THE NQRTHERN DKALECT EN MICHIGAN

E‘Eests {09 ‘a’é‘m Daqvtm a} M. A.
MICHEGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Mary J. Safar

1.966

IIHIWIUHIWHH’IU 1(IJINJHIHUHUIW

310774 0411 3

 

.r.~

/ ’1 8 $14
gemm7

3:? 2.5 . {(3,

an. '_ 7-1"
2: 7 a .5 -!

(h_r-‘HWW~A§.. ‘1

2".) p? 7:31; ,3..-
300 52.5763

‘q 1“ ‘
J‘-
. n

T
I
1"“)
(J
J

J” “5 84* 2001

THE NORTHERN DIALECT IN MICHIGAN

By

Mary J. Safar

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of English
V 1966

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my appreciation to
Professor Roger W. Shuy for his willingness to undertake
the guidance of this study and for his constant aid and

encouragement throughout the writing process.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER

I THE SETTLEMENT HISTORY OF MICHIGAN . . .

The Eastern Shore Counties . . . . .

The First Inland Counties . . . .

St. Joseph Valley and Chicago Road .

Kalamazoo Valley and Territorial Road

The Grand River Region . . . . . . .

II THE NATURE OF THE DATA . . . . . . . . .

Check List of Regional Expressions .

III ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

No.

I - A
I-B
I - C
II
III

LIST OF TABLES

Counties and old uneducated informants . .

Counties and middle-aged semi-educated
informants O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Counties and young educated informants . .
Counties and informants . . . . . . . . .

Items, distribution, and frequency of use.

iv

Page
17

l7
l8
19
36

INTRODUCTION

This study is a word geography of the Michigan
Lower Peninsula. It presents, both in tabular and in de-
tailed forms, the current usage of this area, comparing it
with the distribution of the regional variations in the
Eastern States and analyzing it according to the age and
the educational level of the informants. The materials
used here are Hans Kurath's A Word Geography of the Eastern

States1

and "The Checklist of Regional Expressions," deve-
loped first by Alva L. Davis and modified later by

Raven J. McDavid and others. Of the one hundred and fifty-
one items included in the questionnaire, sixty were employed
for this purpose. These items are matters of vocabulary
where dialectal differences are clearly seen.

In order to determine the regional variations which
exist in the speech of the State, its settlement history
should be studied first: The largest and the most important
elements in the population of Michigan were natives of
Western New England and New York State, who brought to this

n.

IEans Kurath, A Word Geography of the Eastern United States

(New York, 1949).

region speech features characterized by their place of .
origin. Natives of the South Atlantic States, who had so-
journed in Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee, were not
numerous compared to the first elements. Moreover, they
occupied only two sections of the Territory-~the St. Joseph
and the Kalamazoo Valleys. The foreign elements, although
they were distributed throughout Michigan, had a relatively
low proportion in the population. The part of the study
concerning the settlement history of this region is based
mostly upon George N. Fuller's Economic and Social Beginnings
of Michigan.2

The counties covered here are mostly from the
southern half of the lower peninsula, because this section
was the first to be settled. Moreover, it was, and still
is, important for being representative of the general popu-
lation movements. Thirty-nine counties are used here, of
which seven are represented by three age groups and cultural
levels of informants, so that the usage of the different
social classes can be determined. In general, all the in-
formants chosen are permanent elements who are natives of

the State.

 

2George N. Fuller, Economic and Social Beginnings of
Michigan (Lansing, 1916).

CHAPTER I
THE SETTLEMENT HISTORY OF MICHIGAN

When the language of a particular area is ana-
lyzed, it is necessary to study the settlement history
of that area paying careful attention, as Harold B. Allen
observes, "to the place of origin of the earliest sett-
lers, the dates of organization of the various counties
(and the) routes of travel to or through the state."3

The Michigan Territory began to receive emigrants
from the Eastern States in 1805. Before this year, the
only white settlers in Michigan were the French-Canadians
who occupied Detroit and the lands near the mouth of the
Raisin, the Clinton and the St. Clair. They were chiefly
fur traders who could not move to the interior in the
early years for two reasons:
1. The hostile attitude of the Indians.
2. The War of 1812.

The first wave of emigration from the Eastern

States was brought as the result of the public land sales

 

3Harold B. Allen, "Aspects of the Linguistic Geo-
graphy of the Upper Midwest," Studies in Languages and
Linguistics, ed. by Albert H. Marckwardt, 11961), pp. 303-

314.

 

in 1818. The Opening of the Erie Canal in 1825 and its
effect on steam navigation of the Lakes was significant.
It changed the direction of emigration from Ohio to Michi-
gan. In the same year began the survey of the Chicago Road
which was built for military purposes to connect Detroit
and Chicago. This inland route was soon to become an im-
pulse for settlement in southern Michigan. Then followed
a period of extension of the frontier and a survey of the
Territorial Road through the Kalamazoo Valley.
I In the year 1832, the emigration was retarded in
all parts of Michigan by the epidemic of Cholera and the
Black Hawk war. In the following year, the Grand River Road
was surveyed from Detroit to the mouth of the Grand River.
There were activities in all fields in the years
1835 and 1836. Nearly two million acres of lands were sold
in 1835 and about four million acres were sold in 1836 but
only two million acres were sold in all the years before
1835. Also there was a rapid organization of counties in
the farthest parts of the Grand and the Saginaw Valleys
from the eastern shore so that by 1850 the line of settle-
ment reached the Saginaw Bay and extended west to Oceana.
The advance was slow in the year 1837 because of the economic
crisis which deadened all activities in the years to come.
The waves of emigration came chiefly from Western
New York State and the western counties of New England,

namely, Massachusetts, Vermont and Connecticut. Other

contributors to the population of Michigan were Pennsylvania,
Virginia and Ohio. Most of the foreign elements, other than
the Canadian-French, settled in Detroit and the other shore
villages. The Germans gathered in Ann Arbor, the English
appeared in several points on the Chicago Road and the Scotch
settled in northwestern Macomb County.

The factors causing foreign elements to leave their
homes and come to Michigan were:

1. The European revolutions of the 1830's.

2. The economic crisis in Ireland.

TheYankees, because of changes in the cost of liv-
ing in their area, moved westward and were attracted by the
cheap and fertile farm land in.Michigan. The soil was easy
to cultivate. Springs of pure water and mineral water were
available, prairies and Openings covered large areas of land
and various kinds of timber were available in many parts of
the region. The rivers and the Indian trails served as
transportation routes.

Other than its physical environment, a factor that
affected emigration to Michigan was the sale of public land.
The Indian titles in the lower peninsula were extinguished
by a series of treaties in 1807, 1819, 1821, and 1836. The
Southeastern part was transferred to the government by the
first treaty and the valleys of the Saginaw, the Grand, the

Kalamazoo and the St. Joseph were yielded to it by the

second and third treaties. They were ready to be sold in
advance of the needs of the emigrants.

The improvements in tranSportation--both from the
east to Michigan and from the lake shores to the interior--
were factors of great importance to the settlement in
Michigan. The national military road extended along the
waterfront from Fort Gratiot southward. It had branches
inland from the important centers of settlement on this
main road. The Chicago Road was to become the impulse for
the earliest inland settlements except for the settlement
in Oakland which was influenced by the Saginaw Road. The
Territorial Road went through the Kalamazoo Valley and was
second only to the Chicago Road in importance for settlement.
The opening of the Erie Canal and the beginning of steam
navigation on the Great Lakes were other strong impulses
to emigration.

Although there were stimuli to emigration, there
were checks as well. These checks were due to the malarial
deseases in all parts of the territory which were partial
but constant impedements to emigration. Also the emigration
was retarded seriously but temporarily by the Black Hawk
War in 1832 and the epidemic of Cholera in 1832 and l83h.

The sources of population were determined by the
position of the territory (almost directly west of Canada,
New York and New England), the relative ease of transporta-

tion from the east, the physical nature of Michigan, the

economic pressure in the eastern states and the foreign
countries the emigrants came from, and the fact that lands
in Ohio, Indiana and Illinois were less attractive than
those of.Michigan.

The distribution of population was affected by
the proximity of the physical sources of life-~water power,
springs, lakes, trails and fertile soils. The healthful-
ness of the area and the presence of previous settlements

contributed also to the density of population.

The Eastern Shore Counties

Early settlement came from the eastern shore along
the rivers and roads to the southeastern part of the terri-
tory, moving westward first along the Chicago Road, then
along the Territorial Road. The evidence that Kalamazoo
was organized before Jackson and Calhoun suggests the in-
fluence of settlement from Ohio and Indiana through Cass
and St. Joseph. Branch and Hillsdale were organized re-
latively later because of their dense forests.

The four areas of land to be settled first were on
the Raisin, the Detroit, the Clinton and the St. Clair
rivers. They are now in Monroe, Wayne, Macomb and St. Clair
Counties, respectively. These counties were the first cen-
ters of French-Canadian influence and American settlements.

In 1803, the settlement in Detroit seemed to cover

nearly rcur acres of land and after the fire in 1805, it

began a new life with the beginning of Michigan as a Terri-
tory. Its growth was slow until the year 1818 when the
settlers were attracted by the public land sales. At the
time of the Census of 1837, its population was about ten
thousand. .

The settlers were mostly from New York and New
England.) There were few from Virginia and few from
Marietta, Ohio. The most significant foreign elements
came from Germany, probably after the European revolutions
of the 1830's.

As an important settlement area,Monroe, which was
established in 1817, was second to Detroit. It was situated
on the south bank of the Raisin and was considered a port
in southeastern Michigan. It had a population of less than
three thousand people at the time of the Census of 1837.

Mt. Clemens (in Macomb County), situated on the
Clinton, up to 1818 was considered as a trading post and
mission station rather than a center of settlement. Its
growth was slower than that of Monroe.

The fourth center of settlement was St. Clair,
which was situated at the junction of the Pine and St. Clair
rivers. Its growth was very slow. Its chief industry was

lumbering.

