._.N LATEUNSHE .-‘f'fifi?%~'\ mm”? as “LL 3" I? :0 LA It ”LNG. u ;; g- 4,, kn I». Q. .I... T! T... 2...“ WW 1.... the Degree of M. A. TO {3L0 { x r ’u S MECHS AN 8 MARY CREE:E *i H_____________A_i_:..é:_._:=__‘ m Ihsaa 6’ \./ ' IIIII IIIIII III IIII III IIIII III III IIII II III II IIII IIIIII .mxrca‘u; 5111332"? LIBRA P Micmgan“ u 4. 5-"? U}: V61"); 3:1 * RETURNING MATERIILS: 1V1ESI.J PIace In book drop in LIBRARJES remove this Checkcui fr W your record. ELI-ISIS; ‘é : be Charged If bGQK Ig returned after tn? fiqaw 7 ,’ Stanuwwj IPItnw. I JUHfi24 m89 , '6 . yunpm-ers-w dJ/I\ I I --——I ABSTRACT SELF BSTBBM AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CLOTHING by Mary Green Klaasen The major concern of this study was the relation- ship between certain aspects of clothing, self esteem, the intensity of feelings that individuals have toward their physical bodies, and the perceptions they hold of how others see them. A survey of previous research revealed that cloth- ing may affect human behavior. Social-psychologists believe that an individual's self concept is an important determiner of behavior; thus, it seemed logical that relationships might exist between an individual's use of his clothing and his self concept. All factors which make up the total self concept are unknown; however, self esteem is believed to be a dimension of the self concept and is defined as the value an individual places upon himself. A high school population was chosen for the study since adolescents are concerned with their appearance and possess a strong interest in clothing. The sample, which could not be selected randomly, consisted of 251 boys and 270 girls in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades of a midwestern high school. A questionnaire was developed to measure the Mary Green Klaasen following eight aspects of clothing attitudes and behaviors: aesthetic, comfort, interest, management, modesty, psycho- logical dependence, social approval, and special attention. Each clothing aspect was composed of eleven statements which were rated on a five-point scale. There were eight scores, one for each aspect, which were related separately to each of the variables of the study. Self esteem was measured by a modification of Brownfain's Self Rating Inventory. The respondents rated twenty descriptive traits about the self on a ten-point scale using their classmates and peers as reference points. The negative rating of the self, where the subject denied himself every reasonable doubt, was purported to be the most accurate measure of self esteem when camouflaged with other self ratings. The negative rating sheet was admin— istered twice, the scores summed, and an average calculated. The perceived peer self, the subject's estimate as he believed his classmates saw him, was measured by the Brownfain Inventory. The self items were summed and the total correlated with self esteem and the clothing aspects. To indicate the intensity of feelings toward the body, a measure was devised consisting of twenty-three items describing parts of the body. The subjects rated themselves on a scale ranging from highly satisfied to highly dissat— isfied. The ratings were weighted and summed, then corre- lated with self esteem and the clothing aspects. Mary Green Klaasen The girls were separated from the boys for all statistical treatment of the data. Means and standard deviations were computed for the clothing aspects, self esteem, body concern, and perceived peer self, and simple correlations were computed between the four major variables. Partial correlations were used holding constant the inter- vening variables,social class and grade. The major findings of the study for the respondents used were: a. Boys and girls with high self esteem will value aesthetics in clothing and the use of clothing to gain special attention. b. Girls possessing high self esteem will maintain an interest in clothing for clothing's sake and will also be concerned with the management use of their clothing. c. Boys and girls with high scores on perceived peer self will highly regard an aesthetic concern for cloth— ing, interest in and management of clothing, and the use of clothing to gain special attention. The girls with perceived peer self ratings will also be concerned with modesty or inconspicuousness in their use of clothing. d. Boys who possess intense feelings about their physical bodies are also concerned with aesthetics in cloth- ing, interest in and management of clothing, and the use of clothing to gain special attention. SELF ESTEEM AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CLOTHING BY Mary Green Klaasen A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts 1967 91/9 /\...J' ,A I ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Especial appreciation is given to Dr. Anna M. Creekmore for her unselfishness, guidance, and understand- ing in directing this study; and to the other researchers on the larger project, Carolyn Andree Humphrey, Sue Hundley, and Mary Jane Young for their continued interest and as- sistance. The writer would also like to acknowledge the mem- bers of her committee, Dr. Joanne Eicher, Dr. Mary L. Gephart, and Dr. Elinor Nugent for their helpful sugges- tions; and to the principal, vice-principal, and students of the high school who were generous in giving their time and facilities for completion of the questionnaires. Gratitude is also expressed to the author's husband, family, and friends for their encouragement. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O L 15 T 0F TABLE S O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 Chapter I. II. III. IV. V. INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . Self Concept Theory . . . . . . . . . Self Esteem Theory. . . . . . . . . Self Concept and Self Esteem Measures Clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clothing and Self Esteem. . . . . . . STATEMENT OF PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . . Definitions and Descriptions of Terms Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . PROCEDURE 0 O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 Used Development and Selection of Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . Self Rating Inventory . . Importance of Clothing. . Social Background . . . . Body Characteristics. . . Selection of Research Locale. . Selection of Sample . . . . . . Administration of the Measures. Statistical Treatment of Data RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. Biographical Data Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . . Social Class. . . . . . . . . . Social Class and Its Relationsh Grade . . . . . . . . . . . . Transfer Students . . . . . . . Honor Roll. . . . . . . . . . . iii Po ooo'Uo-oo ooorfoooo Page ii 13 16 25 30 3O 31 31 32 10. ll. 12. LIST OF TABLES Distribution of students by age . . . . . . . . Percentage of students by grade . . . . . . . . Percentage of students by social class. . . . . Distribution by grade of students in each SOCial Class. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Distribution by grade of students on the honor r0110 0 O O O O O I I O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Distribution of the scores on the eight cloth- ing aspects 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Simple correlations between clothing aspects. . Simple correlations relating the clothing aspects to grade and social class . . . . . . Simple correlations between self esteem and the clothing aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . Partial correlations between the clothing aspects and self esteem holding constant the effects of grade and social class . . . . Simple correlations relating aspects of clothing and concern for the body . . . . . . Simple correlations relating aspects of clothing and perceived peer self. . . . . . . Page 47 48 48 50 4 ,- .— ¢ 63 c” 68 72 77 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In recent years, there has been much speculation about the relationship between an individual's behavior and his use of clothing. The consensus is that, for the most part, an individual's clothing is indicative of the way he will act or perform in a given situation. Although there has been some research studying clothing and human behavior in general, there has been very little dealing with the relationship of specific human behaviors and cloth- ing, or aspects of clothing. Clothing does seem to serve as a part of an indi— vidual's expressive equipment in communicating to others about one's self or one's activities. Gregory Stone has said that an individual's dress arouses others' anticipa- tions of his conduct as well as assisting in the mobiliza- tion of his own activity.1 In order for clothing to be used as a means of com— munication, there must be symbolic interaction between people where the individuals involved understand the lGregory P. Stone, "Appearance and the Self," Dress, Adornment.and the Social Order, ed. Mary Ellen Roach and Joanne Bubolz Eicher (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965), p. 222. meaning of the symbols. This interaction may consist of an exchange not only of verbal symbols but also of natural and non-verbal signs which set conditions for the interac- tion. The latter involves the appearance of the interact- ing individuals.1 The self concept of an individual is generally thought to be a controlling force in behavior, and causes him to act in ways which help to maintain the self. Since interactionists believe that self concepts develop in the milieu of social interaction, the individual's perception of his own characteristics, his abilities, his feelings, his appearance and the total organization of characteris- tics which he perceives as distinguishing him as an indi- vidual may be related to clothing.2 Even though all of the factors which make up an individual's self concept are not known, self esteem ap- pears to be a dimension of the self concept.3 Short defines self esteem as "the realistic awareness of the goodness of one's actual state of being and the goodness of his lArnold M. Rose, Human Behavior and Social Proc- esses (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 19627: p. 86. 2George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Society, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1934), p. 135. Mary Shaw Ryan, Clothing: A Study in Human Be- havior (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966), p. 82. 3Thomas 9. McGehee, "The Stability of the Self- Concept and Self-Esteem" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 1956), pp. 27-290 situation."l Each person places some kind of estimate upon himself as a human being and consciously or unconsciously struggles to maintain an adequate level of self esteem. Much of what a person does or refuses to do depends upon this level, which fluctuates according to what he knows about himself or his self concept. Clothing may express to others one's self image, the individual's own estimate of his self regard and self esteem. Treece proposes that it is characteristic of man to want to hold himself in good esteem, and to aspire to- ward higher levels of achievement. An individual, by means of dress, can convey to others his self attitudes. His clothing behavior may permit others to arrive at an esti— mate of the degree to which he holds himself in good esteem.2 Many studies indicate that clothing is important in an individual's perception of other people and that cer- tain impressions are altered by variations in his clothing.3 lMorris Robert Short, ”Self-Esteem: A Study of the Ethical Significance of Certain Aspects of the Dynamics of Self-Esteem as Developed in Psychiatry and Gestalt Psychol- ogy” (Doctoral Dissertation Series, Publication: 6473. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1953), p. 35, quoted in Thomas P. McGehee, "The Stability of the Self- Concept and Self—Esteem" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 1956), p. 16. 2Anna Jean Treece, "The Communicative Value of Dress," Proceedings of Clothinq_and Textiles Conferengg (Manhattan, Kansas: Kansas State University, 1966), p. 17. 3Thomas Ford Hoult, "Clothing as a Factor in the .Some research has compared what an individual thought of luis own appearance as opposed to what the group thought of his appearance.1 Clothing may also impart value to the wearer in his own eyes and in the eyes of others. An individual's basic values may be assumed from his specific attitudes and interests. Hartmann2 stressed the importance of clothes as a carrier of values, and Lapitsky3 found that clothing values and general values were closely related. Creekmore tested for relationships between general values, certain aspects of clothing behavior, and the striving for basic Social Status Rating of Men" (unpublished Ph.D. disserta- tion, Department of Sociology, University of Southern Cal- ifornia, 1951). Helen I. Douty, "Influence of Clothing on Percep- tion of Others," Journal of Home Economics, LV, No. 3 (March, 1963), pp. 197-202. Mary Lou Rosencranz, "The Application of a Pro- jective Technique for Analyzing Clothing Awareness, Cloth— ing Symbols, and the Range of Themes Associated with Cloth- ing Behavior" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Michigan State University, 1960). 1Mary Shaw Ryan, "Psychological Effects of Cloth- ing: Part IV, Perception of Self in Relation to Clothing? (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Agricultural Experi— ment Station Bulletin 905, August, 1954). Noel S. Moore, "Status Criteria and Status Vari- ables in an Adolescent Group" (unpublished Ph.D. disserta— tion, Wayne State University, 1967). 2George W. Hartmann, ”Clothing: Personal Problem and Social Issue," Journal of Home Economics, XLI, No. 6 (June, 1949), pp. 295-98. 3Mary Lapitsky, "Clothing Values and Their Rela- tion to General Values and to Social Security and Insecur- ity“ (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Pennsylvania State Univer- sity, 1961). zueeds and found that needs appeared to have more power in (determining behavior than general values.l Thus, it can be assumed that the use of clothing would relate to the attitudes held by an individual and be reflected in his behavior. The specific purpose of this study was to see if any relationship existed between an individual's clothing and his feelings toward himself, or his self esteem. The study is one of a larger project investigating the rela- tionship of clothing to the self concept of adolescents.2 lAnna Mary Creekmore, "Clothing Behaviors and Their Relation to General Values and to the Striving for Basic Needs" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Clothing and Textiles, Pennsylvania State University, 1963). 2Anna Mary Creekmore, "The Relationship of Cloth— ing to Self Concept and to Attitudes Toward Clothing," Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Project 784, research in progress. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The review of literature covering self esteem and its relationship to clothing will be presented in the fol— lowing order: (1) self concept theory, (2) self esteem theory, (3) self concept and self esteem measures, (4) clothing, and (5) clothing and self esteem. Self Concept Theory Throughout the history of psychology, the idea that each individual possesses a self has generally been accepted, even though what the self is made of or how it is developed has been modified in order to coincide with the various psychological schools of thought. The scientific explora- tion of the self has been studied by means of introspection,1 psychoanalysis,2 and by deductions from the individual's social behavior.3 The self concept is generally defined in the current 1William James, The Pringiples of Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1890). _ 2Sigmund Freud, A General Introduction to Psycho- analysis (New York: Horace Liveright, 1920). 3Mead. Charles Horton Cooley, Human Nature and the Social order (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902). literature as "the individual as known to himself“;1 it is sometimes called the self-as-object definition since it connotes the person's attitudes, feelings, perceptions, and evaluations of himself as an object or what he actually thinks of himself.2 Rogers, a clinical psychologist, was among the first to emphasize treating the person as he thought him— self to be. Rogers believed that the organism reacts as an organized whole to his phenomenal or perceived field, and that each organism has one basic tendency which is to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism. Proceeding from this point of view, Rogers, in his book Client Centered Therapy, explained the development of the self concept in the following way: As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluational inter- action with others, the structure of self is formed--an organized, fluid, but consistent con- ceptual pattern of perceptions and relationships of the 'I' or the 'me,‘ together with value at- tached to these concepts.3 lGardner Murphy, Personality: A Biosocial Approach to Origins and Structure (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1947), p. 996. 