec. your letter about the School I had in the army.
and I have and all I can about it. But I would like to say that

if you want to use my name in your Report you can but the school
have not help me at all. Sent I bin out I have megre to get by so
far. So I will close

Very truly yours."

In the study sponsored by UNESCO, Gray recommended 240 to 428 hours
of teaching to adults for the attainment of functional literacy, roughly
equal to the fourth grade level (16: Ch. VIII and XI).

A child spends about 3736 hours in the United States in reading and

allied activities from grades I through IV (*). According to Dr. Kempfer,

*calculation based on An Overview of Elementary Education, Lansing Public
Schools, Lansing, 1962: 5-15.

29

children usually spend 6400 to 8000 hours in the first eight grades

(21:98 ). He further reports that in New York City evening elementary
schools in 4 years of 100 nights each, 2 hours per night, i.e., 800 hours,
illiterate adults are able to learn enough to qualify for the eighth grade
diploma (21:98 ). This may mean that pr0portionally an adult may take

400 hours for completing the fourth grade or one-tenth of the time which
a child usually takes to complete the same grade. This period tallies
approximately with Gray's maximum of 428 hours.

During 1960-61, Florence State College in Alabama conducted an
experiment in the eradication of adult illiteracy by the use of television
instruction (24). The teaching materials used were Dr. Laubach's Streamlined
English (picture association and key word method), with picture word cards,
phonetic cards, phonetic wall charts, phono word wheels and 37 supplementary
books (24:56) and a special weekly newspaper, the Lamplighter.

In all, 608 students enrolled in the classes, 328 whites and 280
Negroes. Of these, 254 continued and 354 or 58.2 percent drapped out before
the end of the course. Among the dropouts, 62.8 percent were whites and
53.5 percent Negroes. The median age of all students was 42.4 years;

90 students below 40, and 164 forty and above, completed the course. (24:22).
The classes contained illiterates and semi-literates as shown in the

following table.

30

 

Highest Grade Attended Completed

as Reported by Enrollees Enrolled DrOpped—out Course
5+ 128 75 53

4 47 23 24

3 102 60 42

2 95 57 38

l 61 41 20

O 127 70 57

not given 29 18 11

N 589 344 245

(24:24)

The table shows that of those who were left, a little more than
21 percent had had as much as 5 years of schooling and a little more than
23 percent , none. The level typical of the group was two to three years
of schooling. According to the teachers' evaluation, most of the students
who continued in the courses were highly motivated (24:45 ).

There were four types of classes: Representative TV (enrollment 435),
Representative person-to-person (in places where the TV reception was
poor, enrollment 120), Repeater TV (those who had completed a previous
course, enrollment 17), and Non-English TV (enrollment 15).

The first lesson was telecast on Wednesday night, September 28, 1960,
from 8:30 to 9:00. Thereafter the lessons were telecast on every Monday,
Wednesday and Friday night, with the exception of the Christmas holidays
(24:10). Each telecast lesson was preceeded by one-half hour of supervised
teaching providing additional help in "reading, writing, and ear training."

(24:11 )

31

To measure the level of achievement of the adult students, four
informal tests especially constructed for the project were given while
the fifth and final test was the Primary II level of the Metropolitan
Reading Test. (24:27 ) The dates on which the tests were given and the

period of teaching are shown in the table below:

Dates of Testing and Period of Teaching

 

 

Test ' Date Period of Teaching
weeks hours

1 Oct. 7 1 3

2 Nov. 21 7 21

3 Jan. l3 14 40

4 Apr. 17 25 75

5 May 12 29 87

Only 181 students from the TV group (out of 435 who initially
enrolled) and 45 from the person-to-person group (out of 120 who initially
enrolled) stayed throughout the school year and took the final standardized
test (24:28 ). But it seems that all the students in the TV group did not
take all the prescribed tests (four out of five) as the final results are
reported only for 173 students.

The first informal test was given on October 7, both to the ex-
perimental groups and children in the early months of the second grade

of Alabama schools. The results are shown in the table below.

32

Score Distribution of the Two Adult Groups and
of Second Grade Pupils on Informal Test No. 1

Second Grade

 

 

Score TV completed P-P Completed children

25 21 5 47

22-24 33 6 46

17-21 34 8 38

12-16 16 8 36

7-11 18 2 11

0-6 2O 14 2

No. of cases 142 43 180
Median 19.0 14.9 21.6

Neither of the experimental groups did as well as the children in
the early months of the second grade on the initial test. Considering the
simple nature of the test consisting of matching words of every day use
and simple sentences (average length 5.4 words) with pictures, we might
say that those who scored between 0-6, i.e., one-seventh of the TV group
and one-third of the P-P group were practically illiterate. But the
rest possess reading ability in varying degrees.

The result of the final Metropolitan reading test, comparing the
adults with a national group of children and not with the Alabama schools
is given below. The final test was given after 29 weeks or 87 hours of

instruction.

33

Distribution of Grade Equivalents for Part Scores
of Metropolitan Reading Test for TV and P-P Groups

 

 

Grade Equiv. Word Knowledge Word Discrimination Reading

32_ P-P TV P-P TV P-P

3.2+ 25 5 32 4 20 11

2.8-3.1 19 8 24 8 24 8
2.4-2.7 49 13 41 9 20 4
1.9-2.6 44 6 27 8 41 8
1.5-1.8 17 8 23 8 28 6
No. of cases 173 45 172 42 171 44
Median 2.40 2.49 2.46 2.35 2.12 2.45

 

The results indicate that on the three sections of the test the
adults at the end of the program (after 87 hours of instruction) performed
at the level of children about half way through the second grade. There
was no notable difference in the performance of the TV vs. P-P group
except in the case of the lower scores the TV group on reading.

It should be noted that this is the level of achievement of 218
(173+45) persons out of the 555 who initially enrolled in these two groups
(TV 435 + P-P 120). The teaching method used several visual aids in
addition to the text books, a large number of supplementary books and a
special newspaper. It took 87 hours for this apparently highly motivated
group to achieve the level of two and a half grades of elementary school.
Thus proportionally it might have taken them 136 (34 hours for each grade)
hours to achieve the fourth grade level. If allowance is made for their

initial level of achievement, which was two to three grades, then we

34

should add another 68 to 102 hours (prOportionate time for completing
grade II and III) to the 136 hours which would amount to 204-238 hours for
attaining fourth grade level.

The evidence discussed above seems to indicate that an illiterate
adult might require the following number of hours to attain fourth grade

level reading ability:

Gray 240-428 hours
New York City Evening Sch. 400 hours
U.S. Army 216-252*hours
Alabama Study 204-238 hours

The range is fairly wide, 204-428 hours. Regarding these periods of
teaching, it will be necessary to note the environmental factors and the
methods of teaching used. The students (even in some of Gray's earlier
studies on which the main recommendations seems to be based) belonged to
a literate society in which the social and economic life of an illiterate
person is handicapped. Therefore, it may not be incorrect to assume that
the students had a high motivation to learn to read. Secondly, all the
prOgrams used (and Gray recommended) well qualified and trained teachers,
a number of visual aids, a series of graded text books and supplementary
books having content of adult interest, discussions and demonstrations,
and devices which made it possible to put to immediate use the skills
learned in the class in solving problems of interest and practical use.
In the usual literacy class in develOping countries these conditions are
seldom met. Therefore, it seems more probable that the students in these
countries will not require the minimum but the maximum period of teaching

to attain functional literacy.

*or 165-330 hours

35

We will examine in the next section the extent and nature of
motivation among illiterates in some of the developing countries and the

consequences of literacy, using both short and long periods of teaching.

2. Motivation for learningito read and write

The reason for wanting to become literate and the consequences of
literacy are mostly available in the form of articles and books. These
are generally based on the experiences of persons connected with adult
education. We have come across very few independent studies. The

following accounts show the extent and nature of motivation.

Motivation for reading_§nd writing.
1. Dr. Laubach reports that he taught a cannibal tribe in New Guinea to
read in a week. The cannibals became so excited over their achievement
that the next week when Dr. Laubach and his party left "fifteen thousand
peoPle swarmed on the airfield, marching, dancing....to celebrate the
greatest event in their life" (25:67). It is, however, possible that the
excitement was not so much on having become literate but on the prospects
of a new faith, since the chief told them, "This is the new great day in
our history. We like your religion because it does so much for us. We
are all going to be Christians." (25:67)

Similarly Dr. Laubach organized short term literacy drives in the
Moro Province of Lanao in the Philippines during the 1930's. The work is
reported as a great success. The Manaraw language had sixteen sounds for

which Dr. Laubach adopted an alphabet using one Roman letter for each

36

sound and only one sound for each letter (2623). He believed that "every
student learning to read Maranaw can pronounce every word in his language
as soon as he knows the sound of just sixteen letters. Those he can easily
learn in two days" (26:4). And when he had the primer ready which was
easy to read and easy to teach, he reports that "hundreds and then thousands
of peOple came to ask for lessons." (26:7). The "tremendous succesS"
is further reported in these words:

"We had a large poster with a picture of a thermometer on it

and each week we recorded how many illiterates our volunteer

teachers told us they had taught. The number went up 300,500,

1,000 a week until our thermometer showed 70,000 people, which

was 70 percent of the entire province" (26:8).
2. Cartright gives the account of the Baylore Literacy Centre intwo cities,
Abilene in Texas, and Clovis in New Mexico. He describes a class in session
to show the deep interest of the learners:

"The class room is drafty and dimly lit. At one end of the

room near the small gas heater the students are gathered.

They don't seem to notice the chill. And though the lights

are dim, the smile on a young student's face is bright as

she proudly reads aloud the simple sentence "This is a cup"

(12)
3. A literacy campaign was started in Tanganyika in 1951, covering the North
Pare mountain district and the Nbulu district in the south (27). The
Pare were a progressive and enterprising peOple. Some 90% of the children
were going to schools built by direct communal effort. Education equipped
them for employment in the town and cities. The total pepulation was

100,000. By December 1952, 2000 adults were attending 120 classes and

850 qualified after a period of three months. The report speaks of the

37

widespread enthusiasm of the Pare peOple:

"During 1951, the campaign Spread of its own momentum
down the mountain slope to the foothills and the plains
below, and by the end of the year almost the whole of the
two chieftains of North Pare were covered...." (27:164)

One of the supervisors, Mr. Masson, writes about the strong
interest of the students who remained in the classes:

"The sobering fact for the expert in teaching techniques is
that these people, without a trained teacher and without

any equipment other than the literacy primer and a patch of
sand, are Struggling toward literacy at, as far as I could
judge, more or less the same rate as those on whom we expend
our resources of training and apparatus! What matters in
literacy, however, is the will to learn." (27:164)

By 1953 the tempo of the campaign slowed down because of a poor
harvest and the less enthusiastic response of the southerly people "who
are considerably more backward than their fellow tribesmen of the North"
(27:164).

4. Anna Lorenzetto of the UNLA (Italy) Speaks about the great enthusiasm
of the farmers in southern Italy in Spite of the absence of jobs:

"But in Spite of all this the people are so intensely anxious

to learn that peasants and shepherds will unhesitantly make
considerable sacrifices to learn to read. In some cases this

means a long walk to class in all kinds of weather, after a

heavy day's work."

This desire to 1earn--both for its own sake, and as a means
to better jobs and social position--is so strongly felt that
adult education activities seem to represent at one and the
same time a way of developing potentialities in tune with the
times and a real hepe for the future..." (28:71)

Analyzing the reasons for attendance in continuing education classes

in the United States, Cyril Houle found that one of the types, which he called

38

the learning oriented "consisted of participants who sought knowledge for
its own sake." ‘They had "an itch to learn," and whatever the course
offered, they would be there. (29)
5. Margaret Wrong visited six African countries.during 1944-45 and studied
educational work eSpecially done by different missions. She reported "much
evidence of demand for literacy among both men and women as they discovered
that reading is relevant to their interests" (30:71). She found that some
African women came for a course on child welfare and "at the end of the
course they asked for copies of the charts and the lessons used because
'we wish to teach other women how to keep death from the door of the hut,
but without these lessons we shall make mistakes and forget'" (30:71).
In some places the interest was due to the desire to read in the Bible,
in others it was to keep up with their children who were going to school
or to read and write letters. (30:71)
6. Some seem to feel great satisfaction when they are able to read and
write, and the ability seems to boost their morale: witness this letter
written by a student who had learned to read and write English in a
literacy class in the Cameroons (the course lasted from 18 to 24 months):

"In 1953 I was an illiterate, always surprised when some one

is reading and writing. Sometimes I may think he is what

is called an angel, sometimes when I think over and over again

but could not discover what he is doing I simply say he may

be looking at the black dots on the paper. And now I can read

and write which is what I believed I couldn't do, I should

thank God for my knowledge." (31:31)

7. Alva Graham labels Frank Traiberh literacy work in Guatemala in the

State of Jutiapa as "phenomenal." (32) Traiber got 63 volunteer supervisors

39

interested in the literacy drive who in turn enrolled 1000 volunteers

and 10,000 students. The students persisted in the classes and had a
feeling of great self confidence when they were able to follow written
instructions; for example, how to build a latrine. (32:23) They also
became interested in their children's education. The high interest
reported of the illiterates sharply contrasts with their poor economic
and health conditions. The students suffered from malnutrition so much
that their attention fluctuated. Vision of students over 40 constituted
a problem. A U.S. citizen tried to gather thousands of used frames,

some with glasses, to help meet the needs of older people. In one in—
stance Graham writes "It was sad to observe the frustration of a 60 year
old whose partner with glasses had not come to the class on a rainy day."
(32:23) One might wonder what reward these people foresaw in becoming
literate when they could not even afford reading glasses. Perhaps this
group, too, like the ones reported by Lorenzetto and Cyril Houle, was
interested in literacy for its own sake. The reported interest of these
Guatemalans in becoming literate is quite different from the report from
Viet Nam sent to UNESCO which said, "Very poor people With large families
who have to work so painfully hard all day for the daily bowl of rice are
not much interested in literacy" (2:30). However, more persons were
enrolled in the adult literacy classes in Viet Nam than in the United Arab
Republic although the UAR had 60% more illiteracy and the total population
was a little less than double that of Viet Nam. Similarly Spain was

about equal in illiteracy rate with a total pOpulation more than double

40

that of Viet Nam, but the literacy class enrollment figure for Viet Nam
was much higher than that of Spain. (Appendix B)

8. During the 1943-56 literacy campaign in Haiti there were 525 literacy
classes with a total enrollment of 16,046 which comes to about 30 students
per class. In one of the rural classes there were 120 pupils of all ages,
reading five hours every day. However, the Creole language classes were
not very popular with the illiterates as they wanted to learn French, the
language of the elite (33:100).

9. Mallam Ahmadu, in giving an account of the North Nigeria literacy
campaign of 1946, talks of the great enthusiasm of the people. He reports
that the youth of one village formed a society and refused to admit any
one who was illiterate. Some women, having seen a neighboring village
nicely laid out with communal roads, "threatened to leave their husbands
unless they, too, could attend a literacy class so as to become 'qualified'
for a better laid out village. In fact literacy became one of the three
prime requisites in a village: bicycle, literacy and wife" (34:39). The
reason for the enthusiasm is attributed mostly "to the social prestige which
is enjoyed particularly in Muslim communities. They receive the honorary
title of "mallam" (scholar) (35:55). The literacy which they were supposed
to acquire was given in 30-40 lessons of one hour each (35:57).

These accounts indicate high interest, at least on the part of some
illiterates, in learning to read. The enrollment figures from different
countries for 1953-54 and 1954-55 reported in UNESCO'S World Survey of

Education are given in Appendix F. The average enrollment per class ranges

41

*from 20 to 105 with a median of 30. The enrollment figures reported

by UNESCO in the proposed World Campaign for Universal Literacy (2) are
shown in Appendix B. These figures too indicate on the whole satisfactory
enrollment in the classes, from a low of 5 per class in Cyprus (illiteracy
5-7%) and Jordan (illiteracy 30%) to a high of 179 per class in Tunisia
(illiteracy 60-70%). The average enrollment per class in countries having

varying degrees of illiteracy comes as follows:

 

 

 

Percent of illiteracy No. of Countries Average Enrollment
21 to 40 7 45
41 to 60 6 21
61 to 80 5 62
81 to 100 (in some regions) 4 26

Enrollment figures alone are, however, not sufficient proof of
continued motivation. Unless we know what the daily average attendance
was and how many of those who enrolled in the beginning continued until
the end of the course we do not have the complete picture. The accounts
studied do not give these figures except for the CENTO literacy seminar
report which gives the enrollment and drop-out figures in the adult
literacy classes in Turkey. At the beginning of the 1960-61 academic
year, the total enrollment in all the three types of literacy classes
(classified by level of instruction) was 317,416. The cumulative period
of teaching 5 months. "But attendance drapped all the way through, and
only 81,450 people completed the courses satisfactorily. Thus only 26%

of the peOple who enrolled actually completed the courses" (36:34).

42

It seems probable that the total enrollment figure supplied to UNESCO
by the Turkish government (Appendix B) is the figure of the same year,
i.e., 1961-62, as the difference between the government figure (317,600)
and the CENTO report figure (317,416) is slight. If so, only about 5
persons of the 19 in an average class remained until the end of the five-
month course and completed it satisfactorily. This figure of course,
does not indicate a high interest on the part of a large number of persons
in learning to read and write.
The Turkish situation seems to support UNESCO'S observation about
the problem of attendance in classes all over the world:
"Reports from all areas Showed that although adults may
often express the desire to learn to read and write,
and a1though--especially when literacy campaigns are
in progress--there is initially an enthusiastic reSponse,
attendance at literacy classes often dwindles. Eventually,
only those men and women remain who--for some reason clear
to themselves--really feel a need for becoming literate." (2:30)
How do the drop-out rates from adult literacy classes compare with
the elementary school drOp-outs? Data regarding school drop-out for
15 countries is given in Appendix G. The data indicate that the schools,
like the adult literacy classes, face heavy drop-outs in most of the
develOping countries. Of 100 students who enroll in grade one, 21.6%

drop-out in grade four in Puerto Rico, whereas 91.4% drOp-out in Haiti.

The median is 61.0%, and India and Burma occupy the median position.

Whatever the number of persons interested in becoming literate,

what are their expectations reward? What values do they attach to learning

43

which prompts them to join classes?

The most prominent drives, which

can be inferred from various accounts of literacy campaigns and a few

studies, seem to be:

a. self satisfaction, self improvement for its own sake,

(21).(27),(29),(4o).(39), and

b. social prestige. (36)(4).

The idea of direct ' economic gains" seems to enter with advanced education.

That it occupies a low position in the scale of values of illiterates can

be seen from the following studies.

1. James Le Vine and Arthur Dale conducted a study,in Hawaii in 1963(?)

to "gain information concerning selected personal social characteristics

of students and their reported reasons for enrolling" (37:135) in the seven

types of adult education courses provided by the public high school

system. The salient reasons for enrolling in three types of courses by

different groups of participants is given below.