The First Inland Counties

The inland counties were settled after the shore
counties, between 1817 and 1826. These settlements were
made between the beginning of the public land sales and
the opening of the Erie Canal and the Chicago Road. When
the shore was settled, the inland counties were just be-
ginning to receive their first settlers. These settlers
were attracted by fertile soil, good water power and
plentiful timber. Moreover, the Chicago Road that passed
through the area, made emigration easy.

Among the inland counties, Oakland had the first
settlements at Rochester in 1817 and at Pontiac in 1818.
In Washtenaw County, settlement began at Ypsilanti and at
Ann Arbor in 182A. Lenawee County was settled at Tecumseh
in 1824 and at Adrian in 1826. The order of settlement in
these counties was from north to south but the extension
of the frontier was more rapid in the south. Oakland
County's priority of settlement stemmed from its compara-
tive nearness to the shore and to Detroit. According to
the Census of 1837, Oakland and Washtenaw Counties had
populations of over twenty thousand each while Lenawee

County contained less than fifteen thousand people.

St. Joseph Valleygand Chicago Road
: The-part of the territory which was settled next

after the first inland counties consists of the five

10

counties westward from Lenawee--namely Hillsdale, Branch,
Cass, St. Joseph and Berrien. The Chicago Trail, which

was the main axis of settlement in that area, passed through
these counties.

The first settlements in this area were initiated
in the southwest because of the attractive farmland on
the prairies of St. Joseph and Cass Counties. On the other
hand, the presence of dense forests in southern Hillsdale
and Branch Counties and the southwestern part of Berrien
County served as barriers for early settlements.

Two different movements of emigration came to this
part of the Territory. The earliest waves of emigration
to St. Joseph, Cass and Berrien were made from Ohio, In-
diana, Kentucky and Tennessee. These seemed to be of
South Atlantic States origin, particularly Virginia and
the Carolinas. Some Pennsylvania-Dutch came to this part
of the Territory before 1840 but in even greater numbers
after that date, contributing heavily to the population of
Berrien County.

A The emigration from the east was made principally
from New York about 1830. Branch and Hillsdale received
most of their earliest settlers, who had been natives of
some eastern states, from Western New York. The two
movements of emigration blended in northern St. Joseph
County about this time, but Berrien County was not in-

fluenced by the eastern emigration until 183A.

 

ll

Of foreign elements in 1830, Englishmen appeared
in St. Joseph, French-Canadians at the mouth of the
St. Joseph River and Germans in Berrien County and in
two townships in St. Joseph County.

The settlement in the St. Joseph Valley was prior
to that in the Kalamazoo Valley because the first was
nearer to Ohio and Indiana and because it was located on
a more important trail than that of the Kalamazoo Valley.

Like the St. Joseph Valley, the Valley of the
Kalamazoo received two streams of emigration-~one from the
south and the other from the east. The first was a part
of the northward emigration to St. Joseph and Cass Counties
and many of the settlers were natives of eastern states.
Among the westward movement of population, there were many
from the eastern part of the Territory who had first so-

journed in Ohio.

Kalamazoo Valley and Territorial Road
' Kalamazoo County received its first settlers in
1828 and was organized in 1830. Jackson, Calhoun, Allegan
and Van Buren became townships in 1832, 1833, 1835 and
1837, respectively.

The earliest settlement in the Kalamazoo County
preceded that of Jackson County because of its abundant
prairies, which attracted some of the southern settlers.

This superiority was reversed in about 1836, when eastern

12

emigration along the Territorial Road caused Jackson County
to take the lead.

In 1837, settlement in the Saginaw Valley was more
advanced than that of the Grand River Valley because the
first was easier to reach from Detroit. The movement of
population up the Clinton River and along the Saginaw
Trail had started as early as 1818.

In 1822 the region was divided into the Counties of
Lapeer, Shiawassee and Saginaw. By 1830, there were pro-
bably not more than a hundred people in the three counties.
Both Lapeer and Saginaw had separate county governments
in 1835 and Shiawassee in 1837. Genessee was established
and organized in 1835-36 and Livingston was established in

1833 and organized in 1836.

The Grand River Region

The Grand River region was comprised of nine
counties, namely Eaton, Barry, Ingham, Ottawa, Kent, Ionia,
Clinton, Montcalm and Gratiot. The first three counties
were established in 1829, and the rest three years later;
but none except Kent had township organization before 1835.

The routes used by pioneers to the region of the
Grand River were the "Northern Route", the Grand River Road,
the Territorial Road and the Great Lakes.

The "Northern Route", the earliest used, extended

from Pontiac in Oakland County westward to the Counties

13

of Shiawassee, Clinton and Ionia.

The most commonly used route to this region was
the Territorial Road. It extended from Ann Arbor in Wash-
tenaw across Jackson, Clahoun and Kalamazoo.

The water route, longer than any other one, was
mainly used for the tranSportation of supplies.

As sources of population, New York State and New
England seemed to be the main contributors to the popula-
tion of the Grand River region.

Then came a period in which the frontier began
to fill up so that by 1850 the important settlements
reached the Saginaw Bay and extended west to Oceana County.
In that year, Michigan had a total population of (397,654),

broken down as follows:

Born in:
Michigan 140,648
New York 133,756
Great Britain and Ireland 26,538
Ohio 14,677
British American 14,008
Vermont 11,113
Germany 10,260
Pennsylvania 9,542
Massachusetts 8,167
Connecticut 6,751

New Jersey 5,572

14

The total population of the whites in the years

1970-1870:
1790 (--)
1800 551
1810 _ 4,618
1820 8,591
1830 31.346
1840 211,560
1850 395,071
1860 736,142

1870 1,167,282

CHAPTER II
THA NATURE OF THE DATA

Evidence for the determination of the original
regional vocabulary and the current usage in the speech
of this area is taken from two sources:

1. Kurath's A Word Geography of the Eastern
United States.

 

2. The Correspondence Questionnaire.

The preparation, the distribution, and the col-
lection of approximately four hundred vocabulary checklists
in the State of Michigan was made under the directorship
of Professor Roger W. Shuy to whom I am greatly endebted
for having an access to them. A 5

Out of the four hundred vocabulary checklists, one
hundred and forty-eight were selected and employed in this
study. These were filled out by informants who have cer-
tain qualifications as to residence, age and education.

The informants chosen are native-born with little
or no traveling at all; very often their parents were re-
sidents of the state too. In this way, the results

arrived at reflects the usage of permanent elements--

15

16

elements which are neither foreign-born nor native-born
who do not sojourn most of their lives in one locality.
There are thirty-nine Counties represented here,
of which seven are more significant, being situated on
important routes. The informants, representatives of the
seven counties, were arranged into three groups according
to age and level of education: I

I. Informants of nearly sixty years of age or
older with as little education as possible.

II. Middle-aged informants from approximately
forty to sixty with high school education.

III. Young informants ranging in age from twenty
to forty with college education.

Since the cultural levels are not well defined in
the American society, there is no vocabulary which is ex-
clusively used by one type of informant and one type only.
Having this in mind, we may classify the informants into
types in order to arrive at distribution that reflects
the different social levels to which they belong.

Below are lists of the seven counties divided ac-
cording to the types of the informants in each list--
their ages, their cultural levels, and their parents'

birthplace:

.17

 

 

 

 

Table I - A
Counties and Old Uneducated Informants
No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace
Informant Informant
1. Wayne 65 8th Grade F. a M., Michigan
64 10th Grade F. & M., Detroit
63 8th Grade F. & M., Germany
2. St. Clair 75 8th Grade F. &.M., Canada
73 8th Grade F. & M., Canada
66 8th Grade F. & M., St. Clair
3. Oakland 80 8th Grade F. & M., White Lake
78 8th Grade F. & M., Canada
59 8th Grade F. & M., Michigan
4. Ingham 78 12th Grade F., Indiana M., Mich.
. 73 12th Grade F. &.M., Poland
60 12th Grade F., Ohio M., Michigan
5. Jackson 90 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
57 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
55 12th Grade F. &,M., Jackson
6. Saginaw 76 11th Grade F., Ohio M., Conn.
65 12th Grade F. 8c M., Germany
60 12th Grade F. & M., Germany
7. Kent 80 8th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
76 9th Grade F., England M., Mich.
60 9th Grade F., Kent M., Holland
Table I - B
Counties and Middle-aged Semileducated Informants
No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace
Informant Informant
1. Wayne ' 49 10th Grade F. a M., Hungary
46 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
43 12th Grade F., N. Jer. M., Mich.
2. St. Clair 48 12th Grade F. a M., Michigan
46 12th Grade F., Ontario M., Mich.
40 12th Grade F. & Ms, Michigan

Table I - B (Continued)

No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace

 

Informant Informant
3. Oakland 44 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
42 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
41 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
4. Ingham '46 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
44 12th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
41 12th Grade F., N. Jer. M., N. Dak.
5. Jackson 51 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
47 10th Grade F., Mich. M., Ind.
46 12th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
6. Saginaw 54 9th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
45 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
48 3rd Grade F. &.M., Michigan
7. Kent 46 12th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
. 44 10th Grade F. & M., Michigan
36 12th Grade F., Mich. M., Wiscon.
Table I - C

 

Counties and Young Educated Informants

No. County Age of Education of. Parent's Birthplace

 

Informant Informant
1. Wayne 29 B.A. F. & M., Detroit
19 3rd Coll. F. & M., Detroit
18 lst Coll. F. & M., Michigan
2. St. Clair 26 Coll. Grad. F. & M., Michigan
21 4th Coll. F. &.M., Michigan
20 Grad. F. & M., Michigan
3. Oakland 32 M.A. F., Canada M., Detroit
31 M.A. F. & M., Michigan
21 4th Coll. F., Mich. M., Penn.
4. Ingham 27 M.S. F. &.M., Michigan
. 24 B.A. F. & M., Michigan

20 3rd Coll. F. & M., Michigan

19

Table I - C (Continued)

 

No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace

 

Informant Informant
5. Jackson 26 4th Coll. F. & M., Michigan
22 4th Coll. F. & M., Michigan
21 B.A. F. & M., Michigan
6. Saginaw 21 4th Coll. F. & M., Michigan
20 3rd Coll. F. & M., Bay City
18 1st Coll. F. & M., Michigan
7. Kent 24 C011. F. & M., Michigan
20 2nd Coll. F., Mich. M., Cheltenham
l9 lst Coll. F. & M., Michigan

The informants in the rest of the counties are
natives Of the state who have done little or no traveling.