2Theodore M. Newcomb, Social Psychology (New York: The Dryden Press, 1950), pp. 318-20. Paul F. Secord and Carl W. Backman, Social Psye chology (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 19647, pp. 579-80. 3Carl R. Rogers, Client Centered Therapy (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951), p. 498. Rogers' ideas of self are similar to those of a group of psychologists including Murphy, Snygg and Combs, and Mead, to name a few.1 George Herbert Mead, in defining self, began the initial framework for what later became known as the inter- actionists' theory. Mead's self is a socially-formed self which can arise only in a social setting where there is communication among people. "He becomes a self in so far as he can take the attitude of another and act toward him- self as others act." By this Mead implied an individual's perception of how others react toward him. Mead described this process of socialization entirely through the agency of language and auxiliary processes such as games, play, and role-taking. He believed that the development of the self begins with the social process and moves inward to be the self instead of developing from the self outward to society.2 Cooley refers to self as the "looking-glass self“ which is developed and altered when a person looks at others and the observers' perceptions of him are mirrored in their reaction toward him. He then reacts with a positive or negative self-feeling to the imagined judgment. This lMurphy. Donald Snygg and Arthur W. Combs, Individual Be- havior (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1949). Mead. 2Mead, pp. 140-78. unique development of the self can only take place when interaction exists between two or more people.1 Therefore, the self concept appears to be the in- dividual as known to himself, as he believes he is, as he thinks he is, as viewed or perceived by himself resulting from past and present experiences. All facets of the de- velopment of self concept seem to occur as a result of or simultaneous with interaction with other people. The in- teractionist view has been specifically defined by Newcomb as "the individual as perceived by that individual in a socially determined frame of reference."2 Self Esteem Theory Every individual is thought to be concerned with the maintenance and enhancement of the self in the preser- vation of life.3 Every person needs to have some good feel- ings about himself, and this need continues throughout his life. In discussing self esteem needs Maslow has stated: Self esteem needs are expressed as the desire for self-importance, for self respect, and for esteem for self and others. Other aspects of these needs are expressed in the desires for achievement, ade— quacy, competency, confidence, and independence. A striving for self esteem is often recognized as striving for prestige, status, dominance, recognition, lCooley, p. 184. 2Newcomb, p. 38. 3Rogers, p. 487. 10 f~ attention, and appreciation.1 ,5The concept of value placed on the self is referred to as (self esteem.2 If a self concept comprises all the beliefs the individual holds concerning what kind of person he is, then the individual's belief as to the value of himself must be a part of his self concept. Thus, it can be as- sumed that self esteem is a dimension of the self concept. The basis of ideas concerning self esteem, per se, has evolved from the doctrines of Freud and the psychiatric field of study. Some of his successors--Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, and Harry S. Sullivan--dea1 extensively with the idea that a low level of self esteem is a person- ality disorder resulting from disturbances in interpersonal relations.3 Adler attempted to account for personality develop- ment and for some mental disorders in terms of compensatory reactions to feelings of inadequacy. The idea that a person with a sense of inferiority could act in an abnormal way was an important factor in his study of interpersonal relations.4 1A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality_(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), p. 90. 21bid. Tamotsu Shibutani, Society and Personality (Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961), p. 433. 3Ibid., p. 16. 4Alfred Adler, The Practice and Theory of Individ- ual Psychology (New York: Harcourt, 1927). 11 In recent years, the early ideas concerning self esteem have been broadened and refined by social scientists, particularly Jourard and Shibutani. Jourard stated that a "high degree of self esteem means that a person accepts and approves of his over-all personality."1 This presup- poses that there are levels or degrees of self esteem. Shibutani believed that a person places an estimate upon himself as to how valuable he is as an object. The level reflects what a person thinks of himself and is an evalu- ation of the self.2 According to Shibutani, an individual'sif self esteem tends to be self sustaining; and although it 8.? is apparently formed early in life, transformations in the self esteem do occur under unusual circumstances.3 Self esteem has been related to emotional health, productivity, maturity, social status, body cathexis, and interpersonal adequacy or self acceptance. In some studies / self esteem has been considered roughly synonymous with V 1Sidney M. Jourard, Personal Adjustment: An Ap- proach Through the Study of Healthy Personality_(New York: The Macmillan Company, 1963), p. 127. 2Ezra Stotland et al., "The Effects of Group Expec- tations and Self-Esteem‘Upon Self Evaluation," The Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, LIV, No. 1 (January, 1957), pp. 55-63. Stanley Coopersmith, "A Method for Determining Types of Self Esteem," The Journal offiAbnormal Social Psy- chology, LIX, No. 1 (July, 1959), pp. 87-94. Abraham H. Maslow, "A Test for Dominance-feeling (Self-esteem) in College Women," The Journal of Social Psy- chology, XII (1940), pp. 255-70. 3Shibutani, p. 435. 12 self cathexis, the satisfaction with and acceptance of the a: self. When self cathexis and body cathexis were correlated, the findings showed that people who accept their bodies are more likely to manifest high self esteem than persons who dislike their bodies.1 Therefore, feelings about the body might reveal something about an individual's self es- teem. Brownfain believed that self esteem and self accept- ance are parallel concepts and that ”the individual with '9 a high level of self concept is, almost by definition, also the individual who accepts himself and who feels confident and secure. . . ."2 LaFon3 and Katz4 have verified Brown- fain's results. A person with a low self esteem may, however, ap- pear to accept himself because he has formed an idealized concept of himself as perfect or nearly perfect: He may lJourard, p. 127. 2John J. Brownfain, “The Stability of the Self Con- cept as a Dimension of Personality" (Doctoral Dissertation Series, Publication: 2385. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1951), p. 94, quoted in Irving Stanley Katz, "A Study of the Stability of the Self Concept and Its Relationships to Sociometric Status and Sociometric Perception" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 1956), p. 15. 3Fred E. LaFon, "Behavior on the Rorschach Test and a Measure of Self Acceptance," Psychological Monographs, LXVIII, No. 10 (1954), 14 pp. 4Irving 5. Katz, “A Study of the Stability of the Self Concept and Its Relationships to Sociometric Status and Sociometric Perception" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 1956), p. 49. 13 not be able to se; his weaknesses, but might outwardly ap- pear to possess a high level of self esteem even though he is not accepting what he actually is.1 According to Stotland, the greater the degree of coincidence between a person's actual and ideal concepts of himself, the higher the level of self esteem.2 Self Concept and Self Esteem Measures A variety of measuring instruments have been uti- lized to investigate the self concept. Ruth Wylie, in 222, Self Concept, has categorized the self concept measures into the following: attitude tests, objective personality, projective personality, and word association or trait lists.3 The major portion of these tests falls into the category of trait and adjective lists because these are easily con- structed and readily administered. However, there are cer- tain limitations which should be noted: (1) an "inner ex- perience" may not be effectively conveyed by a pen and paper test, (2) the problem of defining the universe from which the items for the test list should be selected (some objects are more socially desirable than others), and (3) different lKaren Horney, Our Inner Conflicts (New York: W. w. Norton, 1945), pp. 111-12. 2Stotland, p. 56. 3Ruth C. Wylie, The Self Concept: A Critical Sur- vgy of Pertinent Research Literature (Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1961), pp. 61, 65, 86. 14 operational definitions.1 The most common measures of self esteem have been Q-sort and check lists.2 But McGehee found that the tru- est measure of self esteem to be derived from Machover's human figure drawings, which are purported to represent the expression of the self, or the body. Thus, stable and self confident individuals, those who have accepted themselves, showed stable body image projections in their drawings.3 This measure, however, is difficult to admin- ister because clinical training is needed to interpret the results of these drawings. Studies that have been made on the accuracy of self ratings show that subjedts tend to overrate themselves on desirable traits and tend to overlook undesirable attributes. In order to get a true picture of what the person thinks of himself, the real purpose of the measuring instrument 1C. Marshall Lowe, "The Self Concept: Fact or Artifact," Psychological Bulletin, LXVIII, No. 4 (July, 1961), p. 326. 2J. M. Butler and G. V. Haigh, "Changes in the Relation between Self Concepts and Ideal Concepts Conse- quent Upon Client-Centered Counseling," ngchotherapy and Personality Change, ed. C. R. Rogers and R. Dymond (Chi- cago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), pp. 55-75. Stotland. Maslow. Coopersmith. 3McGehee, p. 64. 15 must be camouflaged. Cowen,l McGehee,2 and Shibutani3 all agree that a person's level of self esteem can be measured only through procedures which conceal the intentions of the investigator, giving the subject little occasion for defense. Cowen stated that falsification proneness will decrease and the self esteem measure will be more meaning- ful and discriminatory when embedded in the context of a series of other self ratings.4 Brownfain devised a Self Rating Inventory specif- ically for measuring the stability of an individual's self concept.S But McGehee tested the Brownfain measure to see if it were not a better measure of self esteem than stabil- ity. He found, when compared with other measures of self esteem, that the negative self rating on Brownfain's Inven- tory was a good measure of self esteem.6 Cowen correlated the Brownfain Self Ratings with another self measure and found that the correlation was significant and in the lEmory L. Cowen, "The Negative Self Concept as a Personality Measure," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XVIII (November 2, 1954), p. 141. 2McGehee, p. 64. 3Shibutani, p. 446. 4Cowen, p. 141. 5John J. Brownfain, "Stability of the Self-concept as a Dimension of Personality," The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XLVII (1952), pp. 597-606. 6McGehee, p. 53. 16 expected direction. As a result of his study, he concluded that the poorest (or lowest) rating that a person admits to on an inventory of this type may actually be the way he feels about himself.1 The Brownfain Self Rating Inventory was chosen for use in this project for the following reasons: (1) the face validity of the measure had been judged by experts in the field, (2) the measure differentiated between sub- jects, (3) acceptable reliability existed, (4) the self concept was measured from a positive approach, (5) the measure supported the interactionists' viewpoint of the development of a self concept, and (6) the Inventory could be used as a measure for both self esteem and stability.2 Clothing Certain social-psychological factors are known to influence the clothing of people. These influences include the society or cultural group to which a person belongs, his social interaction with others, his individual needs, his self concept, and his attitudes and motives concerning specific uses of clothing.3 In this thesis the primary concern.waswith the relationship of an individual's self lCowen, p. 141. 2Brownfain, p. 598. 3Ryan, Clothing; A Study . . ., pp. 40, S7, 81, 98. 17 concept and variations in his clothing usage. Clothing can be used to influence the impressions made during social interaction with other people. Hoult,l Douty,2 and Rosencranz3 investigated perceptual change by showing their subjects pictures of people to see if they could actually perceive more than just physical character- istics in others that they encountered. Hoult used photo- graphs of actual people and exchanged the heads and bodies so that the same head appeared on differently clothed bod- ies. Douty did not exchange heads but each of her models was photographed in different costumes. The subjects in Rosencranz' study were asked to tell about drawings of people executed by a professional artist. Hoult found that the judges' ratings of personality traits of the models largely depended upon how well acquainted they were with the subjects. If unacquainted with the subjects, the clothing was used as a basis for rating personality traits.4 In Douty's study, the judges' ratings of social status and personal traits were found to be associated with changes in clothing.5 Rosencranz noted that her respondents were lHoult. 2Douty. 3Rosencranz, The Application of . . . . 4Hoult, p. 279. 5Douty, p. 202. 18 able to give a number of characteristics, such as age, status, character, which were related to clothing, and not just to physical features.1 When observing an individual, some clothing char- acteristics are more easily perceived than others. It is left to the ability of the observer to "read" meaning into the clothing, to perceive what can be determined by the clothing characteristics. The sex or age group of an in- dividual as well as the occupation and socio-economic posi- tion are oftentimes clearly portrayed by his use of cloth— ing. Abstract ideas, such as an individual's interests, attitudes, values, or moods may also be conveyed by the clothes he wears.2 The motives and attitudes underlying an individ- ual's choice and use of clothing have been researched by many but the variables have not always been clearly defined nor has there been a carry-over of definitions among the studies. Nevertheless, the results show that individuals vary as to importance they place upon clothing, what they want it to do for them, and their reasons for choosing the clothes they do. Even though the research reviewed in this study does not always deal with adolescent populations, a few investigators have studied adolescent clothing, both lRosencranz, The Application of . . ., pp. 110-11. 2Ryan, Clothiggj A Study . . ., p. 14. 19 boys and girls.1 In 1929, Hurlock questioned approximately 1500 people of both sexes to learn about motives concerning fashion and fashion change. Even though her questionnaire was crude, conformity, economy, modesty, and self expres- sion were important factors in the choice of clothing. She concluded that clothes were used to express aesthetic values by camouflaging personal defects and to emphasize becomingness.2 1 Alexander compiled a list of reasons given by a large number of subjects for wanting to be well-dressed. She categorized all of the reasons under the specific top- ics of physical appearance, expression or personality, im- pression upon others, acceptance or conformity to a group, status symbol for personal satisfaction and interest, and no importance. The two reasons most frequently mentioned were that being well-dressed gave a feeling of self 1Olive Ness Alexander, "A Pilot Investigation of the Motives Underlying the Desire to Feel Well-Dressed at Various Age Levels" (unpublished Master's thesis, Cornell University, 1961), p. 36. James S. Coleman, The Adolescent Society (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1961), pp. 51, 54-55. Mary Shaw Ryan, ”Psychological Effects of Cloth- ing: Part II, Comparison of College Students with High School Students, Rural with Urban Students, and Boys with Girls? (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 898, July, 1953), p. 26. 2Elizabeth B. Hurlock, "Motivation in Fashion," Archives of Psychology, No. 111 (September, 1929), pp. 5- 71. 