Salient Reported Values

 

Course Number of persons Values determining_enrollment
Basic Males N=27l Learn to Speak and write English(m,f)
elementary Females N=851 Learn more-about the country (m,f)
28.9% of the total Independence: stand on my own two
enrollment in all the feet, do things for and myself (m,f)
7 groups Help me to get my citizenship (m,f)
Advanced Males N=74 Learn to speak and write English(m,f)
elementary Females N=109 Learn more about the country (m,f)

4.8% of the total
enrollment in all the

7 groups

Opportunity for advancement (f)
Independence: stand on my own two

feet, do things for and by myself (m,f)
Help me to prepare for family

living (m)

44

Secondary Males N=468 Security for employment: help
Females N=373 me get a good job (f)
22.7% of the total Opportunity for advancement (m,f)
enrollment in all the
7 groups

The basic elementary group consisted of persons with no schooling or
only primary grade training, the advanced elementary of those who had
completed four to eight years of schooling, and the secondary group of
those adults, who, in youth left school or had their education curtailed
and who desired to continue their education. It will be seen that the
elementary group does not seem to mention economic gains as a value
determining enrollment. Perhaps the females in the advanced elementary
group mention it indirectly in their response "Opportunity for advancement"
(...chances to go up in life.) 'But the females in the secondary group
mention it directly:"security for employment (help me get a good job)."
(37:142). It should be noted that the elementary group consisted of
persons "with no schooling or only primary grade training" and not only
of completely illiterate persons, and this mixed group does not mention
economic gains as a salient reason for joining the adult education course.
The reSponses of this group seem to be in line with Harbison's point of
view that "the aspiration for develOpment is much more than a desire
for economic progress" (13:2).
2. The Alabama study (24) reports the following reasons given by the

students who joined the literacy classes:

45

Percent

l. Enhance the self: to gain independence, N=608 32

confidence, enrichment.
2. Occupational improvement. 21
3. Communication: to read letters and news-

papers. 13
4. Religious purposes: read the Bible, be

better leaders in church. 13
5. Better business"skillsU 5
6. Help children, encourage spouse. 4
7. Reading fir pleasure. 4
8. Good citizenship. 5

(Some students offered no reasons.)

These responses also seem to indicate that only 26% (Items 2 and 5)
were motivated to join the classes for economic gains and 71% for self
improvement and self satisfaction reasons.

3. The consequences of existing_literacy teaching

Do the new literates continue reading and writing for their self
improvement, for its own sake or to enhance social prestige? Do they
become more mobile, both physically and psychologically? Do they make use
of mass media and begin to have opinions on public affairs? Do they make
efforts to raise their standards of living? Again, we have not found many
independent studies on this, perhaps the most important aspect of literacy
teaching, except the following two which were undertaken for different
purposes but studied the restricted uses of literacy as well.

1. We have already discussed the Gadgil study (18) which was undertaken
to determine the causes of lapse into illiteracy of adults who had completed

some early grades of primary school. The findings relating to the use of

46

reading and writing were as follows:

Assuming that Opportunities for exercising reading and writing
habits would prevent the lapse of these skills, the investigators
collected information about these two factors. The data collected are
summarized below. It should be noted that both the information about the
occasions for writing and reading habit are as reported by the reSpondents

and were not separately checked by the investigators (18:57).

Repgrted Occasions for Writing

 

 

Writing activities Total qf_g§ades II,_III and IV

Literate Semi-literate Illiterate Total

% % % N

Occasional correSpondence 89.2 1.8 --- 1120
Accounts 89.7 1.3 --- 224
Accounts 8 correspondence 90.9 9.1 --- 22
None 67.1 18.0 14.9 1073
Not given 100 --- --- 1
Total 84.5 8.9 6.6 2240

Reported Reading Habit

 

 

Reading activities Total of grades II,_III and IV
Literate Semi-literate Illiterate Total
% % % N

Private correspondence 96.7 3.2 0.1 710
Newspapers 98.5 1.5 -—- 396
Religious books 96.5 3.5 --- 114
Misc. (occasional) 93.5 6.5 --- 463
None 58.5 20.5 21.0 757
Total 84.5 8.9 6.6 2440

47

The comments of the investigators on the above data are as follows:

"It is noteworthy that quite a substantial number of those

who professed to have occasions for reading domestic
correspondence etc. were found not to he possessed of any

writing ability and that this was true to a small extent

even of those who professed to write letters occasionally.

Some of the latter could not pass the writing test administered
to them. Apart from this, the data are important as revealing

the extent to which reading and writing skills remain

unutilised in after life. A very substantial proportion confessed
to having no occasion either for reading or writing after they
had left school. If we consider that those who reported that
their reading and writing was confined to domestic correspondence
also fall within the category of general non-use of ability

(and this assumption can be made easily because of the great
infrequency of rural correspondence.) then those who do not find
any ordinary use for the skills acquired during school formed
evidently a majority in the case of reading and a large majority
in the case of writing, of the total population of ex-pupils." (18:56)

From the data it appears that the investigators'comments apply to
the writing habit but not so much to the reading habit, Since out of 2240,
1683 reported to have been reading. But as they have pointed out, if those
who reported to have been reading only correspondence (710) are also
classified among non-users, then out of 2240 respondents, only 973, or

about 40% could be said to have utilized their reading ability. The extent

of utilization for each category is not known.

2. The Bureau of Ghana Languages was commissioned to produce literacy education
materials needed by the department of Social Welfare and Community Develop-
ment. But the number of books purchased by the department for the mass
education program was relatively small. Ella Griffin undertook a study (38)

"to provide the Bureau an accurate and objective indication concerning the

48

reading needs and tastes of its potential, if not its actual reading
public." The study was confined to one linguistic area with 16 villages.
Griffin concluded from the study that "It appeared that the average adult
reader was between 20 and 30 years old, and read at least a little every
day. He earned his living by farming... He learned to read by attending
school, although he completed only the primary level" (38:129).

As She does not report any data, it is impossible to know the
total population from which the sample was drawn, and what percentage
of the respondents "read at least a little every day." However, it seems
that they were interested in reading as she further reports that "...he
liked to read traditional tales and Bible stories. But he was even more
interested in true-to-life matter concerning historical and current
events" (38:130). But the reported ability to read and the reported
desire for reading seem rather contradictory. As to the reading behavior,
she observes that the typical reader "read primarily for information since
he had not acquired enough skills to use reading as a means of recreation"
(38:130). This observation implies that the primary school educated adults
lacked the ability to read for enjoyment. On the other hand, she reports
"...he liked to read traditional tales," which is, indeed, reading for
enjoyment. The difference in abilities to read for information about
historical and current events, and reading for recreation, i.e., traditional

tales, was not discussed.

49

It can be inferred from her conclusion that the pe0p1e were
anxious to read, as they were ready to buy books and did not consider
the expense a problem: If they saw reading matter of interest they
bought it (38:130). It seems that they did not read much because the
distribution channel was weak, and they did not get many books suited
to their skills and interests. No data is reported indicating the number
of people who were willing to buy books.

The following accounts also discuss the uses of literacy:
3. Dr. Pedro Orata, a Philippino, deputy head of the Division of Fundamental
Education of UNESCO has written in detail about the uses of literacy by
the new literates of Dr. Laubach's Philippine literacy drive (26).
According to him, the "...new literates, who were taught mechanically in
a few weeks to write their names and a few other names without the benefit
of character and moral training" (39:357) and critical thinking (39:358)
used their meagre literacy to deceive the government. The new literates
used their ability to register fictitious names in the voting lists for
the than coming election. "The governor of the province found out that
whereas the registered inhabitants numbered 500,000 or more, the number
of people actually living in the province was only around 300,000.
Literacy, half-baked literacy, that is, accounted for the difference"(39:356).
This criticism, however, seems to be directed more toward the content
of teaching than the nontuse of literacy. Also, it does not follow
necessarily that a moralistic content would have lead to correct social

behavior if the overwhelming demands of the situation encouraged contrary

50

behavior. It seems that Orata is actually critical of the types of
literacy drives which reduce literacy teaching to mechanical learning
in a few weeks on the grounds that such literacy is not likely to help
the person in making judicious decisions. He writes that:

There is much more to reading than parroting a language.

We have far too simplified education, as a result of which
many youths merely learned without being really educated.

The remedy is not further Simplification, on the ground

that a billion and a quarter adults must be made literate

in a hurry or they will become communists. (Dr. Laubach's
emphasis*) I see no quicker method of making them communists
than by training them to read without teaching them to be
understanding and critical of what they read. (39:358)

4. One of the purposes of the PARE literacy drive (27) was to use "the
goodwill and the cooperation of the peOple built up during the literacy
campaign" (40:31) as a spearhead for other community develOpment programs,
e.g., checking soil erosion. Evaluating the effectiveness of the literacy
drive, the planners of the campaign report that they reached the con-
clusion that:

The eXperience of becoming literate did not result in any

perceptible transformation of the individual or it would be

claimed that the knowledge imparted about better methods of

agriculture etc. is more likely to remain amongst the

literate than among the illiterate, or that all attempts to

raise the standard of living of a people will amount to

little unless they involve literacy. On the other hand,

the literacy campaign has again been found an excellent

means of approach for community development generally--it

provides an entree for community develOpment staff, it

enables them to establish their bona fides. (40:35)

It might be argued that perhaps it was too much to expect

"perceptible transformation of the individual" after three months of

literacy teaching and that their capacity to acquire knowledge through

*Author's comment.

51

the printed page must have been very meagre after the amount of literacy

they received.

The accounts discussed above are insufficient proof of the use or
non-use of literacy skills or the positive or negative consequences of
literacy teaching in terms of behavioral changes. However, they do suggest
non-use of literacy and hence little behavioral change. The main causes
of the negative result seems to be the following:

1. The conditions of life do not seem to demand literacy; hence the
learners do not identify it as a necessary tool for everyday living.
The enthusiasm created by the organizers does not succeed in
stimulating sufficient interest among the learners to make the
necessary effort and continue it over a period of time.

2. The literacy imparted is so meagre that the so-called literate is
unable to use it for attaining any of the objectives discussed in
Chapter I. Therefore, expectations of "perceptible transformation
of the individual" are not met.

The first reason seems to strengthen the point of view that literacy
efforts Should be selective. Efforts should be concentrated on peOple
who have an intrinsic desire to learn to read and write, or where the
conditions of life demand the use of literacy skills; or it Should be
an integral part of a total develOpment program that plans to change
those conditions. Commenting on the proposed 1962 literacy drive in
Iran, Land stresses the point that a community is not likely to use

literacy unless conditions of life demand it and sansthat it is irrelevant

52

that the government, or those responsible for such drives, feel the
necessity of them. He argues that, "AS yet 85% of the Iranian peOple
are illiterate. Their mode of life has little use for the written
word. All communication, instruction, etc., is oral. Even business
contracts, leases, etc., are often committed to memory only. This almost
systematic non-utilization of written evidence (for whatever reasons)
demands and enables quite a different behavior and social intercourse
than if such means were widely applied." (41:419)
Perhaps the failure of the much-advertised literacy drive of
Mexico which started with the passing of the Literacy Law of 1944 supports
Land's apprehensions. Writing about the drive, Ruiz expresses the
Opinion that:
Among a population beyond reach of books and newspapers
there was reason to believe that many who had learnt their
alphabet seldom if ever put it to use and consequently forgot
it after a year or two. By the Ministry's own admission one
third of those previously certified as literate had, for
lack of practice, forgotten by 1959 what they had learnt. (42:84)
To summarize:
l. The objectives of adult literacy teaching seems to be:
a. to enable a person to have Opinions on public affairs,
b. to enable him to understand his culture and develop attitudes
in tune with the demands of modern times, and
c. to enable him to earn and produce more.

2. It seems that the minimum skills of reading and writing required to

enable an illiterate adult to attain the above objectives is equal

53

to about four years of elementary school, which might be
achieved in about 400 hours of teaching, using trained teachers
and graded text books built around the interest of the learners.

3. The training in literacy offered in most of developing countries
usually ranges from 72 to 144 hours. One course lasts 40 hours
only (excluding Dr. Laubach's one week), and one provides
systematic education up to the sixth grade.

4. A certain number of illiterates in most countries seem to
initially be interested in becoming literate mainly for reasons
of self satisfaction, though the number of those remaining until
the end of the course seem to be small.

5. There is not much evidence to show the extent to which literacy,
once acquired, is put to use in the enhancement of the self or in
any other manner. Some evidence, though insufficient, indicates the
non-use of literacy by the majority of "literates" for various
reasons. Among them the main factors responsible seem to be lack
of opportunities to use the limited skills of a low level of

literacy.

4. The expected consequences

 

Any discussion of the consequences of adult literacy teaching
must consider the objectives of literacy; who wants it and to meet what
ends? Some practitioners and illiterates themselves may desire it for
some restricted use; for example, to Sign one's name instead of making

one's thumb impression, to be able to read and write a simple letter, or

54

to read simple writing of a religious nature. If such are the
objectives, they might be considered achieved as soon as the "literate"
performs these behaviors. Perhaps neither would he be able to meet

more complicated needs of life nor would it be expected of him. We

may not, therefore, look for any further consequences of literacy if

the objectives are to meet these simple needs. But when we consider

the need for literacy teaching from a national scale, we expect a wider
use of the literacy skills than these. Perhaps the diversion of national
resources for the provision of such rudimentary skills may not be
economical, through desirable from some individuals' points of view.

From a national point of view we are perhaps looking for a
population literate enough to use literacy to raise productivity, to
form opinions about public affairs, and to "marshall and analyze facts
for rational decision making." (43:6) A level of literacy to meet.
such needs might be considered a prerequisite of develOpment. So long as
the majority of the people do not acquire this amount of literacy, the
burden of decision making and moulding the economics, social and political
.life of the country will be that of the educated few. The educated few
will direct, and the vast illiterate or semi-literate masses will,
perhaps, expect to be directed. Helen Butt tries to drive this point
home in a forcible manner:

The man who says that mass literacy is not essential for

progress is consigning the mass of humanity to a blindly

obedient role. The educated elite could set up systems,

granted beneficial intentions, run things for their benefit;
it could and would have to direct them pretty much in detail. (43:6)

55

Batten also stressed this point in his book Problems of African

 

Development. He says that in a society where the pe0ple are poor and

 

uneducated, sound political development is difficult because "the

views expressed today are of those of a very small minority. There is
really no good means of knowing what illiterate peOple think and feel and
want until they can make their needs known themselves and claim authority
for ruling themselves." (4:110)

The need for wideSpread literacy of a more than rudimentary type,
it seems, arises from the fact that the developing countries plan to
modernize and break away fast from the traditional society. Lerner's
(7) major hypothesis in his study of Middle Eastern countries was that the
modern society is essentially urban, literate and participant. Empathy
and role playing are the skills developed by a person physically moving
out of a traditional setting. The horizon of a non-literate person living
in a village is limited and "their decisions involve only other kggwg'
people in 52232 situations." (7:50) But in a modern society an individual
making decisions about national policies often has to concur with pre-
viously unknown issues and unknown persons. An illiterate person can
neither form opinions about national issues, nor feel the need for it;
nor develop the expectation that his Opinion will count. On the other
hand, when it comes to expressing Opinions on controversial issues, he
feels safe to plead ignorance. Out of the three prerequisites of
modernization -- urbanization, literacy and participation-—Lerner found
the "literacy coefficient highest ( .91) and urbanization the lowest

(.61)." (7:63) This, according to him, was as it should be because his

56

data indicated that for "take off" to occur it was only necessary for
about 10% of the pOpulation to be urbanized and "at this point it be-
comes economical to develop literacy and media." (7:63)

According to Lerner, physical mobility is necessary for the
development of the skill to empathize. It can perhaps be argued that
physical mobility may not be essential, though helpful. Learning,
being an experience in itself, a literate person can develop psychic
mobility by eXposing himself to the printed word. The finding relevant
here that emerges from his study is that it will be economical for a
country to develop literacy and media if about 10% of the pOpulation is
urbanized. Granted that a country has reached this stage and plans to
undertake a mass literacy drive, the crucial question is how many of
the 90% mostly illiterate rural population and the illiterate among the
10% urban population will have the incentive to become literate and make
the effort to change in order to help in the "take off"; the environment
remaining more or less the same--resistant to change.

Land is of the Opinion that literacy drives tend to produce a new
type of citizen with new skills, who is expected to utilize them, often
in the same environment, and "it is not certain therefore that the peeple
will clearly see the reasons why they should learn to read and write."
(41:146) Both Land and Lerner seem to agree that literacy is traditionally
an element of urban culture;100% literacy is the result of a slow process
of urbanization and technological develOpment. In a sense, it follows the

demands of an industralized society and does not precede it.

57

But the developing countries seem to feel a sense of urgency.
They feel that they cannot wait for the slow process of technological
development to reach a stage when literacy becomes essential. Moreover,
they argue, it is generally accepted that education equips a person
with the capacity to manipulate the environment and hasten change. There-
fore, some of the countries which wish to plan for the social and economic
development of all their people, and not the educated few, feel an
urgent need to provide literacy to all as the first basic tool for
effective participatiOn and attitude change.

However, the danger pointed out by Land--that people will not be
motivated to learn and use literacy to any appreciable extent unless
the conditions of life demand it--seemsvery real. The existing lack of
motivation and non-use of literacy, discussed earlier, seem to lend
support to his fears. Regarding the existing conditions of life, there
appears to be substance in the argument that the countries which are in-
dependent and have a general national development plan, have planned, at
least in principle, to change the existing conditions of life. The
general economic and social conditions may still be not much different
than they used to be. But the Opportunities to change them are there.
It is mostly up to the peOple to change them. If literacy drives do not
succeed, even in these conditions, then, perhaps the reason may lie in
the way that the drives are conducted and not totally in the existing

conditions.
The most common approach which most of the countries adopt is

either to launch a wide-scale prOgram for the eradication of illiteracy

58

or to include it as one of the routine programs of community develOpment.
In the latter case no special effort is made to stimulate or sustain
the motivation of the illiterates. After a preliminary talk by one of
the functionaries of the community development organization, some peOple
are gathered tOgether in a classroom and an ill-qualified, ill-trained,
ill-paid teacher begins to teach. When the adults begin to read and write
a little, some sort of an examination is given, most of the people are
declared "literate," and this is usually the end of the story.

A study conducted by the author in 1958 in the Hindi-speaking
area of India found that of the adults declared "literate" approximately
one year before, about 60% were practically illiterate and most of the
remaining 40% could only be classified as semi-literate. (#5) The
countries which start with a motivationalprogram prior to the launching
of the drive keep the pattern of teaching and examination generally the
same; only the initial approach differs.

We will discuss here the Ghana literacy drive, which seems to be
typical of the drives which form part of a community development
program, to indicate the general pattern of literacy drives and Speculate
on the consequences of such drives.

Ghana started a mass literacy drive in 1952. The need for literacy
was thus emphasized in the plan:

There is no single factor contributing more to backwardness

than ignorance, isolation and prejudice. What is most needed

in the village people of the Gold Coast, and it is needed

quickly, is knowledge--knowledge of their own potentialties,

of their villages"possibilities and of their country's place
in the world. (23-u7)

59

It was accepted from the very beginning that literacy "is not
an end in itself... but it is a means to an end, to progress on the
farm, in the home and in the village; a means to the further education
of adults..." (23:u7). The drive was planned as an "integral" part of
the overall community development plan. On the economic side, the plan
included such subjects as develOpment of agriculture, co-0peration,
means of communication, and forestry. On the social side it included
health, welfare and education. The mass education workers were trained
in organizing mass literacy, music and community singing, Sports, village
drama, discussion groups, first aid, and crafts and hobbies. The workers
were continuously reminded not to spend all their time in literacy work,
but to concentrate on the other aspects of the plan as well.