The following is a list of the rest of the counties
employed, with the ages of the informants, their years of

schooling and their parents' birthplace:

Table II
Counties and Informants

No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace

 

Informant Informant
1. Macomb 48 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
45 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
21 3rd Coll. F., Canada M., Scot.
2. Lenawee 91 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
71 12th Grade F., Canada M., Mich.
49 Grad. Stu. F. & M., Michigan
M.A.
3. Washtenaw 69 12th Grade F., N.Y. St. M., Mich.
44 M.A. F. & M., Michigan

20 2nd Coll. F. & M., Michigan

Table II (Continued)

20

 

No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace
Informant Informant
4. Hillsdale 77 8th Grade F. & M., Ohio
75 College F. &.M., Michigan
55 8th Grade F. & M., Michigan
5. St. Joseph 50 12th Grade F., Ind. M., Mich.
49 12th Grade F. & M., Indiana
19 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
6. Berrien 50 12th Grade F., N.Y. M., Germany
47 8th Grade F. & M., Poland
21 4th Coll. F., Mich. M., S. Dak.
7. Calhoun 22 lst Coll. F., Canada M., Mich.
20 3rd Coll. F. & M., Michigan
20 2nd Coll. F., Canada M., Mich.
8. Kalamazoo 58 Grad. School F. & M., Michigan
. University
19 lst Coll. F. & M., Michigan
19 3rd Coll. F. & M., Kalamazoo
9. Lapeer 66 10th Grade F. & M., Michigan
53 9th Grade F. & M., Michigan
44 12th Grade F. & M., England
10. Genessee 53 11th Grade F. & M., Canada
44 12th Grade F., Mich. M., Iowa
26 B.A. F. & M., Michigan
11. Shiawassee 59 8th Grade F., Mich, M., Ohio
55 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
55 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
12. Livingston 81 8th Grade F. & M., Germany
62 9th Grade F. & M., Michigan
56 Coll. F. & M., Michigan
13. Eaton 64 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
50 12th Grade F., England M., Mich.
25 12th Grade F., Lans. M., Det.
14. Clinton 86 8th Grade F., Germany M., Mich.
82 10th Grade F. & M., Germany
77 8th Grade F. & M., Ohio

21

Table II (Continued)

 

No. County Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace
___ Informant Informant
15. Gratiot 91 8th Grade F. & M., Michigan
73 11th Grade F., Mich. M., Canada
65 8th Grade F. & M., Gratiot
16. Ottawa 58 8th Grade F. &.M., Poland
23 12th Grade F.,--- M., Mich.
l7. Allegan 71 2nd Coll. F. & M., Michigan
67 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
52 2nd Coll. F. & M., Michigan
18. Muskegon 63 11th Grade F., N.Yk M., Wisconsin
60 12th Grade F. &.M., Sweden
20 3rd Coll. F. & M., Muskegon
19. Mecosta 52 B.A. F., Canada M., Mich.
20. Midland 74 11th Grade F., Maine M., Canada
39 A.B. F. & M., Michigan
30 12th Grade F., Ohio M., Michigan
21. Bay 74 7th Grade F. & M., Michigan
73 6th Grade F. & M., Germany
69 8th Grade F. & M., Canada
22. Sanilac 76 5th Grade F., Canada M., Mich.
46 10th Grade F. & M., Sanilac
20 12th Grade F., Sanilac, M., Aus-
tralia
23. Huron 82 4th Grade F. & M., U.S.A.
80 6th Grade F., Germany M., Canada
63 12th Grade F. & M., Ontario
24. Clare 57 8th Grade F. & M., Ohio
55 Coll. F., Mich. M., N.Y.
25. Roscommon 78 3rd Grade F. & M., Germany
62 6th Grade F. & M., Michigan
26. Ogemaw 42 12th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
20 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan
19 12th Grade F. & M., Michigan

22

Table II, (Continued)

No. COunty Age of Education of Parent's Birthplace

 

Informant Informant
27. Iosco ’ 20 2nd Coll. F. a M., Michigan
19 2nd Coll. F. & M., Michigan
28. Manistee 75 A F. & M., Sweden
56 County Nor. F. & M., Michigan
19 2nd Coll. U.S.A.
29. Benzie 63 A.B. F., Ohio M., Mich.
30. Grand Tr- 42 9th Grade F. &.M., Michigan
verse 35 12th Grade F. &.M., Traverse
19 12th Grade F., Minn. M., Mich.
31. Antrim 21 4th Coll. F. &.M., Michigan
32. Charlevoix 47 12th Grade F., Canada M., Denmark
20 2nd Coll. F., Charlevoix M., Chi-

cago

Of the 151 vocabulary items included in the ques-
tionnaire, 60 were chosen in this study since they can be
traced to the source areas, and since, through them, one
can determine the current usage, both regional and social,
within the state.

Taking into account that some of the informants have
relatively little education, the questionnaire was con-
structed in order to be clear. The items were often preceded
by explanatory materials.

Preceding the vocabulary items is a series of direc-
tions for the informants to follow in recording their usage.

Informants were urged to circle the form or forms that they

23

use, to add any which are not listed but they actually
use, and not to mark any which they do not use even
though the form might seem familiar.

Following the vocabulary items is an account of
the informant's life from which one can determine his age,
his cultural level, his residence, his traveling (if any)

and his parents' birthplace.

CHECK LIST OF REGIONAL EXPRESSIONS

For many things in daily life, people in different
parts of the United States use different words. As Ameri-
cans moved westward, they brought with them the terms used
in their home states. Studies have already been made of
many of the different words used in various areas of the
Atlantic Seaboard, but the careful study of the Middle West
is still to be completed. On the following pages are some
items which were picked out as examples of the differences.
Will you please help us in this study by recording your own

usage?

DIRECTION:

1. Please put a circle around the word in each group
which you ordinarily use.

2. IF you ordinarily use more than one word in a
group, put a circle around each of the words you
use. .

24

3. DON'T put a circle around any word you don't
actually use, even though you may be familiar
with it. '

4. IF the word you ordinarily use is not listed in
the group, please write it in the space below
the item.

5. IF you never use any word in the group, because
you never need to refer to the thing described,
don't mark the word.

6. THE MATERIAL IN CAPITALS IS EXPLANATORY ONLY.

EXAMPLE: TOWN OFFICER: selectman, trustee, supervisor,
councilman
Thank you,
Roger Shuy
Associate Professor of English
and Linguistics
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan
1. A TIME OF DAY: quarter before eleven, quarter of eleven,
quarter till eleven, quarter to eleven,
10:45
2. WHERE GUESTS ARE ENTERTAINED: best room, big house,
A front roOm, living room, parlor, sitting
room
3. SHELF OVER FIREPLACE: fireboard, mantel, mantel board,

mantelpiece, mantel shelf, shelf, clock

shelf

10.

ll.

25

SUPPORTS FOR LOGS IN FIREPLACE: andirons, dogs, dog
irons, fire dogs, fire irons, hand irons
log irons

WOOD USED TO START FIRE: fat-pine, fatwood, kindling
wood, lightwood, pine, pitch-pine,
kindling

WINDOW COVERING ON ROLLERS: blinds, curtains, roller
shades, shades, window blinds, window
shades

DEVICES AT EDGES OF ROOF TO CARRY OFF RAIN: eaves,

I eaves spouts, water gutter, gutters,
rain troughs, spouting, spouts, eaves
troughs

UPPER PART OF BARN, USED FOR STORING HAY: barn chamber,
barn loft, hay loft, hay mow, loft, mow,
overhead, overden, scaffold

LARGE PILE OF HAY OUTSIDE: barrack, Dutch cap, hay cap,
hay rick, haystack, rick

SMALL PILES OF HAY IN THE FIELDS: cocks, doodles, hand

 

stacks, haycocks, hay doodles, hay shocks,
hay tumbles, heaps, mows, piles, ricks,
shocks, tumbles

SMALL ROOM FOR HANGING CLOTHES: clothes closet, closet,

clothes press, press, wardrobe

12.

13.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

190
20.

21.

22.

23.

26

LARGE PORCH WITH ROOF: gallery, piazza, porch, portico,
stoop, veranda

SMALL PORCH, OFTEN WITH NO ROOF: platform, porch,
portico, step, steps, stoop, veranda

PLACE WHERE COWS ARE ENCLOSED: cow brake, cow lot, cow
pen, cow pound, cow yard, cuppin

SHELTER AND YARD FOR HOGS: hog house, hog lot, hog
boist, hog crawl, hog pen, pig pen, pig
sty, sty

YARD ADJOINING BARN: barn lot, barn yard, cow lot,
farm lot, feed lot

KIND OF WOOD FENCE: pale fence, paling fence, picket
fence, palings, slat fence, pale garden

WALL MADE OF ROCKS OR STONES: stone wall, stone fence,
rock wall, rock fence

FENCE MADE OF WOODEN RAILS: rail fence, snake fence,
worm fence, zigzag fence, Virginia fence

LARGE OPEN TIN VESSEL FOR WATER, MILK, ETC.: pail, bucket

VESSEL FOR CARRYING FOOD TO HOGS: slop bucket, slop
pail, swill bucket, swill pail

HEAVY IRON UTENSIL FOR FRYING: creeper, fryer, frying
pan, fry pan, skillet, spider

IN YARD OR GARDEN: faucet, spicket, spigot, hydrant,
tap

PAPER CONTAINER FOR GROCERIES, ETC.: bag, poke, sack,

toot

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

27

_LARGE BAG LOOSELY WOVEN: burlap bag, burlap sack,

coffee sack, croker sack, crocus sack,
gunny sack, gunny bag, guano sack,
jute bag, jute sack, sea grass sack,
tow sack

