ASSESSMENT OF THE DIFFERENCE IN POWER, ABILITY. STRENGTH AND REACTION TIME OF NEGRO AND WHITE MALE SUBJECTS AT THE TENTH GRADE lEVEI. —__——, ,—_—_—_. _—_—4 ___——_ _____—. _’_’— .——‘ ___._— ‘— _———— __.—— #— ____—. __—— ” ___—__—— ,__—_—— ____—_—— _—__’ ____‘ _.\ _a p THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LAWRENCE LAEDING I 9 6 4 LI \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\I 2 6 7624 I.” .. m 3 1 93 2008 __ . ..- ' LIB K ‘1 R Y " University . s l I ASSESSMENT OF THE DIFFERENCE IN POWER, AGILITY, STRENGTH ‘AND REACTION TIME OF NEGRO AND WHITE MALE SUBJECTS AT THE TENTH GRADE LEVEL By Lawrence Laeding AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS. ;Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreatien 1964 Approved ((3K%Z;Zé: (CS? 2ZZAégéLaz/ I v ABSTRACT ASSESSMENT OF THE DIFFERENCE IN POWER, AGILITY, STRENGTH AND REACTION TIME OF NEGRO AND WHITE MALE SUBJECTS AT THE TENTH GRADE LEVEL by Lawrence Laeding Statement of the Problem To determine the difference between Negro and White male subjects enrolled in the sophomore class at Saginaw. High School, in power, agility, strength, and reaction time 'as measured by the vertical Jump, shuttle run, pull-up and stimulus reaction timer, respectively. Methodology - The four tests selected were the vertical Jump as a measure of power, the 30 foot shuttle run as a test of agility, the pull-up as a measure of strength, and the reaction time test using light as a stimulus. The entire male population of the s0phomore physical education classes, with the exception of 6 subjects who were not available for testing, were tested. The subjects were divided into 15 and 16 year age groups eliminating those over or under age along with the sub- Jects of Mexican descent. } Lawrence Laeding The data was tested statistically using the t-test as test of significance, setting the level of significance at .05. Conclusions The following conclusions Were drawn as the result of this study: 1. In this study the difference between the Negro and White subjects in agility, strength, and reaction time was not great enough to be significant at the .05 level. 2.* The results of this study showed the Negroes to be significantly more powerful as measured by the vertical jump. 3. The results of the study showing the Negro more powerful could account for out-standing rebounding ability in basketball, as well as his Jumping and running ability in track, particularly in the short races. ASSESSMENT OF THE DIFFERENCE IN POWER, AGILITY, STRENGTH AND REACTION TIME OF NEGRO AND WHITE MALE SUBJECTS AT THE TENTH GRADE LEVEL By 'Lawrence Laeding A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation- 1964 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Gale Mikles for his professional guidance throughout this‘study. Thanks are extended to the following physical education teachers in the Saginaw School System: Chris Dundas, Roland Joles, Allyn McCormic, Gerald Smith, and James Wallace, who did much of the testing in this study. ' DEDICATION This thesis is respectfully dedicated to my family. -__. ....u_ .. .. ._ T“ ‘—._ TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENT . . . . . .. . . . . . LISTOFTABLES. . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . .l . Introduction to the Study . . Purpose of the Study . . . . Need for the Study. . . ‘Limitations of the Study. . Scope Of the Study. .> . . Definition of Terms . '11. REVIEW OF LITERATURE Summary . . . . III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . Sampling Procedure.‘ . . General Testing Procedure Explanation of Tests . . . Statistical Technique. . . IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA. Grouping Procedures Analysis of Data . . . General Discussion. . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . Summary . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . , Recommendations. Page ii vi vii H (I) NONWJZ‘UUH 2O 21 22 24 28 29 29 35 37 37 38 ' 39 IBIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . APPENDICES. . . . . . . APPENDIX A--Data Collected . Subjects. . -APPENDIX B--Data Collected Subjects . . APPENDIX C—-Data Collected Subjects . . APPENDIX D--Data Collected Subjects on on Page 0 O I O O O 0 no 15 Year-old White _ l5 Year—old Negro . . . . . . . 49 16 Year-old White . . O. o o o o o 52 16 Year—old Negro o 0 go o o o ' 5h Table I. II. III. IV. LIST OF TABLES Percentage of Fourth Grade Pupils Passing or Failing the K-W Test According to Race and - sex 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Summary of Basic Data for the 35-Yard Dash . Significance of Differences Between Mean Scores of Negroes and Whites on the 35-Yard Dash . Means, Standard Deviations, t4va1ues, and Level of Significance of 15 Year-old subjects Means, Standard Deviations, t-values, and Level of Significance of 16 Year-old Subjects . . . Page Figure 1 \o a) «a ox Ln hnr on re Stimulus Graph ‘Graph Graph Graph Graph Graph Graph Graph of of of of of of of of ‘ LIST OF FIGURES- Reaction Timer . . . . Agility Run for 15 Year-olds' Pull-Up Test for 15 Year-olds Vertical Jump for 15 Year-olds. Reaction Time for 15 Year-olds. Agility Run for 16 Year—olds Pull-Up Test for 16 Year-olds Vertical Jump for 16 Year-olds. Vertical Time for 16 Year-olds. Page 27 30. 3O 30" 30 31 31 31 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction to the Study A great amount of controversy concerning the abili- ties and accomplishments of the Negro in athletics has arisen over the last decade. Questions such as, is he a better athlete than his White counterpart? If he is, why is he better? The answers are usually vague and unconvinc- ing. Not much literature can be found containing any 'specific statements either supporting or refuting the quesi tions. Some material has been written giving general infor- mation about Negroes in major sports, such as baseball,= football, basketball, and track. This information usually furnishes names of the outstanding players along with some records or specific accomplishments of the individual. Hendersonl has this to say concerning the literature obtainable on the Negro in athletics: 'In the last decade, numerous stories of sports have appeared in current periodicals written by ghost ' penmen and feature writers. Although authors of other races have paid tribute to heroic Negro boys, l Edwin E. Henderson, The Negro in Sports (Washington D.C.: The Associated Publishers Inc., 1959), p. pvii. // 2 / some, however, like the compilers of Who's Who In Athletics, a National society containing four thousand sketches, completely ignore all references to Negroes who have won fame on athletic fields. The complete records of Negro athletes lie buried in the tons of news- print volumes that repose in stacks in libraries or in newspaper morgues. The Negro Yearbook furnishes much information con? cerning economic, social, political, and education status of the Negro in various parts of the world.2v It fails to give specific data comparing Negro and White as to physical capabilities. The author had a very personal, and possibly selfish, Ireason for wanting information about the comparative abili- ties of the Negro and White subjects. During his 28 years spent in the -public schools dealing with Negro and White, both in the classroom and on athletic teams, he has formed the opinion that the Negro boy is generally superior in athletic ability. One needs only to follow athletics with an open mind to observe the predominance of outstanding I Negro athletes on championship teams. This is more obvious when the ratio of Negro to White on athletic teams