The administrative set up was as follows:

1. The Department of Social Welfare and Community DevelOpment
recruited and trained the mass education officers.

2. The department also did extensive publicity to motivate the
people. The minster of education, the director of social
welfare, all government officers, political organizations,
the churches, the Red Cross, the Boy Scouts, local authorities,
the Teachers' union, the training colleges, the university
students and the cooperatives all did publicity.

3. A Rural Training Centre was set up in every region to train the
voluntary leaders in the Laubach method of literacy teaching
and community development. The voluntary leaders who were

supposed to teach literacy consisted of the educated few in

60

the village, e.g., the school teacher, the clerk, the store

keeper and any other educated person. The emphasis was on

mobilizing local leaders because it was felt that:
Leadership must call out voluntary efforts...both
for its own sake because it is demoralizing to do for
people what they can do for themselves; for economy's
sake because a campaign by paid effort would be
intolerably expensive; and for efficiency's sake
because eXperience elsewhere shows that it would be
uninSpired, ineffective and the negation of progress.

(23:50)

4. A literacy committee in every village was set up by the mass
education workers consisting of the village chief, the elders
and literate villagers. The committee selected the voluntary
leaders who were sent to the Regional Rural Centre for a
weekend of training.

5. Immediately after the weekend course, a mass education worker
visited the village, registered the learners, and helped the
leaders to organize the classes.

6. Then a 3-u month course was started, and at the end of the course
literacy certificates were awarded, usually followed by a great
celebration.

The workers were asked to concentrate effort "in time or in Space."

The method recommended was "an all-in" campaign over a wide area for a
short time for literacy, or a prolonged concentration on a village or a
group of villages for a demonstration of community develOpment. (23-48)

The community develOpment program, of which literacy formed a

part, had a hierarchy of officers, from the headquarters through the

61

village level. There were 330 mass education assistants, each in charge
of about 15 villages. Their main job was to supervise, encourage, and
ensure supplies of primers, readers and follow-up books to the classes.

Before a class was started in a village, a cinema van would visit
it for two days. Films would be shown, music would be played, meetings
held, the literacy committee formed, units for the purchase of light,
kerosene and books raised, and the voluntary leader recruited for the
training. The classes were at three levels:

a. First Literacy in Vernacular,

b. Advanced Literacy in Vernacular, and

c. Functional English Literacy for Special Groups.

A student was supposed to enroll in the advanced literacy class
after passing the first literacy course. The classes were not to go
beyond three to four months. There were six books at the advanced
literacy level. The qualifying test was writing;avletter,_addressing
the enveloPe,_and showingwhere the stamp was to be fixed, and a simple
arithmetic test involving the four fundamental rules. The test for the
first literacy level consisted of simple dictation, reading an unseen
passage and answering questions on it. (23:92). No special training_for
the teachers of the advanced literacy classes was considered necessary.
It was, however, thought desirable to give them a weekend refresher

course "more from the point of view of prestige than necessity." (23:196)

Between April, 1952, and the end of 1957, about 129,000* literacy

*Adult illiteracy.in Ghanain 1948 was 90% (Appendix B). The total
population of Ghana, 15 - 59 years old was reported to be 2,u71,7oo in
19u8. Thus the total number of illiterate adults comes to 2,224,530.

62

certificates, probably at the first literacy level, were distributed.
(23:92)

Special reading materials apprOpriate to the interests of adult
readers, including a newspaper, were brought out by the Vernacular
Literature Board, which was set up in 1950.

We have discussed the Ghana campaign in detail as it appears to
be typical of an administratively well planned campaign in a developing
country with high illiteracy. It is also probable that future campaigns
will be organized on somewhat similar lines elsewhere.

General characteristics of the campaign which should be noted
include the low standard of literacy, the low initial qualifications and
the meagre training of the teachers, the distribution of certificates as
an index of people made literate, and literacy treaching as a part of the
total program of the department.

What might be the expected consequences of the Ghana literacy
campaign, or as a matter of fact any campaign, conducted on similar lines
in similar situations? Perhaps the answer will depend on how we define
consequences.

In View of the broader objectives of literacy, or the stated
objectives of the Ghana campaign, or the familiar principle that
"literacy is not an end in itself," we should expect the following con-
sequences of adult literacy teaching:

1. Continued use of the skills of reading and writing for information and

knowledge, leading to behavioral changes, for example:

63

l. AdOpting improved practices to raise the standard of living,
e.g., better agricultural methods, forming or joining
cOOperatives and other community institutions, safeguarding
the health of self and.family.

2. Forming opinions about public affairs, both at village and
national levels, resulting in active participation in community
affairs, and at least expressing Opinions about national affairs.

3. DevelOping a modern and rational outlook about traditionally
accepted faiths and beliefs.

u. Becoming more conscious of one's rights and reSponsibilities;
e.g., paying the taxes, respecting public property and
standing for one's constitutional rights.

5. Mobility to towns in cases where the amount of literacy
achieved might be enough to Open vistas of employment.

These consequences are likely to follow only if:

a. a sufficiently high level of literacy is initially provided,
say, up to the fourth grade level, and

b. planned efforts are made to develop learning conditions in
which continued reading is found rewarding.

Perhaps to ensure continued reading, the UNESCO Experts Committee
recommended that literacy "should be integrated into a prOgram of
continuing adult education and into the total educational program. It
should also be integrated with the develOpment prOgrams of the countries..."

(3:9) If "continuing adult education prOgram" implies setting up formal

61+

educational facilities beyond the fourth grade of literacy so that
the new literate may continue his education up to the junior high school
or the high school or even further, such a program may be beyond the
economic and the manpower resources of most of the countries. Moreover,
as pointed out by Land, such educated persons may remain idle, and become
a constant source of unrest and frustration (nlzu20) in countries where
the economic apparatus does not demand so many educated persons, or
which are already facing the problem of the educated unemployed. Even
if such facilities are provided, it is doubtful if the majority of the
adults would use them. The school drop-out figures in Appendix G
indicate that a large number of children do not continue beyond the
fourth grade, even though their education is considered comparatively
more desirable by the parents. 1

Integration of literacy teaching with community develOpment appears
to be a practical suggestion. But how is this integration to be achieved?
Including literacy as one of the programs of community develOpment is
perhaps not integration. Setting up of a library of books in every
community is, perhaps, not integration. It will be well to remember
that indications are that most of the so-called new literates do not
continue reading and writing, perhaps because they do not find the effort
rewarding (Gadgil, 19u1). Therefore, the fact of its being one of the
programs of community develOpment is not likely to result in continued
reading; hence the non-occurrence of the expected consequences. It

might also be noted that most of the suggested consequences require

65

behavioral changes. And change tends to occur when the effort to

change or the magnitude of the conditions demanding change become
greater than the resistance to change. Perhaps the external activities,
such as setting up a library, showing some films, pasting legans and
posters on the walls, and appeals by leaders, might help to stimulate
it momentarily; but these things are not likely to result in the self-
identification with the goals and making efforts to achieve them.

The motivation might be stimulated momentarily by external efforts,
but soon it is likely to drOp down and the pace of life returns to its
normal course.

We would like to conceptualize the conditions in which learning
or change may occur in terms of learning theory and Kelman's theory Of
Opinion change and see if these theories will help us in understanding
the process and the conditions of change better.

The consequences of literacy as presented by us and the stand
that literacy is not an end in itself suggest that the literate adult is
expected to learn, i.e., adOpt new behavior. Learning has been defined
as "more or less permanent change in behavior due to reinforced practice."
A newly literate farmer will have "learned" if, as a result of the new
knowledge communicated to him, he practices line sowing instead of the
scattered sowing which he used to practice, evaluates the results, finds
it rewarding, and takes up line sowing more or less permanently. Learning
might be latent. The farmer might receive the knowledge, try it, find it
rewarding, but due to one reason or the other, not adOpt the new practice.

Such learning may have little economic Or social consequences. We are,

66

therefore, interested in the type of learning which is likely to be
translated into action. What is the learning process and what are the
conditions which help the process?
According to some theorists there are four essentials to learning:
1. Drive or motivation--the person must want something,
2. Cue or stimulus--he must perceive something,
3. Response or participation-~he must do something, and
u. Reward or reinforcement-—he must get something he wants.
According to Berlo (97) before a person learns, or a new habit is
established, the following process must take place:
Stimulus-9 perception-9 interpretation -—) trial response -—)
reinterpretation of the trial response-—)stable stimulus-response
relationship or habit formation.
The process implies that the presence of a stimulus is essential before
any response occurs. The stimulus must be perceived or sensed. Then the
mind interprets the stimulus and if the interpretation is that this does
not interest me, it is beyond my means, I am not prepared to put out the
energy it requires; then there may not be any-further reSponse. The
matter may end there. But if the response is favorable, a trial reSponse
will be made--just to see what happens. The result of the trial response
will be reinterpreted, and if found rewarding the response is likely to be
made again; i.e., the person will repeat the act, and if the act is rewarding
most of the time, he is likely to repeat it in the future. Then we can say
that learning has occurred or an established relationship has been formed

between the stimulus and the final response. Cronchbach (#8) uses seven

67

concepts to describe the process of learning. They are:

l.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Goa1--the learner wishes to attain certain objectives; these might
be the attainment of Objects, a desired response from another person
or some satisfying internal feeling.

Readiness--indicates his willingness to try to attain the goal. If
the situation calls for efforts he cannot make, or if he is too weak
or ignorant, he is not likely to try.

The situation-~it presents both the Opportunity and the challenge.
To have satisfying consequences the individual must take apprOpriate
action.

Interpretation--he studies the situation in detail in the

light of past experiences and tries to foresee what might be the
result of his action in the situation.

Response--if he takes any steps it would be the one which he thinks
will most nearly satisfy his wants.

Consequences--if the consequences of the action are in accordance
with his interpretation of the situation, he feels rewarded; satis-
faction results. If they are contrary to what he eXpected, he usually
feels dissatisfied.

Reaction to thwarting-~thwarting occurs when the person fails to
attain his goals. He might reinterpret the situation and make fresh
attempts to attain the goal, but if he feels that he cannot deal
with the situation, he may give up.

It will be seen that all the concepts at least have three major

elements in common for learning to Occur: a) the person must have a goal,

68

and he must want to attain it; b) a situation must be present which can
be interpreted as leading to the goal; and c) his effort must be rewarded.

Before returning to the discussion of the likely consequences of
a mass literacy campaign, we will describe Kelman's theory of opinion
change, which, in a sense, uses the major concepts Of the learning
process.

Kelman (#9) theorizes that a person might change his opinion due
to social influence. But he might also change it with the changing of
the situation in which he accepted the influence. His emphasis is,
therefore, on understanding the situations in which the source or the
influencing agent is intentionally trying to change the behavior of the
receiver, which is what we ultimately try to do in a community develop-
ment program, be it the acceptance of an agricultural practice or
literacy teaching. If we could analyze the situation in which the in-
fluenceis accepted, we would be in a better position to know whether
the change has occurred on a public level alone or on private level as
well, which may lead to habit formation. Also, if we know whether the
dnange is public or private, we would also understand what types of
situations lead to what types of changes. According to Kelman, the
process of Opinion change results in three types of behaviors:

l. Compliance--The person might just comply with the wishes of

 

influencing agent. This may happen when the person does not believe in
the content of the message the influencing agent is trying to get across.

Nevertheless, he may do what the agent wants him to do because he is

69

"interested in attaining certain rewards or in avoiding certain

specific punishments that the influencing agent controls." (#9:62) He
does not adopt the intended behavior on a permanent basis. He accepts

it only so long as he feels that his behavior is under the surveillance
of the agent. This type Of attitude change might happen in a government
controlled development program in which the government agents try to
bring about the social change. The agent might have direct or indirect
powers to reward or punish which may lead to compliance on the part of
the receiver, giving a false sense of accomplishment to the agent.

2. Identification-~This type of Opinion change occurs when the

 

individual feels that his self-interest lies with the influencing person
or group. It is a way of establishing or maintaining a relationship. He
may take on a role playing relationship-~do what the agent wants him to

do or he thinks the agent wants him to do. Group relationship may lead
him to identify himself with the boss of the party or the majority Opinion,
even though he may not accept internally the majority Opinion. Identifi-
cation lasts as long as the individual finds the agent "attractive," or
the relationship useful to his self-interest. It may result in private
acceptance Of the Opinion or remain only at the public acceptance level.

In the context of our discussion, this type Of attitude change

may occur if the class teacher or the extension agent is found "attractive"
by the individual or he feels that his interest lies in the relationship.
Then he may try to establish or maintain his relationship with the change
agents and may even take on role-playing. In view of their personalities,

their leadership qualities, and the limitations of time--especially in

70

case of the extension agent--that they can spend with individual
members, this type of change is very unlikely to occur in the majority
of the people.

3. Internalization--This type of Opinion change occurs when the

 

behavior which the agent wants to induce is congruent with the value
system of the individual. It is not the personality of the agent or
the relationship to the agent which is so important as the content of the
induced behavior. It is rewarding in itself. The individual adopts
the behavior "because it is congenial to his own orientation, or because
it is demanded by his own values." (49-65) The personality Of the agent
does play a part in bringing about this type of change but essentially
it is the "credibility," i.e., the "eXpertness" and the "trustworthiness"
of the agent, which helps in the acceptance of the changes he desires
to bring about. The recommended change is evaluated and accepted on
rational grounds. The individual may accept the recommended practice
but may modify it to suit his own situations. This is private acceptance
of the opinion. Performance does not depend upon the surveillance of
the agent. The individual will hold the Opinion so long as he finds it
relevant to his value system.

This is perhaps the most desirable but the most difficult type
of attitude change to bring about. The acceptance of new agricultural
practices family planning, civic reSponsibilities, non-Observance of the
caste and the dowry systems--using the printed page as source of new

knowledge and information-~are seldom congenial to the orientation of the

71

new literates and seldom demanded by their value system. Therefore,
unless their present attitudes are understood and appreciated, and
learning situations are developed, internalized behavior, it seems,
would be difficult to induce in the majority of cases.

By "learning situations" we mean conditions in which the in-
fluencing agent can mainly function as an agent of attitude change and
which has the potential to develOp the capacities of the learners to
interpret written communication and react to them critically. Such a
learning situation, in all probability, will lead to the identification
of the goal and develOp readiness to attain the goal, which, as we have
seen, are essential stages in learning. Then, if the stimulus or the
situation presented is feasible and the action rewarding, we might expect
the formation Of the desired habit--the ultimate goal of the learning
process. If the learning situation helps to make the induced behavior,
for example sending girls to school, a part of his system of changed
values, the behavior is likely to be internalized.

It is not possible to suggest "the method" of develOping the
learning situation. We can only speculate. One possible approach might
be as follows:

1. The class room, in addition to providing at least a fourth grade
level of literacy, becomes a forum for discussing personal and community
problems.

2. It also serves as a nucleus of initiating desired behaviors
by the extension agent. He visits it regularly and discusses with the

class (never merely lecturing) a feasible project of common interest or

72

of interest to small groups; for example, develOping fisheries if
there is a pond in the village.

3. He leaves with the class materials in simple language for the
class to read and discuss with a promise to come back on a definite
date to discuss the issue further.

4. On the next visit he brings with him some visual aids to
demonstrate the process involved in fish raising. He may read to the
class a true story, or better, show a film depicting the improved
standard of living in a village which adopted fisheries. If the students
don't know the village, it should be shown on a map. One of the purposes
of this prOgram will be to bring home to them what is potentially
available and what they are missing. Thus the agent might purposely
try to create dissonance among the members of the class. According to
Festinger (50), if little or no dissonance exists between the COgnitions
of a person, there would be little or no effort on his part to seek
out new information and consequently little effort to change. On the
other hand, if his two OOgnitions are in dissonant relationship, he may
try to seek information in favor of his existing behavior or in favor of
change, leading to a balanced state of mind. His decision whether to
stock to his existing behavior or to change will depend upon, taking
every thing into account, which is more important to him. Applying this
principle of the theory to our example, if the members of the class
perceive the improved standard of life of the people of that village as
due to the adoption of fisheries, they will know that the life changed

there (one cognition); and they know that they have not adopted fisheries

73

and their life has not changed (another cognition). Then, other

things being equal, they might actively seek more information about the
new practice. The new knowledge may increase their dissonance still
further; and dissonance being psychologically uncomfortable, one way of
reducing it might be to adOpt the new practice.

5. The individuals who in the end (maybe after several meetings)
feel motivated enough to take action should be lead to make a commitment
before the whole group. There are numerous studies to show that public
commitments made in a group are more Often kept than not. (51)

6. They should be helped and guided when the stage of action comes,
so that the chances of failure might be reduced to the minimum, thus
making it likely that the action results in reward. The experience gained
in solving this problem is likely to be used in solving similar problems
in the future.

Similar procedures can be adOpted if the group is interested in
house building, reading the village map, sending children to school, or
understanding the system of government. The reward may not always be in
terms of money. It might be in terms of better health, improved under-
standing of the environment, or a satisfying internal feeling. This type
of approach for introducing new kinds of behavior does not end with the
class. It continues until the community is ready to come to grip with
problems on its own. The important point to remember is that the ex-
tension agent should continue to rely more on the printed page, group
discussions, and study circle methods for the identification of goals

and the solution of problems and less on "telling" the peOple what to do.

71+

This process of inducing new behaviors is likely to:

a) Develop the reading skill, the ability to read for meaning,
following details and directions, and the habit of reading
for information and knowledge, leading to problem solving.

b) Result in attitude change since the goal has been identified,
the situation has been perceived and interpreted, the response
made, resulting in reward.

Returning to our discussion of the probable consequences of
literacy campaigns: in a nationwide literacy drive the influencing agents
are likely to find it almost impossible to make concentrated efforts of
this nature to develOp the learning situation. The classes are likely to
be abandoned once the literacy certificate has been distributed or some-
times after setting up a small library in the village. Most of the
learners, not having develOped the habit of reading for problem solving
or for pleasure are not likely to continue reading. There would be
little demand for reading materials, and the normal trade channels con-
sequently would have little incentive to enter the field, unless the
government decided to make bulk purchases and distribute the books freely.
The use of freely distributed material, if it gets distributed at all,
is questionable.

The consequences of a nationwide literacy campaign in a developing
country are not difficult to predict. Since there will be little reading
activity, the other consequences, which were to follow from continuous

exposure to print, are not likely to follow. In other words, the pay Off

75

“of such a campaign in terms of raising the standards of living and
attitude change is likely to be negligible.

These probable consequences, again, suggest the advisability
Of the selective approach instead of the nationwide approach. It is
not to suggest that none of the graduates of a nationwide campaign will
continue making use of literacy skills. A few may. In the course of
time they might also adOpt new practices and change some of their attitudes.
But such changes most probably will be due to environmental factors other
than literacy. By and large, unless the learning conditions have been
developed, even the literate population will tend to follow the existing
pattern of life, which is resistant to change.

We do not have enough data to support the consequences hypothesized
above, which is likely to result from a routine type of literacy education,
either imparted through a literacy drive or a school program. The re-
sults of a study of the socio-economic conditions of a village near
Delhi, however, seems to lend support to our hypothesis.