SHAFT BETWEEN TWO HORSES HITCHED TO A FARM WAGON: neap,
pole, tongue, neb, spear

PART OF A ONE-HORSE VEHICLE: fills, shafts, thills,
shavs I

BAR TO WHICH A SINGLE HORSE IS HITCHED: singletree,
swingletree, swiveltree, whiffletree,
whippletree

TRANSPORTING FIREWOOD IN WAGON: carrying, carting,
drawing, hauling, teaming, toting

VEHICLE ON RUNNER FOR MOVING STONES FROM A FIELD: drag,
stone drag, stone boat, mud boat, stone
sled, mudboat

THE AMOUNT OF WOOD YOU CAN CARRY IN BOTH ARMS: armful,
armload, stone chance, load, turn

PLAYGROUND EQUIPMENT: dandle, ridy horse, seesaw, teeter,

5 teeter board, teetering board, teetering

horse, saw horse, teeter-totter, tilt(s),
tilting board, tinter, tinter board,

hicky horse, cock horse, see horse

28

32. VESSEL FOR COAL: coal bucket, coal hod, coal pail, coal
scuttle

33. FLAT PIECE OF STONE TO SHARPEN KNIVES OR SCYTHES: whet,
whet rock, whet seed, Whetstone, whetter

34. FUEL FOR LAMPS: carbon Oil, coal oil, kerosene, lamp
oil

35. BED COVER FILLED WITH COTTON; TIED,NQI QUILTED: comfort,
comfortable, cOmforter, hap tied quilt

36. NAME FOR GENTLE SOUND MADE BY COW AT FEEDING TIME: bawl,
beller, bellow, loo, low, hum, mew, moo

37. BONE FROM CHICKEN BREAST: breakbone, lucky bone, pull
bone, pulley bone, pulling bone, wishbone

38. TIME WHEN FARM ANIMALS ARE ATTENDED TO: chore time, feed-
ing time, feed time, time to feed

39. CALL TO COWS TO GET THEM IN FROM PASTURE: boss(ie)!,
co-boss(ie)!, come boss(ie)!, co-eel,
co-wench!, here boss(ie)!, soo!, sook(ie)!,
sook-boss(ie)!, sook-cow!

40. HORSE ON THE LEFT SIDE IN PLOWING OR HAULING: leader,
lead horse, line horse, near horse,
near-side horse, nigh horse, saddle horse,
wheel horse

41. A SHORT DISTANCE: (Just) a ways, a little piece, a little
way, a little ways, a piece

42. SECOND GROWTH OF HAY OR CLOVER: aftergrass, aftermath,
lattermath, rowen, second crop, second

cutting, volunteer (crop)

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.
51.

52.

29

BREAD MADE OF CORN MEAL: corn bread, corn dodger(s),
corn pone, hoe cake(s), johnnycake, pone
bread

BREAD IN LOAVES MADE OF WHITE FLOUR: bread, light-bread,
loaf bread, wheat bread, white bread,
yeast bread, riz bread

ROUND, FLAT CONFECTION WITH HOLE IN CENTER, MADE WITH
BAKING POWDER: crull, cruller, doughnut, fat-cake, fried-

cake, cake doughnut, raised doughnut

MEAT FROM SIDES OF HOG, SALTED BUT NOT SMOKED: bacon,
flitch, middlin, middlin meat, salt pork,
side pork, side meat, sowbelly, fatback

THICK SOUR MILK: clabber, clabber milk, clabbered milk,
cruddled milk, curdled milk, bonny-clabber,
lobbered milk, loppered milk, thick milk,
bonny-clapper

HOME-MADE CHEESE: clabber cheese, cottage cheese, curd
cheese, curd(s), dutch cheese, home-made
cheese, pot cheese, smear-case

FOOD EATEN BETWEEN REGULAR MEALS: a bite, lunch, a piece,
piece meal, a snack, a mug-up

OF BEANS: to hull, to pod, to shell, to shuck

BEANS EATEN IN PODS: green beans, sallet beans, snap
beans, snaps, string beans, beans

SMALL, SQUIRREL-LIKE ANIMAL THAT RUNS ALONG THE GROUND:

chipmunk, grinnie, ground squirrel

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

BO

WORM USED FOR BAIT IN FISHING: angledog, angleworm,
bait worm, eaceworm, earthworm, eelworm,
fish bait, fishing worm, fishworm, mud-
worm, rainworm, redworm

INSECT THAT GLOWS AT NIGHT: fire bug, firefly, glow
worm, june bug, lightning bug

LARGE WINGED INSECT SEEN AROUND WATER: darning needle,
devil's darning needle, dragon fly,
ear-sewer, mosquito hawk, sewing needle,
snake doctor, snake feeder

TREE THAT PRODUCES SUGAR AND SYRUP: hard maple, rock
maple, sugar maple, sugar tree

VEHICLE FOR SMALL BABY: baby buggy, baby cab, baby
carriage, baby coach

SICK : at his stomach, in his stomach,
on his stomach, to his stomach, of his
stomach

NOISY PRANKISH CELEBRATION AFTER A WEDDING: belling,
belling bee, bull band(ing), calathump,
horning, horning bee, serenade, chivaree,
skimmelton, tin panning

GREETINGS AT CHRISTMAS TIME: Christmas box! Christmas

gift! Merry Christmas!

31

We would appreciate your filling in the following
blanks about yourself, because we are interested in tracing
these expressions to the Atlantic Seaboard or further, and
we need as complete information as possible in order to
measure our results.

Sex Race
Have you filled out this same

questionnaire before: Age Highest grade level
reached in school__

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Yes No
State County Town
How long have you lived here? years
Birthplace I
. (town) (State)

Other towns, states, or nations you have lived in (please

give approximate dates).

 

 

Have you traveled much outside your native state?
(Yes or NO)

If so, where?

 

Parents birthplace (state or nation):

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

grandfather
Father grandmother
grandfather
Mother grandmother
Do you speak any non-English language? If so,
TYes or NOT

which?

 

32

Occupation
If retired, former occupation

If housewife, state your husband's occupation

 

Father's occupation

Mother's occupation

CHAPTER III
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

0n the basis of a number of regional expressions,
Kurath, in his A Word Geography of the Eastern United
States, has divided the Atlantic Coast States into three
major dialect areas, namely, the Northern, the Midland
and the Southern. The Northern dialect area consists of
New England, New York State, the northern part Of New Jer-
sey and the northern part of Pennsylvania. The Midland
area consists of the southern parts of New Jersey and
Pennsylvania, the northern parts of Delaware and Maryland,
and the mountainous south. The Southern area extends from
Delaware to Florida. Each major dialect area consists of
distinctive sub-areas. Thus, the sub-areas of the North
are Western New England and the New England settlement of
New York State; Eastern New England; and the Hudson Valley.
The Midland may be divided into North Midland and South
Midland. The sub-areas of the South are Chesapeake Bay
area, Virginia Piedmont, and the Carolinas east of the

Midland boundary.

33

34

The Westward movement from Western New England and
New York State was the major contribution to the population
of Michigan and therefore, the speech features of this re-
gion are characterized by the extension of the Northern
dialect of the Eastern States. A second contribution to
the population, which seemsto be of minor importance com-
pared to the first, was the northward movement to the
Valley of St. Joseph--particu1arly to St. Joseph, Cass and
Berrien Counties--and afterwards to the Kalamazoo Valley.
This movement was expected to contribute some elements Of
its dialect to the speechways of these sections since it
had been of the South Atlantic States origin, which has
distinctive dialect features of its own; but there is no
indication of the prevalence of Southern expressions in
these sections.

In order to determine the original regional and
social variations in the speech of this region and to ac-
count for them in terms of their current usage, words and
their variants are tabulated, together with description of
their distribution on the Atlantic Coast and their fre-
quency of use in Michigan.

V Following the tabulation is a detailed analysis--
a comment on the regional and social distribution of the
item in the Eastern States, on the extent to which each

area contributes to the speech features of Michigan, and

35

on the influences which affect the vocabulary change.
Sixty vocabulary items will be noted.

The counties represented here are mostly from the
lower half of the lower peninsula: The shore counties--
Wayne,-Macomb and St. Clair; the first inland counties--
Lenawee, Washtenaw and Oakland; the counties passed through
by the Chicago Road--Hillsda1e, St. Joseph and Berrien;
the counties passed through by the Territorial Road--Jack-
son, Calhoun and Kalamazoo; the Saginaw Valley-~Saginaw,
Lapeer, Genessee, Shiawassee and Livingston, and the Grand
River region--Ingham, Eaton, Clinton, Gratiot, Kent and
Ottawa. Seven counties, other than the twenty-three
counties mentioned above, are scattered among them so that
all the region is represented; these are: Allegan, Muske-
gon, Mecosta, Midland, Bay, Sanilac, and Huron. The upper
part of the lower peninsula is represented by nine counties
spaced geographically to cover the region, they are: Clare,
Roscommon, Ogemaw, Iosco, Manistee, Benzie, Grand Traverse,
Antrim and Charlevoix. The reason why the lower sections
are represented by more counties than the upper sections is
that they were the first to be settled. Moreover, they
were, and still are, representative of the general pOpula-

tion movements, being situated on important routes.