20 confidence, and that it aided in creating a favorable im- pression on others.1 The greatest need during adolescence seems to be conformity to the peer group and to escape its ridicule.2 During the self conscious period of early adolescence, the individual becomes so anxious to conform to the standards of behavior and dress of his own group that he submerges his individuality into the pattern group.3 Barr found con- formity to be the most important factor in clothing choices of older adolescents.4 In studying the role behavior of teen-age girls, Wass found that conformity was very evident in their dress, and that clothing was extremely important to this age group. Her findings also indicated that teen- age girls who chose apparel for particular roles, often- times changed the clothing when the role was changed, and that their clothes were frequently influential in affecting their behavior.5 lAlexander, p. 34. 2Coleman, pp. 221, 228. 3Elizabeth B. Hurlock, Adolescent Development (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1949), p. 162. 4Estelle DeYoung Barr, "A Psychological Analysis of Fashion Motivation," Archives of Psychology, No. 171 (June, 1934), p. 81. 5Betty Marguerite Wass, "Clothing as Related to Role Behavior of Ninth Grade Girls" (unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts, Michigan State University, 1962), pp. 50, 68. 21 There are many reasons why conformity may be im- portant to teen-agers. The studies indicate that clothing is important to both boys and girls and that girls are more aware of clothing than boys.1 Cobliner stated that the real basis for conformity is the desire to be attrac— tive to the opposite sex. This desire to be attractive was easily misinterpreted by his subjects, who were col- lege women, as prestige or the desire for social status.2 Creekmore related general values to clothing and found that among her subjects, a homogenous college population, those who were high in conforming behavior in clothing also had a high social value which was defined as the love of. mankind. Conformity was also related to striving for the satisfaction of the need to belong.3 Interest in clothing is as important to the ado- lescent as is conforming to the norms of their age group. Since adolescents use clothing as a means of demonstrating their belongingness, they are apparently greatly interested in clothing. This concern with their own physical lAlexander, p. 36. Arthur M. Vener, "Adolescent Orientations to Cloth- ing: A Social-Psychological Interpretation" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Michigan State University, 1957), pp. 77-78. 2W. Godfrey Cobliner, "Feminine Fashion as an As- pect of Group Psychology: Analysis of Written Replies Re- ceived by Means of a Questionnaire," Journal of Social Psy- chology, XXXI (May, 1950), p. 288. 3Creekmore, pp. 89, 130. 22 attractiveness has been verified by research. Vener devel- oped a measure which he called "clothing awareness" which is closely related to clothing interest or the importance of clothing. He reported that high school girls demonstrated greater clothing awareness than the boys, but there is some question as to the extensiveness of awareness as he meas- ured it. Vener also stated that the greater the social confidence the lower the clothing awareness.l From this, an assumption might be made that a person with high self esteem will have less need for, and interest in, clothing. One study found that interest in clothing was dependent upon the amount of importance subjects attached to cloth- ing and that some high interest individuals valued cloth— ing enough to judge others by it.2 Interest in clothing in this study is defined as experimenting with parts of one's costume as well as being interested in what is new on the market. Creekmore's ex- perimental clothing behavior is similar to this definition and her findings show that this behavior was positively related to a high need for self esteem.3 1Vener, pp. 77-78. 2Mary Lou Rosencranz, "A Study of Interest in Cloth- ing Among Selected Groups of Married and Unmarried Young Women" (unpublished Master's thesis, School of Home Econom- ics, Michigan State University, 1948), p. 165. 3Creekmore, p. 121. 23 Comfort appears to be a very important factor in choosing clothes, but it has been difficult in previous studies to determine the physiological effects of comfort- able clothing. The physiological effects of clothing upon the body have been measured, but no objective means of measuring the importance of comfort psychologically has been found.1 Barr found that her subjects desired comfort in their clothing.2 Lapitsky defined comfort as part of economic value which was rated second in the relative im- portance of clothing for her subjects.3 However, Creekmore and Brady found comfort to rank approximately fifth place for their subjects who were college students.4 In relating clothing values to general values, Lapitsky hypothesized and confirmed that the aesthetic and economic clothing values would be important to the adult women in her study, and that the socially secure people lRuth Ayers et al., ”Consumer Satisfaction with Women's Blouses," Part I: Field Study in Four Communities in thg‘Northeast, Northeast Regional Bulletin 34 (Kingston, Rhode Island: Agricultural Experimental Station, June, 1959). Frederick H. Rohles, Jr., "Considerations for En- vironmental Research in Human Factors," Journal of Environ- mental Sciences Reprint (June, 1965). 2Barr, p. 77. 3Lapitsky, pp. 4, 72. 4Creekmore, p. 65. Betty L. Brady, "Clothing Behavior: Refinement of a Measure and Relationships with Social Security and Insecurity for a Group of College Women" (unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Clothing and Textiles, Pennsylvania State University, 1963), p. 38. 24 would value the aesthetic aspects of clothing.1 Barr re- ported that her subjects wished to bring out the best in their physical appearance, and were desirous of economy and management concerning their clothing.2 Creekmore found that her college subjects who placed an emphasis on the management behavior of clothing possessed a high economic value as well as a striving for satisfaction of self esteem need.3 Creekmore, in relating general values and basic needs to various clothing behaviors, found that the need to belong and the need for self esteem were evident in the students who reported using clothing as a status symbol or for prestige purposes.4 She also found that the need for self esteem was related to the use of clothing as a tool, defined as "its use as an aid to achieve the goals of the individual."5 It appeared that the individuals with the lowest self esteem had a great interest in the latest fashions, expensive clothing, perhaps to bolster self esteem. Very little research has dealt with the clothing aspect of modesty. Barr mentions it as a motivating force H ,Lapitsky, p. 72. Barr, p. 77. Creekmore, pp. 117-18. Ibido, pp. 123-24. 01wa Ibido," pp. 12, 132—330 25 in clothing choice.l Modesty, defined in this study, in- volves the inconspicuous use of clothing which is conserv- ative in design, color, fit, and body exposure. Brady de- fined modesty as the feeling of shyness that accompanies the wearing of new or unused garments which bare or reveal an unusual amount of the body and modesty was ranked second in the relative importance of clothing for her’subjects.2 Clothing and Self Esteem Even though there has been very little research using self esteem and clothing as variables, many refer- ences have been found which imply a possible relationship between appearance, of which clothing is a part, and an individual's self concept. Clothing may play an important part in establishing the self concept, and conversely the self concept may be important in determining our choice of clothing. Gregory Stone, a sociologist, theorized in Appear- ance and Self that appearance is equally as important as conversation and speech for the establishment and mainten- ance of the self. Appearance, according to Stone, is a phase of social transaction which establishes the identities of the participants by the use of non-verbal symbols, such lBarr, p. 77. 2Brady, pp. 16, 37. 26 as gestures, clothes and grooming.1 In describing symbolic interaction, Rose essentially agreed with Stone that appear- ance is an important non-verbal symbol for interaction among individuals. Rose defined appearance as body size and shape, clothing, stance, and facial expression.2 Sidney Jourard, a psychologist, believed that ap- pearance was an important determiner of self esteem among both men and women;3 whereas, Jersild proposed that clothes are actually a projection of oneself, his values and his attitudes.4 Jourard seemed to indicate that an individual's behavior is largely determined by the clothes that he is wearing; thus, an individual's behavior could be changed by merely altering his clothes.5 Jersild implied that the clothing a person wears is indicative of what he actually thinks about himself, perhaps his self concept. Social scientists generally agree that appearance is an important factor in interaction especially for the establishment and maintenance of the self, but there is little evidence based on empirical research to show exactly how appearance is involved. As early as 1898, G. Stanley lStone, pp. 220-22. 2Rose, p. 86. 3Jourard, Personal Adjgstment, p. 127. 4Arthur T. Jersild, In Search of Self (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952), pp. 72-73. 5Jourard, Personal Adjgstment, p. 127. 27 Hall tried by means of a questionnaire to determine some effects of clothing on the self.1 The next major work deal- ing with this subject was written by J. C. Flugel in the 1920's. Using Freud's psychoanalytical theories as a base, Flugel discussed the psychology of dress.2 Silverman's study in 1945 was concerned with the psychological aspects of clothing for the adolescent.3 In the 1950's Mary Ryan initiated an extension project at Cornell University involving many studies deal- ing with the psychological effects of clothing upon the individual. In one study, Ryan compared the individual college girl's rating of her own appearance with a group's rating of her appearance and her estimate of the group rat- ing. Twenty-eight groups, each composed of eight college students, were used as subjects. There were four rating scales which had to do with appearance: (1) well dressed, (2) appearance of face, (3) appearance of figure, and (4) individuality in dress. The most common pattern of results was agreement between the girl's rating, the median of the lG. Stanley Hall, "Some Aspects of the Early Sense of Self,” American Journal of Psychology, IX, No. 3 (April, 1898) , pp.‘3"'51"_'-95 . 2J. C. Flugel, The ngchology_of Clothes (London: The Hogarth Press, Ltd., 1930). 3Sylvia S. Silverman, Clothing_and Appearance, Their Psycholggical Implications for Teen-age Girls (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1945). 28 group's rating, and her estimate of the group's rating.l Treece, in her doctoral dissertation, examined certain social-psychological theories and showed how cloth— ing might be used to test these theories. As a basis, she used the symbolic interactionist theory, which has already been explained. She said: A prevalent function which clothing may perform related to the expression of the self image, the individual's own estimate of his self regard and self esteem. . . . An individual by means of dress conveys to others his self attitudes. . . . His clothing behavior may permit others to arrive at an estimate of the degree to which he holds him- self in good esteem; it may serve to show what the individual thinks of himself.2 If a person thinks highly of himself he also wishes that others will think highly of him and will wish to strive for position, personality, and good looks (appearance). He may attempt to make his appearance neat and becoming, so others will also hold him in high esteem. Treece also proposed the idea that clothing may serve as a camouflage for one's true self esteem.3 To protect the self esteem, some individuals may resort to deception in order to defend the self in the presence of lRyan, Psychological Effects of Clothing: Part IV . . ., pp. 8, 11. 2Anna Jean Treece, "An Interpretation of Clothing Behavior Based on Social-Psychological Theory" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1959), pp. 85-86 0 3Treece, pp. 86-87. 29 others. An individual using clothing as a camouflage would possess a great interest in his clothing. He would be ob- sessed with the idea of covering up his real self feelings. If he were low in self esteem and were anxious to hide this feeling about himself from others, he could conceivably wear clothes that were similar to the group so that they would not think him a non-conformist. CHAPTER III STATEMENT OF PROBLEM The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between an individual's clothing and his self esteem. Definitions and Descriptions of Terms Used Body Concern is the intensity of satisfaction or dissat- isfaction with one's body. Clothing is the use of and attitudes toward clothing. The aspects of clothing covered in this study include: Aesthetic Concern refers to the use of clothing to achieve a pleasing or beautiful appearance. Comfort means the use of clothing to achieve comfort whether this relates to temperature, physical response to certain textures, or the acceptance of tightness or looseness in garments. Interest in clothing includes the willingness to give attention, to investigate, manipulate or experiment with the putting together of the parts of a costume. Mana ement refers to the thoughtful and careful use of resources, including the use of time, money, and energy in planning, buying, and using clothing; thus, it can be an economic aspect of clothing usage. Modesty refers to the use of inconspicuous clothing which is conservative in design, color, fit, and body exposure. Psychological Dependence refers to the use of clothing to influence moods, emotions, and feelings. Social Approval is the use of clothing to attain a feeling of belongingness or the approval of others in a particular role situation and usually indicates conformity to the group norm. 30 31 Special Attention is the seeking of prestige and status through the use of clothing. The attention that is sought may be either socially approved or not approved depending on the reference group. Self Esteem is a realistic awareness of the goodness of one's actual state of being and the goodness of his situation (his good feelings about himself; or,the value he places upon himself). Perceived Peer Self is an individual's most accurate esti- mate of how he thinks his classmates or peers see him.2 Assumptions 1. Self esteem is a dimension of the self concept. 2. Individuals are aware of themselves and their feelings, and are capable of relating what they think of them- selves. 3. What a person wears is an indication of how he thinks clothing should be used. Hypotheses 1. Self esteem will be positively related to aesthetic concern for clothing. 2. No relationship will exist between self esteem and the following aspects of clothing: a. comfort b. management c. modesty d. social approval 3. Self esteem will be negatively related to the follow- ing aspects of clothing: a. interest b. special attention 4. Self esteem and body concern will be related to each other and to the same clothing aspects. 1Short, p. 35. 2Silver, p. 37. CHAPTER IV PROCEDURE The objectives of this study were to test for re- lationships existing between an individual's attitudes toward his clothing and the way he feels about himself. This study was one part of a larger project concerning self concept,l social class, status inconsistency, school status,2 peer acceptance,3 and concern for the body.4 The procedure of the investigation which will be discussed in this chapter followed this order: (1) development and se— lection of measuring instruments, (2) selection of research locale, (3) selection of subjects, (4) administration of lCarolyn Andree Humphrey, "The Relationship of Stability of Self Concept to Clothing of Adolescents" (un- published Master's thesis, Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts, Michigan State University, 1967). 2Winifred Sue Hundley, "The Relationship of Cloth- ing Behaviors of High School Students to Socio-economic Status and Status Inconsistency" (unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts, Michigan State University, 1967). 3Mary Jane Young, "The Relationship of Social Ac- ceptance to Clothing and to Personal Appearance of Adoles- cents" (unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts, Michigan State University, 1967). 4Effie Hewitt Hacklander, "The Relationship of Body Concern to the Clothing of Adolescents" (Master's thesis in progress, Department of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts, Michigan State University). 