is. compared to the percentage of colored in the overall popu- lation of a given school. In following the State Basketball Tournaments in 4 Michigan for the past decade, it is obvious that more and QVO-Jo- w more Negro athletes are appearing as memb-rs of 3 pating teams. The experimenter has observed that the- 2Jessie Guzman, Louis W. Jones, and W. Hall, The Negro Yearbook (New York: William H. Wise and Co., Inc., 1952). l 1. percentage of Negro athletes on the tournament squads of these schools exceeds the percentage of Negroes that makeI up the total student body. A more specific example-is the State Championship basketball team of 1962. Saginaw High School has a student body composed of 29% Negroes, while the championship SQuad had a membership of 60% Negro. The 1963 Class A State Track Champion, Flint Northern High School had a school population of 28% Negro. The track squad was 80% Negro. I I The author undertook the study in an effort to. explain this apparent superiority. He felt that test re- sults favorable to the Negro would, to some extent, explain- his outstanding athletic performances. While the above are inferences drawn from experienceandobservation,it is the intent of the experimenter to find additional evidence supporting his observations. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to assess the difference between Negro and White male students enrolled in the sophomore class at Saginaw High School during the first semester of the 1963—64 school year in certain physical .traits: 'namely, power, agility, strength and reaction time. The tests were done with the thought that the results might illustrate the superiority of the Negro in athletics, as the traits tested are all important factors in the athletes . make-up. The specific objectives of the study were: To investigate the difference in power between Negro and White male subjects as measured by the vertical jump. To investigate the difference in strength betweeanegro and White males as measured by the pull-up test. To investigate the difference in agility between- Negro and White males as measured by the shuttle run. To investigate the difference between Negro and White males in reaction time as measured by an electrical timing device calibrated in fractions .of a second. Need for Study If the Negro subjects have superior physical abilities in power, agility, strength and reaction time, proven by testing, then the experimenter feels that this information is important for these reasons: 1. 2. 3. If such differences do exist, placing athletes on athletic teams will be greatly simplified. Much time now wasted in choosing members of a 'squad by haphazard methods could be given over to much more scientific procedures. Time, previously wasted, in selection of personnel, could be used in actual training for a particular Sport as well as in learning skills leading up to actual game participation. ' If apsubject excells in traits such as power, agility, strength and reaction time, his potential in athletics could also be great. Lack of any quantity of positive proof of difference showed the need for further study. Limitations of the Study Measurement techniques. Although experienced adults administered the tests, there still remained the element_of human error in administering any test. There are usually' differences in the way different individuals administer a test. Errors in timing, errors in judgment, and reaction time of the person doing the timing were all factors that needed to be considered. Testing the entire population made it necessary to use more instructors, resulting in some distortion in recording data. Since no two persons have exactly the same attitude toward the problem at hand, some bias could enter into their technique. Reasonable precautions were taken to keep errors in administering and scoring tests at a minimum. With a population of 300 or more subjects, it was ex- ‘ pected that some would not be available for testing and ‘that some subjects on a given day would not be up to par, either physically or mentally; therefore, an exact measure- ment of ability could not always be made. Measuring devices. Any mechanical device, while possibly more reliable than human judgment, still is subject to error. Even steel tapes are subject to fluctuations as atmospheric conditions change. Measuring devices used in these tests were as accurate as conditions allowed. I 5% . Reporting data. In reporting data where several teeters were involved, judgment was always a factor. ‘No two persons would observe a particular situation and report the observations in exactly the same manner. An example of this occurs in a test such as the pull-up test. Errors in the subjects form such as full extension of the arms and hesitation between attempts cause difficulty in objectivity. Processing data. After data was tabulated on cards it was necessary to eliminate some subjects due to errors in recording. Psychological factors. It was difficult to determine if subjects were giving maximum effort. Some subjects having an inferior feeling may have hesitated to do tests; others were in all probability very willing to demonstrate or even show off in front of their peers. 1 Scope of Study The study involved the testing of the tenth gradep Negro and White malestudents at Saginaw High School. jThis. . included boys ranging in age from 14 to 16 years of age with a few being over 16, the concentration being between ‘15 and 16. It was the intention of the author to match the boys according to age for more meaningful Information. Approximately 8% of the Saginaw High School is Mexican- AmeriCan. This group of boys were eliminated from the Study. ,1 ‘ 7 A study including more age groups would be desirable. Due to the amount of time needed to complete such a study, the author confined the study to the tenth grade level. Definition of Terms . Negrg. "There are at least three distinct methods of defining the Negro in the United states: (1) Legal definition, (2) Social definition, and (3) The Census I definition."3 For purposes of these tests the testers, in practically all cases, used that race indicated on forms. efilled out by the student for school census purposes. A White. For this test referred to as CauCasian race. Agility Test or Shuttle Run Test. A test to measure quiCkness, readiness of movement and to some extent, Speed. Reaction time will not be measured by this test, but Could be a factor in determining subject‘s agility.‘ I I Pull-up. ,Test to measure arm strength of the indivif' dual. 4 I Reaction time. The elapsed time between the moment a stimulus is received and a reSponSe occurs. I Power Test or Vertical Jump. A test of the ability of the body to develop power in relation to the weight of the individual himself.5 I 3Guzman, 0p. cit., p. 1. ”Truman J. Moon, James A. Otto, and Albert Towle,‘ Modern Biology (New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston, Inc., l960),'p. 733. I 5Harrison H. Clarke, Application of Measurement to Health and Physical Education (New York: PrenticeuHall, Inc. 19h5)) p0 2730 CHAPTER'II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 4 The amount of literature pertaining directly to the problem is somewhat limited. It is possible to find some literature concerning surveys made comparing the performance of Negro and White children. It is possible to find other surveys that could have some bearing on the problem and may help to explain the differences, if any, in performances between Negro and White subjects. In some cases where there seems to be definite superiority of Whites over Negroes, it is found that the difference is due to' environment rather than a racial trait. Pasamanik1 finds that lower intelligence quotients scored by the Negroes are due to environmental factors and the diet of the mothers before the children were born, rather than to racial differences. In 1944-45, Pasamanik studied a group of Negro infants and three carefully V controlled groups of White infants in New Haven.