36

Table II

I

Items Distribution and Frequency of Use

 

 

No. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
_ . Eastern States of use in
Michigan
1. quarter to eleven North and South 78
10:45 --- 3O
quarter of eleven North 18
quarter till
eleven Midland 5
2. living room general distribution in the
Eastern States 85
front room general distribution in the
Eastern States 23
parlor general distribution in the
Eastern States 5
sitting room general distribution in the
Eastern States 3
best room --- O
3. mantel most parts of the Eastern States 80
mantelpiece most parts of the Eastern States 14
(mantel) shelf Eastern Virginia and parts of North
; Carolina 5
shelf Eastern Virginia and parts of North
Carolina 5
4. andirons almost general in the Eastern
States 54
log irons --- 11
fire irons --- 9
hand irons in the andirons area (common folk) 1
dogs South and South Midland 0
dog irons South and South Midland 0
fire dogs South and South Midland O
5. kindling Philadelphia area and Maryland 62
kindling wood Philadelphia area and Maryland 54
pitch pine Midland 1
fat pine Midland O
pine Midland 0
lightwood South 0

37

 

 

Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
6. window shades Hudson Valley and South 59
shades Hudson Valley and South 36
blinds Midland ll
(roller) shades Hudson Valley and South 7
curtains Southern Coast and North except
Hudson Valley 5
(window) blinds Midland 2
7. eaves troughs North except the Hudson Valley 85
eaves --- 24
gutters South and South Midland, Hudson
Valley, New Jersey and Eastern '
New England 8
spouts North Midland and West Virginia 1
spouting North Midland and West Virginia 0
8. (hay) mow parts of the North and North
Midland 54
(hay) loft ~-- 53
mow - --- 7
loft most parts of the Eastern States 7
overhead Pennsylvania 1
scaffold North except the Hudson Valley 1
overden Pennsylvania German area 0
9. haystack general distribution in the
Eastern States 95
barrack Dutch settlement area 0
rick West Virginia and western-most
North Carolina O
10. haycocks North and Midland 27
piles Atlantic Coast from Delaware to
Georgia, and Eastern Pennsyl-
vania 14
(hay) shocks South and South Midland 12
cocks New England and North Midland lO
shocks South and South Midland 6
heaps parts of New England and Pennsyl-

vania German area

38

 

 

No. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
11. (clothes) closet almost general in the Eastern
States 62
closet almost general in the Eastern
States 52
clothes press North and Midland (rural areas) 5
12A. porch general distribution in the
Eastern States 88
veranda --- 7
stoop North without Eastern New England 5
12B. porch general distribution in the
Eastern States 43
steps --- 20
stoop North without Eastern New
England 15
platform --- 10
13. cow pen North and North Midland 27
cow yard localized in Eastern New England 25
cow lot scattered in South and South
Midland 4
l4. pig pen Western New England 70
hog pen Western New England 23
pig sty Coastal New England 12
hog house Western New England 9
hog lot —-- 5
sty Coastal New England 1
15. barn yard almost general in the Eastern
States 93
(barn) lot South and South Midland 1
cow lot South and South Midland O
farm lot South and South Midland O
16. picket fence almost general in the Eastern
States 87
slat fence --- 5
paled fence Midland and South 0
paling fence Midland and South 0
palings Midland and South 0

39

 

 

Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
- Eastern States of use in
Michigan
17. stone wall North 80
stone fence North Midland and Chesapeake Bay 13
rock wall parts of North Carolina (beside
rock fence) 5
rock fence South and South Midland 1
l8. rail fence Southern area, New York State,
North Pennsylvania and West
Virginia 88
snake fence (sporadic term) 1
zigzag fence (sporadic term) 1
worm fence Midland 0
Virginia fence New England 0
19. pail North 91
bucket Midland and South 11
20. swill pail North 39
slop pail --- 24
slop bucket Midland and South 22
swill bucket --- 5
21. frying pan general distribution in the Eastern
States 68
skillet Midland 26
spider North except Hudson Valley and the
Southern Coast 23
fry pan --- 7
22. faucet North 94
tap —-- ll
hydrant --- l
spicket Midland and South 0
spigot Midland and South 0
23. bag general distribution in the
Eastern States 75
sack general distribution in the
Eastern States 67
poke Midland (beside bag or sack) O
toot Pennsylvania German 0

4O

 

 

No. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
24. burlap bag (burlap) general in the Eastern
States 61
gunny sack Westernmost part of Pennsylvania 45
burlap sack (burlap) general in the Eastern
States 4 l9
guano sack Maryland and Shenandoah Valley 8
gunny bag --- 6
25. tongue general distribution in the
Eastern States 80
pole New Endland and Hudson Valley.
The Coast from New Jersey to
Virginia 3
26. fills North except Hudson Valley 30
shafts Midland, south and Hudson Valley 18
thills North except Hudson Valley 10
shavs (another pronunciation of shafts) 5
27. whippletree North 27
singletree Midland and South 25
whiffletree North 7
swingletree Midland and South 3
28. hauling general distribution in the Eastern
States 83
drawing North without Eastern New England 7
carting North Carolina Coast (beside
hauling) 7
carrying Coastal South (beside hauling) 6
toting South 3
29. stone boat North without Eastern New England 62
stone sled Midland 5
drag Eastern New England 5
stone drag Eastern New England 3
30. armful North and North Midland 76
armload Midland 26
load Midland 6
turn South 0

41

 

 

NO. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
31. teeter-totter Northern New Jersey and New
England settlement area 75
seesaw almost general in the Eastern
States 25
teeter-board North except Hudson Valley 10
teeter North except Hudson Valley 9
teetering board North except Hudson Valley 1
32. coal scuttle Hudson Valley to Lake Erie. New
Jersey Westward to New York State 50
coal bucket Midland and South 30
coal pail scattered in the North (beside
coal scuttle) 22
coal hod North except Hudson Valley 1
33. whetstone North and Midland 88
whetrock South and South Midland 2
34. kerosene North and the Carolinas 95
coal oil Eastern Pennsylvania and Chesa-
peake Bay 6
lamp oil Midland without Delaware Bay 1
35. comforter North 82
hap tied quilt (hap) Central Pennsylvania (tied
quilt) New England 3
comfortable North 2
comfort Midland and South 1
36. moo almost general in the Eastern
” States 56
low from Baltimore southward and
Southern New England 7
mew --... 5
beller New England 4
bawl Midland 3
bellow New England 0
37. wishbone almost general in the Eastern
States 99
breakbone --- l
lucky bone Northern New England (common folk) 0
pull bone Midland and South 0
pully bone Midland and South 0

42

 

 

Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
. Eastern States of use in
Michigan
38. chore time North except Hudson Valley 80
feeding time Midland 19
time to feed --- 3
39. Come-boss(ie)! North 36
Co-boss(ie)! North 35
here boss(ie)! --- 9
boss(ie)! North 4
Co-ee! South 0
Co-wench South 0
Sook(ie)! Midland O
Sook-boss(ie)! --- O
40. lead horse Midland without Delaware Bay 18
near horse North and Midland 9
nigh horse North 6
leader Midland without Delaware Bay 5
wheel horse Piedmont of Virginia 3
line horse Piedmont of Virginia 1
41. a (little) way(s) general distribution in the
Eastern States 49
a (little) way general distribution in the
Eastern States 38
a iece Midland 5
a flittle) piece Midland 3
(just) a way(s) general distribution in the
Eastern States 2
42. second cutting Coastal from Delaware Bay to North
Carolina, Ohio Valley 62
second crop Midland and South 17
aftermath New England area and Delamarvia
(relics) . l
aftergrass New Brunswick and Northeastern
Maine (relics) O
rowen North except Hudson Valley 0
43. johnnycake North 62
corn bread general distribution in the
Eastern States 60
corn pone Midland and South 0
pone bread Midland and South 0

43

 

 

No. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
44. white bread Eastern New England (beside
bread) 55
bread almost general in the Eastern
States 47
yeast bread Eastern New England and Chesa-
peake Bay 4
loaf bread Southern Coast 3
wheat bread Midland and North except Eastern
New England (beside bread) 1
light bread South and South Midland O
riz bread Eastern New England 0
45. doughnut general distribution in the
Eastern States 56
fried-cake North except Eastern New England 56
raised doughnut --- 3
fat cake Pennsylvania German area 1
cruller Western New England, New Jersey,
Southeast Pennsylvania and in
Baltimore 1
crull Northern West Virginia and Western
North Carolina 0
46. salt pork New England and New England settle-
ment area of New York State 54
side pork Hudson Valley and New England
Counties of Pennsylvania and
Western New York State 32
bacon North and Midland 20
side meat North Midland and Chesapeake Bay 3
flitch Pennsylvania 0
middlin South and South Midland O
middlin meat South and South Midland O
47. curdled milk Eastern Pennsylvania and Metropoli-
tan New York 32
cruddled milk Western Pennsylvania 9
clabber South and South Midland 7
clabber milk South Midland 5
clabber(ed) milk South Midland 5
lobbered milk North except Eastern New England 4
thick milk Pennsylvania 4
loppered milk North except Eastern New England 3

44

 

 

No. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
48. cottage cheese general distribution in the
Eastern States 65
dutch cheese North except Hudson Valley 18
home-made cheese Western North Carolina and parts
of the Appalachians ll
smear-case North Midland and Chesapeake Bay 3
clabber cheese South Midland and South 1
curd cheese Eastern New England and Coastal
South 0
curd(s) Eastern New England and Coastal
South 0
pot cheese Hudson Valley
49. snack South and South Midland 68
lunch --- 22
a bite North 9
a piece North Midland and Chesapeake Bay 3
a piece meal Blue Ridge and the Kanawha 3
50. to shell general distribution in the Eastern
States 43
to shuck --- 23
to pod --- 16
to hull Midland 9
51. string beans North and Midland 66
green beans Midland without Delaware Bay 57
beans --- 9
snap beans South Midland and South 7
52. chipmunk North 87
ground squirrel Midland and South 13
53. angle worm North 84
earthworm Southern Coast 12
fishworm Midland 9
redworm South Midland 6
fishing worm Midland 5
fish bait South Central Pennsylvania and
Western Piedmont of North Carolina 3
angledog South Western New England 0

45

 

 

Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
54. lightning bug general distribution in the
Eastern States 67
firefly North except Hudson Valley 52
glow worm --- 5
june bug --- 5
fire bug Pennsylvania 1
55. dragon fly general distribution in the
Eastern States 59
darning needle North 18
devil's darning
needle North 10
sewing needle --- 5
mosquito hawk Southern Coast 2
snake feeder Midland l
snake doctor Eastern Pennsylvania and Chesa-
peake Bay 0
56. sugar maple almost general in the Eastern
States 61
hard maple North except Eastern New England 23
sugar tree Midland without Delaware Bay 2
rock maple Eastern New England 0
57. baby buggy Western Pennsylvania and Northern
West Virginia 80
baby carriage North and South 18
baby cab Western Pennsylvania and South-
eastern Ohio 6
baby coach Eastern Pennsylvania and Chesa-
peake Bay 0
58. to his stomach North 90
at his stomach almost general in the Eastern
States 6
in his stomach Southeastern Pennsylvania and the
tidewater area 3
on his stomach Pennsylvania German settlement area 1
59. chivaree South Midland, Northern New England
(localized) 62
belling Midland l3
horning North except Hudson Valley 5

46

 

No. Item and Variants Distribution in the Frequency
Eastern States of use in
Michigan
59. (Continued)
horning bee Rhode Island and from Berkshires
to Lake Erie 3
serenade Eastern New England and Southern
States 1
tin-panning Maryland 1
60. Merry Christmas general distribution in the
Eastern States 99
Christmas gift Midland and South 4

l. A time of dgy

 

It is indicated that 32, in the expression 'quarter
to eleven', is current in the Northern and the Southern
areas of the Eastern States, and that g; and iii; are in
general use in the North and the Midland areas reSpectively.
12 shows currency of use in the Michigan materials, while
2; appears at a low frequency of eighteen. Unexpectedly,
igigi, for which no source area is known, appears at a re-
latively high frequency of thirty especially among the younger
and the better educated.