32 33 the measures, and (5) statistical treatment of the data. Development and Selection of Measuringylnstruments The questionnaire was chosen because it is an ap- propriate means for quickly and efficiently collecting the data from a large number of people. Questionnaires are often used with adolescents and are easily facilitated in a school situation. The measuring instruments used for this part of the project were: (1) Self Rating Inventory, (2) Importance of Clothing, (3) Social Background, and (4) Body Characteristics. The titles of the questionnaires were altered in order to camouflage the real purpose and meaning of the measures. Self Rating Inventory Self esteem was measured by a modification of Brownfain's Self Rating Inventory (Appendix, p. 101) which was originally developed by E. Lowell Kelly using as a basis Cattell's factors of personality.1 Modifica- tions of Brownfain's measure were made and tested by McGehee2 and Katz.3 The original measure consisted of twenty-five traits which were rated on an eight-point lBrownfain, p. 598. 2McGehee, p. 35. 3Katz, p. 20. 34 scale. McGehee and Katz omitted seven traits which they felt could be offensive. Two new traits were included, persistence and self-control, and the rating scale was changed from eight levels to ten.1 In the modified Brownfain Inventory, the subject rated himself on twenty traits which were thought to be descriptive of the self. In evaluating himself, the sub— ject was instructed to compare himself with other students in his high school class. Each rating sheet contained the same twenty traits but the instructions for each sheet were altered to elicit various aspects of the subjects' self concept. The self ratings and their definitions are: (1) "Positive Self": a rating of himself slanted positively. Here the subject gives himself the benefit of every reasonable doubt while still conceiving of this self picture as be- lievable. This is the self as he hopes he is. (2) "Negative Self": a rating of himself slanted negatively. This time the subject denies him- self the benefit of every reasonable doubt while still conceiving of this as a believable self picture. This is the self as he fears he is. (3) "Peer Self": the subject's most accurate es- timate as he believes his classmates see him. In order to properly camouflage the negative self 1Ibid. 2Albert Wolf Silver, "The Self Concept: Its Rela- tionship to Parental and Peer Acceptance" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, 1957), pp. 36-37. 35 rating, the "positive self” and “negative self“ were given to the subjects for completion the first time the Inventory was administered; and, at the second time one week later, the "positive self," "negative self," and "peer self" were completed. Since the negative rating sheet was completed twice, scores from the two administrations were summed and averaged for a more accurate estimate of self esteem. Importance of Clothing The clothing questionnaire (Appendix, p. 108) was developed by five researchersl under the direction of Anna M. Creekmore using ideas and modifications of statements from many sources including Creekmore,2 Sharpe,3 and Brady.4 To begin, the group tried to think of all the rea- sons why clothing is important to individuals. After de- veloping numerous statements and adapting statements from other sources, similar ideas were grouped into categories. In order to avoid the chance of socially desirable answers, the statements were altered, if necessary, into "I do" statements instead of "I feel" statements because the 1Carolyn Andree Humphrey, Karen Engel, Winifred Sue Hundley, Mary Green Klaasen, Mary Jane Young. 2Creekmore. 3Elizabeth Susan Sharpe, "Development of a Cloth- ing Interest and Importance Scale" (unpublished Master's thesis, Ohio State University, 1963). 4Brady. 36 subjects might be more truthful if asked to answer concern- ing something that they actually did and not just what they felt or had an opinion about. After much debate, informal testing, and discussion about each category and its spe- cific meaning, the questionnaire was assembled for pre- testing. The measure was pre-tested three times and re- vised after each. The original questionnaire contained 170 statements and the subjects registered their agreement with each item on a scale of one through five, assumed to have equal in- tervals on the scale. The written instructions at the be— ginning of the questionnaire requested the subjects to use their school situation as a reference group in rating the statements. The first pre-test was administered to twenty-eight undergraduate women students in the College of Home Eco— nomics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, during the summer of 1966. Each statement was tested for its ability to discriminate high and low groups of subjects by the Likert Item Analysis,1 and 123 statements were se- lected on the basis of these scores. The second questionnaire was administered to two pre-test samples during the summer of 1966. One sample lClaire Selltiz et al., Research Methods in Social Relations (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), pp. 366-700 37 consisted of twenty-one high school students (seventeen girls and four boys) who were participating in a Junior Human Relations Council program at the YMCA, Lansing, Mich- igan. In addition, the questionnaire was given to twenty- nine graduate and thirty-nine undergraduate education majors at Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsyl- vania. Again, item analyses were made of the high and low scorers on the measure, and a selection of statements was made on the basis of the discrimination score. The categories were ranked according to the inten- sity of each statement within the category and an effort was made to distribute the intensity of the statements evenly within each category. In a few instances, the state— ments were checked for structure and wording to see if they could be clearly understood by high school students. Some words were changed to be more suitable for the ado- lescent. At this time, the group felt that the effect of clothing upon an individual's moods and feelings had not been covered in the questionnaire, and the category Psy- chological Dependence was added. This category, however, was not pre-tested, and, although given, is not discussed in the results of this thesis. The final questionnaire consisted of a total of eighty-nine statements containing eleven items in each category. The first statement was introductory and was not computed in the analyses of the 38 clothing score. See page 30 for definitions of the cloth— ing categories. Social Background Background information (Appendix, p. 116) obtained from the subjects included age, sex, grade, the major wage earner in the family, his occupation, his education, his income, whether any other support for the family existed, and if so, how much.1 The socio-economic status of the subjects was determined by Hollingshead's Two Factor Index of Social Position.2 The two factors used to determine social position were the precise occupational role of the head of the household and the amount of education obtained by this person. The occupational index consisted of different nu- merical values and was based on a seven-point scale with "1" indicating a high position and "7" indicating a low occupational position. The educational index was also divided into a seven-point scale with "1" representing more formal education and “7" representing least formal education. The two factors of education and occupation were lSee Hundley for detailed information concerning the background of the subjects. 2August B. Hollingshead and Frederick C. Redlich, Social Class and Mental Illness: A Community Study (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958). inte weiu rel by we: the m 118 (1) o; F? bodx Jon; 0f ; the Pfaj 343- 39 integrated by weighting the scores on each factor. The weights were determined by Hollingshead using multiple cor- relation technique. The occupational score was weighted by seven and the educational score by four. These scores were added together to obtain a composite score which was the Index of Social Position. A low numerical score indi- cated a high social class position; however, the scoring was reversed for the statistical analysis in this larger project. Body7Characteristics The Body Characteristic instrument (Appendix, p. 118) measured concern for the body which is the amount of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with certain parts of the body. Items from the scale were taken from Secord and Jourard's Body Cathexis Scale1 which originally consisted of forty-two items including both parts and processes of the body. The items were inspected to determine which would most probably be related to adolescents' concern for clothing. All items listing processes of the body were dropped. Jourard and Secord revised their original measure 1Paul F. Secord and Sidney M. Jourard, "The Ap- praisal of Body-Cathexis: Body-Cathexis and the Self," Journal of Consulting Psychology, XVII, No. 5 (1953), pp. 343-47. 40 so as to make it more applicable to women.1 In addition, they revised their rating scale from a range of five to seven. The modified scale of Jourard and Secord was the basis for the scale used in this study. During the spring of 1966, fifteen women graduate students in the College of Home Economics at Michigan State University rated themselves on twenty-two items on a scale from "1," highly satisfied, to “7,” highly dissatisfied, with a neutral point of "4." Each was instructed to rate herself as she remembered feeling in high school. Space was provided for writing in additional items if the sub- ject felt that a part of the body was not adequately cov- ered in the list. Following the pre-test, revisions included minor changes of words in accordance with suggestions made by the subjects. In addition, some items were revised so that they applied to boys as well as girls. Moreover, the items were rearranged so that the parts of the body on the list coincided with the anatomical areas of the body. The measure was given to the pre-test sample of twenty-one high school boys and girls at the YMCA Since no additional items or suggestions were ob- tained from the pre-tested subjects, the final rating list lSidney M. Jourard and Paul F. Secord, "Body- Cathexis and the Ideal Female Figure,” Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, L (1955), pp. 243-46. 41 consisted of twenty-three items which were rated by the subjects according to the following scale: (1) Think that others would like to be just like me (2) Consider myself rather fortunate (3) Am satisfied (4) Have no particular feelings one way or the other (5) Don't like, but can put up with (6) Have strong feelings about, and would change if I could (or am changing) (7) Find it unbearable, and would do almoSt any- thing to change In order to reflect the more extreme concern for the body at the ends of the scale, the number of times each number was chosen was noted and weighted as follows: the number of "7's" and “1's" were multiplied by three, the number of "6's" and "2's" by two, the number of "5's" and "3's" by one, and the number of "4's" by zero. After weight- ing, the scores were added together to obtain the intensity of the body concern. Selection of Research Locale A midwestern city with a population of approximately 15,000 was chosen for the research locale.l Criteria for lU.S. Bureau of Census, U.S. Summapy, General Pop- ulation Characteristics: 1960. U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Bureau of Census, Michigan General Popglation Characteristics: 196g, U.S. Department of Commerce. 42 selection of a community were: (1) range of family socio- economic positions, (2) school with both urban and rural students, and (3) a county with only one high school to lessen the chance of biasing social class representation. The high school selected contained approximately 1850 stu— dents from grades nine to twelve. Selection of Sample Adolescents were chosen for the sample because this age level would probably show evidence of attention given to their clothing. The sample consisted of 521 students taken from the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, 270 girls and 251 boys. Because of an overcrowded school, a random selection of subjects was not possible. Instead, the students in six study hall classes were utilized as subjects. However, some of the brighter students may not be in the sample because many carried a full subject load and did not have sufficient time for a study period. Administration of the Measures The data were collected during the fall of 1966 on two consecutive Mondays. This arrangement was neces- sary because the Self Rating Inventory had to be given twice lU.S. Bureau of Census, U.S. Summary, General So- cial and Economic Characteristics: 1960. U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. Bureau of Census, Michi an General Social and Economic Characteristics: 1965. U.S. Department of Commerce. 43 with at least a three-day interval in between; also, the study hall classes were only fifty minutes in length which did not allow time enough to administer all of the question- naires for the project. The "positive" and "negative" self rating sheets and the clothing questionnaire were given during the first administration, and the "positive," "neg- ative," and "peer" self rating sheets, social class, and body characteristics were completed by the subjects the second time. In order to match the two questionnaires for each subject, a cover sheet was devised which included initials, sex, and birthdate. Data from the two administrations were matched according to this information. Statistical Treatment of Data The girls were separated from the boys for all sta- tistical treatment of the data. Frequency distributions were made of the background information in order to describe the sample. This information included the distribution of the subjects by their age, distribution of social class by year in school, and the distribution of subjects on the honor roll. Means and standard deviations were computed for the clothing aspects, self esteem, body concern, and perceived peer self. To determine whether any significant relationships existed between the major variables, simple correlations were computed between the aspects of clothing, self esteem, 44 body concern, and perceived peer self. Partial correla- tions were used holding constant the effects of social class and grade. The partial correlations were compared with the simple correlations relating clothing and self esteem to see if the social class and grade of the subjects actu- ally affected the relationships. CHAPTER V RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The discussion of the results includes descriptive information from the biographical data of the subjects as well as descriptions of and relationships between the fol- lowing: clothing, self esteem, body concern, and perceived peer self. Biogpaphical Data The questionnaire was administered to 521 students, 270 females and 251 males from the tenth, eleventh, or twelfth grades of a midwestern high school. Since boys and girls seem to hold different attitudes toward cloth- ing, the data are presented separately for each sex. The subjects were asked to answer questions con— cerning their age, grade, main wage earners' occupation and level of education during the second data collection session. A substantial number of questionnaires did not have complete biographical data because several of these students were absent during the second administration. In some cases, the students did not indicate grade level; however, the questionnaires were included for analysis since other parts were completed adequately. The data from the biographical questionnaires are 45 46 described below. Age The distribution of the students according to their age is shown in Table 1. Even though the age range extended from thirteen to nineteen years, 84 per cent of the males and 90 per cent of the females were concentrated in the fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen year age groups. The num- ber of students in the extreme groups was not large enough to permit a reliable analysis of the older and younger ado- lescents; therefore, the students were not separated accord- ing to these categories. same The percentage of boys and girls in each year in school is shown in Table 2. The largest percentage (37.8) of the students in the sample, both males and females, was in the tenth grade. This distribution may have occurred because sophomores frequently have a study hall, whereas seniors usually fill their free periods with school activ- ities. Social Class The subjects were placed according to Hollingshead's method in one of five categories of social class based on statements describing the occupation and level of education 47 Table 1. Distribution of students by age Age in Years No. % Total Number 13 Boys 4 1.6 5 Girls 1 .4 14 Boys 18 7.2 40 Girls 22 8.2 15 Boys 76 30.3 Girls 106 39.3 182 16 Boys 71 28.3 Girls 72 26.7 143 17 Boys 64 25.5 Girls 64 23.7 128 18 Boys 11 4.4 15 Girls 4 1.5 19 Boys 2 .8 2 Girls 0 0 Unknown Boys 5 2.0 6 Girls 1 .4 Total Boys 251 Girls 270 " 521 48 Table 2. Percentage of students by grade Total % % % % No. 10th 11th 12th Unknown Boys 251 36.3 23.9 22.3 17.5 Girls 270 39.2 24.8 22.2 13.7 Total 521 37.8 22.3 22.3 15.5 Table 3. Percentage of students by social class Social % % % Class Boys Girls Total I 3.2 2.6 2.9 II 4.0 2.2 3.1 III 12.8 14.4 13.6 IV 40.6 50.4 45.7 V 17.5 16.3 15.0 Unknown 21.9 17.9 49 of the main wage earner in the family.1 Table 3 shows the distribution of males and females in each social class cate- gory. The father was the main financial contributor to the family income in approximately 84 per cent of the sam- ple, whereas the mother was the main contributor in less than 3 per cent. The main wage earner was unknown in 13 per cent of the families. Sixty per cent of the students were in the fourth and fifth social class categories. The occupations of the main wage earners in these two groups consisted of clerical, sales workers and technicians, skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled workers, and also owners of small businesses. For the main wage earners of the entire sample, nearly 5 per cent had a college education or higher, and 25 per cent had completed a high school education. Those completing grade school only constituted approximately 27 per cent of the main wage earners. Social Class and Its Relationship to Grade The subjects in the five social class categories were divided by high school grade and the distribution of students can be seen in Table 4. As mentioned earlier, both Social Class IV and the lSee Hundley for more extensive description of the social class categories of the subjects. 