‘ The Negro’ infants are found to be equal in all respects, including intelligence. He finds that the weight and length at birth and their growth are precisely similar to Whites. lBenjamin Pasamanik, "Racial Differences," Science News Letter, Vol. 55 (June 11, 1949), pp. 37l-372'”“““ / -Williams and Scott2 report a similar study concern- ing thegrowth and development of Negro infants. Their study is made in an effort to answer the following questions. 1. Is there a difference in gross motor behavior among Negro infants from the upper and lower socio-economic groups? 2. Do the two groups differ in their reported and observed methOds of child care? 3. If motor behavior is found to differ signifi- cantly for the two groups, can this difference be related to methods of child care? They find that: l. The infants from the lower socio-economic group show significant gross motor acceleration when compared to those from the higher socio- economic group. 2. Significant differenCes are also found in the . . ways in which the infants of the two groups are handled. Specific practices as well as over- -all home atmosphere are more permissive and less ~ exacting among families of the lower socio- economic group. 3. Differences in motor development are found to be related to methods of child care, with infants '~ from permissive, accepting environments scoring significantly higher on the Gesell Developmental schedules than infants from rigid, rejecting environment. The findings suggest that motor acceleration is not‘ a “racial" characteristic but rather one of environment.. 2J.R. Williams and R.B. Scott. "Growth and Development of Negro Infants," Child Development, Vol. 24 (1953) pp. 103-121 ‘ _ The author feels that the following survey can in some way help to explain the differences, ifany, in athletic performances between the Negro and White children. Westerlund and Tuttle3 report a study concerning “The Relationship Between Running Events in Track and Reaction Timefl’ They endeavor to determine the difference, if any, between the reaction times of track athletes running short and long distances. They use, as subjects, 22 men from the University of Iowa track team, all of whom are in training at the time. The subjects are divided into four groups. Groupings along with their mean reaction time follow: 1. Champion group. This includes the national high school 440 yard champion for 1930, and the national high school 220 yard dash and the 220 yard low hurdle champion for 1922. Reaction time .121 seconds. 2. h r i anc o . Up to and including the 220 yard dash. Reaction time .131 seconds. 3. Middle distance group. 440 yard and 880 yard ' dash. Reaction time .149 seconds. 4. Distance gpo p. One and two miles. Reaction _ time .169 seconds. , They draw the following conclusions. 1. The mean reaction time (. 121 seconds) for a group of champions is definitely shorter than that of any group studied, regardless of the distance run. 2. iThe mean reaction times of the distance groups as defined in this investigation are distinctly different. 3J.H. Westerlund, and w. Tuttle, "The Relationship Between Running Events in Track and Reaction Time," Research Quarterly, Vol. 2 (October, 1931) pp. 95-100 / 11 .l 3. There is a high degree of relationship between speed in running and reaction time. The coefficient of correlation is .863. If, in this study, the author finds the reaction time‘ for Negroes to be significantly faster than that of White ‘- subjects, the findings of Westerlund and Tuttle would further substantiate the author's belief that Negroes are superior athletes compared to White subjects. It would explain the presence of so many Negro athletes in the sprints. Lautenbach and TuttleLI report a survey concerning "The Relationship Between the Reflex Time and Running Events in Track." They use the reflex time of the knee-jerk as the test. The grouping used along with the reflex time is shown in the following table: 1. (Short distances - .0965 2. Middle distances - .1221 3. Distance - .1345 ~The relationship between the speed in sprinting and the reflex time is determined by calculating the coefficient of correlation which they find to be .815. They conclude that a coefficient of correlation of this magnitude indicates that there is a very high relationship between speed in “sprinting and reflex time. ~- ”~- s-uRuth Lautenbach and W. Tuttle, ”The Relationship' Between Reflex Time and Running Events in Track," Researcn Quarterly, Vol. 3 (October, 1932) pp. 138-142 I ‘12. / Another study involving reflex time was conducted by Browne.5 In his study he undertakes to determine whether Ithe American Negro possesses neuro-muscular characteristics which account-for his outstanding performances in the sprint races. Browne's test includes only the patellar tendon reflex.” The mean reflex time of the 82 White subjects is 1.0861 plus or minus .0013 seconds with the range being .0551 to .1413 seconds. He states that the mean reflex time of the 81 Negro subjects is .0774 plus or minus .0009 pseconds with a range of .0557 to .1183 seconds. In comparing the difference between the mean reflex time of the White group and the mean reflex time of the .Negro group, he finds the difference to be .0087 plus or minus .0016 seConds in favor of the Negro subjects. The difference is 5.43 times the probable error of the differ- ence which is significant. Other investigators report that the patellar tendon 'reflex time varies from .0796 to .1385 seconds. Browne suggests that the faster patellar tendon reflex time of the Negro might have a bearing on his speed in the sprint races. It is the author's belief that reflex time is, beyond a reasonable doubt, a contributing factor to outstanding athletic performance not only in the sprint races, but in 5R. L. Browne, "A Comparison of Patellar Tendon Reflex Time of Whites and Negroes," Research Quarterly, Vol. 6 (May 1935) pp. 121- 126 ’many athletic endeavors. . Since the author's study does not include a reflex test, he offers the two ioregoing studies as pertinent proof supporting his belief that the Negro is superior to the White subject in many forms of athletic endeavors. - A study of Espenschade6 compares the performances of fourthgrade children on the Krause-Webber Test and the ' California Physical Test. Table I shows the results ' obtained. Conclusions drawn from the test are: (l) the percentage of Negro boys passing all items is signifi-' _ cantly greater (5% level) than White boys; (2) the same is true (1% level) for both Negro and White girls in comparison to White boys. ‘ Metheny7 compares the anthropometric measurements of 51 American Negro and 51 White male college students at the University of Iowa. Forty-seven direct and derived, - measurements are taken and analyzed for differences between the Negro and White and the results are compared to the ' findings of other groups. The findings are: 6Anne Espenschade, "Fitness of Fourth Grade Children," - Research Quarterly Vol. 29 (October 1928) pp. 274- 278 7Eleanor Metheny, "Some Differences in Bodily , Proportions Between Negro ahd White Male College Students as Related to Athletic Performance," Research Quarterly, Vol. 10 (December 1939) pp. 41- -53 -~°- it PERCENTAGE OF FOURTH GRADE PUPILS PASSING OR FAILING THE K-W TEST ACCORDING TO RACE AND SEX TABLE 1 Per Cent Per Cent Fail Per Cent Fail 14 *Significantly greater than percentage of white boys passing. Fourth Strength or Grade Pupils No. Pass Flexibility Multiple Failure Boys White 88 52 36 ll Negro 66 68* 24 8 Oriental 7 71 28 0 Girls . White 73 71 14 15 Negro 49 81 12 6 Oriental ll 82 0 18 [I - ' I) 15 I ‘1. The Negro is found to exceed the White in weight, arm length, forearm length, hand length, elbow ' width, leg length and width, knee width, shoulder breadth, chest depth and width, neck girth, and limb girths all relative to stature. 