2. Where guests are entertained

 

Livingiroom and sitting room are shown to be in

 

general distribution in all the Eastern States. In Michi-
gan, sitting room seems to be abandoned in favor of living
room. Best room has slightly a different meaning being used

for formal occasions. That best room was called parlor in

47

the past and is now known as front room is reflected in the
correspondence materials. The former declines in frequency
with the age and the cultural level of the informant which

suggests its dying out, while the latter is more prevalent

among the younger and the better educated.

3. Shelf over fireplace

For 'shelf over fireplace', mantel and manteipiece
are current in most parts of the Eastern States and the
occurrence of §h§i§ is limited to Eastern Virginia and parts
of North Carolina. According to the checklist data, mantel
appears with a frequency of eighty per cent while mantel-
pi§£§_is found in a scattered fashion of fourteen per cent
only.

4. Suppprts for logs in fireplace.

The South Midland and the Southern expressions for
'supports for logs in fireplace' are gggg, dog irons and
fire dogs which are never encountered in the Michigan materials.
Moreover, the Northern expression andirons occurs at a low
frequency of fifty-four per cent and the folk word hand irons
appears only once. The declining importance of fireplaces
and what is related to it, is reflected in the limited num-
ber of the returns on the checklists to seventy-five per
cent only.

5. Wood used to start fire
Ping, fat pine and pitch_pine are forms used in the

Midland area for 'wood used to start fire', while the

48

Southern area has lightwood instead. The checklist data
show that kindling and kindling wood are used side by side
in Michigan although the former has slightly higher fre-
quency of use than the latter. The Midland and the Southern
forms never occur at all.
6. Window coveringion rollers

In New England and the New England settlement
area, curtains is indicated to be widely used. The wide-

Spread occurrence of the expression is not reflected in
Michigan. On the other hand, the commercial expression

p(windowi_shades, together with the general term shades con-

 

stitute ninety-five per cent of the usage, with the latter
being employed more by the younger and the better educated.
The Midland term blinds appears in scattered instances

which constitute altogether eleven per cent only.

7. Devices at edges of roof to carpy off rain

In the source areas, it is observed that ggggg
troughs is current in New England and the New England
settlement area. The prevalence of the Northern term in
Michigan is clearly shown in the eighty-five per cent of
the checklists, being marked in its favor. The commercial
term gutters appears in scattered instances of eight per
cent, while the North Midland Spouts and spouting never

occur at all.

8. Upperipart of barn, used for storing hay

'The upper part of barn' is known as (hay) loft or

 

ihay) mow in most parts of the Eastern States and they appear

49

in about the same extent in the Michigan materials. The
former is becoming more pOpular since it is in wider use
among the younger and the better educated. On the other
hand, the latter is declining in use with the age and the
cultural level of the informant.
9. Large_pile of hay outside

Hay stack is widely current throughout the Eastern
states for a Rarge pile of hay outside'. The Dutch word
barrack prevails in the Dutch settlement area and pipk_in
most of Virginia, in Maryland, and in Delaware Bay. In
the Michigan responses, the first is seen with a high
frequency of ninety-five, while the last two never show up
at all.
10. Small piles of hay in the fields

It is investigated that (hay) cocks is the North and

 

the North Midland expression while the South and the South
Midland areas have (hayi_shocks instead. In Michigan,
Lhay) cocks seems to be more prevalent among the old and
the uneducated informants, piipp among the middle-aged and
semi-educated, and (hay) shocks among the young and the
well-educated. On the other hand, the limited number of
the checklist returns to seventy-three per cent only sug-
gests the dying out of farm knowledge and its vocabulary.
11. Small room for hanginggclothes

In the rural areas of the New England settlement area

and the North Midland, clothes_press is still used for

50

'small room for hanging clothes'. Few scattered instances
appear in favor of this term, while clothes closet and
closet appear with a percentage of sixty—two and fifty-two
respectively. The former declines in frequency with the
youth and the cultivation of the informant. By contrast,
the latter seems to be gaining ground among the young and
the well educated.

12. A. Large porch with roof
B. Small porch Often with no roof

According to A Word Geography of the Eastern United
States, the screened porches are known everywhere as
porches. The checklist materials confirm this assertion
except for seven per cent in favor of veranda and five per
cent for ppppp.

As for the unscreened porches, the returns show
varying frequency. Although the most commonly used variant
is still porches, being used by forty-three per cent of the
informants, other regional expressions show relatively high
frequency. The combined percentages of ppgpp, platform and
the Dutch expression gpppp are forty-five.

13. 'Place where cows are enclosed

The local expression cow yard which is common in

 

Eastern New England seems to be used by the side of cow pen
in Michigan since they appear with a percentage of twenty-
five and twenty-seven respectively. Barn yard, which is

not listed among the variants, is seen in seven per cent.

51

The small number of returns on the checklists shows
that not all the people, especially in urban areas, need
using expressions that are connected with cows.

14. Shelter and yard for hog§

In Kurath's A Word Geography of the Eastern United

 

States, ppy and pig sty are common in coastal New England,
but Western New England has hog_house, hog pen and pig pen
instead. The correspondence materials show that the coastal
New England forms are rare in Michigan. The Western New
England pig pen is used with a frequency Of seventy per cent
while the combined percentages of hog house and hog pen are
thirty-two. Moreover, pig pen is more frequently used by
the younger and the better educated, while both hogghouse
and hog pen decline in use with the youth and the cultiva-
tion of the informant.

15. Yard adjoining_barn

 

For 'yard adjoining barn', Kurath Observes that

barn_yard is almost general in the Eastern States, and

 

lot, stable lot, barn lot and farm lot are its South Mid-

 

 

land and Southern variants. The widespread use of pgpp

‘ygpg in the Eastern States ianeneral and in the North in
particular is reflected in Michigan where its frequency of
use reaches ninety-three per cent, while only one instance

appears in favor of ibarn) lot.

 

16. Kind of wood fence
I The trade expression picket fence is in widespread

use almost everywhere in the Eastern States. It prevails

52

in Michigan where it appears in eighty-seven per cent
of the checklists. No other variant shows up except pigp
ipppg which has a low frequency of five per cent only.
17. Wall made of rocks or stones

‘A wall made of rocks or stones‘ is known as ppppg
pgii in the New England settlement area, as stone fence in
the North Midland, and as rock fence in the South Midland
and the South. In the checklist data, stone wall appears
to be in regular use throughout Michigan being marked by
eighty per cent of the informants, while stone fence--the
second in popularity-~appears in thirteen per cent.
18. Fence made of wooden rails:

This Old fashioned fence is known as rail fence in
the Southern area, in New York State, and in Northern
Pennsylvania; as Virginia rail fence in New England; and as

worm fence in the Midland. Rail fence, and not the New

 

England form, prevails with a frequency of eighty-eight per
cent while no other term appears more than once.

The lack of ten per cent in the returns on the
checklists confirms Kurath's statement that this kind of
fence is old-fashioned.

19. Lapge ppen tin vessel for water

For the 'metal container', pgii and bucket are

common in the source areas. The former is in general use

in the New England settlement area and the Hudson Valley,

53

and the latter in the Midland and the South. As is expected,
the Northern expression prevails in Michigan and appears

at a high frequency of ninety-one per cent, while the Mid-
land and the Southern bucket is seen in scattered instances
of eleven per cent only.

20. Vessel for carryingnyod to hogg

Swill pail, slop bucket and slop pail are used side

 

by side in Michigan, though the Northern expression ppiii
pgii is slightly more prevalent, being found in thirty-nine
per cent of the checklists. Slpp_pail and the Midland pipp
bucket occur at relatively high percentages of twenty-four

and twenty-two respectively. Also, slop pail seems to be

 

coming into use since it increases in frequency with the
youth and the cultural level of the informant, while ppiii
pgii is more frequently used by the older and the less
educated.
21. Heavy iron utensil for frying:

The commercial term frying pan is used in the East-
ern States especially in urban areas. This is reflected
in the Michigan responses where the term is more prevalent
among the younger and the better educated. Two regional
terms appear in the checklist materials-~the Northern spider
and the Midland skillet are seen at the percentages of twenty-

three and twenty-six respectively.

54

22. Over a sink

 

It is observed that faucet is in general use only
in the North, while the expressions common in the Midland
and the South are spicket and Spigot. The checklist data
shOw that faucet prevails in Michigan and among all social
groups while spicket and spigot do not show up at all.
Tap, which is of Canadian origin, appears in a scattered
fashion of eleven per cent.

23. Paper container for groceries, etc.

Both (paper) big and (paper) sack are in widespread

 

use in the Eastern States. They are current in Michigan
too although the former seems to be more popular than the
latter being seen in seventy-five per cent of the check-
lists while the latter appears with a percentage of forty-
five.
24. Large bag loosely woven

Both burlap_sack and pgg are observed to be current
in the East. The former seems to be losing ground in
Michigan in favor of the latter. What confirms this ob-
servation is that the latter is more commonly used by the
younger and the better educated. 0n the other hand, the
commercial term gunny sack, which is originated in the Ohio
Valley, appears in a relatively high frequency of forty-

five per cent.