50 Table 4. Distribution by grade of students in each social class 10th 11th 12th Grade Total in each Grade Grade Grade Unknown social class Social Class No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % I (highest) Boys 4 4.4 2 3.3 2 3.6 0 0 8 3.2 Girls 5 4.7 l 1.5 l 1.7 0 0 7 2.6 II Boys 3 3.3 4 6.7 3 5.4 0 0 10 4.0 Girls 3 2.8 2 3.0 1 1.7 0 0 6 2.2 III Boys 12 13.2 12 20.0 6 10.7 2 4.7 32 12.7 Girls 16 15.1 10 14.9 10 16.7 3 8.1 39 14. IV Boys 47 51.7 24 40.0 27 48.2 4 9.3 102 40.6 Girls 60 56.6 35 52.2 39 65.0 2 5.6 136 50.4 V Boys 14 15.4 14 23.3 14 25.0 2 4.7 44 17.5 Girls 19 17.9 15 23.4 8 13.3 2 5.6 44 16.3 Social Class Unknown Boys 11 12.1 4 6.7 4 7.1 36 81.8 55 21.9 Girls 3 2.8' 4 6.0 l 1.7 30 83.3 38 14.1 Total in each grade Boys 91 60 56 44 251 Girls 106 67 60 37 270 51 tenth grade had the largest number of subjects. For both boys and girls, the tenth grade distribution pattern ap- pears relatively normal, but the frequency of subjects in Social Class I decreases for the eleventh and twelfth grades. Transfer Students Since the effectiveness of the Self Rating Inven- tory and the Importance of Clothing questionnaire depended upon the subjects' knowledge of his fellow students and the school, students who had recently transferred to the school might not be acquainted with the school and the other students enough to use them as a point of reference when replying to the questionnaires. In addition, their atti- tudes toward their clothing and appearance might be differ- ent from the other subjects. However, less than 3 per cent of the male sample and less than 5 per cent of the female sample indicated that they were transfers; thus, all were included since the number did not seem to be great enough to make any significant difference in the relationships. Honor Roll The number of subjects in the sample who were on at least one of two consecutive honor rolls is listed by grades in Table 5. The table shows that 16 per cent of the males and 26 per cent of the females in the sample were on the honor roll. As expected, more girls were on the honor roll than boys. These results give sufficient 52 evidence that this sample did contain some of the brighter, more academically proficient students. Table 5. Distribution by grade of students on the honor roll 10th 11th 12th Grade Grade Grade Grade Unknown Total No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % On the honor roll Boys 18 19.8 5 8.3 12 21.4 6 14.0 41 16.3 Girls 30 28.3 14 20.9 18 30.0 9 25.0 71 26.3 Not on the honor roll Boys 71 78.0 55 91.7 43 76.8 38 86.4 207 82.5 Girls 71 67.0 53 79.1 40 66.7 26 70.3 190 70.4 Honor roll status unknown Total Boys 91 60 56 44 251 Girls 106 67 60 37 270 Clothing_ Distribution of the Clothing Scores Means and standard deviations were computed for each of the eight aspects of clothing. The importance of each can be seen in relation to all others for the sample tested in Table 6. For both boys and girls, concern for the aesthetic aspects of clothing ranked first with the 53 Table 6. Distribution of the scores on the eight clothing aspects Actual Standard Clothing Range Mean Rank Deviation Aesthetic Boys 19-50 36.1 (1) 5.9 Girls 29-53 42.2 (1) 4.2 Comfort Boys 15-47 31.8 (3) 5.6 Girls 21-51 35.6 (6) 5.1 Interest Boys 11-49 25.0 (8) 7.5 Girls 19-54 38.9 (2) 6.6 Management Boys 17-48 32.4 (2) 5.8 Girls 21-52 38.6 (3) 5.5 Modesty Boys 15-45 28.8 (6) 6.0 Girls 19-53 37.5 (4) 6.6 Psychological Dependence Girls 15-52 36.4 (5) 6.1 Social Approval Girls 17—47 33.8 (7) 5.8 Special Attention Boys 13-46 26.9 (7) 6.9 Girls 14-48 31.0 (8) 6.2 54 highest means (36.1 and 42.2).which agrees with the find- ings of others including Creekmore,l Brady,2 Lapitsky,3 and Barr.4 As expected from the findings of VenerS and Ryan,6 the means on all of the clothing aspects for the girls were higher than the means for the boys. According- ly, girls can be said to be more interested in clothes than are boys. The importance assigned to each clothing aspect varied between the boys and girls, a discrepancy which could be the result of a measure more applicable to girls than boys. However, the boys in the sample could actually possess a different value system for clothes. In most cases, findings from related research supported the relationships of clothing aspects for females, but due to the lack of research on the aspects of clothing important to boys, the ranking could not always be compared with other research. Interest in clothing, defined as the experimenta- tion with clothing and accessories and the desire to know what is new on the market, ranked second for the girls and 1Creekmore, p. 65. 2Brady, p. 37. Lapitsky, p. 72. Barr, p. 77. Vener, p. 77. OWU'IIfibJ Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothing: Part. II C O O, p. 26. 55 last for the boys in this study. This finding appears log— ical since the statements dealt largely with shopping ac- tivities which are usually considered more descriptive of girls' behavior. Both Creekmorel and Brady,2 employing college women students for their subjects, found that in- terest was not ranked as high but this discrepancy could be attributed to the age differences among the samples. Management of clothing, or the thoughtful and care- ful use of resources, ranked third for the females and sec- ond for the males. This agrees with the findings of Creek- more,3 Brady,4 and Lapitsky5 relative to college women. The mean for modesty in the use of clothing ranked fourth for the girls in the present research which is con- trary to the findings of Creekmore,6 whose college women subjects ranked modesty in seventh place, and Brady,7 whose subjects ranked it second. The boys in this sample did not place as much importance on the clothing aspect of modesty, defined as the inconspicuous use of clothing lCreekmore, p. 65. 2Brady, p. 38. 3Creekmore, p. 65. 4Brady, p. 38. 5Lapitsky, p. 72. 6Creekmore, p. 65. 7 Brady, p. 37. '56 which is conservative in design, color, fit, and body ex- posure, as the girls did. Comfort, defined as the use of clothing to achieve comfort whether related to temperature, physical response to certain textures, or the acceptance of tightness or looseness in garments, ranked fifth for the girls. Brady's subjects also ranked physical comfort fifth.l This rank- ing, however, is lower than anticipated when compared with Lapitsky's2 findings, which reported that comfort, defined as part of an economic value, ranked second in importance for her subjects. Creekmore,3 however, found that tactual aspects, including comfort, ranked in approximately the same position for her fairly homogenous population of col- lege girls. Comfort ranked third in importance for the males in this sample. Dressing to obtain,social approval, of which con- formity is a part, ranked sixth for the girls and fourth for the boys, indicating that approval of the peer group concerning dress was not as important for this sample as comfort, management, or the aesthetic aspects of clothing. Hendricks, who studied the group membership of twelfth grade girls, reported that the results of her study offered 1Ibid., p. 38. 2Lapitsky, p. 72. 3Creekmore, p. 65. 57 contradiction to the popular conception of adolescent con— formity.l Brady,2 Creekmore,3 and Lapitsky4 all reported that conformity was not as important to their college pop- ulations as other aspects of clothing. However, Wass,5 Barr,6 and Coleman7 reported that conformity was evident in teen-age dress. In observing the students during the administration of the measures, generally their clothing appeared to be neat, conservative, and similar. Perhaps this similarity, which may not necessarily be striving for peer approval could be attributed to the strength of the school dress codes or to the generally accepted standards for dress in the community. The relatively low importance placed on the use of clothing to gain special attention for the girls agreed 8 with Barr who found that dressing for prestige was not a motivating factor in the choice of clothing for her lSuzanne H. Hendricks, "Opinions on Clothing and Appearance as Related to Group and Non-Group Membership of Twelfth Grade Girls" (unpublished Master's thesis, De- partment of Textiles, Clothing and Related Arts, Michigan State University, 1965), p. 122. 2Brady, p. 38. 3Creekmore, p. 65. Lapitsky, p. 72. Wass, p. 50. Barr, p. 77. mQOWU'Ib Barr, p. 98. 58 subjects. Special attention, the seeking of prestige or status through the use of clothing, was partially measured by statements concerning the seeking of fashionable clothes and the latest apparel and accessories on the market. Creekmore reported that, for her population, interest in fashions ranked lower than status symbol use, defined as "the belief and use of clothing to enhance the person and to give prestige value in securing attention, appreciation, and recognition in positions of status or leadership."1 Thus, the ranking of the means for the eight as- pects of clothing showed that the aesthetic concern for clothing ranked highest for both sexes in the sample. The ranking of the other mean scores on the clothing question- naire can be found in Table 6. Relationships Between the Aspects of Clothing When simple correlations were computed between each clothing aspect and every other aspect, the results showed that for the boys, all aspects were found to be signifi- cantly related to each other aspect in the positive direc- tion (see Table 7). The significant correlation coeffici- ents indicate that if boys placed any importance upon clothes, in general, all the aspects of clothing measured were similarly important to him. The correlation coeffici- ent of + .41, which is significant beyond the .01 level of lCreekmore, pp. 10, 65. 59 Table 7. Simple correlations between clothing aspects H m U u wid u C (no -a 4) m 0;: H u +2 m E >1 ram m m u m a) u 013 -I> S o u 0‘ m .5 s m<3 u w. o m w ()6 win U! E JJ a '0 >40. U Q. m o c o U10 0cm < U +4 2 2: mt: U14 Comfort. Boys .31“’ Girls .36"' Interest Boys .39"' .18' Girls .38“' .24“ Management Boys .49"’ .43“' .43"’ Girls .48"‘ .29"' .29"’ Modesty Boys .31“' .34"‘ .28"‘ .34“ Girls .36"' .38“‘ .28"' .20“ Psychological Dependence Boys .23" .22" .49"’ .27“‘ .23“ Girls .28”' .24" .25"‘ .15' .23“ Social Approval Boys .30“‘ .22“ .36"’ .30“‘ .30“' .49"' Girls .02 .18‘ .15‘ .05 .27“’ .31"‘ Special Attention Girls .27“‘ .05 .44‘“ .20.1. .18‘ .33“‘ .14 'Significant at "Significant at .05 level of confidence. .01 level of confidence. "'Highly significant. 60 confidence, between the use of clothing to gain special attention and the use of clothing for social approval is peculiar; however, the personal motivation which causes the striving for social approval might also cause the seek- ing of special attention for the boys in this sample since their clothing was apparently very similar. Conforming closely to the norm might be a way of getting attention for males in a relatively conservative town. For the females in the sample, to whom the measure was undoubtedly more applicable, significant relationships did not exist between as many aspects of clothing as for the boys. The data seemed to indicate that the girls who used clothing to gain special attention did not use cloth- ing to gain social approval; neither were they as concerned with comfort. Moreover, girls who wished to dress like others were not concerned about aesthetics in clothing or for caring for clothes (management). Clothingand Its Relationship to Grade and Social Class Simple correlations relating the aspects of cloth— ing to social class and grade are shown in Table 8. Self Esteem Distribution of Self Esteem Scores Means and standard deviations were computed from the self esteem scores of both boys and girls. Each sub- ject's self esteem score was measured by taking the average 61 Table 8. Simple correlations relating the clothing aspects to grade and social class Clothing Grade Social Class Aesthetic Boys .07 .01 Girls .09 .01 Comfort Boys .04 -.07 Interest BOYS "0.15. -003 Girls .10 .01 Management Boys -.00 -.01 Modesty Girls .04 .07 Psychological Dependence Boys -.07 .06 Girls -.06 .04 Social Approval Boys -.05 -.00 Special Attention Girls .03 .06 ‘Significant at .05 level of confidence. 62 of two negative self ratings (Brownfain's Self Rating In- ventory).l The distribution of the self esteem scores is as follows: Actual Standard Range Mean Deviation Boys 30-186 129.1 30.2 Girls 53-184 133.7 24.8 The range possible on this measure was from 20 to 200 points. The findings show that the actual range was wider for the males than for the females, which indicates that the males in this study scored both higher and lower on the measure of self esteem. In addition, the mean for the males was lower than for the females, indicating that the males gen- erally did not regard themselves as highly as the females did in this study. Relationship of Self Esteem to Grade and Social Class No relationship existed between self esteem_and grade, or social class for either boys or girls as shown by the lack of significant correlation coefficients given below: Grade Social Class Self Esteem Boys -.03 .14 Girls .12. -.01. lMcGehee. 63 Relationships Between Self Esteem and the Clothipg Aspects When the findings from the simple correlations be- tween clothing and self esteem were analyzed, two signif- icant relationships were found to exist for the boys and four for the girls (see Table 9 below). Table 9. Simple correlations between self esteem and the clothing aspects Self Esteem Clothing Boys Girls Aesthetic .21“ .24" Comfort .01 .04 Interest .12 .19” Management .05 .23“ Modesty .05 .10 Psychological Dependence .05 .05 Social Approval .05 .06 Special Attention .16? .19" ‘Significant at .05 level of confidence. “Significant at .01 level of confidence. As predicted, self esteem and aesthetic concern for cloth- ing were positively related to each other at the .01 level of confidence for both boys and girls. This finding is 64 in agreement, in effect, with the results of Lapitskyl who reported that the college women students and teachers who were socially secure in her sample valued aesthetics in clothing, defined as the desire for or concern with beauty. Since being concerned with one's appearance seems to be desirable in our culture, the social aspect of grooming may be valued highly or merely taken for granted. More- over, an individual who possesses confidence and security would probably have a high level of self esteem and would wish to maintain a pleasing appearance. The use of clothing to gain special attention when related to self esteem was found to be significant at the .05 level of confidence for boys and .01 level for girls. This result was contrary to expectations since a person with low self esteem was predicted to use clothing to ob- tain prestige and status to bolster his self esteem and appear outwardly to regard himself highly. These findings were also in disagreement with the ideas of Creekmore2 and Maslow3 who stated thata person who is striving for self esteem could also be recognized as striving for prestige, status, recognition, and appreciation. However, Lapitsky found that for her sample there was no significant difference lLapitsky, p. 69. 2Creekmore, p. 125. 3Maslow, p. 90. 