The Census of India (1961) studied in minute detail the socio-
economic conditions of the village and has reported its findings in a
separate publication (52). The village, Bhalsua Jhangirpur, situated on
the bank of the Jamuna River, was seven miles to the north Of Delhi city.
It had a total population of 857, in February, 1961, when the inquiry was
conducted. It was well served with roads and transport buses which
connected it with important centers of administration and trade. It had

a police post, a railway station, and a post office at a distance of about

76

a mile. It was one of the first villages to be covered by the community
development block, set up on October 2, 1952, at Alipur, four miles

from the village. A mobile dispensary van of the Delhi Municipal Cor-
poration visited it every other day and provided free medicine. It

had a multi-caste and multi-occupational composition, the majority of
the peOple being agriculturists. Forty persons belonged to the service
occupations and went to Delhi to work. Among them was a sub-inSpector
of police, one army sepoy, one clerk, one teacher, one turner, one bus
driver, and one salesman.

There were luu households; out of them three-fourths had bicycles,
used by mostly students to go to school in three localities nearby.
Thirty-eight households had their own bullock-carts. In addition to the
higher schools in the nearby localities, the village has had a junior
basic school since 1958. The education was free and compulsory up to
the fifth grade, and all children belonging to the backward classes
received scholarships to meet the cost Of books and stationery.

The average size of a household was six persons. Of the total
households, 93 owned 50.8 bighas Of land per household. Little over
one-fourth of the total cultivated land was canal irrigated, 8.9%, well
irrigated; and the rest, about 3u% depended upon the vagaries of rain.
About three-fourths of the households had a monthly income up to Rs. lOO/-
and the remaining three-fourths, above Rs. 250/-

The above account of the village indicates that it was one of the

better villages in terms of its nearness to urban centres, communication

77

and educational facilities, and the mobility of its people. The table

below shows the literacy of the village by age and sex.

Literacy in Jhangirpur

 

Age group, Males Females Total

No. literate % No. literate % No. literate %
0-4 75 - - 86 - - 161 - -
5-14 157 114 72.6 120 19 15.8 277 133 48.0
15-54 187 91 48.7 186 2 1.1 373 93 24.9
55-60+ 27 4 14.8 19 - - 46 4 8.7
Total 446 209 46.9 411 21 5.1 857 230 26.8

The table shows that 26.8% of the total population was literate,
which is slightly higher than the all India average of 24%. If we deduct
the number of infants, for whom the question of literacy does not arise,
then the percentage of literacy in Jhangirpur comes to 33.3 percent.

Of the 214 total male adult pOpulation 15 years old and above, 95 or
about 44.4% were literate, but of the 205 females only two were literate.

The educational levels of these 97 literates are shown below:

 

Age Pre- Literacy
group primary Primary Middle Matric F.A. B.A. Aggy drive Total
15-60+ 21 18 30 18 5 l 2 2 97

By pre-primary perhaps is meant those who studied up to the various
grades of primary school but did not pass the final grade. According to

the fiteracy standard we have suggested earlier, the 21 may not be

78

classified as literate, but according to the standards of the usual
literacy drives they would be considered literate, as the investigators
apparently did. It is interesting to note that out of the 324 (419-95)
adult illiterates in the village, only two became literate through the
adult literacy drive.

What were the salient features of the social and economic life of
this village which was only seven miles away from Delhi, well served by
means of communication and schooling facilities, one of the first to
come under the community development scheme, with mobility and one-third
of its pOpulation literate? The main findings are reported below.

1. Reading habits--It is rather surprising that such a detailed
study of the life of this village omitted this aspect all tOgether. We
do not know how many persons were reading what types of material except
that two households were getting a daily newspaper in Hindi. We suspect,
however, that if there had been a library in the village or the households
had possessed sufficient number of books, the investigators would have
reported such facts.

2. Education of children--ll6 out of 177 boys, and 20 out of 120
girls (age group 5-15) were going to school. The reasons for not sending
the boys to schools were given as: "too young" (meaning below six fixed
by law), "cannot afford," and "does not go." The reasons for not sending
the girls were: "too young" (26 cases), "no appreciation of education for
girls" (36 cases), "too old to go" (12 cases), "looks after children at

home" (14 cases), etc.

79

3. Innovation and adoption-~There was a definite trend mentioned
to prefer improved quality of seeds and chemical fertilizers (no data
reported). The villagers preferred chemical fertilizers although free
manure was available in abundance from the Municipal refuse dump nearby.
Three households who owned over 200 bighas of land had taken to
mechanized farming. There were 41 chaffing machines in the village. But
most of the agricultural tools used were "primitive and outmoded." (52:63)
The investigators comment about the income of the village; "on the whole
the data reveals an extremely dismal picture of the village so far as
income of its households is concerned." (52-66) The craftsmen, too,
used the same Old tools. They had not tried to improve them in any way.
Most of the houses were dark and ill ventilated. Only 13 had some sort
of a bathroom attached to them. But the new pucca houses that were coming
up were better ventilated.

No improvement whatsoever had taken place in the habit of borrowing.
The village still borrowed from the money lenders whose rate of interest
varied from 18 to 36% per annum, though taccavi loans (for productive
purposes) were available from the government at 4% per annum. The
village borrowed from private money lenders mostly because of the
restricted nature of the government loan with its "complicated and cumber-
some procedures often beyond the intelligence of the common man" (52-49)
and the usual red-tape.

4. Attitude toward social custom and government reforms--Improvement

in economic life might have been dependent on many factors and some of them

beyond the means of the villagers. But we would expect from this village

80

somewhat changed attitude toward social customs, better knowledge about,
and participation in, government programs initiated to bring about
social change. But it does not appear to be the case.

The common man in the village was found a staunch believer in
fate and the usual superstious beliefs, (e.g., sneezing, or a black cat
crossing the path were regarded as bad omens if one was going out).
Heavy debts were still incurred on marriage ceremonies and other social
Observances. The total income of the village for February, 1961, was
Rs. l4,926/-, and the total amount of debt for the same period stood at
Rs. 57,650/-. More than 56 percent of the debt was for non-productive
purposes. On an average a household Spent between Rs. 1500/- to
Rs.6000/- on the marriage of a daughter, including the dowry. The anti-
dowry act passed by the Parliament was quite unknown tathe people.

There was a definite trend to marry boys and girls at a com-
paratively higher age. But the present mean age at marriage worked out
to be 14.8 years for boys and 11.6 years for girls, both below the Sarda
Act of 1930, which fixed the minimum marriage age at 18 for boys and 14
for girlS.

Only 26 persons knew that according to the amendment of the Hindu
Succession Act of 1956, daughters were entitled to an equal Share in the
prOperty of the father along with the sons. Only 31 persons, out of 144,
were in favor of the measure, and 113 Opposed it. The majority of those
who Opposed the measure were agriculturists and the majority of those who

were in favor were non-agriculturists.

81

The village panchayat (the local statuary body) was set up in
October, 1959. "The purpose behind the panchayat raj movement was to
create local self governing units," (52:95) and the main functions of
the village panchayat were:

Framing of programmes of production for the village,

framing budget of requirements for supplies and

finances needed for carrying out the prOgrammes,

reclamation of waste land under cultivation,

registration of births, deaths, and marriages...

construction, repair and maintenance of village

streets... and sanitation. (52:93)

But more than one-fourth of the households were totally unaware
of its main functions. 52.8% said that its main function was to settle
disputes. The election of members lead to a certain extent "to a great
deal of unnecessary and harmful party politics and groupism" (52:95)
which perhaps it can be argued is not unusual with a party system of
government.

To remove the undesirable conditions prevailing due to the.
practice of untouchability "which were hampering the progress of the
country... the National Government passed legislation declaring the practice
of untouchability in any form or shape as illegal and punishable by law."
(52:101) Out of the 144 households, 115 were aware of the law; but 124
or a little more than 86% were practicing it in one form or the other:

49 responses were not in favor Of eating tOgether, 86 against their
drawing water from the same wells, 92 were against smoking together, eight

were not in favor of touching their utensils, 16 showed that they did not

believe in sitting and living together, and two were against their

82

participation in ceremonies.

It will be remembered that it was one of the first villages to
come under the Community Development Block, set up in 1952. The main
purpose of the Block was "to assist the villagers to increase their
productive efficiency both in agriculture and industry, to create a
progressive outlook among the rural population, to assist them toward
cooperative action...." (52:103) Almost all the people were aware of
the existence of the Block, but only 43 or about 29% said they had
benefited from it. The Block was doing something or other £23 the village.
The negative reSponses it seems were due to grievances of different
kinds. Some felt that the benefits from the Block were more than offset
by the increased taxes they were paying to maintain it. Some applied
for seed two or three months before the sowing season, and the seeds
were alloted when they were about to harvest the crop. It might be
noted from the suggested activities of the Block and the grievances
of the people that the emphasis was on providing and receiving services,
and not so much on creating a "progressive outlook" and increasing the
"productive efficiency of the peOple" which were the main functions of
the Block. The investigators commented on the total impact of the Block
upon the pe0ple in the following words:

The usual redtapism, indifference on the part of some

officials of the Block, alleged favouritism....

bureaucracy etc., have all taken their toll in dis-

crediting the scheme. (52:105)

A social education centre for women had been functioning in the

village Since 1956. In addition to its usual activities of teaching

83

embroidery and sewing, it was supposed to advise the women in family
planning, birth control, pre- and post-natal care, etc. But out of 137
persons interviewed, 87 were totally ignorant about family planning.

Only 50 persons said that they had heard something about it, and these
were the people who usually went to Delhi and had picked up some in-
formation in the city. Nobody was fully aware of the means and methods.
But in Spite of their unawareness, a very large number wanted to restrict
the number of children.

It also seems that personal hygiene and cleanliness left much to
be desired. The investigators found that most of the people were in dirty
clothes and "although they may take a bath daily they would care little
to bathe well or to clean their teeth." (52:114) The houses and the
streets were always found littered with all sorts Of refuse. Similarly
they did not find any Significant improvements in the livestock. Some
improvements were reported due to disease control and improved breeding,
but not due to better feeding.

The investigators concluded their findings thus:

All these conditions clearly point to one thing viz.

that whatever changes have taken place in the village

have been initiated from outside... but all these changes

taken together have not been able to bring about any

appreciable improvement in the socio—economic structure

of the village...The result of all this is that the village

now suffers from complete lack of self confidence and

confidence in authorities. They seldom associate themselves

whole-heartedly with the develOpment work organised by

government or any other agency. No improvement in the

village life is possible unless the peOple themselves are
interested in the same. (52:115)

84

We might repeat here that interest is likely to be generated
when concentrated efforts are made to develOp conditions of learning
and effective channels of communication. The communicator may find it
easy to share his Opinions if there is a literate pOpulation at the
receiving end: the agent of change may find that a literate person is in
a better position to identify his goals, reinterpret the situation, make
the appropriate response, and repeat them if the result is satisfying.
But for the expected consequences of literacy to follow, develOping con-
ditions of learning seems essential. A mass literacy campaign or the
usual formal schooling, in themselves, do not seem to develop situations

favoring the use of literacy or change in attitude, as Jhangirpur indicates.

CHAPTER III

METHOD AND MATERIAL

A questionnaire (Appendix J) containing 30 key questions on
problems of adult literacy teaching was mailed to 87 addresses in 38
countries. The addresses were Obtained from literature, UNESCO, two
agencies in the United States, and personal knowledge of the author.
Twenty-five completed questionnaires from 13 countries plus 11 letters,
and three incomplete questionnaires were received. Thus 39 addressees
or about 45% reSponded.

Of the 25 respondents, 20 were classified as "agencies." They
included voluntary and government or semi-government institutions and
departments, and most of them were directly engaged in adult literacy
work. The remaining five were classified as individuals who either
occupy or had occupied key positions in institutions directly concerned
with adult education work. All of them were internationally involved,
from time to time, in this field. They occupy a place of leadership in
their own countries and, to some extent, internationally.

Out of the 20 agencies, 11 were governmental or government
supported and nine were voluntary; nine were engaged full time in literacy
work, and 11 were doing literacy work among other activities of community
development. The oldest was founded in 1940, and the three latest were
set up in early 1964. The number of full-time staff they engaged ranged

from one to 268, the median being ten. The largest number of full time

85

86

staff was engaged by the government agencies. Of the voluntary

agencies, one had a strength of 47 and one 55, but the remaining seven
employed five to Six staff members on an average. In addition to the
regular staff, seven of the voluntary and Six of the government agencies
used volunteers as well, the government agencies using the largest number
of volunteers.

These 20 agencies were classified as secular and non-secular. The
division is purely arbitrary. Under secular we have classified govern-
ment and semi-government agencies, not connected with any religious
denomination. Under non-secular we have classified agencies connected
with some denomination, though their activities might be of a secular
nature; this is the case of two of them. The division is sometimes not
very clear and sharp. According to this classification, 11 agencies were
secular and nine non-secular. A classified list of agencies is given in
Appendix H.

Thirteen said they conducted research. Seven did not allocate
Special funds for the purpose. One had 40% of the total annual budget
marked for research, and five spent on an average about 3% of their budget
on research. Of these 13, one sent as an example of research work some
literacy statistics collected by it. One sent a Short account of a survey
conducted to find out, among other things, reasons for dropping out of
elementary school, reasons for literacy learning, subject preferences,
and exposure to mass media. The rest did not refer to or enclose any

reports. A few reported that the analysis of data was in progress. About

87

half the reSponses indicated interest in the general area of research
as mentioned in the questionnaire, while half indicated no interest or
a lack of interest. A large number Showed interest in "exchanging
research reports" and "advice on research design." The following table

Shows their responses:

Table 1

Responses of the Agencies to COOperation in Research Endeavors

1. Exchanging research reports

 

 

 

Research areas R e S p o n S e S

N=20 Agencies

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A x - x x x x - * x x x - x x * - * x x x
B - - x x - x - * x x x - x x * - * x x x
C x x x x x x x * - x x - x x * — * - - x
D - x x x x x - * x x - - - x * - * - - x
E - - - x - - - * x x - - x x * x * - - x
F - - x x - x - * x x - - x x * x * - - -

=exchanging research reports.
B=having research examined and critiqued by other communication experts.
C=exchanging advice on the research design.
D=collecting local field data for other researchers.
E=replicating Studies.
F=obtaining assistance in the statistical analysis of data.
X=interested
-=not interested
*=no reply.

Sixteen out Of the 20 agencies expressed the desire of cooperation

in one research area or more. Among the remaining, one felt that the

88

government statistician was responsible for related studies, the re-
maining three who did not Show interest in any of the research areas

were voluntary non-secular agencies.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

1. The students

 

We would like to caution the reader that these results should be
studied with the fact in mind that the sample was small and the figures
given by the agencies were generally approximations.

Size of literacy classes varies between 10 and 150. Two agencies
reported that it goes up to 100 or beyond. In the case of one of these,
the students don't actually meet as a class Since the agency fellows the
"each one teach one" method. What it may mean, therefore, is that in a
particular area 100 illiterates might be learning from 100 literate
persons. The other agency prefers small classes, but sometimes, it reports,
the number goes up to 150. Nevertheless, the size of an average class is
between 20-25.

The majority of the students belong to the age group 15-35 years.
With advance of age, the number of students dwindles. One agency enrolls
children between 6 and 11, and four between 12 and 14 as well. Seven
agencies had no data to report regarding age of students. Thus in an
average literacy class of 20, we might see a child or two between 6 and 14
years, and about 13 youth between 15 and 35 years, and five elderly persons.

Four agencies had no data to report regarding how many of those
who enroll continue until the end and take the final exam. The remaining

16 reported that 20% to 90% take the final exam, the median was 66.5%.

89

90

It may be remembered that this reported percentage is much higher than
the implied figures reported in the UNESCO proposal (2) and the Turkish
Seminar report (36) which showed that only 5 out of 19 who enrolled in
an average class took the final exam.

Most of the students pass the exam. Out of the 17 agencies who
had data to report, four of them pass everybody. On the average, 68%
of the students taking the exam pass it.

The table below shows the period of teaching before the final
exam is given:

Table 2

Maximum Periods of Teaching Before
the Examination is Administered

A g e n c ,y

 

 

secular non—secular
N=11 N=9
Period of teaching in 630
clock hours. 200 -
250 -
150 240*
240 120
200 75
150 40
180 400
240 36
64 each one teach one
house to house
teaching
Total 2304 911
Average hours of teaching
for reSponding agencies 230 152

*The agency reported 7-9 months. We have calculated this period on
the basis of one hour a day, six days a week.

91

The table Shows that of the agencies which have reported the
period of teaching, the average hours of teaching for the secular
agencies comes to 230 hours, and for the non-secular, 152 hours. Thus
an illiterate adult might spend between 630 hours and 36 hours to re-
ceive literacy training. At the end of this period he takes an exam
which usually consists of reading a short passage and answering a few
questions about it asked by the examiner, who is generally the teacher
himself; taking down a few lines dictated to him, and in rare cases
doing Simple arithmetic. If he passes this test--and seven out of every
10 are likely to pass it--he is considered literate and is eXpected to
use his literacy to help him in achieving the goals he or the agency may
have set.

What were the expectations which brought him to the class or made
him ready to try private coaching? According to the judgments of the
agencies, the motives for becoming literate which the illiterate adults

seem to have are Shown in the following table:

Table 3

The Most to the least Preferred Reasons For
Wanting to Become Literate, as Ranked by the Agencies

Reasons for wanting_to become literate Ranking

 

Ranked highest Ranked lowest
Total Sec. NS Total Sec. NS
1. to be able to write their names 17 9 8 2 1 l
to be able to read and write letters
to be able to read bus and street Signs

2. to be able to earn more money 15 9 6 4 l 3
to be able to acquire knowledge about
their profession
to be able to get better jobs

92

Table 3 (continued)
Total Sec. NS Total Sec. NS
3. to be able to read neWSpapers 12 10 2 7 - 7
to be able to know about the
happenings of the country
4. to be able to read religious books 12 5 7 7 5 2

5. to Obtain greater prestige in the
community 9 5 4 10 5 5

6. to be able to read about home improvement
to be able to read about care of children 5 2 3 l4 8 5

7. to be able to read about maintaining
better health 5 - 5 14 10 4

8. to be able to read stories and other
light literature 1 - l 18 10 8

The table Shows that in the Opinion of the agencies the most pre-
ferred reason for wanting to become literate is the immediate and practical
use of literacy such as reading and writing letters. It was followed by
the reasons: to improve the standard of living, to develop awareness of
the happenings in the country, and to read religious books. Most of them
did not think that the adults want to become literate to Spend time in
enjoying reading, or to read about how to maintain better health, or to
learn about home improvement; these reasons were ranked lowest by 18, 14,
and 14 agencies respectively. The Opinion about whether literacy leads
to greater prestige in the community seems divided. Responses to reasons
No. 2, 3, and 5 indicate some trend among the majority of the secular

agencies to rank secular reasons highest and non-secular lowest, and in

93

the case of the non-secular agencies to rank non—secular reasons
highest and secular reasons lowest.

We now have a better profile of an illiterate adult who joins
a literacy class. He is likely to be one of 20 or 25 students in a
class and a young person between 15-35 years of age. He might study
for about 152 to 230 hours after which he would be able to read a Short
passage, perhaps understanding the main points of what he reads, write
a few lines, and do some simple arithmetic. He came to the class to
learn to read and write letters, use literacy to improve his Standards
of living, read the newspaper to know what is happening in his country,

and read books on his religion.