55

25. Shaft between two horses hitched to a farm wagon

For 'shaft between two horses hitched to a farm
wagon', tongue is used in all parts of the Eastern States.
This term is found to be in general use in Michigan being
given by eighty per cent of the checklist informants.
However, the item itself seems to be declining in use since
it appears in eighty-three per cent of the checklist returns,
and since it is less frequently used by the younger and the
better educated who are unfamiliar with the use of horses
and what is connected with it. Besides ton ue, only ppie,
originally used in New England and the Hudson Valley, ap-
pears in three per cent of the questionnaires.
26. Part of a one-horse vehicle

'The part of a one-horse vehicle' is known as iiiip
or thills in the rural areas from New England to Lake Erie;
and as shafts in the Hudson Valley, the Midland and the
South. These expressions, being connected with the use of
horses, are not common in the urbanized areas which is re-
flected in the scanty returns on the checklists being
sixty-three per cent only. Moreover, what confirms their
decline, is that they are more frequently used by the older
and the less educated.
27. Bar to which a single horse is hitched

Kurath observes that whiffletree and whippletree are
Northern expressions though the former is a more usual

variant. 131 Michigan,whippletree is found to be more

56

frequently used than whiffletree. Also, both whippletree

 

and the Midland-Southern singletree are used to about the
same extent.

The percentage of the returns on the checklists
is sixty-two only, which shows that not all the peOple to-
day are familiar with the vocabulary relating to horses or
at least, they do not actually use it. What confirms this,
is the more limited responses among the younger and the
more educated.
28. Transporting firewood in wagon

It is observed that hauling is current nearly every-
where in the East although, in the North, the regional ex-
pression drawing or carting is more generally used by the
common folk. The checklist data show that hauling is current
in Michigan and among all social groups although it is less
frequently used by the younger and the better educated.
Carrying, carting and drawing are seen in scattered instances
of six, seven and eight per cent respectively.
29. Vehicle on runner for moving stones

In A Word Geography of the Eastern United States,
it is stated that stone sled is in common use in the Mid-
land area, and stone boat in Western New England, while
Eastern New England has gpgg or stone drag instead. In
Michigan, this item seems to be declining in use since

the returns on the checklists constitute seventy-seven of

57

the total number. Moreover, it is far less used by the
younger and the better educated, probably because this
generation, especially in urban areas, does not need to
refer to a vehicle of this kind.
30. The amount of wood you can carry in both hands

In A Word Geography of the Eastern United States,
'the amount of wood that one carries to the stove or the
fireplace' is called armful in the North and the North Mid-
land, armload or ipgd in the Midland, and turn of wood in
the South. As expected, the Northern expression predomi-
nates in the responses, the Midland occurs at a frequency
of twenty-six per cent and the Southern never occurs at all.
31. Playground equipment

The literary expression seesaw is found to be in
general use in the Atlantic Coast States, and teeter-totter
predominates in New Jersey and in the New England settle-
ments of New York State. According to the checklist data,
the most commonly used form in Michigan is teeter-totter
which is seen in seventy-five per cent of the checklists and
which is more prevalent among the younger and the better
educated, while seesaw occurs with a comparatively low per-
centage of twenty-five and shows an even distribution among
all social levels. On the other hand, teeter and peepep

board, characteristic of New England and the New England

58

settlement area, appear at a relatively low frequency of
nine and ten per cent respectively.
32. Vessel for coal

The original regional term for 'a vessel for coal'
in New England and to some extent in the New England settle-
ment area is coal hod which is marked by two informants

only. On the other hand, coal scuttle, the Hudson Valley

 

expression, which has spread into the New England settle-
ment area, has found its way to Michigan. Although ppgi
scuttle appears at a frequency of fifty per cent, it de-
clines in use with the youth and the cultural level of the
informant. By contrast, the Midland coal bucket is more
frequently used by the younger and the better educated.
33. Flat piece of stone to sharpen knives or scythes

For 'flat piece of stone to sharpen knives or
scythes' whet stone is in widespread use in the North and

the North Midland and whet rock in the South Midland and

 

most parts of the South. The Questionnaires reveal that
the former is current in Michigan while only three instances
occur in favor of the South Midland and the Southern expression.
34. Fuel for lamps

The commercial term kerosene, which is also Northern
according to Kurath, predominates in the checklist returns
with a high percentage of ninety-five. The regional ex-
pressions coal oil and lamp oil appear at a low frequency

of six and one respectively.

59

35. Bed cover filled with cotton, tied, not quilted

Although the regional expressions comforter and.ppm-
fortable are described to be general in the North, the
former predominates in Michigan being used by eighty-two
per cent of the informants, while the latter as well as
the Midland-Southern comert appear in very few scattered
instances.

Over ten per cent of the informants do not mark any
of the variants which suggests that this kind of bed cover
is going out of use.

36. Name for gentle sound made by_cow at feeding time

The 'gentle sound made by cows at feeding time' is
called mooing in the North and the North Midland. This ex-
pression is used by fifty-six per cent of the checklist
informants. The low percentage is due to some of the in-
formants, being unfamiliar with the expressions of this
kind or at least they do not need to refer to them. This
term seems to be going out of use since it declines in fre-
quency with the youth and the cultivation of the informant.
On the other hand, in spite of its low frequency of use, ipg.
is more frequent among the younger and the better educated.
37. Bone from chicken breast

The North and the North Midland expression for
'bone from chicken breast' is wishbone which prevails in

the Michigan questionnaires with a frequency of ninety-nine

60

per cent. NO instance is found in favor Of the South
Midland and the Southern expressions pull bone and ppiiy
pppe.
38. Time when farm animals are attended to

In A Word Atlas of the Great Lakes Region, Davis

indicates that chore time predominates in the North At-

 

lantic States except for the Hudson Valley, and feeding time
is common in the Midland area. The Michigan responses show
the prevalence of the Northern expression which is slightly
more current among the older and the less educated. They
show also the occurrence of chore time with feeding time in
a ratio of four to one.
39. The call to cows to get them in from pasture

The 'call to cows to get them in from pasture' is
bossgie)!, co-boss(ie)!, or come-boss(ieil in New England
and the New England settlements of New YOrk State. The
combined percentages of the Northern forms in the Michigan
questionnaires are seventy-five. No other variant, besides
the Northern forms, seems to be used in Michigan except
here-boss(ie) which is found in nine per cent of the ques-
tionnaires. Another observation is that the returns on
the checklists are eighty-four per cent out of the total
number which show that some of the peOple nowadays do not
need to use this expression. Moreover, this expression is

slightly more common among the older and the less educated.

 

 

61

40. Horse on the left side in plowing or hauling
The forms that appear in the Michigan materials

are lead horse, near horse, nigh horse, leader, wheel horse,

 

 

and line horse. It is worth noting that their combined per-
centages are limited to forty-one per cent out of the total
number. This points to the declining importance of the
horses and what is related to them and shows that their
vocabulary is on its way to be forgotten. Moreover, the
expression in general is more commonly used by the older
and the more educated.

41. A short distance

 

For 'a short distance' a little way(s) has a
general distribution in the Atlantic Coast States, and

a littlegpiece is restricted to most parts of the Midland

 

area. In the Michigan questionnaires, a little way and g

little ways are used by eighty-seven of the informants,

 

while seven scattered instances appear in favor of the
Midland expression.
42. Second growth of hay or clover

In A Word Geography of the Eastern United States,
it is shOwn that the Midland and the Southern areas have
the expression second crop and that the usage in the New
England settlement area is complicated. Two forms for
'second growth of hay or clover' appear in the Michigan

questionnaires-~second cutting and second crop--which are

 

 

 

62

found in sixty-two and seventeen per cent respectively.
Again the decline in farm knowledge is shown by the limited
number of the returns to seventy-nine per cent.
43. Bread made of corn meal

According to Kurath, the national term corn bread
"now predominates in the urbanized areas and is widely
used by the better educated in most rural areas as well"4
and that johnny cake is in general use in New England and
in the New England settlement area. The checklist responses
show that corn bread is more pOpular than johnny cake among
the younger and the better educated informants. In general
use, however, the former is used to about the same extent
as the latter.
44. Bread in loaves made of white flour

Bpead is the North and the North Midland expression
for 'loaves made with white flour', white bread is used in
Eastern New England, and light bread in the South Midland
and the South. The checklist data show that white bread
is used in Michigan along with ppgad although the former
is slightly more frequent than the latter. Moreover, the
former seems to be getting into use since it is more pre-
valent among the younger and the better educated. The

South Midland and the Southern expressions do not occur.

 

z(Hans Kurath, A Word Geography_of the Eastern United States

(New York, 1949). P. 67.

63

45. Round, flat confection with hole in center, made with
bakingipowder

 

It is indicated that doughnut is current everywhere

in the Atlantic Coast States with fried-cake in use in most

 

parts of New England and in the New England settlement area
of New York State and Northern Pennsylvania. The former ap-
pears in the checklist materials to exactly the same extent
as the latter although it increases in frequency with the
youth and the cultural level of the informant, while the
latter is more commonly used by the Older and the less edu-
cated. Three instances of raised doughnut appear in this
sense.

46. Meat from sides of hog, salted but not smoked

'Salt pork is the form used in New England and in

 

the New England settlements of New York State, side meat in
the North Midland, and side_pork in the Hudson Valley and
Western New York State. The South and the South Midland
have middlinig) and middlin meat.

The moSt frequently used expression in Michigan is

galtpork which appears in fifty-four per cent of the ques-

 

tionnaires although it is going out of use since it declines
in frequency with the youth and the cultural level of the
informant. On the other hand, pappp which appears with a
relatively low frequency of twenty per cent seems to be
coming into use since it is more prevalent among the younger

and the better educated. As for the other forms, sidegpork

64

is seen with a percentage of thirty-two, while there are
only three instances of the North Midland expression.
47. Thick sour milk

For 'thick sour milk', Kurath indicates that clabber

is used in the South, clabber milk in the South Midland,

 

lobbered milk or loppered milk from Connecticut River

 

 

to the Great Lakes, curdled milk in Eastern Pennsylvania

and cruddled milk in Western Pennsylvania. These forms,

 

together with thick milk and sour milk appear at varying
frequency in the Michigan questionnaires ranging from three
to thirty-two per cent. The most commonly used form is

curdled milk and the least given is loppered milk.