65 between socially secure and insecure individuals in their emphasis on the use of clothing for prestige.l Interest in clothing and self esteem were signif- icantly related at the .01 level of confidence for the fe- males and, although not significant for the males, the co- efficient was positive and approaching significance. The results of Brady's2 study show that the insecure subjects, determined by the Social Inventory developed by Lapitsky, scored significantly higher on the experimental clothing behavior which is contrary to the findings of this study. Creekmore also found the opposite relationship to exist for her population. The experimental behavior on her measure, which included interest in clothing, was con- cluded to be a means of coping with the situation to gain self esteem.3 Therefore, the finding of this study was unexpected and in disagreement with previous research. The comfort and modesty aspects of clothing and self esteem were not related for either boys or girls as shown in Table 9. The level of an individual's self es- teem was not expected to be reflected by modest or immod- est clothes, comfortable or uncomfortable clothing. The relationship of the management aspect of lLapitsky, p. 60. 2Brady, p. 52. 3Creekmore, p. 171. 66 clothing and self esteem showed some rather interesting results. For the girls, the correlation coefficient was + .23 which was significant at the .01 level of confidence while the correlation coefficient for the boys was + .05, not significant. Management was predicted to be unrelated to self esteem and was found to be true only for the boys in the sample. The positive relationship for the girls disagreed with Creekmore's findings, which reported that the subjects in her population who possessed low self esteem, or were striving for satisfaction of the self esteem need, were high in the management behavior of clothing.1 No significant relationship existed between Lapitsky's study of secure and insecure groups and the economic value which placed importance on the conservation of time, energy, and money in relation to clothing usage or selection as well as comfort of the clothing.2 As hypothesized, the use of clothing to gain social approval or to dress like others was not related to self esteem. Since related research indicated that conformity (usually shown by desire for approval of a peer group) to an individual's peer group is important to adolescents, the respondents in this study must have obtained acceptance or belongingness to a group by some means other than clothing. llbid., p. 89. 2Lapitsky, pp. 4, 69. 67 Partial correlations were computed to see if the relationships between the aspects of clothing and self es- teem were influenced by other variables. Grade and social class were tested for a possible effect upon the clothing— self esteem association. Table 10 shows the coefficients resulting from the partial correlations between the aspects of clothing and self esteem holding constant the effects of grade and social class. When the partial correlations were compared with the simple correlations between self esteem and the aspects of clothing (see Table 9), the sig- nificant results were identical which indicated that for this sample, grade and social class did not have any ef- fect upon the relationships between the clothing aspects measured and self esteem. For this non-random sample, the aesthetic concern for clothing and clothing used to obtain special attention were significantly related to self esteem for both boys and girls. In addition, interest in clothing and the man- agement use of clothing were significantly related to self esteem for the girls, but not for the boys. All other as- pects of clothing studied were unrelated to self esteem for either sex. Concern for the Body Distribution of Body Concern Scores Intensity of feelings toward the body was measured by the Body Characteristics measure consisting of twenty- 68 Table 10. Partial correlations between the clothing aspects and self esteem holding constant the effects of grade and social class Self Esteem Clothing Grade Social Class Aesthetic Boys .21" .21" Girls .23“ .24" Comfort Boys .01 .02 Girls .03 .04 Interest Boys .11 .12 Girls .18“ .19'* Management Boys .05 .05 Girls .23H .23" Modesty Boys .05 .07 Girls .10 .10 Psychological Dependence Boys .04 .04 Girls .06 .05 Social Approval Boys .05 .05 Girls -.06 -.06 Special Attention Boys .16‘ .16’ Girls .18" .19“ 'Significant at .05 level of confidence. “Significant at .01 level of confidence. 69 three items describing parts of the body (Appendix, p. 118). The subjects rated these items on a seven-point scale rang- ing from "1“ or highly satisfied to “7," highly dissatis- fied. In order to arrive at a score reflecting the inten- sity of feelings toward the body, each scale position was given a relative weight according to the distance from neutral or "4" regardless of direction of the responses.1 The relative weights for all twenty-three items were then added together to produce the body concern score. The pos- sible range of the scores was from 0 to 69. Means and standard deviations were computed for intensity of feel- ings toward the body and are shown below: Actual Range Mean Standard Deviation Boys 2-58 25.1 8.5 Relationships Between Body Concern, Self Esteemy and the Clothing_A§pects Simple correlations were computed between self es- teem and intensity of feelings toward the body (see Table 11). The coefficients were + .02 for the males and + .13 for the females. Neither coefficient was significant in- dicating that no relationship existed. However, for the females, the relationship was in the positive direction and approaching significance. 1Supra, p. 39. 7O Jourard, in a study of adults, found body cathexis and self cathexis to be related to each other and concluded that self cathexis was synonymous with self esteem.1 The difference between the results in this study and Jourard's findings could be attributed to the measures of self esteem and self cathexis and the treatment of the scores. Jourard and Remy developed a body cathexis scale, and a self cathex- is scale, each consisting of forty items describing the body and self. The subjects rated these items along a five-point scale similar to the seven-point scale used in this study.2 The only information available concerning the scores derived from Jourard and Remy's measures indi- cated that the scores on the forty items were summed sep- arately for a body cathexis score and a self cathexis score. In the present study, intensity of feelings toward the body was determined by weighting the opposite ends of the sat- isfactory-unsatisfactory continuum the same and then sum- ming the items. In this way the extreme ends of satisfac- tion and dissatisfaction would contribute more to the total intensity score. During adolescence, boys and girls are acutely aware of their bodies, and even parts of it, especially lJourard, Personal Satisfaction . . ., p. 127. 2Sidney M. Jourard and Richard M. Remy, "Perceived Parental Attitudes, the Self, and Security," Journal of ConsultingPsychology, XIX, No. 5 (1955), pp. 364-66. 71 since the society places such a high premium on physical attractiveness and appearance.1 Thus, it seems reasonable that attitudes toward one's clothing might be closely re- lated to the feelings toward one's body. When the aspects of clothing and body intensity were investigated, the results showed that concern for the body was related significantly to the same aspects of cloth- ing as self esteem; however, not for the same sex. Four significant relationships existed for the boys and none for the girls. The following diagram shows the relation- ships between body concern and clothing and self esteem and clothing. Clothing Self Esteem Aesthetic Body Concern Boys Comfort Boys Girl Interest Girls Management Modesty Psychological Dependence Social Approval Special Attention lMuzafer Sherif and Hadley Cantril, The Psychology of Ego Involvements: Social Attitude and Identifigations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1947), p. 225. 72 The results of the correlations between body concern and the eight aspects of clothing are shown in Table 11. Table 11. Simple correlations relating aspects of clothing to concern for the body if“ Intensity of Concern for the Body (Body Intensity) Boys Girls Aesthetic .19“ .07 Comfort .11 .08 Interest .26“ .13 Management .16‘ .08 Modesty -.04 -.01 Psychological Dependence .13 .10 Social Approval .10 .06 Special Attention .21“ .05 ‘Significant at the .05 level of confidence. “Significant at the .01 level of confidence. Perhaps the discrepancy shown between the sexes is due to the earlier development for females which causes the intensity of feelings toward their bodies to subside somewhat faster than the males. Or, for this sample, maybe the boys were more conscious of their physical development. Also, girls may be better able to camouflage their physical defects with clothing and thus repress intense feelings 73 about their bodies. These results should, however, be interpreted in view of the limitations of the measure for body concern. Perceived Peer Self The perceived peer self was measured by the peer rating (Appendix, p. 101) of the modified Brownfain Self Rating Inventory1 and was included in this study because of the repetitive evidence in the literature that both an adolescent's clothing and his self esteem are generally influenced by his peers. Coleman reported that acceptance into the peer culture was so important to the adolescent that if he were not accepted, he would examine himself to determine what was wrong.2 In studying clothing influen- tials, Vener found that his subjects highly regarded the advice and opinion of their peers in decisions concerning the selection of clothes.3 Hence, what an individual be- lieves his peers think of him could be a part of or related to his self esteem, the value he places upon himself. In calculating and discussing the perceived peer self, de- fined as an individual's most accurate estimate of_how he thinks his classmates see him, no consideration has 1McGehee. 2Coleman, p. 221. 3Vener, pp. 77-78. 74 been given to whether the individual's estimate is actually correct in the eyes of his peers. Distribution of Perceived Peer Self Scores Means and standard deviations were computed for the perceived peer self and were as follows: Mean Standard Deviation Boys 140.1 27.9 Girls 147.8 24.1 The subject was asked to rate himself on the twenty descriptive traits on the Inventory on a scale from one to ten from the viewpoint of how he believed his classmates see him. The items were summed to derive a perceived peer self score. Relationships Between Perceived Peer Self, Self Esteemy and the Clothing Aspects Since clothing and self esteem appear to be influ- enced by the adolescent's peer group, according to theory, the relationships between clothing and the perceived peer self and between self esteem and the perceived peer self might be valuable in eventually explaining the effects clothing might have upon the way an individual feels toward 1 himself. Silver studied the relationship of the self con— cept to parental and peer acquaintance as measured by the lSilver. 75 modification of Brownfain's Self Rating Inventory.1 Within the classroom situation, the subjects rated each other on eight traits taken from the Inventory.2 Two additional factors were included: how well the rater knew the sub- ject and how well the rater liked the subject.3 The sub- ject also rated himself on the peer rating sheet and a dis- crepancy score was derived between the subject's estimate of himself and his peers' estimate of him. He found that, for his sample of fifty-six boys in the seventh through the twelfth grades, the subjects who had high self ratings were more accurate in predicting how their peers perceived them than those with low self ratings.4 In studying the psychological effects of clothing upon the individual, Ryan also compared the individual college girl's rating of her own appearance with a group's rating of her appearance and the subject's estimate of the rating by the groups. The results showed that common agreement existed between the three variables.5 In order to determine whether relationships existed 1...: Ibid., p. 79. Ibid., p. 37. Ibid., p. 42. Ibid., p. 79. 01wa Ryan, Psychological Effects of Clothing: Part IV . . ., pp. 8, ll. 76 between self esteem and perceived peer self, simple corre- lations were computed. The results were highly significant with the correlation coefficient for the boys at + .56 and + .68 for the girls. Therefore, for this sample, an indi- vidual high in self esteem also perceived that his peers regarded him highly. Silver believed that people with high self regard generally do see themselves as others see them because they are usually accepted socially and have less need to distort their own social stimulus value.1 The pos- sibility does exist that an individual may mis-perceive what his peers actually think of him; however, this aspect is unimportant as the concern in this study is with what individuals think of themselves, and not with whether what they think is accurate.2 Table 12 shows the correlations between perceived peer self and the eight aspects of clothing. The relation- ships between the perceived self and the aspects of cloth- ing were similar to the relationships between self esteem and clothing (see Table 9). However, interest in clothing and the management aspect were significantly related in the positive direction to perceived peer self for boys which was not true for the self esteem-clothing relation- ships. The modesty aspect of clothing was significantly lSilver, p. 88. 2Young. 77 Table 12. Simple correlations relating aspects of clothing and perceived peer self Perceived Peer Self J.— Clothing Aspects ,Boys Girls Aesthetic .31“‘ .33“‘ Comfort .03 .05 Interest .15‘ .28“‘ Management .16‘ .22“ Modesty .07 .15‘ Psychological Dependence .05 .09 Social Approval .10 -.10 Special Attention .18‘ .26“‘ ‘Significant at the .05 level of confidence. “Significant at the .01 level of confidence. “‘Highly significant. related to perceived peer self for the girls. This find— ing is rather interesting since it did not exist between self esteem and clothing. Thus, when feelings of modesty or immodesty were being judged in the light of what was socially desirable and when the self was perceived from the standpoint of what the peers think, a significant re- lationship existed. To clarify5a.female who believed that her peers thought highly of her was also concerned with modest uses of clothing defined as the use of inconspicuous 78 clothing which is conservative in design, color, fit, and body exposure. Although the correlation between the use of clothing for social approval and the perceived peer self did not reach significance, it was in the negative direc- tion which would indicate that the individuals using cloth- ing for group approval possessed lower estimates of what others thought of them. Hence, individuals with high levels of self esteem held high estimates of how they thought their peers perceived them. In general, they might be considered rather stable or secure in their outlook. For this non-random sample, the significant rela- tionships between the eight aspects of clothing and the perceived peer rating may be compared in the following diagram with the self esteem-clothing relationships. Clothing Self Esteem Aesthetic Perceived \r Self 1 Boys Boys Comfort Girls Interest Psychological Dependence Social Approval Special Attention Except for the significant relationship between modesty and perceived peer self for the girls, self esteem and 79 perceived peer self were related to the same clothing as- pects: aesthetic concern for clothing, interest in cloth- ing, management of clothing, and the use of clothing to gain special attention. The results, however, were not always existent for both sexes. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The major concern of this study was to investigate the relationship between certain aspects of clothing, self esteem, the intensity of feelings that individuals have toward their physical bodies, and the perceptions they hold of how others see them. The study is part of a larger proj- ect investigating the relationship between clothing and the self concept of adolescents. The adolescent population generally is very con- cerned with their appearance and possesses a strong inter- est in clothing. They are known to be influenced by their peers and classmates more than other groups; therefore, a high school population was chosen for the study. The sample, which could not be selected randomly because of the scheduling of classes at the school, consisted of 251 boys and 270 girls in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades of a centrally located high school in a midwestern city. The data were collected during the study hall periods on the same day of two consecutive weeks. A survey of literature yielded insight into the uses of and the effect that clothing may have upon human behavior in general. However, very little information was 80 81 found concerning the relationship between specific human behaviors and varying uses of clothing. Clothing was found to play an important part in primary impressions produced on others by unknown individuals since the clothing appeared to communicate social facts about the wearer to the per- ceiver. The self concept is believed by social-psycholo- gists to be an important factor behind the behavioral pat- terns of individuals, and is developed and maintained by interaction among people. All factors which make up the total self concept are unknown; however, self esteem is believed to be a dimension of each individual's self con- cept. A questionnaire was developed by the researchers to measure the following eight aspects of clothing atti- tudes and behaviors: aesthetic, comfort, interest, man- agement, modesty, psychological dependence, social appro- val, and special attention. Each clothing aspect was com- posed of eleven statements which were rated on a five-point scale ranging from almost always to almost never. There were eight different scores, one for each aspect, which were related separately to each of the major variables of this study. Self esteem, the value that one places upon himself, was measured by a modification of Brownfain's Self Rating Inventory. In order to measure self esteem, the respondents 82 rated themselves on twenty descriptive traits on a ten-point scale using their classmates and peers as reference points. The negative rating of the self, where the subject denied himself every reasonable doubt, was purported to be the most potent and accurate measure of self esteem. In order for the negative rating to be effective, a camouflage with other self ratings was necessary; hence, the subjects were asked to rate themselves using the same twenty traits from the following two outlooks: the subject's rating of him- self slanted positively and the subject's most accurate estimate as he believes his classmates see him. The neg- ative rating sheet was administered twice and the scores were summed and an average calculated for the self esteem score. This score was then correlated with the major vari- ables. The perceived peer self, the subject's most accu- rate estimate as he believed his classmates saw him, was included in this study because of the strong influences the peer group seems to have upon an adolescent's clothing and self esteem. The peer self was measured by the modi- fied Self Rating Inventory. The self items were summed to derive a perceived peer score, and relationships were correlated between self esteem and each of the eight aspects of clothing. To indicate the intensity of feelings toward the body, or body concern, a measure was devised by the 83 researchers consisting of twenty-three items describing parts of the body. The subjects rated themselves on a seven-point scale ranging from "1" or highly satisfied to "7," highly dissatisfied. The extreme ends of satisfaction and dissatisfaction were given the same relative weight so that the intensity of concern for the body would be re- flected in the score. Body concern scores were then summed and correlated with clothing and with self esteem scores. Biographical data collected from the subjects in- cluded their age, grade, and the occupation and level of education of the major wage earner in the family. This information revealed that 37 per cent of the subjects were sophomores, 22 per cent were juniors, and 22 per cent were seniors. Approximately 60 per cent of the subjects were in the fourth and fifth social class categories. The results reported in this study and the conclu— sions stated must be evaluated in light of the limitations under which the data were collected. The sample was not randomly selected, thus the projection of the results to other subjects in the school is not appropriate although the sample included 28 per cent of the total enrollment in the school. Even though a questionnaire is an accept- able means of data collection, a paper and pencil test may not be the most effective means of measuring an attitude or a behavior. Also, the possibility of response or de- fensiveness by the subjects has not been tested or allowed 84 for in any way. Since the past research indicated that individuals value clothing for different reasons, it seemed reasonable that different emphases in the use of clothing might be related to people with diverse characteristics including their feelings of self esteem. The hypotheses were formu- lated at the beginning of the research with this rationale in mind and will be discussed in the following paragraphs. Conclusions based on the results reported in Chapter V will be drawn relative to each hypothesis. The reports of previous research indicate that people generally wish to bring out the best in their phys- ical appearance and that socially secure people value aes- thetics in clothing. Thus, Hypothesis I was formulated. Hypothesis 1. Self esteem will be positively related to aesthetic concern for clothing. Aesthetic concern for clothing related to self es- teem at the .01 level of confidence for both boys and girls. The relationship was significant and in the expected direc- tion; thus, the hypothesis was confirmed. Modesty and comfort in clothing, the management of clothing, and clothing for social approval were not be- lieved from previous studies to be related to the level of an individual's self esteem. Modesty has many differ- ent definitions throughout the literature, making it in- creasingly difficult to draw any definite conclusions about 85 possible relationships. Likewise, little research has been found dealing with comfortable clothing since it is such an individual matter. Even though some studies have shown that individuals use the management aspect of clothing when striving for a self esteem need, the rationale behind the hypothesis was that this relationship would not necessarily exist for an adolescent population. Striving for social approval has been purported to be the most important factor in clothing choices of older adolescents;l however, this striving seemed to be common to all adolescents and would not necessarily be a factor in the level of an individual's self esteem. Hypothesis 2. No relationship will exist between self es- teem and the following aspects of clothing: a. Comfort b. Management c. Modesty d. Social Approval Hypothesis 2a. Comfort in clothing and self esteem were not significantly related for either the boys or the girls which was an expected result. Therefore, this sub- hypothesis was confirmed. Hypothesis 2b. The management aspect of clothing and self esteem for the girls was related significantly at the .01 level of confidence in the positive direction lBarr, p. 81. 86 which was unexpected since the level of self esteem was felt to be unrelated to the use of time, money, and energy in planning, buying, and using clothing. Management and self esteem were not related for the boys in the sample which was predicted; therefore, the sub-hypothesis was only partially confirmed. Hypothesis 2c. The correlation coefficient between modesty and self esteem was + .05 for the boys and + .10 for the girls which was not significant. Since an indi- vidual's level of self esteem was found not to be related to the modesty aspect of clothing, this sub—hypothesis was confirmed for both of the sexes. Hypothesis 2d. The correlation between self esteem and the use of clothing to gain social approval was not significant as was predicted. Thus, for this sample, if an individual possessed a high self esteem, he also indi- cated he used clothing to obtain group approval. Since self esteem and social approval were unrelated, the sub- hypothesis was confirmed. Hypothesis 3 was formulated with the following rationale in mind. Individuals who were highly interested in clothing and were equally concerned with spending spec- ial time and attention on their clothing were thought to possess a lower level of self esteem and would therefore use clothing as a compensation for this deficiency. 87 Hypothesis 3. Self esteem will be negatively related to the following aspects of clothing: a. Interest b. Special Attention Hypothesis 3a. Interest and self esteem were pos- itively related at the .01 level of confidence for the females, and not significantly related for the boys. This sub-hypothesisvunsnot confirmed because a negative rela- tionship was predicted. However, the result of this find- ing is noteworthy since previous research showed :a . person low in self esteem to be interested in clothing as a means of compensation. Hypothesis 3b. The findings of this study indi- cated that the use of clothing to obtain special attention and self esteem were significantly related, however, not in the predicted or negative direction. This result is in disagreement with the findings of Creekmorel and Maslow2 that a person low in self esteem would use clothing to strive for prestige and status. Since previous research has concluded that self esteem and concern for the body were synonymous, it was felt that self esteem and body concern would be related to each other and to the same aspects of clothing. lCreekmore, p. 125. 2Maslow, p. 90. 88 Hypothesis 4. Self esteem and body concern will be related to each other and to the same clothing as- pects. Self esteem and body concern were not related; how- ever, intensity of feelings (body concern) toward the body was significantly related to the same aspects of clothing that self esteem was, but not for the same sex. Hence, the hypothesis was not confirmed. This conclusion does not support previous research. The results of the study showed that, for the re- spondents in this study, self esteem was positively related to the aesthetic concern for clothing for both boys and girls, interest and management in clothing for girls, and the seeking of special attention for both sexes. These associations were not always predicted, were oftentimes contrary to previous findings and may have resulted because of the limitations of the measures and non-random selection of the sample. Some of the categories on the Importance of Clothing questionnaire may have been more socially de- sirable than others which could have biased the results. In addition, the aspects of clothing were not necessarily mutually exclusive which may have affected the interpreta- tion of the relationships. Social class and year in high school, the inter- vening variables, did not have any effect upon the signif- icant relationships between the level of self esteem and the eight aspects of clothing for the subjects. 89 Intensity of feelings toward the body was not re- lated to self esteem as expected; however, this relation- ship may have occurred because only one area of body con- cern, intensity of feelings, was investigated in this re- search. Perhaps, one relationship is not adequate to get the full picture of an individual's concern for his body. Body concern was related to the same aspects of clothing as self esteem, although not for the same sex. Four sig- nificant relationships existed for the boys and none for the girls. The significant relationships for the boys were between body concern and aesthetic concern for clothing, interest in clothing, management of clothing, and the use of clothing to gain special attention. The perceived peer self was significantly and pos- itively related to self esteem, and the peer self was sig- nificantly related to aesthetic concern for clothing, in- terest in and management of clothing, and the use of cloth- ing to seek special attention for both boys and girls. The significant and positive relationship between modesty and perceived peer self for girls is noteworthy because the feeling of modesty or desire to be inconspicuous was not related to self esteem; however, feelings of modesty were significantly related to self esteem when judging the self from the standpoint of what the peers think. Although the correlation between the use of clothing for acceptance and the perceived peer self was not significant, the 9O relationship was in the negative direction which would in- dicate that a person not striving to be accepted by his group was high in his perception of what others think of him. From the results shown above and in Chapter V, it appears that what an individual thinks of himself is some- what dependent upon what he thinks his peers think of him. In addition, he is slightly more sensitive in his clothing uses when thinking of how his peers perceive him than when he is thinking of himself independently. Recommendations 1. The investigation needs to be repeated with a random sample, a more fashion oriented group, and differ- ent age groups to see if the same results would occur. 2. The clothing questionnaire needs to be revised. Item-total correlations could be computed to determine what each statement contributes to the entire score of each cate- gory. Also, the psychological dependence aspect of cloth- ing needs to be analyzed since the results of the question— naires answered for this study could be assumed to be a pre-test situation. 3. 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APPENDIX lOl SELF RATING INVENTORY Every person has a picture of himself or a way he sees him- self. possess to a greater or lesser degree. This inventory consists of 20 traits which all people These traits are used by persons in order to paint this picture of themselves. Only the extremes of each trait are described. end, "1," describes in approximate terms the students who The low stand lowest on a particular trait, while the high end, "10," describes the people who stand highest on the trait. To simplify matters the masculine pronoun (he) is used to refer to both girls and boys. LOW END (1) INTELLIGENCE Is among the least bright of his classmates. Is not especially quick or alert in grasping complicated ideas and tasks. MATURITY In many ways is "childish" and seems younger than actual age. Simply is not "grown-up." Is among the least mature in the group. AT EASE SOCIALLY Tends to be awkward and clumsy in social situations; seems embarrassed or shy in mixing with classmates and adults. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS Is among those in the class who are physically most homely or plain-looking. GENEROSITY Tends to be selfish with money and possessions; not helpful to others; self- centered and thinks of self first. -ver SL1 5- HIGH END (10) Is among the most bril— liant of his class. Is alert, quick, and imagina- tive in understanding com- plicated ideas and tasks. Acts his age and is not at all childish. Is among the most grown-up and mature in his class. Acts skillfully and smoothly in social situations; is confident and at ease in meeting and mixing with classmates and adults. Is among the physically most attractive in the class. Could be consid- ered quite handsome or, if a girl, beautiful. Gives generously of pos- sessions and money; wants to help other people; usu- ally thinks first of the welfare of others. 10. ll. 12. 102 LOW END (1) CHEERFULNESS Tends to be gloomy and "sour" about life; is something of a "wet— blanket" in social groups. SINCERITY Is insincere: you can't tell whether or not he is kidding or means what he says or does. INITIATIVE Is dependent upon others; has trouble making up his mind; seems to need reas- surance and support from others. TRUSTFULNESS Is suspicious of others and looks for hidden reasons; might feel mistreated or disliked without good reason. ADAPTABLE Is among the most stubborn in the class. Sticks to own ideas and ways of doing things even though they may not be suitable to the sit- uation. SPORTSMANSHIP Can't take a joke; tends to hold a grudge; is a poor loser and a boastful winner. INDIVIDUALITY Conforms very closely to what the class expects; quite conservative and cautious, and afraid to be different. is -ver SL1 S- HIGH END (10) Is very cheerful and op- timistic about things; tends to spread good will in a group. Is sincere in what he says and does: you can always tell whether he is being earnest or is kidding. Is self-reliant; makes up own mind without difficulty; does not lean on others in situations where he could act by himself. Trusts other people with- out being fooled by them; gives people the benefit of the doubt without look— ing for hidden motives. Is among the most readily adjustable to changing conditions; accepts com- promises and suggestions where needed. Can take a joke and give one; takes victory and defeat in stride. Expresses feelings and opinions easily and free— ly; is not a rebel or a radical but is not afraid to be different. l3. 14. 15. l6. 17. 18. 19. 