2. The consquences

Then what happens next? Does he acquire enough Skills of reading
and writing to use it for gaining information or reading for pleasure
if he wants to? Or because of various reasons does he not make much use
of his literacy? IS it almost lost over a period of time? The responses

to these questions are Shown in the table below.

94

Table 4
The Level of Literacy Acquired and its Subsequent Use

The Skill and its use
Two reasons why the majority of

the new literates cannot make use of
their literacy, if they don't, are given

in the statements below. Please in- N=23*
dicate whether you agree or disagree No
with them. Agree Disagree Responoe

 

a. The amount Of literacy received
is so rudimentary that the
majority of the new literates
cannot make much use of it in
gaining information or reading
for pleasure. 10 ll 2

 

b. Because of disuse a great
majority of them relapse
into illiteracy over a period
of time. 19 4 O

 

*Includes agencies and individuals.

One agency did not express any opinion on the above statements.
Out of the remaining 19 agencies, seven agreed with both the statements.
These reSponseS seem to be revealing in respect to the crucial problems
of adult literacy teaching. In the Opinion of seven of the agencies the
skill being generally imparted is so low that the new literates cannot
make much use of it after leaving the class, and 14 of them agreed that
most of the learners relapse into illiteracy over a period of time. Five
thought that neither the skill was low nor that they relapse into
illiteracy.

The causes of the disuse could be many: initial low level of

95

attainment, non-availability of reading materials and a daily life not
demanding the use of literacy. These have not been explored.

It might be interesting to probe further into the reasons that
might have led the two groups of agencies which agreed to and disagreed
with both the statements, expressing so diverse Opinions regarding
the standard of the Skills generally attained and the subsequent uses
of literacy.

Of the seven agencies which agreed to both the statements, four
were secular and three non-secular, while all which disagreed with both
the statements were non-secular. It is possible that the period of
literacy teaching, the standard of examination, the quality and the
training of teachers, and the system of teaching might account for the
difference in their opinions. These factors are analyzed in the tables
that follow:

Table 5

Periods of Literacy Teaching by Agencies Expressing
Different Opinions on Statements a and b

Group Opinion

 

N Periods (in hours) classification
1. Agreed to both 7 200 S
- NS
200-240 S
- NS
75 NS
630* S
house to house teaching S
Average 286 hours
4. Disagreed with both 5 120 NS
40 NS
400 NS
36 NS
each one teach one method NS
Average 149 hours

*This agency did not agree to "a" because it considered 630 hours not

96

It is difficult to see any definite relationship between the
period of literacy teaching and the Opinions, eSpecially because, of
the seven agencies which agreed to both the statements, two have not
mentioned the periods of teaching and one does house-to—house teaching.
Of the seven, two teach 200-240 hours. Still they seem to feel that
the ability acquired within this period is rudimentary and that most
of the new literates do not use their literacy.

Of the two which have not mentioned the period, one might have
been influenced in its judgment by the results of a study conducted
among its new literates by one of the headquarters staff members in
connection with her thesis. Her study indicated that very few new
literates continue to use their literacy.*

One of the seven conducts its classes for only 75 hours and one
does house-to-house teaching, but both of them feel the same way about
both statements. The Opinion of Group 2 is a bit surprising. Though
three of them teach only for 120, 40, and 36 hours respectively, they
still feel that the ability acquired within this period is not rudimentary
and that most Of the new literates continue reading and writing. The

disagreement of the one which teaches for 400 hours is understandable.

 

enough to acquire a high standard of literacy, but it agreed to "a"

"when the teaching is limited to instrumental literacy, and the new
literate is then abandoned to himself;" and as this seems to be generally
the case, its reSponse has been classified here.

*"The percentage who continue to use the acquired Skills of reading and
writing is very low. I would estimate from my Sarawak study that
this is less than 10 percent," in a letter to the author.

97

As we have discussed in Chapter II, there is some research evidence to
indicate that this seems to be an adequate period for acquiring fourth-
grade level literacy.

The period of teaching, therefore, does not seem a satisfactory
reason for the difference of Opinion between the group of agencies which
agreed to both the statements and those which disagreed with both. We
may now examine the standard of examination set by both the groups which
is shown below:

Table 6

Standards of Examinations Set by Groups One and Two

 

Group Opinion No. S-NS Standard of examination
1 Agreed to l S Measurement of 3 Rs and Spelling skills,
both familiarity with the use of library and
other sources of reference.

2 NS No tests.
3 S (NO answer)
4 NS No examination given at present
5 NS Reading and writing and different levels

of vocabulary.

6 S Ability to read everything in the primer
and in the Simple materials that follow.

7 S Special Commission of govt. conducts this
exam.

2 Disagreed
with both 1 NS Reading of Short paragraphs.

2 NS Reading from a booklet, dictation, writing
a letter, a Short story, making a ShOpping
list and adding up prices, reading all
publications on mother and child care,
first aid, family planning, coops, etc.

3 NS Dictation, cOpy right, reading, Simple
arithmetic, group discussion.

4 NS Reading aloud a fable of about 200 words

and answering questions on it.
5 NS Individual oral and written exam.

98

These reported methods of examining do not give a clear measure-
ment of the abilities. Three of the agencies in Group one do not seem
to have a set system of examination. The examination standards of the
remaining agencies seem more or less at par with the examination standards
of the agencies in Group two, which mainly consist of reading from a
booklet and, in some cases, taking dictation. Agency two of Group two
which reports a comparatively higher examination standard, including the
writing of a Short story, teaches only for 40 hours on an average, never
fails any student, but gives Special lessons to slower ones. We suSpect
that the description is not of the standard of examination, but of the
total teaching program which a student is expected to complete. It might
be interesting to know how many of them come up to this high standard
after about 40 hours of teaching and how many remain in the classification
of "Slower students."

It does not appear that the reported standards of examination of
one group of agencies would have led the students to exert themselves more
than the students of the other group.

The polar difference of Opinion between the two groups might have
been due to the difference in the teaching system, under which we have
included teaching aids and extra curricular activities, used as part of
the teaching program and not the primers and charts which almost all of
them use. The responses given by the 12 agencies regarding the use of

certain additional teaching facilities are Shown in the following table:

99

Table 7

Additional Teaching Facilities
Used by Group One and Two

 

 

Group 1 (N=7) Group 2 (N=5)
Frequencygof use
Type of facilities no

reg. occ. not. response reg. occ. not?

1. NewSpapers are read

to the class 1 5 l 2 l 2
2. Films and filmstrips are

Shown 2 4 l - 4 l
3. Radios are used as part

of class teaching 3 l 2 l l - 4

4. Talks on economic and

social problems are given

by persons other than the

teacher 4 l l l 2 2 l
5. Talks on economic and

social problems are given

by the teacher 3 2 1 1 3 l l
6. Group discussions are

held on the contents of

lessons read 4 1 2 2 l 1
7. Groups discussion are

held in the class on

community problems 5 2 - 3 1 1
Total 22 16 8 3 13 10 12
Average use 5.43 4.6
Average non-use 1.17 2.4

It will be seen from this table that Group one reported more fre-

quent use of these additional teaching facilities than Group two. It does
not, therefore, appear that the reason of the disagreement of Group two
with both the statements was the more frequent use of additional teaching
facilities.

The following table shows the initial qualification of the teachers

*reg.= regularly, occ.= occasionally, not.= not at all

100

which both the groups employed and the amount of training which was given.

Table 8

Qualification and Training of Teachers
Employed by Groups One and Two.

 

 

 

Group 1 Group 2
Teachers NO. Years of Schooling No. Years of Schooling_
Initial qualification 1 professional 1 10 or above
retired teachers
2 10 or above 2* 7-8
3 5-6 1 5—6
below 5 1 below 5
weeks of training, weeks of training,
Training 1 3-4 1 5-6
4 1-2 2 3-4
1 less than 1 2 1-2
1 none**

There does not seem to be much difference on the whole in the
initial qualification of teachers employed by the two groups and the
training given to them. The agency in Group 2 which reports five-Six
weeks of training teaches only for 40 hours. Hence it does not seem
likely that it trains its teachers in literacy teaching for five-Six weeks.
The agency is working with a leadership training and community development
institution and perhaps uses the same village leaders who come to the
*One reported using teachers from 5 through 10 years of education and

above. We have classified this agency in this group.

**for teachers having 12 years of education.

101

agency for leadership training. Training in literacy teaching possibly
forms only part Of the total curriculum.
It is probable that the basis of the difference of their opinions
lay in their conception of the standard of literacy. If one group had a
high standard of literacy, it might regard the period of teaching in-
adequate for the majority of the students to attain that standard. Con-
sequently, students could not use the meagre literacy for any gainful
purpose. Hence the agency might agree with both statements. On the
other hand, if it regarded a person "illiterate" even if he was able to
read a few simple sentences and write a few lines, it might consider the
period and other conditions adequate for the majority of the students to
attain that standard of literacy and use the new skills subsequently.
Hence it might disagree with both the statements. The table below shows
the standard of literacy after which a person was considered literate by
each the group.
Table 9
Standards of Literacy Agreed to by Groups One and TWO
Group 1 (N=6) Group 2 (N=5)

Agreed to both Disagreed to both
‘Standard No. period reqd. No. period reqd.

 

An illiterate person is considered
literate when he has acquired the
ability:

1. to read and write a simple letter
or
the sentences of a primer or

books of the same level 1 150
2. in the 3Rs equivalent to that of a l 200 l 120
child who has successfully com- 1 36-48 1 240
pleted four years of schooling 1 200 l 400

. Or 1 60 1 36-48

to read a daily newspaper with
comprehension in his native language 1 600

102

It will be seen that six of the Group 1, and four of the Group 2,
agencies considered a person literate when he had attained quite a high
standard of literacy. Only one of the agencies in Group 2 preferred
the lower standard and disagreed with both the statements. One of the
agencies in Group 1 gave its own standard which it was difficult to
classify under the two standards given above.* It does not appear that
their conception of the standard of literacy could have been the basis
of having the diverse Opinion regarding the initial attainments and the
subsequent uses of literacy. It is interesting to note that four of the
agencies, though agreeing with such a high standard of literacy, con-
sidered that it could be achieved in periods as short as 36 to 48 hours,
60 hours, or even in 100 hours. All these four agencies were non-secular.

At least two other variables, i.e., the initial motivation of the
students and the language of teaching might have influenced their judg-
ments. But it does not seem likely that these two variables would have

been much different in either case. Most of the students in both the

cases were rural youths belonging to economically under-developed countries,
except in two cases where they belonged to a develOped country. There

both the agencies agreed with both statements. In both cases, the great
majority of Students would receive literacy in their mother tongue. It
will be remembered that all the agencies which disagreed with both state-
ments were non-secular. They generally use a primer, a chart, and a few
other books constructed on the so—called "Laubach Method." Perhaps they
*"Ability to read materials commonly available to him, write enough

to communicate simple messages; also to carry on the 4 Operations in
Simple arithmetic."

103

disagreed with both statements because they consider this method of
teaching SO effective that even if the illiterates are taught for
36-49, 120 or 150 hours they attain a high standard of literacy and keep
on making use of it in their daily life. This explanation, however, comes
into trouble when we remember that out of the seven agencies which
disagreed with both statements, three were also non-secular and perhaps
use the same method of teaching. Two of them have not mentioned the
period of teaching and one has mentioned it as 75 hours (Table No. 5)

The general consequences Of literacy teaching, as reported by all
the agencies, are shown in the following table:

Table 10
The Consequences of Literacy Teaching

Consequences Number of persons affectedgby...

N=20 all half total % few none total % rggponse
The "new literates"...
l. listen to the radio for news 9
2. take more interest in voting lO

3. Show more confidence while
travelling and talking to

15 83 17 2

government officials 11 4 15 79 4 - 4 21 l
4. read and write their letters 8 5 13 69 5 l 6 31 l
5. begin to read newSpapers 5 8 13 65 6 1 7 35 -
6. read for enjoyment and

information 5 7 12 61 7 - 7 39 1

7. become proficient in their

occupation and adOpt new

technical practices 4 8 12 60 6 2 8 40 -
8. doubt and question supers-

titious beliefs and become

more tolerant toward others'

. faith 6 5 ll 59 4 4 8 41 1

9. take critical interest in govt.

affairs and become dissatisfied

with the status quo. 4 7 ll 55 7 2 9 45 -

104

Table 10 (continued) no
all half total % few none total % resp;_

 

lO. become more conscious of

their civic reSponsibilitieS 6 3 9 50 7 l 8 57 3
11. become member of village inst.2 4 6 32 7 5 12 68 2
12. begin to challenge the autho-
rity of village elders 3 3 6 36 9 2 11 64 3
l3. become more mobile 4 l 5 26 12 2 14 74 l
14. modify their food habits l 4 5 26 12 2 14 74 l
15. become more demanding in
their civic rights 4 1 s 30 10 2 12 7o 3
16. keep records of income
and expenditure 2 1 3 15 10 7 17 85 -
Total 84 73 157 ‘ 109 35 144 19
Percent 49.1 45.0 5.9

The above questions are in fact research questions; how far
literacy affects a person's behavior cannot perhaps be answered without
systematic Studies. The change, if any, might be due to several other
variables. The responses of the agencies are mostly based on their ex-
periences and, perhaps, expectations rather than on studies.

If we classify the responses under "all" and "half" as indicative
of the effectiveness of literacy teaching, and those under "few" and "none"
as non-effectiveness of literacy, and if we regard the given consequences
a measure of its effectiveness, we notice and about 49 percent of the
responses indicate that literacy teaching is effective and 45 percent
that it is not-effective.

Of the given consequences, the ability to read the newSpaper, be-
coming more proficient in one's profession through reading, and the change
in attitude to the extent that the new literate begins to take critical
interest in the affairs of government and becomes dissatisfied with the

status quo, will perhaps require a high standard of initial literacy and

105

considerable reading subsequently. It is not very likely that reading

a primer and a Simple booklet during a Short course Of literacy teaching
will lead to the above consequences.‘ We would, therefore, like to take

a closer look at the agencies which considered literacy teaching "effective"
and "non-effective" as far as these consequences are concerned. The table
below Shows the nature, the period of teaching, and Opinions on the state-
ments regarding the initial standard and the subsequent uses of literacy

of agencies which considered literacy teaching effective or non-effective.

Table 11

The "Effective" and "Non-effective" Group
and Some Consequences of Literacy Teaching.

 

 

Effective group Non-effective group
Consequences. nature teaching agreed nature teaching agreed
I S NS period with S NS period with
a b a b
1. They begin_to read the 1 2 2 hrs3 2
newspaper 6 7 271 hrs. 4 7 5 2 161 3 7
2. They become more proficient 4 5 6 7 8
in their occupation 6 6 208 hrs. 5 9 5 3 188 2 5
3. They take critical interest
in the affairs of government 3 3 1979 hrs. u 9 3 5 2001 37 58

 

l. 2 did not report the period, 1 used each-one-teach-one method, 1 taught
for 400 hours and 1 taught for 630 hours.

2. 2 gave no Opinion.

3. 1 used each-one-teach-one method.

4. 2 used each-one—teach-one method and 1 did not report the period, 1
taught for 630 hours.

5. 1 gave no Opinion.

6. l taught for 400 hours.

7. 3 gave no opinion.

8. 2 gave no Opinion.

9. 1 used each-one-teach-one method, 1 taught for 630 hours.

106

It will be seen from the table that 13 agencies, 10 of which taught
on an average for 221 hours, expressed the opinion that the adults begin
to read neWSpapers after receiving this amount of training, on the other
hand seven of the agencies, six of which taught on an average for 161
hours, said that they don't. It may appear that the effective group might
have expressed the positive Opinion because it taught 60 hours more than
the non-effective group. But this additional period is due to only two
agencies which taught for 400 hours and 630 hours reSpectively. Ex-
cluding these agencies the effective group taught on an average for 152
hours—-nine hours less than the non-effective group. It will also be seen
that four of the effective group had agreed with the statement that the
initial attainment was rudimentary and seven with the statement that the
majority of the new literates do not continue to read after leaving the
class. Even then, this group is of the Opinion that the new literates
begin to read the newspapers after about 152* hours Of class teaching.
The opinion of the non-effective group seems to be more consistent with
their earlier agreement with both the statements and the ability of new
literates to read newSpapers. Out of seven, three of them had agreed that
the Skill was rudimentary and all had agreed tha:they do not use their
literacy. It also seems that more non-secular agencies tend to hold an
Optimistic point of view than the secular agencies.

We notice a somewhat similar situation in regard to the second con-
sequence. Both the groups teach for almost the same period.. (The
non-effective group included the 400-hours agency, which if excluded,

brings the average hours of teaching down to 152. The effective group

*excluding the two agencies.

107

contained the 630 hour agency, excluding which the average comes to

159 hours). Quite a large number of the effective group had agreed with
the second statement and 5 with the first. Still they feel 159 hours Of
teaching enough to enable a person to use the printed page for becoming
more efficient in his occupation. Again the non-effective group seems
to be more consistent in its earlier and present Opinion. In this case,
too, we notice that more non-secular agencies tend to hold an optimistic
view than the secular agencies.

The Situation is more or less the same in reSpect to the third
consequence. (The non-effective group, minus the 400-hours agency, teaches
for 162 hours and the effective group, minus the 630 hours teaches for
153 hours.) In this case, more of the secular agencies hold the Opinion
that the new literate takes a critical interest in the affairs of the
government than the non-secular agencies, although four out of 11 had agreed
with statement a, and nine with statement b. To see if such perception
of the behavior of the new literates is due to the background of the two
groups of agencies, we give below their reSponses to whether the new
literate begins to doubt and question superstitious beliefs and become
more tolerant toward other faiths.

Table 12

The "Effective" and "Non-effectivé'GroupS and
the Consequences re Superstitions Beliefs

 

 

Effective group .Nonzeffegxixe_grgnp
_ nature teaching agreed nature teaching agreed
Consequence 8 NS period with S NS period with
hrs. a b hrs a b

 

1. They begin to doubt
and question superstitious
beliefs and become more
tolerant toward others' faith 4 7 2531 42 7 7 1 1803 4” 4”

1. 1 did not give the period of teaching, 1 used each-one-teach-one method;

108

The effective group included the agencies which taught for 400
and 630 hours. If we exclude these agencies the period of teaching for
both groups becomes almost the same--183 hours for the "effective" group
and 180 hours for the "non-effective" group. There is a difference of
opinion about the initial attainment; the majority of the "effective"
group do not consider it rudimentary, and the majority of the "non-
effective" group consider it rudimentary. But the majority of both agree
with the non-use of literacy. Thus, even in respect of this consequence
we see that though the period of teaching remains almost the same and the
majority of both the groups agree about the non-use of literacy, they
differ in their opinions about this type of change in the behavior of the
new literate. The majority which says that this type of change occurs
is non-secular, and the majority which says that this type of change does
not occur is secular. These two evidences indicate to some extent that
the agencies tend to perceive the changes according to their own backgrounds.
The analysis of the reSponses to the given consequences indicate
that:
1. About half the agencies consider literacy teaching effective and about
half do not consider it effective.
2. Though they differ regarding the adequacy of the initial level of
attainment the majority of the agencies (Table 4) agree that literacy
once acquired is not used by the majority of the new literates and

they relapse into illiteracy over a period of time.