 

48. Home-made cheese

The commercial cottage cheese predominates every-
where in the Eastern States especially in urban areas.
The checklist data reveal the prevalence of this expression
in Michigan over the other variants. The second in fre-
quency of use comes Dutch cheese which is common in the
New England settlements of New York State, Pennsylvania
and Ohio, and which is seen in fifteen per cent of the
Michigan questionnaires. Home-made cheese, although it
occurs in eleven per cent seems to be gaining ground since
it increases in frequency with the youth and the educational
level of the informant. By contrast, cottage cheese is

more prevalent among the older and the less educated. Five

65

instances of smear case appear and none of the Southern

 

expressions are found in these data.
49. Food eaten between regular meals
Although Kurath states that pipe predominates in
the North, p133; in the North Midland, and ingog in the South
Midland and South; the Southern expression prevails at the
expense of the Northern expression and is seen in sixty-eight
per cent of the questionnaires. Piepe, a borrowing from
Pennsylvania German, occurs at a very low frequency of
three per cent.
50. Of beans
According to Kurath, shelling is used throughout
the Eastern States for 'removing beans from pods'. In
this sense, the Midland area has hulling beside shelling.
The most prevalent form.in the Michigan responses
is phgii which is given by forty-three per cent of the
checklist informants. Shuck, pod and hpii appear at a re-
latively high frequency of twenty-three, sixteen and nine
per cent respectively. Shppk seems to be more popular
among the younger and the better educated while phpii
slightly declines in frequency with the youth and the cul-
tivation of the informant.
51. Beans eaten in pods
For 'beans eaten in pods', string_beans is indicated

to be current in the North and the North Midland, green

 

beans in the west Midland, and snap beans in the South

66

Midland and the South. The checklist data show that string

beans and green beans are used side by side in Michigan,

 

although the former is more popular than the latter es-
pecially among the young and the well-educated generation.

Snap beans and beans appear in a scattered fashion of seven

 

and four per cent respectively.

52. Small squirrel-like animal

 

Chipmunk is the general form in the North for the
'small squirrel-like animal;, while the expression common
in the South Midland and the South is ground squirrel. The
checklist responses show a regular prevalence of the Northern
term over its counterpart--the South Midland and the Southern
term in a ratio of eighty-seven to thirteen per cent.
53. Worm used for bait in fishing

It is observed that angleworm is in widespread use

 

in New England and the New England settlements. It also
predominates in the Michigan materials being seen in eighty-
four per cent of the checklists. Earthworm, which is a

city word in New England, New York City, and Philadelphia
appears at a low frequency of twelve per cent of the ques-
tionnaires. It seems to be coming into use since it increases
in popularity with the youth and the educational level of

the informant. Fish bait, fishing worm, red worm and iigh
‘pprp appear with varying frequency ranging from three to

nine per cent.

67

54. Insect that glows at night
The 'insect that glows at night' is called ligh -

ningpbug everywhere in the Eastern States and fire fly in

 

Northern New England. Lightning bag is used in Michigan

along with fire fly among all social groups. This is

 

reflected in the questionnaire materials where they appear
with percentages of sixty-seven and fifty-two respectively.
55. Large winged insect seen around water

Darning needle is stated to be in general use in
the New England settlement area and the Dutch settlement
area. It is seen, together with devil's darningineedle in
twenty-eight per cent of the Michigan checklists. It seems
to be dying out since it declines in frequency with the
youth and the educationallevel of the informant. 0n the
other hand, the literary term dragon fly shows considerable
currency among the younger and the better educated and appears
in fifty-nine per cent of the checklist materials.
56. Tree that produces sugar and syrpp

It is indicated that sugar maple is used in nearly
all parts of the Eastern States, rock maple in Eastern New
England, and hard maple in Western New England and the New
England settlement area. According to the checklist data,
the most commonly used expression in Michigan is sugar maple
which occurs at the frequency of sixty-one per cent. The

second in frequency of occurrence is hard maple which is

68

found in only twenty-four per cent of the responses. It
is also more commonly used by the older and the less edu-
cated informants.

57. Vehicle for small baby

The 'vehicle for small baby' is called baby carriage
in the NOrth and the South Atlantic States. In the Michigan
materials, this expression occurs at an unexpected low fre-
quency of eighteen per cent, while the commerical babypbuggy
proves to be in general use among all social groups and is
marked by eight per cent of the checklist informants. Only
nine instances appear in favor of baby cab.

58. _S_i_c_1g---

To in the phrase 'to his stomach' is shown to be
current in Northern New England, and the Michigan findings
confirms its currency. This expression appears at a high
frequency of ninety per cent while the Southern and the
Midland expression (pp his stomach'--which is, in turn, more
frequently used than the other variants, occurs in a low
percentage of six only.

59. Noisy prankish celebration after a wedding

The serenade after a wedding is called Chivaree
in Northern and New England and the South Midland. This
expression occurs in sixty-two per cent of the Michigan
checklists and is stronger among the older and the less

educated. Undoubtedly it is stronger among the older

69

and the less educated because this custom has been long
abandoned by most Michiganders. Other expressions of
varying frequency are belling and horning which are seen
in thirteen and five per cent respectively.

60. Greetings at Christmas time

 

Merry_Christmas is indicated to be in widespread
use in the North and the North Midland of the Eastern
States. It is current too among the younger generation
in the South Midland and the South. In the Michigan
materials, this expression is marked by nearly every check-

list informant. Four instances appear in favor of Christ-

mas gift.

, On the basis of the tabulation and the detailed
analysis given above, it seems that Michigan constitutes
one dialect speech area, and therefore, no isoglosses can
be drawn, since in drawing isoglosses, there should be a
pattern of distribution in a way that vocabulary items
dominate in an area while they do not show up elsewhere.
Contrary to this, whenever dialectal features appear in
Michigan, they are either current everywhere or occur in
a scattered fashion throughout the whole Territory.

Since the dialect of Michigan is considered as the
extension of the Northern dialect area of the Atlantic
States, we find the prevalence of speech features charac-

terized by the place of origin. This is almost, but not

7O

always true, for there are few regional expressions charac-

terized by the Midland or the Southern speech areas, yet

they prevail in the state at the expense of the Northern

or the general distributed terms. Also few local terms in

the Eastern States are generalized in this Territory or

general terms localized. In other words:

1.

Expressions of general and almost general distribution
in the Eastern States are also in widespread use in
Michigan.

Expressions which are current or almost current in the
North are also in common use in this Territory.

Eastern New England terms are rare in Michigan with the
exception of white bread and to some extent cow yard.
Northern New England terms are not established with the
exception of Chivaree.

Expressions which prevail in the Hudson Valley are also
rare in Michigan with the exception of Lyindowl_shades
and coal scuttle.

Midland and Southern expressions are few with the excep-
tion of the Western Midland baby buggy and lead horse,
the Coastal Midland and the Southern and the Ohio Valley
expression second cutting, and the South and the South
Midland ppapk.

So far, terms of regional significance have been

discussed. Social levels are not well defined for there

71

are no speech features characterized by a particular class
and that class only, yet, many variants show significant
social distribution being more frequently used by a Specific
social group and cultural level.

Many of the variants that determine social levels
in the North Atlantic States are still significant for this
purpose in the new environment, yet, some are no longer
significant in this region, being found in use to the same
extent by all social groups. On the other hand, new variants
emerge to be socially important which are of no social im-
portance in the source area.

The reasons for the emergence or regression of
specific social expressions are not always easy to analyze.
The factors which affect vocabulary change--expansion or
contraction, persistence or disappearance-~in the new en-
vironment may be either economical or social. In general,
terms related to farm knowledge, animals, and animal calls
decline in use with the age and the cultivation of the in-
formants. They are also less current in urban areas. On
the other hand, literary and commercial expressions are
more commonly used among the young and the well-educated.

They are also in more general use in urban areas.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, Harold B. "Aspects of the Linguistic Geography of the
Upper Midwest," Studies in Languages and Linguistics,
ed. Albert H. MaFEkwardt (Kin—Arbor, 1964), 303-314.

Atwood, E.6Bagby. The Regional Vocabulary of Texas. Austin,
19 2.

A Survey of Verb Forms in the Eastern United
States. Ann Arbor, 1953.

Davis, Alva L. A Word Atlas of the Great Lakes Region.
University ofMiEhigan dissertation on micrOfilm,
Ann Arbor, 1948.

Drake, James A. "The Effect of Urbanization on Regional
Vocabulary," American Speech, XXXVI (February, 1961),

17-33 0

Francis, W. Nelson. The Structure of American Engiish.
New York, 1958I'

Fuller, George N. Economic and Social Beginnings of Michigan.
Lansing, 19I6.

Hankey, Clyde T. "A Colorado Word Geography," PADS, XXXIV
(November, 1950). -

Halmstrom,6Jean and Annabel Ashley. Dialects USA, Illinois,
19 3. .

Kurath, Hans. A Word Geography of the Eastern United States,
Ann Arbor,fl9491

Marckwardt, Albert H. "Folk Speech in Indiana and Adjacent
States." Indiana History_Bulletin, XVII (1940),
120-140. 1

"Principal and Subsidiary Dialect Areas in
the NOrth Central States," PADS, XXVII (April, 1957),

3-15- .
Mencken, H. L. American English. New York, 1963.

 

72

73

Norman, Arthur M. Z. "Migration to Southeast Texas: People
and Words," Southwestern Social Sciences Quarterly,

XXXVI (1956), 149-158.

Reed, David W. "Eastern Dialect Words in California,"
PADS, XXI (April, 1954), 3-15.

Shuy, Roger W. "The Northern-Midland Boundary in Illinois,"
PADS, XXXVIII (1962).

HICHIGQN STRTE UNIV. LIBRRRIES

MINI 1

312931077 0411