2. The Whitr exceeds the Negro in Sitting height,' total fat, hip width, and ilium width. 3. Certain differences in foot proportions, chest conformation, and pelvic proportions are also noted. , In discussing the effect of these differences in body measurements on athletic performances certain observations are made. Among these it is noted that the Negro is heavier 'but not as fat. His weight is due to heavier bones and greater musculature. This would be to the Negro's advantage in contact sports, but would tend to be a disadvantage in having to move more weight in sprints. This disadvantage seems to be overcome by his greater muscular strength. According to the data collected in this study, greater muscle girth is indicative of greater strength, hence the Negro has greater muscle development. Metheny further notes that the Negro's longer fore- arm and hand give him an advantage in throwing events. If he has the strength to move this longer lever, he has greater velocity at the end. His longer hand, providing he has efficient wrist action, gives him an advantage in an" activity such as shot putting. He should be able to achieve a greater height in high jumping since his longer, heavier arms, again providing he has the strength to move them, should develop greater momentum, and this transmitted to: the body tends'to increase his jump. Further mention is made in Metheny' s study of the longer leg 01' the Negro with a shorter upper leg and correspondingly a longer lower leg. The over-all leg length gives him a longer stride in running. This, of course, requires a greater expenditure of energy to move this longer leg and bigger foot, but he has larger muscles to move the added weight. Metheny also theorizes that the Ilonger leg is a decided advantage in jumping. The longer lower leg could develop greater velocity at the end, and would also serve as a longer lever for the push off.‘ This, of course, would increase the distance over which the force is applied.8 An article written by Mitchell9 has little or no specific information concerning actual accomplishments in specific events or sports, but it does contain interestlng information of one man's opinion of the Negro in sports., Professor Mitchell points out that the Negro boy is usually a clean, sportsmanlike player. The Negro youth who remains, Iin school long enough to play interscholastic sports is generally the more intelligent and industrious type. He further states that the Negro player is usually quiet and 8 Ibid. 9 Elmer D. Mitchell, "Racial Traits in Athletics,’ The American Physical Education Review, (March, April, May, 1922) PP- 12‘13. (reprint) unassertive. However, when he plays on a team with other Negroes, he becomes an inferior player. In place of going all out to win, he tends to become theatrical, a trait he tends not to display when competing on a team with White teammates. Mitchell does not agree with the statement of many coaches that the Negro is "yellow" and cannot be depended upon in a crisis. While he feels there is some truthin the charge of their instability, he feels they do not lack the fighting spirit of the White youth. Mitchell believes that the difference is in the fact that the White .boy is more likely to play above par, due to the surplus of nervous energy which the White race seems to possess, and which is not found in the Negro race. He explains this by saying that medical studies show blunted nervous sensi- bilities as compared to the White, so he is less affected by stimulants. He concludes by saying: » Temperamentally, he is inclined to be lazy. The racial vitality is strong, quite the opposite from that of the Indian. Other minor traits are his susceptibility to supersitition, his capability for selfdevotion or hatred, his imitativeness, his loys for frankness and especially his love for praise. 11 A study by Hutinger most closely parallels the- author‘s study. The purpose of Hutinger's study is "to 1° Ibid. 11 Paul w. Hutinger, "Differences in Speed Between American Negro and White Children in Performance of the 35-yard Dash," Research Quarterly, Vol. 30 (October 1959) 99- 366-367 ’ 18 investigate the difference in speed between American Negro- children and White children as measured by performance in the 35-yard dash." His premise, as a result of his obser- vations of tests made in the Kansas City school system, is that the Negro children are superior to White children in running speed. 2 His subjects include 792 fourth, fifth, and sixth grade boys and girls from the elementary schools of Kansas City Missouri. The 390 White and 402 Negro subjects are given two. .trials with the faster time being recorded. The mean scores) are shown in Table II. The t_test is used to determine the significance of differences in mean scores. The t_scores with their level of significance are shown in Table III. . Hutinger's conclusions are: (l) differences in mean scores of 402 Negro children and 390 White children indicate that the Negro children are superior in speed as measured by the 35—yard dash at the three grade levels, (2) the Negro boys statistically make significantly faster times in the 35-yard dash at the fourth and fifth grade levels. The ( Negro girls statistically make significantly faster times at all three grade levels.12 Espenschade13 administered the Brace Test of Motor Ability to all tenth grade girls at an Oakland, California .12 Ibid.,.P. 367 - 13 A. S. ESpenschade, "Note on the Comparative Motor Ability of Negro and White Tenth Grade Girls Bibliog. Child DevelOpment, Vol. 17, (December, 1946) pp. 245- 248“ 19 H. _ moo.w nasao 0.0m mmo.a . nsom m costs a. see.: macaw . .. o.H ooo.m _ . naom m.oossu o.m oma.m . .nasao . RH. . som.a naom a sense cosmoamacwfim mo Ho>oq p . xom . moompo :, . amen ores-mm are zo mmaHmz oze mmomomz so m x,; . mmmoom 2am: zmmzemm mmozmmmaaHa no mozaoHaHonm . m mamas . moaoom :mom :3. ON. . ma. mm. om. Hm. ,coozpwa moccCATMMHn em mH.o em mm.m Hs‘ 03.0 mm HH.© mm wm.m we sm.o 0mm ones: om mo.m we mm.m. mm mm.m we ms.m am mm.o aw ms.m mo: oawoz z mated z naom z madam .z naom 2 pages 2 . nsom z 0 Congo m momma , : ocmau amen amaw-mm was mom aeao OHmam.ao smazzom m mamas I 20 i) i 4 high school, who were physically able at the time. The test consists of stunts designed to measure flexibility, agility, balance, strength, and control. The average scorefor the 'White girls is 11.37 and for the Negro girls 10.65. There is no significant difference. Since the test is on a pass. and fail basis, it is not considered to be very reliable. I Dr. H.J. Montoye is conducting a survey on the grip (strength (using a hand dynamometer) of children in the . Saginaw school system. In his data he is designating whether subjects are Negro, Mexican, or White.) The author does not believe it is Dr. Montoye‘s intention to compare the grip . strength of Negro and White children. However, he possibly would make these data available to someoneelse for study.