 

l taught for 400 hours, and l taught for 630 hours.
2. 1 did not express opinion.
3. 1 did not give the period of teaching; 1 used each-one-teach-one method.
4. 1 did not express opinion.

109
3. Of the five individuals, four agreed to both the statements, i.e.,
the initial literacy imparted iS rudimentary and the majority of
the new literates relapse into illiteracy. One agreed only with the
second statement.
4. The Opinion of the agencies and the individuals about the non-use of
literacy seems in line with the findings of research reported in

Chapter II.

3. The standard of literacy

When do the agencies consider an illiterate person "literate"
and how much instruction do they consider adequate for a person to attain
that standard? The table below shows their reSponses to the above
questions.

The table shows that only fouregencies and one individual consider
a person literate when he has acquired the reading and writing abilities
as in one, while 15 agencies and four individuals demand a higher
standard. But only four of the agencies and one of the individuals have
mentioned the period of instruction equal or even higher than that which
some of the research evidence (Chapter II) seems to recommend. The rest
of the suggested periods of instruction fall much short. It is rather
interesting to note that one of the secular agencies thinks that this
high standard can be attained in 64 hours*. Two of the non-secular agencies
beat down all of them by claiming to attain the standard in 36-48 hours;
one of them plans to do SO in 60 hours, and one goes up to 100 hours.

-*This agency soon plans to launch a nationwide literacy drive to make
the population literate in 64 hours of teaching.

110

Table 13

Standards of Literacy Accepted by the
Agencies and the Individuals

 

Secularv(N-10) Non-secular¥(N=9) Individuals (N=5)
No. Instruc- No. Instruc- No. Instruc-

Standard tion required tion required tion required

in hours in hours in hours

An illiterate person is considered
literate when he has acquired the

ability:
1. to read and write a simple 1
letter 1 150 1 120 l 330
or
the sentences of a primer 1 240 l 150 - -

2.

To

1.

2.

3.

4.

or books of the same level.

in the 3Rs equivalent to that l 200 1 36-48 1 750
of a child who has successfully l 150 l 60 l 230
completed 4 years of schooling 1 200 1 500-1000 1 240

or 1 200 1 100 1 200
to read a daily newspaper l 180 l 400
with comprehension in his 1 64 1 36-48
native language. 13 500 1” 40

l 600

summarize the analysis of the responses of the agencies:

It made a note that for newspaper reading, a person in that region

will have to learn a second language.

It made a note to the effect that for "functional literacy" it agreed
with Standard 2, but its answer indicated that it did regard a person
literate if he had attained standard 1.

It has given its own standard as "When he has acquired the ability to
use reading as an effective tool for his personal improvement and

the community betterment. In other words, when literacy has reached a
"functional level". We have classified the reSponse under 2.

It has given its own standard as "Literacy must be the key to the door
for a better life economically. If this is not achieved the Skill is
soon lost". We have classified the reSponse under 2.

l.

2.

3.

111

A class usually consists of 20-25 students and the majority of the
students are between the ages of 15-35 years. Of those who enroll,
about 66.5 percent take the final exam, if one is given. This
indicates that the drop-out rates are not very high. (The rate
compares favorably with the school drop out rates.) The students

are generally examined on a Simple passage testing their reading
abilities. Most of them are declared literate after this Simple

test.

The secular agencies as a group offer more instruction than the non-
secular agencies--on an average 230 and 152 hours respectively. About
half of the secular agencies consider the skills acquired in the class
as very low and about half of them do not consider them low, but the
majority agree that the new literates do not use their literacy sub-
sequently. The non-secular agencies consider the abilities sufficiently
high and think that most of the new literates use their literacy. The
great majority of the individuals agree with the secular agencies.

In the Opinion of the agencies the reasons for wanting to become literate
are in the following order: (a) practical uses of literacy such as
reading and writing of letters; (b) earning money; (c) to know what

is happening in the country; and (d) reading religious literature.
Knowledge about home improvement or better health, and reading light
literature were considered the least important reasons for wanting to
become literate. There is some indication that the secular agencies
attach more importance to secular types of motives and the non-secular

to religious motives.

4.

5.

6.

112

Both types of agencies reported the use of additional teaching
faculties such as reading of newSpapers to the class, discussions on
community problems, talks on social and economic problems, etc., in
varying frequencies. The secular agencies used these facilities
Slightly more than the non-secular agencies. Both types of agency
used teachers of almost the same qualifications and gave them the same
amountof training. Most of the teachers employed possessed below

five to Six years of education and they generally received training
for one to two weeks.

Of the 19 agencies and five individuals, only five considered a person
literate even if he had acquired a low level of literacy, whereas

19 demanded a higher standard equivalent to the primary fOurth grade
standard or when the person could read a newSpaper. This standard
agreed with those recommended by Gray and others. But only five of
them foresaw the period of instruction as 400 hours or more; the

rest of them thought that it was possible to attain this standard
within such Short periods as 36—48 hours, or 100 hours or 240 hours.
If the effectiveness and the non-effectiveness of literacy teaching

is judged from a set of given consequences, about half of the agencies
regard literacy teaching effective and half non-effective. Among

the consequences, the following have been reported as most effective:
(a) listening to the radio for news; (b) taking more interest in
voting; (c) Showing confidence while travelling and talking to govern-
ment officials; (d) reading and writing letters and neWSpapers; (e)

reading for enjoyment; and (f) doubting superstitious beliefs.

113

Among those reported as non-effective are:. (a) mobility;
(b) modification of food habits; (c) becoming more demanding in civic

‘rights; and (d) keeping records of income and eXpenditure.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

Viewed from a national point, it seems that the need of having
a literate population arises because of the expectation that a literate
person will be able to (a) form Opinions on public affairs, (b) under-
stand his culture and develOp a new attitude in tune with the demands of
time, and (c) produce more.

There is some evidence to Show that "functional literacy,"
which perhaps will enable a person to come up to the above expectations
can be acquired in about 400 hours of instruction, with well-trained
teachers, prOperly supervised classes, and using reading materials
designed to lead the learners to meet the goals. In terms of the elementary
school, the level of functional literacy might be equated with the fourth
grade level of achievement.

A great majority of the agencies and the individuals who responded
to the questionnaire also agree that an illiterate person Should be
regarded literate when he has attained this standard. But it seems that
they are not clear about the amount of instruction which will be required
to attain this level. Only four of the agencies and one individual has
said that 400-1000 hours of instruction will be required to attain the
functional literacy level. But the remaining 15 seem to think that this
level can be attained in much.shorter time, ranging from 36 to 240 hours.
It seems that these agencies have Simply upgraded their definitions,

keeping the hours of instruction the same as they have at present for

114

115

the type of literacy they are providing, or they regard their present
standards of literacy, whatever they might be, equivalent to the fourth
grade level.

On the whole, the secular agencies provide more instruction (average
230 hours) than the non-secular agencies (average 152 hours). About half
of the secular agencies feel that the amount of literacy acquired in the
classes is rudimentary. Half do not agree. But the majority of the
secular agencies agree that the literacy imparted in the classes is not
used subsequently. On the other hand, the non-secular agencies, which
teach much less, consider that the literacy imparted is not rudimentary
and that the majority of the new literates use their literacy. The main
basis of the difference of Opinion seems to be the basic teaching materials
which most of the non-secular agencies use. But this iS only an inference.

Four out of the five individuals agree with the secular agencies
regarding the low level of attainment and the subsequent non-use of
literacy.

There is insufficient evidence regarding the consequences of adult
literacy teaching. What happens when the adult becomes literate? Does
he continue reading and writing leading to behavioral changes? One
evidence shows that none of the adults who had had four years of education
in their childhood relapsed into illiteracy even 25 years later; and only
12.2 percent of those who had passed the third grade and entered the
fourth had relapsed. The instrument of measurement used was a very
simple nature. But very few of these literate adults had used their

literacy after leaving the school. The other study, too, points to its

116

non-use. A third study of a village points to no significant difference
in the attitude toward the social customs and amount of knowledge
possessed about reforms initiated by the government among the members of
the village, 44 percent of whose adult pOpulation was literate.

Of the agencies and the individuals, less than half are of the
Opinion that, judged from a given set of consequences, literacy teaching
is effective; and more than half think that it is ineffective.

Some writers have eXpressed the Opinion that, if the environmental
conditions of the illiterate adults do not demand the use of reading and
Writing, external motivational efforts are not likely to stimulate enough
motivation among the adults themselves to make the necessary efforts to
become literate or use their literacy. They are of the opinion that
though literacy seems to be one of the important factors in the process
of modernization it follows urbanization and technOIOgical development.

One hundred percent literacy follows demand and does not precede
it.

On the other hand, the developing countries seem to feel a sense
of urgency for providing literacy to all the people. Perhaps because
they feel that the benefits of planned develOpment should go to all the
people and not only to the educated few, and that without the participation
of all the people planned development is not likely to make much headway.
It seems that their argument is that at least in principle they have
provided Opportunities to change the existing conditions. It is up to
the pe0ple to change them. Education equips a person to manipulate the

environmental conditions and hasten change.

117

However, it seems that, in Spite of the theoretical potentialities
0f literacy, its consequences have not been overwhelming. The weakness
"Eur lie in the way literacy drives are conducted or literacy teaching

1°-_$_hdone. The learning theory seems to suggest that unless conditions of

Shearning exist learning is hardly likely to occur.

The author has tried to present a concentrated approach which may
‘help develop the conditions of learning. Usually the resources Of a
develOping country are not likely to permit such a concentrated approach
if literacy drives are undertaken on a country-wide scale. But it might
be possible if literacy efforts are concentrated in selected areas.
According to the hypothesis of the author the consequences of a large

scale literacy drive will be negligible.

CHAPTER VI

SUGGESTED AREAS OF RESEARCH

It seems that we do not have enough authentic information about
various aSpectS of adult literacy teaching. However, most of the
authorities, voluntary agencies, and individual practitioners, having
had perhaps not enough opportunity to form judgments on the basis of
objective data, tend to rely heavily on their own experiences. Naturally,
they are likely to be cautious to change the system unless they themselves
consider certain changes necessary. Perhaps the social scientist will
need to convince the administrators and the field agencies of the practical
usefulness of his techniques. The suggested research projects, one through
three, are likely to be useful in themselves as well as strategic.

1. Evaluation of the consequences of some of the literaey campaigns in
terms of the objectives.

For any future planning of effective literacy campaigns, the
knowledge of the consequences of some of the present efforts seems
absolutely necessary. In the absence of reliable data, we have perhaps
no other way to convince ourselves and others of the success of the
literacy programs but our individual experiences and field reports which
usually do not lack in modesty. Perhaps this is the reason that the
inventor of a method or the planner of a campaign has often times the
feeling and the conviction that "the whole village was changed," though
the village may be unaware both of the change and the claim. It is,

therefore, felt that unless we are more sure of the effects of literacy

118

119

future planning is likely to be more or less on present lines; eSpecially
because of the general feeling that what is going on is fruitful, there
is likely to be little readiness to plan differently.

It will be desirable to let the planner state the goals; the re-
searcher can and should help him to clarify them to the extent that they
become measurable. We think that strategically it will also be desirable
that the measuring instrument is evolved with his help and he and his
staff, at least once in awhile, serve as interviewers. This is a rather
delicate approach, and if not handled carefully may defeat its own pur-
pose.

Perhaps it might be well to divide the area into most, medium, and
least successful campaign regions according to the judgment of the panner
and draw the sample from each region.

The broad goals, as we have suggested, will be fixed by joint
effort but some of the broad bases of evaluation might be as follows:

(1) The extent of reading and the types of materials read.

(2) The level Of comprehension of the readers and their ability to
react critically to them.

(3) The purposes for which writing is used, its frequency and quality.

(4) Sources Of procurement of reading materials--purchased, borrowed, or
free distribution.

(5) The readability of the materials in terms of the reading levels of
new literates.

(6) Evidence of increased knowledge, regarding personal and community

problems and national affairs.

120

(7) Evidence of behavioral changes, e.g.,

(a) increased participation in community affairs,

(b) adoption of new practices leading to improvement in the standards
of living,

(c) modification in attitudes toward traditional faiths and beliefs,

(d) civic consciousness, including both an increased sense of
rights and responsibilities,

(e) extent of Opinion formation toward public affairs,

(f) attitudes toward public servants (e.g., critical or quiescent),

(g) mobility and its consequences on economic standards, increase

in knowledge and confidence in meeting new situations.

2. Evaluation of the teaching;materials, methods of teaching, selection
and training of teachers.

Whatever the goals, the chances of their attainment by the learners
are greater if the teaching materials and the class teaching are in
harmony with them and provide situations conducive to goal attainment.
For example, if one of the goals is to help students in decision-making,
the materials and the class teaching Should provide the students
appropriate opportunities to make their own decisions in different
Situations.

The selection of content and its treatment could be effective
elements in stimulating interest in reading. The teaching materials, in

addition to developing reading skills, usually provide "information" on

121

topics which the producers consider important for the learners to
"know." One widely used series, perhaps to emphasize what reading can
do to the learners, involves a rural character, who reads books, knows
everything that has to be known, solves problems of life, and as a result
builds up his social and economic position in quick successions. Do
such Stories help stimulate motivation in continued reading and the
adOption Of new practices? Does the learner consider them gross
Simplifications of his problems?

The following points may serve as the basis of evaluation:

The teaching materials

 

(1) Their effectiveness in develOping the Skills of reading and writing.

(2) How quickly and effectively they lead to independence inzeading.

(3) The amount and nature of built-in "reward" provided in the material
itself, e.g., in the selection and treatment of content and in the
form of self-solving exercises and quizzes.

(4) To what extent do they reflect the goals set by the planners and

the immediate goals of the learners, or the balance between the two?

For example, we have found in the Indian reading materials most of
the lessons on the structure and the functioning of government at
different levels, civic responsibilities, balanced diet, national
plans of development, biOgraphical Sketches of religious and
political leaders. But none are found on how the reader may locate
his fields in the village map, how can he understand the records of
his prOperty kept by local Officials, what the entries in the revenue
and irrigation receipts look like, or what his fundamental rights

as a citizen are.

122

(5) Whether they are graded in difficulty and the language used is

easy, natural, and suits the genius of the language.

The class teaching

(1) The qualification and the training of teachers, the nature of
the training.

(2) To what extent the teacher tries to develop learning
Situations, or emphasizes mainly letter recognitions, drills,
and correction Of mispronounced words.

(3) Does he organize group discussions on problems arising out
of reading and the general community problems; his training
and his capacities as a discussion leader.

(4) Does he prepare the lessons in advance and use teaching aids?

(5) How far the class teaching is integrated with other community
activities if the literacy teaching is a part of the overall

community development scheme.

3. Evaluation of the channels of distribution and experimentation in
encouraging normal trade channels.
(1) What are the existing channels, how effective are they, and
what are the bottlenecks? If the materials are produced
and distributed by the government, can the local functionaries,
e.g., the postman, the revenue record keeper, and the school
teacher, be used as distribution points? What will be the

administrative difficulties?

123

(2) Can the normal trade channels be encouraged to produce
materials and develOp local distribution points in areas
where there are sufficient number of potential buyers?

For example, the village grocery store might be pursuaded
to store books if the losses are guaranteed initially. Can
the publishers be pursuaded to allow more discount to
village stores than they usually do in the expectation of
an expanded market in future? Does the purchase of books
by new literates increase if they, too, are allowed a'
marginal discount, say 5 percent, when they buy a book. In
some countries the postal charges amount to as much as the
cost Of a low-priced book. This may discourage the village
buyers from placing direct mail orders with the publishers.
This Situation might be investigated and brought to the
notice of the authorities.

The results of the evaluation projects suggested above will perhaps
give enough data to plan for future effective literacy work, and conduct
the following experimental projects:

4. Fixation of desirable Objectives of_literacv teachigg_in developing,
countries in terms of behavioral changes (e.g.jgraisinggetandards of
living, participation in the affairs of the country, and changes in
social outlook) and conducting of experimental classes.

It might be realized while fixing the goals that some of them may
lead to political repercussions. The literates may learn to voice their

feelings and protest against existing systems. Will the existing leader-

124

Ship of the educated be willing to submit to the democratization process?
According to Batten (44), the present leadership has no means of
knowing what the great majority of the people want and it does what it
considers right. Suppose literacy gives the peOple the ability to eXpreSS
what they want. Will leaders be willing to submit to the common wish,
or will they have the patience and means to persuade the peOple to go
along? Adam Curle points to Similar consequences which might result
when a large number of peOple become literate:
It is common knowledge that the ruling classes of many
nations have been reluctant to spend much money on the
education of those who might then compete with or
supplant them. (3:294).
After the fixation of the goals, the purpose of the experiment
will be to find out:
(1) How long will it take for a normal adult to attain
sufficient literacy which might be expected to help him
in attaining the set goals?
(2) What types of materials will be required for the prOposed
type of literacy teaching?
(3) What types Of teachers are found most effective and what

type and amount of training do they need?

(4) What will be the cost of literacy per head?

5. Experiment in integration of adult literacy teaching_with community
‘developmentgprograms.
This might be one Of the most important eXperiments. It is

generally accepted that literacy is not an end in itself and that it

125

shumild form an integral part of community development. This seems to be
ax: effective approach for ensuring the uses of literacy. The main problem
133 explore is how to bring about the "integration." Simply including it
111 the list of activities of the community development organization does
That seem to bring about integration. We have suggested one approach under
tile sub-heading "expected consequences." Other approaches might be ex-
Eilored and these should be tried out under experimental conditions. The
axpproach found most successful is likely to be of great help to all
Ipractitioners, especially to community develOpment organizations.

This experiment might be included under 4 as item (5) if administra-

‘tively feasible.

6. Experiment in literacy teaching to urban and rural illiterates.

Lerner's study of the Middle Eastern countries (7) indicated that
literacy is highly associated with urbanization. It is thought that the
complicated life of industralized cities demands literacy skills whereas
the Simple rural life Situations do not. Therefore, a literacy drive in
an urban area is more likely to be successful than a rural drive as the
urban literate stands a better chance to use his literacy than a rural
literate does. Hence literacy will be productive. Adam Curle eXpresses
the opinion that "it is particularly hard to draw Sharp lines of differen-
‘datidns between productive and non-productive learning in peasant economies
which comprise those in most of the underdevelOped countries." (3:296) Most
countries, finding the vast majority of the illiterates concentrated in

rural areas, undertake rural literacy drives.

126

It will be fruitful to investigate which is more profitable in
terms of the payoff-—whether urban or rural literacy teaching. Either
the consequences of existing literacy in urban and rural regions Should
be studied or experimental classes should be set up in both areas and the
results compared. The following may Serve as the basis Of comparison:

(1) Percentage of enrollment Of illiterates in the area,

drOp-Out rates and regularity of attendance.

(2) The time required to attain comparable stages in learning.

(3) Uses of literacy after graduation fromthe classes.

(4) Change in attitudes.

(5) Cost.

7. Study of the effectiveness of the paid against the voluntary teacher

and primary school teacher against the literate from the community.