103 LOW END (1) SELF-UNDERSTANDING Does not understand or recognize his weak and strong points. Is uncer- tain of own abilities and not aware of personality handicaps. INTEREST IN OPPOSITE SEX Talks very little about opposite sex. Does not use opportunities for con- tact and may avoid associ- ation with opposite sex. DEPENDABILITY Is among the least reliable in a number of ways. Might fail to keep promises, ap— pointments, or to return borrowed things. Lacks a sense of responsibility to others. UNDERSTANDING OF OTHERS Tends to be indifferent and blind to the needs and feel- ings of others; doesn't understand what makes other people "tick." ACCEPTING ONESELF Is very dissatisfied to be the kind of person he is; wants very much to be a different kind of person; doesn't accept self. POPULARITY Has very few close friends and few acquaintances, tends to be disliked by others. PERSISTENCE Does not "stick" to his work; delays or treats lightly his assignments and undertakings. -versus- HIGH END (10) Understands own weak and strong points especially well. Is well aware of his shortcomings and personality handicaps. Associates a great deal and talks a lot about the opposite sex. Well aware of the opposite sex and .enjoys being with them. Is among the most depend— able; can be relied upon to meet promises and to fulfill responsibilities to others. Is very aware of the needs and feelings of other people and shows good understanding of their personality. Is generally pleased (but not conceited) about being the person he is; accepts himself; feels no need to be like a different person. Has many friends and ac- quaintances; is among the best liked in the class. Works consistently, at— tentively and industrious- ly at any task undertaken or assigned, without slighting or postponing the task. 104 LOW END (1) -versus- HIGH END (10) 20. SELF-CONTROL Loses temper easily; Has very good control of becomes upset when angered temper and emotions; calm- or cannot get his way. ly attempts to find solu- tions to frustrating events. Rating Sheet No. 1. ence o 105 Most people are not entirely certain as to exactly where they stand on these traits as compared to other people. We want to know HOW YOU SEE YOURSELF, but with this differ- Rate yourself taking a favorable view of yourself. Give yourself the benefit of any reasonable doubt you might have on any trait and rate yourself in the HIGHEST THAT YOU REALISTICALLY THINK YOU ARE on that trait. realistic in your favorable self-rating. Remember, be Do not, without careful consideration, give yourself a high rating on every trait. than any member in the class. NOTE: On some traits, you may see yourself as higher In this case, you may use an ”11" to rate your standing on that trait instead of a ”10." 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. SELF-RATING INVENTORY INTELLIGENCE MATURITY AT EASE SOCIALLY PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVE- NESS GENEROSITY CHEERFULNESS SINCERITY INITIATIVE TRUSTFULNESS ADAPTABLE SPORTSMANSHIP INDIVIDUALITY SELF-UNDERSTANDING INTEREST IN OPPOSITE SEX DEPENDABILITY UNDERSTANDING OF OTHERS ACCEPTING ONESELF POPULARITY PERSISTENCE SELF-CONTROL RATING SCALE 10 In the School Top 10% of your High Grade In the Second 10% from the top In the Third 10% from the top In the Fourth 10% from the top In the 10% just above the middle In the 10% just below the middle In the Fourth 10% from the bottom In the Third 10% from the bottom In the Second 10% from the bottom In the Bottom 10% of your High School Grade 106 Rating Sheet No. 2. This time, when you are uncertain as to exactly where you stand on each trait as compared to other people in the group, rate yourself taking an unfavorable view of yourself. Do not give yourself the benefit of any reason- able doubt you might have on any trait. But remember to be realistic. Do not, without careful consideration, give yourself a low rating on every item. NOTE: On some items, you may see yourself as lower than any member in the group. In this case, you may use a zero (0) to rate your standing on that item instead of a ”1.” SELF-RATING INVENTORY RATING SCALE 1' INTELLIGENCE 10 In the Top 10% of your High 2. MATURITY School Grade 3- AT EASE SOCIALLY 9 In the Second 10% from the top 4. PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVE— NESS 8 In the Third 10% from the top 5. GENEROSITY 6. CHEERFULNESS 7 In the Fourth 10% from the top 6 In the 10% just above the 7. SINCERITY middle 8. INITIATIVE S In the 10% just below the 9. TRUSTFULNESS middle 10. ADAPTABLE 4 In the Fourth 10% from the 11. SPORTSMANSHIP bottom 12. INDIVIDUALITY l3. SELF—UNDERSTANDING 3 In the Third 10% from the ____. bottom 14. INTEREST IN OPPOSITE SEX 2 In the Second 10% from the 15. DEPENDABILITY b°tt°m 16. UNDERSTANDING OF 1 In the Bottom 10% of your OTHERS High School Grade 17. ACCEPTING ONESELF 18. POPULARITY l9. PERSISTENCE 20. SELF-CONTROL PLEASE DO NOT REFER BACK TO PREVIOUS RATINGS FOR GUIDANCE. Rating Sheet No. on all the items. 3. 107 This time we want you to estimate as accurately as you can HOW THE OTHER STUDENTS IN YOUR CLASS WOULD RATE YOU would see you. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. +4 H w n: O O 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. SELF—RATING INVENTORY INTELLIGENCE MATURITY AT EASE SOCIALLY PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVE- NESS GENEROSITY CHEERFULNESS SINCERITY INITIATIVE TRUSTFULNESS ADAPTABLE SPORTSMANSHIP INDIVIDUALITY SELF—UNDERSTANDING INTEREST IN OPPOSITE SEX DEPENDABILITY UNDERSTANDING OF OTHERS ACCEPTING ONESELF POPULARITY PERSISTENCE SELF-CONTROL This is how OTHERS OF YOUR AGE GROUP RATING SCALE 10 In the Top 10% of your High School Grade 9 In the Second 10% from the top 8 In the Third 10% from the top 7 In the Fourth 10% from the top 6 In the 10% just above the middle 5 In the 10% just below the middle 4 In the.Fourth 10% from the bottom 3 In the Third 10% from the bottom 2 In the Second 10% from the bottom 1 In the Bottom 10% of your High School Grade PLEASE DO NOT REFER BACK TO PREVIOUS RATINGS FOR GUIDANCE. 108 EXPLANATION OF CLOTHING MEASURE The clothing questionnaire completed by the sub- jects consisted of preliminary instructions and the eighty- nine statements. Additional information about the final pre-test and scoring of the questionnaire are included in this appendix. Moreover, the statements of the question— naire have been divided into the clothing aspects that they measure, but this information did not appear on the form given to the subjects. Key for Pre-test and Scoring Information 1. ‘ Negative statement for which the scoring was reversed. 2. " Wording changed slightly after third pre-test. 3. # New or drastically changed statement. 4. Index of Discrimination determined by Likert Scaling Technique for Pre-test III (69 subjects). 109 IMPORTANCE OF CLOTHING Read the following statements and rate each according to the scale given below. Place the number corresponding to your choice in front of each statement. The statements generally refer to a school situation. Scale: 5. Not analyzed .92‘ .74 .43 .70‘ .78 .78 1.35“ .21‘ 4. 3. 2. 1. 1. Almost.A1ways--very few exceptions Usually--majority of the time Sometimes Seldom-—not very often Almost Never--very few exceptions The way I look in my clothes is impor— tant to me. Aesthetic 2. 8. 9. 100 When I am shopping I choose clothes that I like even if they do not look best on me. It bothers me when my shirt tail keeps coming out. I consider the fabric texture with the line of the garment when choosing my clothes. I use clothing as a means of disguis- ing physical problems and imperfections through skillful use of color, line, and texture. I wear clothes which have buttons or snaps missing. I pay a lot of attention to pleasing color combinations. I keep my shoes clean and neat. I carefully coordinate the accessories that I wear with each outfit. I wear the clothing fads that are pop- ular in our school even though they may not be as becoming to me. 110 5.A1most Always 4.Usually 3.Sometimes Zi§eldom 1.Almost Never 1.05 Theoretical 1.13 .56 .47 .92 Theoretical 1.39 11. I spend more time than others coordinat- ing the colors in my clothes. 12. I try to figure out why some people's clothes look better on them than others. Modesty 13. Unlined sheer dresses or blouses reveal too much of the body. 14. I select clothes that are conservative in style. 15. I feel uncomfortable when someone has forgotten to close their zipper. 16. The first time in the season that I go to a public beach or pool I feel exposed in my bathing suit. 17. I choose clothing with small prints, even though a larger design looks equally well on me. 18. I feel embarrassed when I see someone in too low cut a dress. 19. I select clothes which do not call attention to myself in any way. 20. I feel embarrassed when I see someone in clothes that are too tight. 21. I like dark or muted colors rather than bright ones for my clothes. 22. I hesitate to associate with those whose clothes seem to reveal too much of their body. 23. I wonder why some people wear clothes that are immodest. 111 5.A1most Always 4.Usua11y 3.Sometimes 2.Se1dom l.A1most Never 1.52 1.69“I 2.35“ 1.44“ Not pretested .92 Interest 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 3o». 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. My friends and I try each other's clothes to see how we look in them. I enjoy trying shoes of different styles or colors. I study collections of accessories in the stores to see what I might com— bine attractively. I try on some of the newest clothes each season to see how I look in the styles. I read magazines and newspapers to find out what is new in clothing. It's fun to try on different garments and accessories to see how they look together. I experiment with new or different "hair do's" to see how I will look. I like to know what is new in clothing even if none of my friends care and I probably would not want to wear it anyway. I try on clothes in shops just to see how I will look in them without really planning to buy. When I buy a new garment I try many different accessories before I wear it. I am curious about why people wear the clothes they do. Comfort The way my clothes feel to my body is important to me. 112 5.A1most Alway§p4.Usua11y 3.Sometimes 2.Se1dom l.A1most Never .93" .49 1.74“ .69 .43 .68 1.39 Theoretical 1.12 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. There are certain textures in fabrics that I like and especially try to buy, for example, soft, fuzzy, sturdy, smooth. I am more sensitive to temperature changes than others and I have diffi- culty being comfortable in my clothes as a result. I wear my pants or slacks with an easy fit even when tight ones are fashion- able. I get rid of garments I like because they are not comfortable. I find it difficult to buy clothes suitable to the temperature. I would buy a very comfortable bathing suit even if it were not the current style. I avoid garments that bind the upper arm. I am irritable if my clothes are un- comfortable. I am extremely sensitive to the tex- ture of the fabrics in my clothing. I wonder what makes some clothes more comfortable than others. Special Attention 46. 47. 48. When new fashions appear on the mar- ket, I am one of the first to own them. I have clothes that I don't wear be— cause everyone else has them. I like to be considered an outstand- ing dresser by my friends. 113 5.A1most Always 4.Usually 3.Sometimes 2.Se1dom l.A1most Never 1.46 Theoretical .70 .75“ 1.57“ .52‘ .24 .67 49. 50. 51. 52. 54. 55. 56. I try to keep my wardrobe in line with the latest styles. I go to nearby cities to shop for better fashions. I try to buy clothes which are very unusual. I avoid wearing certain clothes because they do not make me feel distinctive. I enjoy wearing very different cloth— ing even though I attract attention. (Two good questions combined.) I try to buy clothes with the best labels. I wear different clothes to impress people. I am interested in why some people choose to wear such unusual clothes. Management 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. I plan for and prepare clothes to wear several days in advance. I see that my out-of-season clothing is cleaned and stored. I look over the clothing in my ward- robe before each season so that I know what I have. I am enticed into buying garments I like without having anything to go with them. I enjoy trying to get the most for my money in clothing purchases. I wear a raincoat or carry an umbrella to protect my clothes in rainy weather. 114 57A1most Always 4.Usually3.§Ometimes 2.Se1dom l.A1most Never .37“ 1.31“ 1.39“ 1.28“ Theoretical .46 1.42" 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. I have something to wear for any occa- sion that occurs. I have a long-term idea for purchas- ing more expensive items of clothing such as coats or suits. I carefully plan every purchase so that I know what I need when I get to a store. I am more concerned about the care of my clothing than my friends are about theirs. I try to find out how I can save as much time, energy, and money as pos- sible with my clothes. Social Approval 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. I check my friends about what they are wearing to a gathering before I decide what to wear. I would rather miss something than wear clothes which are not really appropriate. I feel more a part of the group if I am dressed like my friends. I wear clothes that everyone is wear- ing even though they may not look as good on me. I am uncomfortable when my clothes are different from all others at a party. I try to dress like others in my group so that people will know we are friends. I get new clothes for a special occa- sion if the clothes I have are not the type my friends will be wearing. 115 5.A1most Always 4.Usually 3.Sometimes 2.Se1dom l.A1most Never .53 Theoretical Not Not Not Not Not Not Not Not Not Not .29 pretested pretested pretested pretested pretested pretested pretested pretested pretested pretested Theoretical 75. 76. 77. 78. I have gone places and then wished after I got there that I had not gone because my clothes were not suitable. I wear what I like even though some of my friends do not approve. When I buy a new article of clothing I try to buy something similar to what my friends are wearing. When someone comes to school dressed unsuitable, I try to figure out why he is dressed as he is. Psycholpgical Dependence 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. Certain clothes make me feel more sure of myself. I decide on the clothes to wear accord- ing to the mood I'm in that day. Days when I feel low I wear my gayest clothes. I "dress-up" to make an ordinary occa- sion seem more exciting. I am aware of being more friendly and outgoing when I wear particular clothes. I feel and act differently according to whether I am wearing my best school clothes or not. I buy clothing to boost my morale. I get bored with wearing the same kind of clothes all the time. I have more self-confidence when I wear my best school clothes. When things are not going well I like to wear brighter colors. I wonder why some clothes make me feel better than others. 116 BACKGROUND INFORMATION Age (at last birthday) Grade Sex How many living brothers and sisters do you have? (Circle the correct number on each line, the 0 if none.) Brothers 0 l 2 3 4 More Sisters 0 1 2 3 4 More Who is the main wage earner where you live? father stepfather mother other (specify) For example: "my uncle," "guardian" Draw a circle around the one number representing the highest grade the main wage earner completed in school. Note: the main wage earner is the person checked in question number 3. Grade School 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 High School 9 10 ll 12 College or University 1 2 3 4 Graduate School 1 or more years If the main wage earner is a college graduate, what is the highest degree he holds? What kind of work does the main wage earner do? Please describe his or her work as specifically as you can; we need to know the type of work done but not the name of the company or business. FOR EXAMPLE: sawyer in a lumber mill, teacher in a high school, chemical en- gineer in chemical plant, salesman for a book company, waitress, operates farm of 160 acres, retired college professor, unemployed. 10. 11. 117 Which of the following statements best describes the working situation of the person you named main wage earner. (Check the one which applies to your situa- tion. works for someone; does not manage the business (or farm) works for someone; does manage the business or a main part or section of it owns a business (or farm) but hires someone else to manage it owns and manages his or her own business (or farm) retired Please estimate the yearly income which the main wage earner receives. less than $5999 $10,000-24,999 $6000-9999 over $25,000 Does any other person or source contribute to the financial support of your family? Yes No If yes, explain who (mother, brother, social security, pension, etc.). What is the type of work done by this person? Please estimate the income which this person or source contributes? less than $5999 $10,000-24,999 $6000-9999 over $25,000 118 Body Characteristics Please place the number which best corresponds to your feelings (as indicated in the scale) in front of each characteristic listed below. (1) Think that others would like to be just like me (2) Consider myself rather fortunate (3) Am satisfied (4) Have no particular feelings one way or the other (5) Don't like, but can put up with (6) Have strong feelings about, and would change if I could (or am changing) (7) Find it unbearable, to change EXAMPLE : ___:§___ Height ____Hair Face shape ____Complexion ____Eyes Ears Nose ____Teeth ____Lips ___Height ___Weight Posture Muscular co-ordination and would do almost anything .___gMuscular development ____Bust or chest ____Waist ____Hips ____Legs ____Hands ____Feet ____Speaking voice Body hair Birthmarks, moles, etc. Other (Please specify)