- Summary I I From the review of literature there seems to be some supporting data indicating a difference between Negro and White in certain physical traits, namely, reflex time and speed. Some inference can be made from the Westerlund and Tuttle study that difference in reaction time does exiSt, since there is a high correlation between reaction time and , speed in running short distances. The presence of so many Negroes in short races incidates that the Negro has a faster .reaction time. It was the author's desire to furnish further information concerning the difference in physical traits of Negro and White subjects. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY The tests were administered by physical eduCation in- structors. Two of the men are the regular physical education instructors at Saginaw High School. Three others are regular {physical education instructors in the elementary schools. The author supervised the testing in addition to doing some of the testing. The plan for testing was to administer four tests to each of the sophomore boys enrolled at Saginaw High School during the fall semester of 1963-64 school year. The tests are pull-up, vertical jump, agility ,run, and reaction time test. The entire male population of the sophomore class was tested. The only exceptions were thoSe excused from physical education for health reasons and those absent_for a long period of time, making it impossible to test them. The sopho- more class is made up of approximately 8% Mexicans; results for this segment of the class were withdraWn after testing, since the study was made to determine the differences betweenr ’Negro and White subjects. Sampling Eppppdprp Sampling was not necessary since the entire population of Negro and White was used. The author matched the Negroes [I A 22 f f and Whites as to age. Matching was done using intervals of one year; for example, 15 years to 15 years, 11 months was one category; 16 years to 16 years, 11 months inclusive constituted another category. .General Testing Procedure Each subject was issued a card. A sample is presented - below. Name .Date > Code (Age) Years Months Height ' Weight VERTICAL JUMP PULL-UP AGILITY RUN REACTION TIME The regular physical education instructors obtained the' height, weight, and age of each subject prior to regular- 4 testing. ‘IN|||NNNNN I 23 I The physical education classes meet on alternate days, i.e. if a class meets on Monday, it meets again on Wednesday. Tuesday classes meet on Thursday, etc. It was necessary to take two days to go through the first three tests, namely the vertical jump, agility run, and pull-up. It was neces- sary to give the reaction test at another time sinCe the equipment for this test was borrowed from the University of Michigan. This test was given two weeks after the initial testing. The instructors giving the tests are all experienced personnel. The person administering the vertical jump had given the test many times during regular testing programs at Saginaw High School. The pull-up test was given by an instructor with considerable experience. The agility run Was administered by our regular elementary physical education instructors, who had given the test to at least 3,000 elementary school students. The reaction test was also given by one of the elementary physical education instructors who had experience with the equipment, as well as having given the test for another project. There were testing stations for the various tests. The agility run was administered first, followed by the vertical jumpand the pull-up tests. As previously mentioned, the reaction test was given two weeks later. I 24 Explanation of Tests ‘ Agility test. Equipment-rtwo blackboard erasers, stop- watch calibrated in tenths of seconds. Procedure--two paral- lellines are marked off thirty feet apart;' Two erasers are » placed behind. one of the two lines. The test proceeds as follows:. (1) the subject stands behind the line opposite the erasers; (2) on the signal, ready-set-go, he moves as rapidly as possible to pick up one of the two erasers and places it behind the starting.line; (3) he immediately runs and pickS- upthe second eraser and carries it across the starting line; (4) the judge starts the Watch on the gosignal and stops it as the subject touches the second eraser to the floor; (5) the erasers are not to be thrown or dropped; (6) all contestants are to wear rubber-soled shoes; (7) two trials will be allowed with the faster time being recorded.; The times in this test are somewhat sloWer than those usually recorded for similar tests due to the fact the contestant is required to touch the second eraser to the floor rather than merely cross the line in an upright position. Vertical jump. Equipment--calibrated board and chalk. Procedure--this test, which is generally known as a power 1 President's Council on Youth Fitness, Youth Physical Fitness (Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1961). I ' 25 7 test, is administered as follows: (10) a calibrated board is suspended from the balcony of the gymnasium; (2) the subject touches his finger tips to a piece of chalk, then standing erect with arm fully extended he makes a mark on the board; (3) "in this jump, the individual swings his arms downward and backward, taking a crouch position to eliminate the possibility of a double jump, and leaps upward as high as possible, swinging the arms forcefully, forward and upward;"2 (4) as he reaches his maximum height, he touches his fingers to the board, leaving a chalk mark for easy reading; (5) the difference between the two marks is recorded; (6) each subject is given three trials with the best trial being used as test data. Pull-up. This is generally thought of as a strength test and will be used to compare the arm strength of the two groups. Equipment--portable gym with bar suspended nine' feet from the floor. Procedure--the pull-up test procedure is similar to the one suggested in the Youth Physical Fitness ' (manual3 and proceeds as follows: (1) grasp the bar with palms outward and with legs and arms fully extended, (2) pull body up until chin is above the top of the bar, (3) lower body until arms are fully extened, (4) repeat above procedures 2 Deobold VanDalen, "New Studies in the Sargent Jump," Research Quarterly, Vol. 2 (May 1940) pp. 112 3 President's Council on Youth Fitness, pp. cit., p. 44. e: ; - 26 without hesitation, (5) no swinging or snapping action, ((6) do not bend knees, (7) no kicking, (8) one count for each time chin is brought even with top of bar, (9) counting will be done by instructor, and (10) one trial. Reaction Time. Equipment--stimu1us reaction timer shown in Figure l. Procedure-~the clock was placed on one side of a partition where it was not visible to the subject being tested. The box housing the light and the key used to open and close the electrical circuit were placed on the ' opposite side of the partition. The subject was made familiar with the apparatus by the instructor giving the test.~ He was told that the light would come on at irregular intervals and that he was to turn it off as quickly as possible by pressing the proper key. The intervals used for actiVating the clock and light were set by selecting numbers from a random numbers table, i.e. l, 3, 2, 5, 4, 3, l: 2: 5- BY accumulating these numbers the following sequence was set up ‘for activating the timer: 1, 4, 6, ll, 15, l8, 19, 21, and 26 thus making it practically impossible for the subject to set up a pattern for guessing. At least fifteen trials were allowed before the reaction time was recorded. Ten trials were recorded and the average of the ten was used as test data. 27' .uasonao HonApooHo omoao was coao on com: mom 0 .msaserm a we cow: was noun: pnwfia wcfimso: .xom n toad» connotes onooop on com: xooHo m mafia coapomom madame: on com: mapmamadd .H .wfim . I (I ~ o I ‘ a a i . .v F . c . w v .n.