 

Some countries like Ghana feel that not only is it economically
unpractical to use paid teachers, but for building leadership and boosting
the morale of the people voluntary teachers should be used in literacy
campaigns. Others like India use paid teachers. It is generally felt
that voluntary teachers do not accept the required administrative control.
They are not able to stay with the classes for longer periods, and they may
come and go according to their convenience. Hence, though some money will
be saved, the turn out will be pOor.

Some are reluctant to use the primary school teacher because they
feel that he transfers his behavior of teaching children to adult teaching.

His methods do not change much in Spite of training in teaching adults.

127

Others feel that it may not be necessarily so with young, trained teachers.
At least he has the initial training as a teacher and the literate from
the community, in Spite Of the Short training that he receives in teaching
adults, does not understand the business of teaching for a long time.
Experimental classes using all the four types of teachers might be set up
and the results compared.

It is realized that the country will employ the type of teachers it
would find feasible, but at least it would be in a better position to know

what results to expect from what types of teachers.

8. Experimentation in literacy teaching_aspart of the educational system.
As we have reported earlier one of the recommendations of the UNESCO
Expert Committee was to integrate literacy teaching "into a programme of
continuing adult education and into the total educational programme." (3:9)
It is considered, perhaps, that if there are regular night schools of
different levels, which the literate adults might join and continue his
education, say up to the high school level, he will have additional
motivation to join the literacy class and his literacy will be permanent.
This might be so. However, it seems one cannot be too sure about large
numbers of literate adults joining the further education schools in view
of the fact that large numbers of children drOp out after passing the
primary school. Moreover, a large number of educated persons may create
economic, social and political problems if they cannot be absorbed into
the economy of the country. They may drift toward the cities in Search
of better employment, which the cities may not have to offer, and become

"internal rural refugees" as Lerner puts it. (7:67)

128

The implications of providing higher education to a large number
of rural illiterate adults might first be discussed in conferences and

a few experimental schools be set up to study the results.

9. Development of an instrument to measure the facets of motivation of the

illiterate adults.

 

We have discussed earlier the factor of high drOp-out from adult
literacy classes. One factor contributing to this Situation might be the
lack of knowledge on the part of the teacher and the agencies about the
different facets of motivation of the adult learners. How high actually is
his desire to become literate? How useful does he consider literacy to be
to him? Does he think that it is easy for him to become literate, or does
he consider it an impossible uphill task?

Our Indian experience Shows that the illiterate finds it rather
difficult to verbalize his feelings about learning to read. Generally,
he comes out with stock answers like, "We are animals; we will become human
beings," "An illiterate person is blind," "Useful! It is full of usefulness,"
and so on. Such answers perhaps give little insight to the teacher into
the minds of the illiterate adults.

A prOposed instrument and suggested directors for eliciting the
responses on it are given in Appendix I. The advantage of the instrument
seems to be that it does not require verbalization and, if the illiterate
can follow the instructions, it is likely that the responses as given by him
indicate better the intensity of his interest and capacity to learn.

We see the following uses of the instrument and the results obtained:

(1)

(2)

(3)

129

The instrument might be used during the "preparatory" or

the "contact" stage of the literacy drive. The knowledge about

those who do not express high motivation or see high use of

literacy or consider it a very difficult skill to acquire can
either be used:

(a) to intensify the effort to stimulate motivation,
concentrating on this section of the pOpulation, or,

(b) the starting of the class might be postponed in areas
where the number Of such persons is high till the peOple
develOp a higher desire to learn.

During the process of administering the instrument, the

teacher will have the Opportunity to know his would-be students

much better and can utilize the knowledge in class teaching.

For example, he might be more careful in giving difficult

assignments to a student who already feels that it is very

difficult to become literate though he has a high desire to
become literate and considers literacy highly useful. On the
other hand, a student who has high desire, considers that it
is highly likely for him to become literate, and that it is
not so difficult to acquire the Skills, might be given
challenging assignments.

It might have an indirect educational value in the sense that

the would-be students might become prepared, at least to some

extent, to follow instructions before they start formal

learning in the class.

(Lt)

(S)

130

The agency might include a few true success stories in

the text books, or include them often in periodicals and
supplementary materials to boost up morale if it finds that
most of the students have a high desire to become literate

and consider literacy highly useful but are rather doubtful

of their abilities.

If the instrument is administered by the teachers, while

they are under training, the trainers, too, will have a better
idea of the learning interests of the would-be students and

the training can be given in more realistic situations.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

l“.

15.

16.

(‘

References

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Sen, Sudhir. The need for Speed, Overseas Education, Nov., 1962.

 

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‘Khatir, Rushdi M. An adult literacy program, International

 

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Gadgil, D.R., Dandekar, V.N. Primary Education in Satara
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of Politics and Economics, Poona, 1955.

 

 

Ginzberg, Eli, and Bary, Douglas W.- The uneducated, Columbia
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Goldberg, Samuel. The Army training of illiterates in World War
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Kempfer, Homer. Adult education, McGraw Hill, 1955.

 

Awasthy, B.D. Awasthy_literacy_method, 10, Khurshed Bagh, Lucknow,
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Peerson, Nell. An experiment with evaluation in the eradication
of adult illiteracy _y.use_ of television_ instruction net-
work supplemented py_supervised group viewing and py_related
use of project supplied materials of instruction, Florence
State College, Alabama, Aug., 1961, mimeo.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Laubach, F.C. Wake pp_p£_blow pp, America, N.Y., Revell, 1951.

 

Laubach, F.C., and Laubach, Robert S. Toward world literacy,
Syracuse University Press, 1960.

 

------ . UNESCO associated projects: community development in
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Lorenzetto, Anna. Education for Adults in Southern Italy,
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Houle, Cyril O. The ingpiring_mind, University of Wisconsin Press,
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Wrong, Margaret. West African journey, London, Edinburg House
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133

31. O'Kelly, Elizabeth. Adult literacy classes in the Cameroons
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I
32. Graham, Alva W. Hope for literacy in Guatemala, Social Education,
Jan., 196u :21-23.

 

 

 

33. Dale, George A. Education in the Republic of Haiti, U. S. Office
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34.\/Comassie, Mallam Ahmadu, UNESCO associated projects-XIII. Adult
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Fundamental and Adult Education Bulletin, Vol. IX, 1957
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35.y/Court, John. The adult literacy campaign in Northern Nigeria,
Overseas Education, 30, July, 1958 :6u-68.

 

 

36. Lubke, Paul T. ed. Identifying problems affecting_adult literacy
training prpgrams ip_the CENTO region, Ministry of Education,
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37. Levine, James, and Dale Arthur A. Salfient enrollment determinants
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384; Griffin, Ella. Popular reading materials for Ghana, Int. Journal
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39. Orata, Pedro T. The paradox of ignorance, School and Society,
June, 1950 :356-358.

 

#01, ------ . UNESCO associated projects: community development in
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#1.! Land, Cornelis op't. Social research and literacy campaigns,
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#2. Ruiz, Ramon Eduardo. Mexico, the challengg of poverty and illit-
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43. Butt, Helen. Reasons for reading the purposes of literacy, Indian
Journal p£_Adult Education, New Delhi, XXV, May, 196”.

 

nu. Batten, T. R. Problems of African development, London, Oxford
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M8.

#9.

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13a

Ahmed, Mushtaq. An evaluation of reading materials for new
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------ . Demographic yearbook, United Nations, 1953.

 

Berlo, David K. The Process pf_communication, Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1960.

 

 

Cronchbach, Lee J. Educational psychology, Harcourt, Brace and
World, 1954.

 

Kelman, Herbert C. The process of Opinion change, Public Opinion
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Festinger, Leon. A_theo§y pf cognitive dissonance, Stanford
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Lindzey, G. ed. Handbook pf social psychology, Vol. II, chapter
21, Addison-Wesley Co., 195a.

 

Raj, Baldev, ed. A socio-economic study p£_village Bhalsua
Jhanqirpur, Census of India, Delhi, 1963.

 

 

 

Lorenco, Filho M.B. Adult education in Brazil, Fundamental and
Adult Edn. Bulletin, UNESCO, 1950.

 

 

Gonzalez, Diego. Combating illiteracy in Cuba, Fundamental and
Adult Edn. Bulletin, UNESCO, Jan., 1952 :20-22.

 

 

------ . Indian Journal pf Adult Education, New Delhi, Aug., 1963.

 

 

Agorrilla, A.L. Adult education ip_the Philippines, Manila,
Garcia Publishing Co., 1952.

 

 

Ivanova, A.M. Organization of the campaign to abolish adult
illiteracy in the USSR, International Journal p§_Adult and
Youth Education, UNESCO, XI, No. 3, 1959.

 

 

Appendix A

Estimated population and extent of illiteracy in the world,

around 1950, by countries and region.

Appendix A

Estimated population and extent of illiteracy in the world,

around 1950, by countries and region.

Estimated Extent of

 

 

 

Continent and region Estimated Pppulation illiteracy_
Total Adult Percent Number
(all (15 of of
ages) years adult adult
old illit- illit-
and eracy erates
over)
Million Million Million
World total 2,u96 1,587 ua-us 690-720
Africa 198 120 80-85 89-1OH
North Africa 65 40 85-90 3u-36
Tr0pical and South Africa 13” 80 80-85 6u-68
America 330 223 20-21 #5-57
Northern American 168 126 3-4 u-s
Middle America 51 30 uo-uz 12—13
South America 111 67 H2-H4 28-29
Asia 1,376 830 60-65 510-5uo
South West Asia 62 37 75-80 28-30
South Central Asia #66 287 80-85 230-2uo
South East Asia 171 102 65-70 68-72
East Asia 677 MON MS-SO 180—200
Europe 393 293 7-9 22-25
Northern and Western EurOpe 133 102 1-2 1—2
Central Europe 128 96 2—3 2-3
Southern EurOpe 131 95 20—21 19-20
Oceania 13 9 10-11 1
U.S.S.R. 186 112 5-10 6-11

UNESCO, World Literacy g:
p. 15.

135

Mid-Century,

 

 

Appendix B

Extent of illiteracy and average number of students per adult

literacy class in various countries.

 

136

 

 

 

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'Appendix C

Showing the standard of literacy and the period of teaching
in some of the literacy drives and the standard recommended
by UNESCO.

Appendix C

Showing the standard of literacy and the period of teaching
in some of the literacy drives and the standard recommended

 

by UNESCO.
Country Program Standard Teaching Period
month hours
(approx.)
Brazil 19u7 The ability to read on every- 2-6 us-1uu*
campaign day problems of health, work,
(53) spiritual, civic and economic
life.
Cameroons ------ (Teaching to read and write 18-2u
(#0) English.)
Cuba The Decree Type A schools in sparsely 3rd
of Aug., populated areas--2% hours grade
'50 instruction daily in reading level
establishing and writing, grammar, and
night syntax, arithmetic, elementary
schools natural and social sciences.
(5n) Type B schools in thickly 5th or
pOpulated areas—-2% hours 6th
inst. daily. All subjects grade
in Type A plus anatomy, level
physiology and hygiene,
manual art and applied
drawing.
Guatemala The state a) Completion of the sixth 6 120

of Jutiapa booklet. Successful students
literacy will be able to read news-
campaign papers (convicts and soldiers
1955 (32) only).
b) Recommended for functional 11 220
literacy with superior
teachers and regular
attendance.

India Bombay - u 132
Social
Edn.
Comm.
1961 (55)

* Usually the classes meet for an hour either six days a week or a few
days in the week. We have calculated the period at six hours a week.

138

139

India Koregaon — 3 72*
Block
literacy
drive 1960
(4)

N. Nigeria 1958 (35) - 30

Philippines Dr. Laubach - 1 week
1935 (?)
(26)

Philippines Scheme for Functional literacy, i.e., 3 72*
1909 ability to read, under-
literacy stand, interpret and evaluate
campaign newspaper, periodicals, signs,
(56) ads, etc.; write requests,
orders, familiar notices and
notes, and to do simple
mathemetical operations
involving the four fundamental
rules.

Russia 1917-19u0 Systemetic teaching of the 10 330
lit. drive mother tongue and arithmetic
(57:1“1 to up to the level of fourth
150) grade. The schools were

expected to prepare pupils
for active and responsible
participation in industrial,
social and political life by
developing their abilities

to speak, read and write in
their native language; to
make simple calculations, etc.

Tanganyika PARE Ability to read an unfamiliar 3 72*
district piece of prose prepared for the
lit. test, and writing of an original

drive of composition, e.g., a letter to
1951 (27) the headman or husband.

Turkey 1960-63 Principle topics of the primary 5 120*
(36) school program taught.

* Usually the classes meet for an hour either six days a week or a few
days in the week. We have calculated the period at six hours a week.

USA

UNESCO

UNESCO

lUO

The Army To raise the educational 3 216-
Training competence to the fourth 252
of grade level, which was

illiterates considered the minimum

in World standard needed to under-

War II stand written instructions,
(20) orders, signs and regulations.

Opinion of Functional literacy, i.e., the 6th

experts on skills and abilities which grade

the would enable the new literates or
question to participate in the reading 12 months
of and writing activities carried
abolishing out by the literate members of

adult the society.

illiteracy

(Khatir)

(l7)

Unanimous A person is literate when he
recommen- has acquired the essential
dation of knowledge and skills which
experts enable him to engage in all
on literacy those activities in which
who met in literacy is required for
Paris in effective functioning in his
June, 1962. group and community, and
(2:39) whose attainment in reading,
writing and arithmetic make
it possible for him to
continue to use these skills
towards his own and the
community's development and
for active participation in
the life of his country.

In quantitative terms, the
standard of attainment in
functional literacy may be
equated to the skills of
reading, writing and arithmetic
achieved after a set number of
years of primary and elementary
schooling.

Appendix D

Literacy-relapse test

Paragraphs for reading

l.

2.

3.

Appendix D
Literacy-relapse test

Paragraphs for reading

Naru, the gardener, was living in the gardener's compound. Naru
did not have fields, a garden or anything else. He was working in
the fields and gardens on wages. He ploughed the fields in summer.
In the rainy season, he had to sow. In winter, he pulled water with
a bucket. Jai, the wife of Naru, used to weed. Pluck chillies.

She did housekeeping work. Naru got six annas a day. Jai got three
annas a day. At the end of the week at least they get not less than
three rupees.

Seeing the day coming to an end, Ganu started for the station at once.
As soon as he took the road he met Rama Bhousle from Shivagarhi.

He also wanted to go to Bombay. When they became two from one easily,
talking they started walking. Because of evening coming they stayed
at a village.

Drinking water should be clean. At the time of sockness we drink water
after boiling. Due to boiling the water, dirt disappears from the
water. Diseases like cholera--plague are due to drinking bad water.
Through water germs of these diseases enter our body. They grow there
rapidly. Then there is a possibility of the person dying.

191

Appendix E

Syllabus of Training Schools for Instructors

Period

Period

Period
Period

Period
Period

Period
Period
Period
Period
Period
Period

Period

Period

10.

11.

12.

13.

1n.

Appendix E

Syllabus of Training Schools for Instructors

 

Overview of Teachers Training Program

Lesson Planning

Illiteracy in the Army

The illiterates in the Special Training Units
Procurement and use of teaching aids and devices

The instructor's role in the Special Training Unit
Principles of learning in STU and application
Principles underlying efficient instruction reading
Use of supplementary materials in teaching reading
Techniques of teaching reading

Principles of teaching arithmetic

Instruction in spelling and writing in STUs

Oral and written expression and their role in the STU
Methods of instruction in oral and written expression
The blackboard as a visual aid in teaching

The use of film strips

The techniques of drill instructions

The use of training aids in Army instruction
Emotionally maladjusted men in the STU and the case study
technique

Standard operation procedure for finding maladjusted men
and their disposition

Testing program

Use of psychological tests in the STU

Correlation of teaching materials--integrating the
academic skills

Corrective classes

Remedial reading

Instructional problems of the non-English trainees.

Source: Army Training of Illiterates in World War II.

 

1H2

193

Prior to June 1, 19u3:

 

Reader: a) Army Life Reader b) Soldiers Readers
Supplementary: a) Our War b) Newsmap Supplement
c) Your Job in the Army.

June 1, 19u3:

 

The readers were replaced by "Army Readers." The experience gained
in using the earlier readers were utilized in the preparation of this
reader.

Materials.

1. The Army Reader

 

Content: A continuous story built around "Private Pete." Divided
into four parts, each part equivalent to the fourth grade
level. In:

Part I - Private Pete was acquainted with parts of the
uniform, barracks, mess hall, and camp.

Part II - He learned elements of soldiering, acquired
military vocabulary and wrote letters.

Part III - Kept his expense account and did arithmetic
computations.

Part IV - Learned about the characteristics of a good
soldier, the U. N., and global war.

The reader was profusely illustrated and contained drill

exercises correlating reading with skills in speaking

and writing English.

2. The ArmypArithmetic:

 

Content: Related to the military needs of trainees. From concrete
to abstract. Four fundamental rules emphasizing measuring
and application of numbers.

3. Other materials.

 

(1) Our War - 8-page, richly illustrated, monthly.

(2) Your Job in the Army - written at the third grade level.

(3) Newsmap - Special Edition, weekly.

(u) Supplementary Reading Materials - Contained stories about
U.N., outstanding war heroes and activities, written at
the third and fourth grade level.

4.

5.

luu

Visual Aids:

 

Filmstrips:

(l)

The story of Private Pete - presented the basic vocabulary
required to proceed with the Reader.

(2) Introduction to Numbers - supplemented and enriched the
number concept - introduced in Army Arithmetic.
(3) A Soldier's General Orders.
(4) Military Discipline and Courtesy.
(5) How to Wear Your Uniform.
(6) Introduction to Language, Part I and II.
(7) The World.
Others:
(8) Demonstration troops.
(9) Actual objects and models.
(10) Sand battles.
(ll) Lantern slides.
(12) Training films.
(13) Still photographs.
(in) Posters and illustrations.
(15) Maps and charts.
(16) Blackboards.

Guides for Instructors.

 

Different types of materials were prepared by the STUs for the
guidance of teachers. Some were:

(1)

(2)
(3)

(n)
(5)

Guides containing suggestions on how to plan the lessons and
improve quality of teaching. One unit published daily a
"training reminder" on how to teach better. Some produced a
series of monographs providing pedagogical guidance and
direction.

Separate manuals providing direction in the discharge of
duties.

A large number of reference materials for the instructors.
They served as ready made source materials covering related
aSpects of Army and civilian life.

Number of filmstrips on how to use the Army Reader and Army
Arithmetic and other materials.

A series of tests to measure the progress of students.

Source: Army Training of Illiterates

 

in World War II.

 

Appendix F

Number of "institutions," enrollment, and average students

per institutions in different countries.

Appendix F

Number of "institutions," enrollment, and average students
per institutions in different countries.

 

Country Year Type of Institution Average No.
No.of Enrol- of students
Inst. lment per inst.

Cuba 1953/54 urban night schools 326 28,618 87
Cuba " rural night schools 27 533 20
French
Cameroons 1954/55 primary courses 123 4,920 40
Guatemala 1954 National alphabetization 522 37,866 72
Haiti 1954/55 literacy centres 486 16,239 33
India 1953/54 literacy centres 39,965 948,847 24
Italy 1953/54 courses for ill. 7,054 161,726 23
Peru 1954 night schools 208 21,952 105
Spain 1954 literacy courses and

primary courses 21,782 449,687 20
Syria 1954/55 part time schools 30 2,477 82
Thailand 1954 literacy classes 471 26,912 57
Tunisia 1954/55 public primary evening

courses 49 1,390 28
Puerto Rico

1954/55 literacy courses 1,030 29,985 30

Venezuela 1954/55 alphabetization centres 808 22,424 27
Viet Nam 1954/55 public/private primary

evening classes 3,106 127,493 41

Source: UNESCO, World Survey of Education 1950-54,
1958.