\ .. e. a... _ - - . . . .. N62031:... .._ if! b 6/7. .. DULC‘T’INNBIQIDI‘ A .a.. v 4 O a a . .9... L . Y. . I\ a L . . I . . A at . . o O H _ .e . .. r. a... d. a. i . a .. . .. , . , .. .. . .. a. . _ I . . . ” e A . w a . , . . .M .. . u. .3. \‘ .i . «.m o . .u‘ i. ,.n b . o m...) , . .. m A . , . r . _ . e . . L . I 4 . no. I .4. . are» t. are: , 2 z and Q . . . a?» 30....3: I .I. . .. . h o 5.2in ya I3 ItaliIfl'uijiovRNJIIJ I . . I . . 11.1 1 I‘ll. 0.10.; f . I . .\ i . . I I . I. ‘TDK r: 9N.- ‘L‘OITI.NIDOI. l . 31'51 I ,II . {Ii Llr‘ III! I \ haw—2‘5 7’ ‘ --'-‘—‘ —‘ var. e I . I . I . I a: t. . eI. . ,. . . PFFle. . ... \ .).\ . .9 a ... .. \ u S. .. . L . .1 ,- I... .., ...'.. I a . . .. .I c I, ... . I 3.! .I..'$O.) I‘...,’..I.3.I‘a.1lll|’t)..‘.vf.l.viii}: .- [LII .n... Statistical Technique 4 . The statistical test used in this study is the "t" test as described by Yukeru. It is used to test the Signi-. ficance of difference between two statistics (in this study_ the means of uncorrelated samples). .The interpretation of the results is also done according to Yuker5. 4 Harold E. Yuker, A Guide to Statistical Calculations (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1956) pp. 55-70 5 Ibid., pp. 64-66 CHAPTER IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA This study was conducted to determine the difference between Negro and White male tenth grade subjects in strength, agility, power and reaction time. The tests used were the ’pull-up as a strength test, the shuttle run as a tefiZICLB agility, the vertical jump as.a power test, and the reaction time was tested with a reaction timer using light as a stimulus. I There were 319 male subjects enrolled in physical education classes at Saginaw High School when the study was started. ' At the conclusion of the testing it was necessary to eliminate 6 subjects from the data, who were not available for testing due to excessive absence or due to the fact that they dropped or were suspended from school for an indefinite period of time. The 26 subjects who were of Mexican descent were also eliminated from the study along with 10 other subjects, 8 of whom were overage and 2 who were underage. Grouping procedure The remaining 277 subjects were divided into two groups according to age, one group being 15 year olds, and the other 16 year olds. There were 123 White subjects and 77 Negroes ’ 13.0 12.0 - 11.0 h 10 O - I—H——- w a a 900.“ C2 ¢ O'./'o r4 éflra o 5? /// Fig. 2 Agility Run Test times in sec. 3O 2O ' 10--I 20.454 \QSOOOOSQQQ§\ l 846 O . Fig. 4 Vertical Jump 3O 15.0 13.5. 12.0 4 10.5 - 9.0«I 7.5- 6.0 . 4.5. 3.0- 1.5r l 'U 0 W H O // 4.471 2 Fig. 3 Pull-up Test .370 .330 ~ .290 - 0250 "I 0210 ‘ .170 O ' a I .2354 Fig. 5 Reaction Time Test scores in inches .__J. \\I Test time in sec. Mean of 15 year old Negro subjects. Mean of 15 year old White subjects. --~“ - ‘0‘ 13.0 . 18.0 .16,5 .. 12.0 -- 15.0 ~- ' 1305 T. 11.0 4- 12.0 4- 10.5 ab 10.0 -- PIS-4W ‘ 9 O ‘- ‘ ./ 7.5 -1... 90" NI/m/fl 60.. N at figm‘; . W a yr 4-5 8.0 -r- O; /2; 3.0 '- 1::- ¢IR f/ ‘ . 5 “" C ‘ “F in /:r Fig. 6 Agility Run . Fig. 7 Pull-Up Test Test times in sec. 30 , .370 .330 -- 2O 4- .290 .- .2 0 4- N , 5 ____1 W ' I 10 -r .210 4— €a> a may. :- //W3I .17... m. aw l . / [ Fig. 8 Vertical Jump Fig. 9 Reaction Time Test scores in inches Test time in sec. Mean of 16 year old Negro subjects. m Mean of 16 year old White subjects. J 32 in the 15 year age group. There were 31 White and 46 Negroes in the 16 year age group. . After the grouping was completed, the mean, standard deviation and t-value for each of the tests was computed. A comparison of means for the four tests for each of the age ’groups is shown in Figures 2 through 9. The means, standard deviations, and t-values, along with the level of signifiCance- are shown in Tables IV and V. Analysis of Data Of the four tests the vertical Jump was the only test ' in which there was significant difference between the means of Negro and White subjects at the .05 level. This was true of both the 15 and 16 year age groups.; The t-value for this test was 5.9 with (l98df) for the 15 year age group and 4.03 with (75df) for the 16 year age group. While the level of signifi- cance was set at the .05 level, the difference was great enough to be significant at the .01 level. In the agility test the t-value was .88 with (1980f) for the 15 year group and 1.92 with (75df) for the 16 year age group showing no significant difference at the .05 confidence level. ,The t-value for the pull-up or strength test was 1.07 with (l98df) for the 15 year age group and 1.00 with (75df) for the 16 year olds, showing no significant difference in either age group at the .05 level. 33 mEHB cofipommm 02 one. ommmo. - :mmm. ammo. ammm. mm» m.m Hom.m am:.om mam.m mem.sa ease Haoaaam> oz. . so.a esmm.m Heae.e oH.m mao.: ap-Hdaa oz . mm. . mmao. . mmao.0a mmam. mmH.oH suaaawa Ho>QH Rm 9 6 . 2mm: 6 . cams pm 1 , . same pcmoamacwfim opwwz - moan: meomempm ago mam» ma mo mozaOHaHonm mo qm>mq mza .mmoqa>-p .monemm amaazaem .mzamz >H mam”; 34 .oz .mmm. . amao. mozm.. omo. smmm. mane coaaommm at». mo.e :HH.m ammo.am mo.m mama.ma asas Hmeaatm> «:21 oz . oo.H mea.m esmnm. mam.m mwmm.a as-aasa ,, oz ma.a aaaa. aaaa.a oaaa. amm.0a aaaaaaa Ho>mq Rm u- rhu cams rhU cams once unwoawwcwfim .onwoz , . ouanz 'l” '1'! meombmpm ago mam» ma mo muzaOHmHonm mo qm>mq nza mpq<>-p .monemn omamzaem .mzamz > mqm¢a I I J 35 .The t-value for the reaction time test for the 15 . year age group was .046 with (l98df) while the t-value for the 16 year age group was .539 with (75df), again indicating ' no significant difference. While the‘t-values in agility, strength, and reaction. time tests were not great enough to show a significant difference between Negro and White subjects, it should be noted that in all the tests, with the exception of the reaction time in the 16 year old group, the mean consistently ‘ favored the Negro, although the difference was not great enough to be significant. The author does not believe that .these findings are purely accidental. He does believe that the Negro, to some extent, does excel in the majority of the traits tested. General Discussion. Some interesting observations can be made from the test data in this study. In the 16 year age group a Negro subject made the best score in each of the four tests. In the reaction test» 'for this group, the only test in which the White subjects had the best mean score, a Negro had the best reaction time. However, there were ten Negroes with a reaction time slower than the slowest White subject. In this test the range for the White subjects was .180 to .269 seconds. The range for the Negroes was .170 to .409 seconds. From these data, it is if, . 36 / obvious that although a Negro had the best reaction time he also deviated farther from the mean than the White subjects, resulting in a higher mean score. This deviation from the mean did not seem to occur to the same extent in the 15 year age group. The only notice- - able deviation was in the power test or vertical jump in which the Negro had the best score with the White subject' having the lowest score. In general, the range of scores for. :the various tests was smaller in the 15 year age grOup, although a greater number of subjectswere tested. The author feels that this smaller range could possibly-mean that the younger subjects were more easily motivated.4 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to determine the difference between Negro and White male subjects at the tenth grade level in certain physical traits, namely; power, agility, strength and reaction time. The vertical jump was used as a power test, the shuttle run as a test of agility, the pull-up as a strength test, and the test of reaction time was done using light as a stimulus. The author felt the results might, to some extent explain the presence and outstanding perform- ance of so many Negroes in sports. The subjects were the male students enrolled in the tenth grade physical education classes at Saginaw High SchOol, at Saginaw, Michigan. The four tests mentioned above were administered to all the subjects under as nearly similar conditions as were possible at the time. The power, agility and strength tests were given during a four day period approximately two weeks prior to the reaction time test.’ This was necessary since the reaction timer was not available during the initial testing period. After the testing was completed, the subjects were divided into two groups; those ranging in age from 15 years to j 38 15 years and 11 months inclusive, and those ranging from 16 years to 16 years and 11 months inclusive. Subjects not in these catagories were eliminated from the study along with the Mexican subjects. The 15 year age group included 123 White subjects and 77 Negroes. The 16 year age group included 31 White subjects and 46 Negroes. ‘ 'The data was statistically tested using the t-test as a test of significance, setting the level of significance at the .05 level. I The data was presented in tabular form. A comparison of means of the two groups in the various tests were shown by use of the vertical bar graph. Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn as the results of this study: 1. In this study the difference between the Negro and. White subjects in agility, strength, and reaction time was not great enough to be significant at the .05 level. 2. The results of this study Showed the Negroes to bet 'significantly more powerful as measured by the vertical jump. 3. The results of the study showing the Negro more powerful could account for his outstanding re-Z bounding ability in basketball, as well as his 5” 39 jumpingand running ability in track, particularly in the short races. Recommendations . i The author makes the following recOmmendations as the result of this study: 1. It is recommended that a similar study be made. with the subjects having full knowledge of the purpose of the study. This could serve as a motivating factor. Repeat the study using more grade levels, thereby including more subjects and a wider range of ages. Using the data in the appendixl, another study. could be made using a grouping according to height and weight in conjunction with age. Members of athletic teams should be tested separately. Coaches of various athletic teams should use data collected from studies such as this in selecting team members. 1 See Appendix A-D. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY BoOks ‘ . /Clarke, Harrison H. Application of Measurement to Health and Physical Education. New York: Prentice Hall Inc., 1950 .IGuzman, Jessie Parkhurst, Lewis Jones and Woodrow Hall. The Negro Yearbook. New York: William H. Wise and Co., Inc., 1952 .Henderson, Edwin Bancroft. The Negro In Sports, Washington D.C.: The Associated Publishers Inc., 1949. Mitchell, Elmer D. "Racial Traits in Athletics," The American Physical Education Review. (March, April. May, 1922) pp.l2-13. (FeprintTfif Moon, Truman J., James Otto, and Albert Towle. Modern Biology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, Winston Inc. , 1960. . Yuker, Harold E. A Guide to Statistical Calculations. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1958 Periodicals Browne, R. L. "A Comparison of Patellar Tendon Reflex Time of Whites and Negroes," Research Quarterly, Vol. (May. 1935) pp 121-126 Espenschade, Anne. "Fitness of Fourth Grade Children," Research Quarterly, Vol. 29 (October 28,1958), pp 274—278 . "Note on the Comparative Motor Ability of Negro and White Tenth Grade Girls," Bibliog. Child Development, Vol.17, (December, 1946), pp. 245- 248 Hutinger, Paul W. "Differences in Speed Between American Negro and White Children in Performance of the 35- yard Dash, " Research Quarterly, Vol. 30 (October, 1959) pp 366- 367 ‘I all. .i ll ill. 11"! JIII III I! 1IIIIII f I 42 /,. lLautenbach, Ruth and W.W. Tuttle. "The Relationship Between Reflex Time and Running Events in Track," Research Quarterly, Vol. 3 (October, 1932) pp. 138-1 2 \ vMetheny, Eleanor. "Some Differences in Bodily Proportions Between Negro and White Male College Students as Related to Athletic Performance,” Research Quarterly, Vol. 10 (December, 1939) pp. 41-53 JPasamanik, Benjamin. "Racial Differences," Science News Letter. Vol. 55 (June 11, 19u9) pp. 371-372 President's Council on Youth Fitness. Youth Physical Fitness Washington D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1961. Van Dalen, Deobold. "New Studies in the Sargent Jump," Research Quarterly, Vol. 11, No. 2 (May, 1940) pp. 112 Westerlund, J. H., and w.w. Tuttle. "The Relationship Between Running Events in Track and Reaction Time," Research Quarterly, Vol 2 (October, 1931) pp. 95-100. JWilliams, J. R. and R. B. Scott. "Growth and DevelOpment of Negro Infants," Child Development, Vol. 24 (1953) pp. 103-121 APPENDICES 44 mHm. RH : .oH moH mm m mH mm mHm. om oH .oH me mm. m, mH mm ,mmm. 3H 0 a.HH com mu m mH 3m :mH. mH w m.m HmH mm m mH mm mmm. om : m.m :sH H» m mH mm New. :H o m.oH mHH mm m mH Hm mom. mH m s.m mmH mu m mH on How. mH o m.oH emH mm m mH mH sow. NH - H m.oH omH. mm m mH. wH on. NH 0 m.HH omH mm m mH NH mHm. MH 0 H.HH mHH so m mH mH 3mm. mH a o.m emH‘ mm. m mH mH mmm. wH. m w.m omH on m .mH EH Hmm. wH m .oH mmH mm .H mH mH mam. SH : m.oH omH mm H mH «H can. mm : s.m meH Ha H mH HH on. mH w e.m sHH mm H mH oH sum. :H m m.oH mm mm H mH m mew. mH H :.oH mmH so H mH w mmw. om 0 .OH HeH mm o mH a mmm. mm m :.m smH me o mH m mmm. Hm m mm . 3H mm o 3 m 3mm. :H o mnoH mmH mm o mH e com. mH H .HH pm on o mH m smH.. mH : m.m meH mm o mH m HHm. mH a e.oH :mH mm o mH H A.oomv oEHB A.ch mean A.oomV cam nocsom mOQOCH .moz .nmw . :oHoooom HooHoso> no: HHoa OHooonm oanoz ocwHom owe nooonnom meomemom meHmz aHo mamH-mH zo ameomHHoo aeao < mums“. 45 «mm. mH o m.HH mmH mm o mH m. mam. om m o.m emH mm o mH mm mHm. AH oH m.m H:H_ mm m mH .mm mwm. mH m H.oH mmH mm o mH Hm mHm. NH m :.oH omH ms, m mH om wmm., mH : ~.m mmH mm m mH me mmm. mH m «.HH mmH om m mH a «mm. mH oH m.m mmH mg m mH an 0mm. AmH m .HH on mm m mH a men. NH m :.oH HoH mm m mH a sea. mH a s.oH mHH mm m mH as 0mm. mH o m.oH me on m .mH ma sow. mH. m .m MHH so m mH we sow. pH 0 m.oa :mH mg m mH n Hum. mH m m.oH HzH so 2 mH a 3mm. om m s.m wHH so e mH mm mHm. mH o m.oH seH mm a mH mm mMm. SH m w.m meH mm s mH am m m. mH m H.oH mmH mm s mH m mam. mH m s.oH ooH mm : mH mm 0mm. Hm m m.m mHH em a mH em mom. NH m m.m mmH os : mH mm mmm. mH m H.oH mmH mm a mH mm Hmm. pH 0 m.oH omH mm m mH Hm mmmJ mH s m.oH pm He m mH om omm. mH H :.HH mmH Ha m mH mw Hem. om m m.m omH ms m mH mm. mHm. Hm m :.m mmH mm m mH .am A.omnv oEHa A.ch dash A.oomv cam npcsom nOQOCH .moz .nnw .coHoooom HooHoso> no: HHoa OHooonm oanoz oanom owe mooomnsm. HooocHocoov a mHmaa 46 .