 

145

Appendix G

Enrollment and percentage of dropouts in different

grades of the elementary school.

Appendix G

Enrollment and percentage of drOpouts in different
grades of the elementary school.

Country

Burma

French

Cameroons

Haiti

India

Malay

Panama

Philippines

Mauritius

Tanganyika

British
Guina

Jamaica

Puerto Rico

Venezuela

Viet Nam

Colombia

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled

out

%dropped out

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% drOpped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% drOpped

enrolled
% drapped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

enrolled
% dropped

Source:

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

out

 

G R A D E s

1 2 3 4

451,314 361,662 201,114 176,153
20.0 52.0 61.0

83,973 50,382 31,464 21,838
39.1 62.5 74.0

49,217 10,810 6,859 4,258
78.1 86.1 91.4

7,395,270 4,402,221 3,497,013 2,886,363
40.5 52.8 61.0

200,711 157,268 129,449 103,874
21.7 35.6 48.3

28,166 33,354 20,529 20,964
+18.4 27.2 25.6

661,790 571,060 548,378 507,639
14.0 17.5 33.5

20,194 13,174 12,636 10,801
35.0 37.5 47.0

71,936 56,622 51,179 48,990
21.3 28.9 31.9

32,663 13,794 13,295 11,597
41.8 43.9 51.0

46,048 36,839 31,408 28,142
30.1 31.8 38.9

83,963 86,030 79,926 65,841
+2.4 5.0 21.6

238,950 109,879 87,628 65,816
54.1 63.4 72.5

105,856 83,431 70,084 39,937
21.2 33.8 62.2

433,694 254,374 107,786 76,494
41.0 75.0 82.0

 

146

UNESCO, World Survey of Education. 1950-54.

Appendix H

Respondents to the questionnaire

Classification

S

NS

NS

NS

Appendix H

Respondents to the questionnaire

 

A. Agencies

 

A1.

A2.

A3.

A4.

A5.

A6.

A7.

A8.

A9.

A10.

National Commission for Adult Literacy
Washington, D. C.

Regional Center of Fundamental Education for
Community Development in Latin America
Patzcuaro, Michoacan

USAID Education
U. S. Embassy
Guatemala City
Guatemala

Baylor Literacy Centre
Baylor University
Waco, Texas

Education Directorate
Government of East Pakistan
Comilla, East Pakistan

Literacy House

P. O. Singa Nagar
Lucknow 5 ,

Up, India

Mysore State Adult Education Council
Mysore
India

Methodist Iban Literacy Literature Programme
Sarawak, Methodist Church
Malaysia

Adult Education Section - Ministry of Education
P. O. Box 284
Khartoum, Sudan

Literacy Centre

Gujrarwala
West Pakistan

147

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

All 0

A12.

A13.

Al” 0

A15.

A16.

A17 0

A18.

A19.

A20.

148

National Fundamental Education Centre
38-A Friends' Colony
New Delhi 14, India

Literacy Centre of Kenya
P. O. Box 12511, Nairabi
Kenya, Africa

Fundacion Alfabetizadora Laubach Para Guatemala
P. O. Box 555
Guatemala City

Laubach Literacy Fund Inc.
1011 Harrison St.
Syracuse, New York

Laubach Literacy Centre
Karthicappally, Keral
India

Leadership Training Centre
Evangelical Church of Togo
B. P. 13, Atakpame
Togo, West Africa

Community Development Division

Ministry of Planning and Community Development
P. O. Box 3136

Kampala , Uganda

The Coptic Evangalical Organization for Social Services
P. O. Box 50, Minia
Egypt, U.A.R.

Alfalit Limitada
Apartado 78
Alajunla

Costa Rica

UNLA
Plazza Della Del Lovoro - EUR
Rome, Italy

S secular

NS = non-secular

149

B. Individual

 

B1. Mr. S. C. Dutta
Hony, General Secretary
India Adult Education Association
New Delhi, India

B2. Mr. A. R. Deshpande
Adviser, Social Education
Ministry of Education, Government of India
New Delhi, India

B3. Mr. Jagdish Singh
Member-secretary, the Educational Penals,
Commission of Plan Projects
Planning Commission
New Delhi-1
India

B4. Mr. Sohan Singh
Director, Books Program, Asia Foundation
Delhi-6
India

BS. Dr. Seth Spaulding
Coordinator, International Programs
School of Education, University of Pittsburg
Pittsburgh, Penn., USA

C. Additional Responses (The following responses were
received too late to be included in the present
analysis.)

 

C1. Deputy Director
SEOTC
Ramakrishna Mission
Coimbatore
India

C2. Department P. P. Dan K.
Ministry of Education and Culture
Bureau of International Relations and UNESCO Affairs
Djalan Tjitatjap 4
Djakarta

Appendix I

Facets of Motivation.

Appendix I

Facets of Motivation.

 

 

 

 

 

A. Desire B. Perceived Difficulty

a1 High desire b1 High difficulty

a2 Medium desire b2 Medium difficulty

a3 Low desire b3 Low difficulty-

C. Likelihood D. Usefulness

cl High likelihood d1 High usefulness

c2 Medium likelihood d2 Medium usefulness

c3 Low likelihood d3 Low usefulness

l. Administer these four tests to persons who express the willingness
to join the literacy class. It is better to administer it when you
have called them to a meeting to discuss the problems connected with
literacy teaching. Have a blackboard ready at hand. Avoid unwanted
crowding.

2. Demonstration:

First demonstrate how to use the tests. You may introduce it somewhat
on the fellowing lines:

"Perhaps I will be able to teach better if I know how you feel and
what you think about becoming literate. Do you see this line on the
blackboard (draw one similar to the test line). If we have some
thought in our mind we can express it on this line. Suppose I ask
you "How many of you want to become a wrestler?" Some of you may want
very much to, some of you may not want to at all. Now look at the
line. The lower you mark on this line the less it will mean that you
want to become a wrestler. The higher you mark the more it will mean
that you want to become a wrestler. Suppose you mark here (mark on
the bb line)

:1

it will mean that you do not want to become a wrestler at all.

I

But if you mark here it will mean that you have some desire.

150

3.

151

.1

If you mark here it will mean that you have more desire.

:[:
If you mark here, near the upper end, it will mean that you very
much want to.

Now ask different subjects about their desire to become a wrestler
and mark appropriately on the bb line.

Ask the subjects if they have any questions.

Then say, "Now let us see if you can similarly mark your thoughts
you have about reading and writing on the line of the paper I am
going to give each of you."

Distribute test A. Let the subjects have a good look at the line.
Then explain in a distinct voice:

"You see a line on the paper similar to the one I
made on the bb. If you think you have a desire to
become literate mark on the line. Remember a mark
near the bottom of the line will show that you have'
a very little desire and the higher you mark on the
line the more desire it will show."

"Please mark exactly as you feel. Otherwise it will
not tell me about your correct feelings and will not
help me much in my teaching. Nobody except me will
know how you have marked on the line. So mark
exactly as you feel in your heart."

Now take tests B, C and D one by one and explain in a similar manner
as in 3. Substitute for:

Test B - "How difficult do you think it is to learn reading and
writing."

Test C - "How likely do you think it is for you to become literate."

152

Test D - "How much do you think reading and writing will be useful
to you."

5. Collect all the test forms at the end and fill in an identification
data form. Attach the test sheets to the form.

153

 

Test Form A.

Appendix J

Literacy Survey Questionnaire

Appendix J

Department of Communication —- Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.

L I T E R A C Y S U R V E Y

Agency:

Address: "“

ReSpondent:

 

 

Title or Position:

1. When was your agency establiShed?

 

What are its major activities?

{‘3}

a.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. How many full-time staff members work in the agency?

 

How many part-time staff members are there?

 

Page 2

in

_‘o\

What is the approximate annual budget of the agency (your figures will
be kept confidential)?

 

Does your agency conduct research on problems of literacy?
( ) Yes ( ) No

a. If so, about what proportion of its budget is devoted to research?

b. What are some examples of agency research?

(If you have research proposals or reports available please attach
copies.)

 

 

 

 

Would your agency be interested in cooperating with other literacy
groups in any of the following research endeavors? (Please check
those that interest you)

a. xchancirg research reports.

D-LL
M

b. having research reviewed and critiqued by other communication
experts.

c. exchanging advice on the design of research studies.
d. collecting local field data for other researchers.

0. replicating studies which have been conducted in other parts
of the world.

f. obtaining assistance in the statistical analysis of research
data.

3. other (specify):

 

What is the approximate number of illiterate adults who reside within
walking distance of an average adult literacy class?

in rural areas
in urban areas
we cannot say

 

 

10.

ll.

12.

Approximate1y_how many pers ns

 

v—.1r..,. .. ._,..,.,, .

Please indicate the percentage
ferent age groups given below:

6—11

 

Page 3
join an average adult literacy class?
of students in an average class in dif-

15-20 '36—40

 

12-14
Do you give examination at the
( ) Yes (

On the average how many

 

 

21-35

 

40 and above

end of the course?

How many of these pass the examination?

 

What is the total period of teaching before the final examination is

given?
in clock hours

How do you examine them?

(Please

attach separate sheet if necessary)

 

 

 

 

If set questions are given please

attach copies.

Page 4 - ' -

l

a

J

, .

Illiterates sometimes given themselves reasons for wanting to become
literate. Some probable reasons are given in the boxes below.

Out of the eight reasons, select the two which are given most frequently
and write ”1” in front of each.

 

Then select the two which are give least frequentl . Urite a "4" in
front of each.

 

You have now ranked four boxes. Among the four reasons remaining, again
select the two most frequent reasons. Mark each with a ”2”.

Finally, mark the remaining two with a "3.” When you finish, the two
most frequent reasons should be marked "1," the two next most frequent
reasons should be marked ”2,” the two next most frequent reasons should
be marked "3," and the two least frequent reasons should be marked "4.”
All eight boxes should be scored.

 

1 to be able to write their names
‘ to be able to res and write letters
1 to be able to read buss and street signs

 

 

H
h‘

to be able to car more money
to be able to acquire knowledge about their profession
to be able to get better jobs

 

to be able to read stories and other light literature

 

 

 

to be able to read newspapers
to be able to know about the happenings in the country

 

 

 

_____l to be able to read religious books

 

 

to be able to_read about maintaining better health

 

 

to be able to read about home improvement
to be able to read about care of children

 

 

 

to obtain greater prestige in the community

 

 

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

Page 5
The ranking of the reasons in question 15 is baSed on: (please check)

study

 

experience of staff members

 

If based on a study, pleas attach a copy of the study.

attached

 

not attached

 

If they give other reasons in additionito those given in question 15,
please write them below.

 

 

 

Do you have the opportunity to study how new literates use their
literacy or in what manner it effects their behavior?
( ) Yes ( ) No

Two reasons why the major ityt of the newjliterates cannot make use of

their literacy, if they don' are given in the statements below.
Please indicate whether you agree or disagree with them:

a. The amount of literacy which they receive is so rudimentary that
they cannot make much use of it in gaining information or reading
for pleasure. ‘ "

agree Z 7 ,VL __ disagree / 7

b. Bees .use of disuse a great majority of them relapse into
illiteracy over a period of time.

agree 1::7 disagree 1::7

The manners in which the new literates might use theirwliteracy are
given in the statements below. If you_think that they do use it,
please put an "X” against the scale point you agree with:

Page 6

0

I . o , 1 a
They read and write taeir own letters.

Nearly all of them do
About half of them do
Few of them do
ractically none of them do

They read for enjoyment and information.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

They keep record of their income and expenditures.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

They become members of youth clubs, 4H clubs and women

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do '
ractically none of them do

They show more confidence while traveling.
They show more confidence when talking to officials.

Nearly all of them do
About half of them do
chjof them do.

ractically none of them do

They begin to doubt and question supertitious beliefs.
They become more tolerant towards others' faith.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

clubs.

h.

k.

.Practically none of them do

They become more proficient in their occupation.
They adopt new technical practices.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do.

 

They change jobs more readily.

They leave their community or village for better jobs.

Nearly all of them do
About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

They modify their food habits.

Nearly all of them do
About half of them do
Few of them do

 

They begin to read the newspaper.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none-of them do

 

They listen to the radio more often for news.

Nearly all of them do ‘“'
About half of,them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

 

They take more interest in exercising their vote.

Nearly all of them do
About half of them do
Few erthem.do ~ 3); _ c U
Practically none‘of them do;

‘.—~..- - .-...

Page

21.

m. They begin to challenge the authority of village elders.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

 

n. They take critical interest in government affairs.
They become dissatisfied with the status quo.

N arly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

 

0. They become more demanding in their civi rights.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

lll

 

p. They become more conscious of their civic responsibilities.

Nearly all of them do

About half of them do

Few of them do

Practically none of them do

 

An illiterate person may be considered ”literate” according to different
standards. We are giving a few standards below. You may like to agree
with one of them or with more than one. We would, however, like you

to check the one standard with which you agree most.

a. when he has acquired the ability to sign his name.

b. when he has acquired the ability to write a simple letter and
read back the answer.to it.

c. when he has acquired the ability to read and write the
sentences of a primer or other books of the same level.

A. when he acquired the reading and writing ability equivalent
to that of a child who has successtlly completed four years
of schooling plus the four rules of arithematic in solving
practical problems.

e. when he has acquired the ability to read a daily newspaper
with comprehension in his native language.

f. other (specify):

 

 

 

22.

Page 9

There are different points of view about motivating adults to read and
write. Some are given in the statements below. Please indicate your
point of view about each statement by putting "X" on the scale point
you agree with.

CI.

(1.

‘Adults will not be motivated to read ans write unless their standard

of living has reached a stage where it is no longer necessary to
struggle to fulfill the minimum basic needs of food, clothing and
shelter.

 

 

 

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
agree agree disagree disagree opinion
Adults will not be motivated unless literacy leads to immediate
economic benefits (better wages, better employment, increase
agricultural produce, etc.)

 

 

 

rongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
.gree agree disagree disagree opinion

Adults will be motivated to learn to read and write even if literacy
may not lead to immedia 0 economic benefits as it is perceived a
potential means of social status.

 

 

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
agree agree disagree disagree opinion

Adults will be motivated to learn to read and write because they
want to read religious literature.

 

 

strongly _ somewhat somewhat strongly no‘.
agree agree disagree disagree opinion

Literacy being a satisfying achieVement in itself adults will be
motivated to learn to read and write without much effort.

 

 

 

strongly - somewhat somewhat 'strongly no .
agree agree disagree Adisagree opinion

Adults will not be motivated to learn to read and write unless
schooling facilities for their children exist.

 

 

 

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
agree agree disagree disagree opinion

Page 10

h.

 

Liters .cy being the basis of all politiCal, social and economic
development, the acquisition of literacy should be made compulsory
by legs 1 one ctment.

 

 

strongly' somewhat somewhat strongly ‘ no
agree agree disagree disagree .opinion

It is easy to motivate :dults when there is provision for further
education leading to a certificate or diploma by education
authorities.

—- o- —-~.. —— -_ —-—

 

 

-- .-

 

strongly somewhat somerhat strongly no

\
agree_ ’agree disagree disagree opinion

Adults can be more easily motivated if there is a widespread cam-
paign involving all persons in the community than when periodic
attempts are made

 

 

strongly somewhat sormethat strongly no
agree ' agree disa .gree disc -gree opinion

The motivation of adults depends to a la .rge extent upon the initial
approach. If they are convinced that the teaching materials and other
programs in the class will help them solve their day to day problems
they are easily motivated.‘

--——

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly » no
agree agree disagree adisagree opinion

 

Ha. Several methods have been suggested_to encourage illiterate adults to

join literacy classes. Please check those you use regularly:

If

a. ”C chers or sta
ins pector, tc

ff members (e.g., extension workers, school
) try to persuade.

b. Legal provision has been made and it is enforced.

c. Mobile films or drama units visit the locality and give shows
'on the advantages of literacy. ' '

d. Posters are past

0

d or slogans are drawn on walls.

e. Special radio or television programs are prepared for illiterate
'audiences.

24.

25.

26.

.\1
\l
o

Page 11
I. School children are requested to talk to parents or relatives.

g. Educated pers as living in the community are asked to encourage
illiterates to participate.

h. Local, existing organizations (cooperatives, clubs, etc.) are
utilized.

1. Other (specify)

 

 

I"

You might have found some or the methods listed in question 23 to be
most successful in promiting participation and you might have found some
less successful. Please indicate which you have found most successful
and which least successful (give the letter code).

most successful

 

,—

least successrul

 

According to your conception of the standard of ”literacy” how much
instruction is necessary to achieve this standard?

in clock hours

 

Uhat is the minimum qualification of literacy teachers who are usually-
employed to teach adults?

below fives years of education
5-6 years of education
7-8 years of education
8-9 years of education

'10 years of education or above

How much training do they receive in teaching reading and writing to
adults before they are employed as literacy teachers?

none

less than one week
one-two weeks
three-four weeks
five-six weeks

above six weeks

Page 12

28.

29.

If the following materials and activities form part of the teaching
program, please indicate how frequently they are used by putting an
”X“ against the appropriate frequency.

 

a. Newspapers are read to the class.

regularly occasionally not at all

U

 

0. .Films and filmstrips are shown.

regularly occasionally not at all

 

c. Radio and TV are used as part of clas teaching.

regularly occasionally not at all

 

d. Talks on economic and social problems are given by persons
other than the class teacher.

regularly occas'onally not at all

e. Talks on economic and social problems are given by the class
teacher himself. ‘

regularly occasionally not at all

f. Group discussions are held in the class on content of lessons
read.

regularly occasionally not at all
g. Group discussions are held in the class on community problems.
regularly occasionally not at all

Some statements regarding the following class activities were given

in question No. 28: newspapers, films and filmstrips, talks, and group
discussions. Four statements regarding the use of these activities

are given below. Please indicate your opinion about these statements
by putting an "X" on the scale point you agree with.

a. These activities should not be included in the teaching program
as they tend to weaken the interest of the learner in learning
the 3Rs.

 

 

 

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
agree agree disagree disagree opinion

Page 13

b. They are time consuming and the adults don't have much time.

 

 

rongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
.gree agree disagree disagree opinion

c. We do not believe that they contribute much to the acquisition
of the skills of reading and writing which is our main objective
in teaching adults.

 

 

 

 

strongly no

strongly somewhat som what
ee disagree opinion

e
agree agree disagr

d. They are very helpful devices in the acquisition of the skills of
reading and writing and in maintaining the interest of adults.
They should be part of the teaching program.

 

strongly somewhat somewhat strongly no
agree agree disagree disagree opinion

30. If you agree that these activities should be part of the teaching
progra. but you don't use them or don't use them regularly what might
be the reason? Please cheek the following reasons which are a licable:
0
lack of funds
non-availability of equipment
organizationally not feasible

teacher not sufficiently qualified

others (specify)

 

 

 

Thank you very much for giving your time to answer these questions.

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