‘msm. om a .oH wwH Ha m mH mm smm. wH m m.m omH mm m mH mm wmm. NH m_. :.HH on .ma w mH Hm .mem. mH_ m m.m mmH . mm m mH ow eHm. NH : o.oH mmH ms m mH ma smm. NH H m.HH mmH so. m mH we mmm. mH o w.oH mmm ms w mH as Hmm. om mH .o.m waH ow m mH on now. om oH . m.m mH an m mH ms mam. 8H m m.m oH, mm m. mH an own. mH m m.HH mmH ms m mH ma Hem. EH, m . w.oH omH mm m mH we eon. mH m .0H me_ mm m .mH He smm. mH H . m.m mmH .Hs a mH . ow mam . mm m :.m m? . we a ‘ H mm Hmm. NH m m.m omH on a .mH mm :mm. om : m.m mmH we a mH am wmm. on m m.oH mmH mm a mH we mmm. NH m m.oH so mm s mH mm «SH . H o 8.2 RH HH. m m H so smm. mH e :.oH oHH. mm o mH mo mom. mH m m.oH mHH mm o mH mm on. NH H m.oH omH on w mH Hm mam. mH H s.oH. mHH an m mH om sow. om, w s.m HmH mm m mH on cam. om w H.oH mmH mm m mH ‘mm mom . mm m .m HmH mm m mH 3 wow. mm 0H .m HeH. mm o mH mm A.omnv mEHe A.ch mesh A.oonv cam nocsom mOSOCH .moz .mhw soHoooom HooHoso> no: HHoa oHooonm oanoz oanom owe ooowoom HomoeHocoov a mHmae 47 mNN. HN . o N.m mmH os HH mH NHH mEN. mH s o.m HEH Hs HH mH HHH on. HN m s.m EmH Ns HH oH oHH sEN . ON :2 . ooH soH ,mo HH oH moH HON. 0N m o.m sEH so HH mH ooH ,osN. w,mH .o H.oH HmH oo HH oH soH mmN. sH N .s.oH. NEH! Hs oH oH ooH NNN. sH_ m s.oH mEH mo oH mH moH .mHm. sH_ . H m.m NEH mo oH mH EoH omN. mH s o.m NmH Ns oH mH moH EsH. mH . s o.oH mHH mo oH oH NoH NHN. mH N E.oH. ooH mo .oH oH HoH ooH. 0N oH s.m mHH mo oH oH ooH +mmH. 0N m o.oH sEH Ns‘ oH .mH mm NMN. oH‘ . H m.m ooH Eo oH oH om oHN.. NN E m.m EEH oo oH oH so HEN. sH m m.m HEH mo m oH om oNN. 0N N o.m MNH os m mH mm EoN. mH H .oH smH mo m oH Em moN. NN E o.m HmH mo m mH mm msN. 0N m N.oH ooH mo m H Nm mmN. 0N o E.m mEH mo m mH Hm mON . mH o o.m msH Hs m mH om ‘ sHN. mH m m.m mHH mo my mH mm ‘mmm. wH -H m.oH EwH os m mH mo NHN. sH N NHHH .omH Ns o mH so mmN. mH. oH E.m mEH os o mH ow HEN. mH m w.m mmH mo o oH mo mmN . NH . o H .m oNH oo o H Em s.oonv oEHe A.n:Hv mesh s.oomv 25m mocsom nozocH .moz .nhw :oHoooom HooHoso> no: HHoa oHHooEm oanoz oeoHom owe Hoonpom HooocHosoov E.mHmEs - . ‘ .l - 8. NH)...JHQJ....W4 u 3.314%“: .. . . . ._ . . . O. - l'| it"llJl - H .' .o. 0 O ‘ '0. v H r u . E ‘ a ., .. H - . . o. u k .r- a '5 h. . . . v. «A 3.... - . L i- .. O4 .1 . Q's. . Fl - ,"i'. 48 wsN. HN o s.m ooH mo HH mH MNH OON. oH _oH E.m oNH mo HH mH NNH oNN. sH. m m.HH mEH so HH mH HNH mON. oH H o.oH EEH oo HH mH ONH mom. HH 0 o.HH ms mm HH mH mHH oNN. mH o m.m ooH mo HH mH oHH mNN. mH m o.m omH os HH oH sHH oHN. wH E. s.oH MHH Hs HH mH oHH mmN. MH o N.NH HoH No HH mH oHH mHN. mN s m.m EoH Ns HH oH HH st. oH o m.oH NEN Ns HH mH HH A.oomv oEHB A.:Hv gash s.oonv 25m noczom noBOCH .noz .nmw HooHono> no: HHoN oewHoz oENHom owe .nooonnom coHoooom oHoooEm HoooeHocoov E mHmEs . 15,-Ill 49 mNN. HN E E.oH oHH mo o mH sN mEN. NN oH m.m me mo E mH oN smN. HN NH m.m ONH‘ mo E mH mN omN. mH m m.m oHH mo m mH EN ooN. sH E s.oH om No m mH mN EsH. mH N .oH mmH mo m mH NN smN. mH m m.m oHH Eo m mH HN mmH. 0N o N.oH oHH so m mH 0N NNN. .oH ,N o.oH sNH oo N mH mH MNN. mH E m.m EHH Eo N oH oH OON. 0N m o.m NEH mo N oH sH oHN. mH E o.m omH ms N .mH oH mmH. HN E s.m ooH ms mw oH mH ENN. NN s N.m. OEH mo N mH EH ooN. mN. m o.m EEH No N mH mH sHN. mH N H.oH Nm No NW oH NH HHN. oH H o.oH. EmH oo H oH HH HNN. mN .HH H.m moH mo H mH oH ENN. mH m N.oH sNH so H mH m NHN. NN N s.m HNH mo H oH o mON. 0N E s.m moH so HH mH s NmN. 0N E N.oH ooH mo H mH o omH. mH N m.oH oNH oo H mH o HsN. NH 0 E.oH ooH No 0 oH E mON. NN. m m.m mNH oo o oH m mHN. oH E o.NH mNH oo1 o mH N mmN. mN o N.m mNH mo 0 mH H A.oomv oEHe A.ch mesh A.oomv com nocsom nonoCH .moz .mnw :oHoooom HooHoso> no: HHEN oHooonm oanoz oanom oNH nooonnom msomemom omomz NHo mams-mH zo omsomHHoo asao m.mHmEs 50 omm. _ mH N .oH oHH oo m oH om ooN.. . oH H. m.oH om Eo m oH . Em ENN. NN o N.oH omH mo m. oH mo OEN. ma N m.oH ooH mo 0 mH No osN. HN m m.m HmH ‘Vso m oH Ho NoN. HN H E.m sEH ms m mH. om OMN. sN o N.m mEH mo ..m oH NE sHN. ,sH E E.oH . NEH os o mH oE NNN. 0N N s.m . ooH Es . o mH sE HoN. mH H .m ooH ms m oH A . oE omN. oH N s.oa oNH oo o . mH mE smH. NN o H.oH omH . so o mH EE MON., mH o m.oH oHH os o oH mE mmN. HN m H.oH mNH Eo m.‘ mH . . NE moN. oH. m s.m NMH oo o mH _ . HE sz. EN m m.m ooH mo m mH 0E msN. sN oH .oH EHH oo o mH mm EmN. HN o .oH oNH as s mH om HEN. 0N m o.m smH oo s mH sm mmH. oN o .oH EEH mo s mH om omN. NN o . .oH HEH Ns s mH mm oNN. EN m o.m moH Ns o oH Em oHN. oH o N.oH omH os o mH mm oHN. oH m E.NH oNH os o- mH Nm smN. mN m o.m mNH oo o oH Hm omm. NN m .oH oNH so o mH om OEN. mN N H.oH omH oo o mH mN mmm. mH o H.oH mHH Eo m oH oN A.oomv oEHB A.:Hv dash , s.ommv 25m mocsom nozocH .moz .mpw coHoooom HooHosos no: HHEN. oHooorm oroHoz onoHom owe nooonoom HooocHosoov m mHmas . 3...“... a V? p . I I . II I c I 51 HsN. mH E .HH oEH oo HH mH ss HmN. HN H s.m smH Ns HH mH os HoN. 0N m N.oH mmH so HH mH ms NON. sN m H.oH ooH Hs HH oH Es oNN. mH H m.HH ooH Ns HH. oH ms smH. 0N o m.m NEH Hs HH mH Ns MNN. mN. s E.m mmH so HH mH Hs mom. sH E N.oH omH mo HH .oH os mHN. mN s E.oH omH mo HH mH . mo EoN. HN m N.oH NNH Hs oH mH mo mMN. EN E H.oH mEH Ns oH oH so mNm. mN N m.oH mEH ms oH mH oo ENN. EH 0 m.NH ENN mo oH oH mo omN. NN o w.oH ooH os oH mH Eo HoH. mH o w.oH EHN Ns oH mH mo NmN. mH E m.oH HEH so m mH No ooH. NN s .m mmH mo m. mH Ho smH. mH H m.m H H mo m mH oo omN. mN m E.m HmH oo m oH mm mNN. NN o o.m mEH mo m mH mo oHN. 0N o o.m NmH 0s m- .oH so oON. mN mH m.m ooH Ns m mH om A.oonv oEHe A.:Hv meow A.oonv com nocsom monoCH .noz .nnw soHoooom HooHosos no: HHEN oHooszm onoHoz onoHo: owe ooonnom HomosHosoov m mHmEe 52 .oH oN NON. oH o m.m ENH oo oH ooH. 0N m o.m mNH_ mo 0 oH EN omN. HN o .oH EEH ms m oH MN NNN. mH o o.NH omH so a oH , NN omN. wH N m.m OEH .os m oH HN HoN. sH E o.NH oNH mo o oH ON.. smN. EH 0 E.oH Nm Eo o oH. mH mmH. NN oH m.m OEH mo m oH mH EmH. sH o oHoH sHH mo m oH - sH oNN. _ HN o o m NoH os E .oH . oH oMN. 0N m m.m NNH mo E oH . mH. mMN. I NN m N.m NEH mo E oH EH HoN. mH m o.NH EEH os E oH . mH/ mNN. sH o H.oH omH so E oH NH smN. , oH m N.oH MEH so N oH HH mmN. ‘ mH H m.oH omH mo N oH oH mmN. NN s m.m omH mo N oH m, HNN. sH N o.oH MNH os H oH o mEN. 0N m N.oH smH mo H oH s mNN. mH H o.oH oHH mo H oH o NNN. mN mH o.m mmH so H oH m HNN. HN m m.m EmH Ns H oH E mEN. wH m o.oH HNH oo o oH m mEN. oH m o.m NmH mo 0 oH N mEN. oH m .oH HmH oo o oH H s.oonv oEHB .A.CHV mesh s.oonv 25m mocsom monocH .moz .oH» soHoooom HooHosos no: HHEN oHoooEm oanoz oanom ‘ owe nooosnom msomsmam msHmz oHo rams-oH zo amsomHHoo Esam . o NHmEs .k. 32:3: 35.? so. $38.? .13.. _ . _ r... I .. . ' I u o 1.- .I.IT ‘ .I.. .1. mo“... .5. 53 soN. mH m m.OH HEH mo HH oH Hm EoN. EH O O.HH mHN so HH oE Om mHN. HN s m.m ooH mo HH oH ON HON. m O s.HH ooH mo HH .oH wN mMN. mH. N N.oH OmH so HH oH sN mmN. HN m o.m mNH mo . OH oH oN s.oonv oEHB A.:HV mesh A.oonv cam moodom nOBOCH .moz .nhw soHsooom HooHosos has HHoN oHooonm pEoHoz sstom owe § . ouoofipom AposcHucooV o OHQOB a r '4“? I 0. I. .C - O . ‘ B ' I ‘ ‘ g- . . r. I .. ‘nflfluli- -. - -. . - -. - o I - a. .es ourrsncm 54 mHm. HN o E.oH mEH mo E oH .mN som. NN o m.m OHH oo. E oH NN HHN. oN w m.o mMH Os m oH HN HHN. sH E .OH OmH oo m oH ON EHN. HN N o.m mEH Os m oH mH smH. mN o E.oH mmH mo m oH NH EsH. OH o ENOH EsH Os N oH sH mmH. ON s N.m mNH oo N oH oH soH. ON o s.m NoH oo N oH oH ooN. ON m o.oH omH mo N .oH EH EmN. EH O m.HH. OsH mo H oH mH .EEN. mN m H.oH mEH mo H oH .NH mON. EN m m.m mEH os H oH HH oEN. mH O O.HH NmH mo H oH OH HEN. oN m m.m mmH Os H oH m OON. mN mH m.m oHH mo H or. o NsN. HN OH E.m OmH oo H oH s smN. mN m m.m ooH os O oH o NOE. NN m m.m NHH mo O oH m HoN. HN N o.oH soH Os O oH E omN. HN N s.m OHH mo O oH m ONN. mH m o.oH mOH mo O oH N ooN. mH N O.HH ONH. mo O oH H s.oonv oEHe s.oHv mesh «.oonv cam mocsom nonocH .noz .oH» soHoooom HooHosos no: HHEN oHooEEm sanos osoHom owa soonoom mBommem omomz GAO m