«mm; m EM“ w 13g 11 u; u! am W

n

LEEEMBY
"rizcmgan Eétate
{Universfiay
LA

 

 

 

 

* MSU
. “LIBRARIES
'"

 

 

RETURNING MATERIALS:
P1ace in book drop to
remove this checkout from
your record. FINES wi11

'.be charged if book is

returned after the date
stamped below.

 

 

r - “hnM‘ILJQ w
. f i .
. 3 d

200 #356

 

 

THE PRESERVATION OF THE PEOPLE'S CULTURAL AND
URBAN HERITAGE IN LIBYA: AN EVALUATION OF THE
CURRENT SITUATION AND RECOIVIMENDED FRAMEWORK
FOR ACTION; WITH EMPHASIS ON THE OLD

CITY OF TRIPOLI. "

Thesis for the Degree of M. U. P.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SADEG MOHAMMED ZARRUGH

1976

oesgeees- .Rv

 

ABSTRACT

THE PRESERVATION OF THE PEOPLE'S
CULTURAL AND URBAN HERITAGE IN LIBYA:
AN EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT SITUATION AND
RECOMMENDED FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION;
WITH EMPHASIS ON THE OLD CITY OF TRIPOLI.
BY

Sadeg Mohammed Zarrugh

This thesis focuses on the importance of preserving
the cultural and urban heritage both as a means for a
people to keep their own unique identity and as a.
source of inspiration in building the human settlements
of the future. Old Muslim cities are discusSed as
examples of human settlements that meet the environmental,
social and cultural needs of their inhabitants in an

organic and harmonious way.) A survey of the Libyan

,_.____ _. -L... "—r

 

heritage in the human settlements includes a look at
the regional differences in urban.form caused by adaptation
to specific environmental and social patterns. (The
value of this heritage to the Libyan people and the
danger of its loss due to a lack of awareness and the
impact of rapid modernization is stressed. )

Ehefigase for the_preservation of the Old City of

Tripoli includes a detailed look at its historical

"a. ,

Sadeg Mohammed Zarrugh

background, adaptation to the climate, and the urban

environment. The sociological factors, such as customs
M‘" -..... r .____, -.—-..—~* M-.___.—--u

and traditions which shape and interact with the urban

form in an on—going, dynamic, relationship are described

to fill out the picture of the Old City as a living

:— u.._—_i.w —.

entity. An examination of the architecture and urban

design of Ehe Old City reveals the way in which they

reflect the people's way of life. It is shown that

this heritage is neglected and under the threat of

wholesale destruction, which leads to an understanding

of the urgent need for preservation. Various approaches

and plans that have been under consideration for the

Old City of Tripoli are discussed and critiqued.
Themexisting legal and administratiyeistructure in

Libya is then evaluated for its ability to meet the

needs of preservation. Finally, a set of recommendations

for a national policy, administrative and financial

framework is put forth with notes as to the necessary

legislative changes for their establishment. It is

also proposed that the state adopt U.N.E.S.C.O.qrecommen-

dations for technical measures, research and education,

and international cooperation as revised in the text to

CLLL__mh,H,fl1.

be applicable to the proposed preservation structure in

Libya.

 

 

THE PRESERVATION OF THE PEOPLE’S CULTURAL AND URBAN
HERITAGE IN LIBYA:H AN EVALUATION OF THE CURRENT
SITUATION AND RECOMMENDED FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION:
NITH EMPHASIS ON THE. OLD CITY OF TRIPOLI.

BY

Sadeg Mohammed Zarrugh

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF URBAN PLANNING
School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture

1976

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to the faculty of
the Department of Urban Planning and especially John Mullin,
Sanford Farness, Don Anderson and Charles Barr, who have

contributed their knowledge and support.

I would also like to acknowledge the staff of the
General-Directorate of Antiquities, Tripoli, The Library of
the Ministry of Planning, Tripoli, and other friends who

provided the material used for this study.

Gratitude is extended to Ms. Laura Sager for help with

the editing and reviewing of this thesis.

ii

 

TABLE OF

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . .
TABLE OF CONTENTS . . . .
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . .
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . .

Statement of Problems

Importance of Study .

Scope of Study . . .
Methodology . . . . .

PART ONE

CONTENTS

LIBYAN HERITAGE : ORIGIN

CHAPTER I.
VALUES . . .

DevelOpment of Old Muslim Cities
Decline

Present Situation:

CHAPTER II.

Historical Background .

The Cultural Value of the Urban Heritage
Old Human Settlements and Their Present

Situation . . . . .

Modernization and Its Impact On Human

Settlements . . . .

F“

p.

0

OLD MUSLIM CITIES:

and VALUES

HERITAGE AND

LIBYAN URBAN HERITAGE AND THE
NEED FOR PRESERVATION

Page
ii
iii

‘7

063%!“ H

15
15
23
30

30
32

34

48

PART TWO

'OLD CITY OF TRIPOLI: THE CASE FOR PRESERVATION

CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND . . . . . .
CHAPTER IV. URBAN ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . .
Climate & TOpography . . . . . . . . . . .

Sociological Factors . . . . . . . . . . .
Architecture & Urban Form . .

CHAPTER.V. NEED FOR PRESERVATION AND PRESENT
P ROB LE MS 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0

Need for Preservation . . . . . . . . . .
Present Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Present Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PART THREE

PRESERVATION IN LIBYA:
EXISTING AND PROPOSED FRAMEWORK

CHAPTER VI. EXISTING LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE
FRAMEWORK O O O O O O O O O O O I

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Legal Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Administrative Framework . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER VII. PROPOSED FRAMEWORK . . . . . . .

Outline for a National Cultural Policy
Administrative Framework . . . . . . .
Financial Framework . . . . . . . .
Technical Measures . . . . . . . . .
Research, Educafion and Information .
International C00peration . . . . .

CONCLUS ION O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O . O O O O O O O O O

A. UNESCO Preliminary Draft Recommendation.

B. Illustration and Figure Sources . . .
C. Glossary 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O O O

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . . .

iv

Page

60
75
75
83

99
99

.106

109

127

127
131
136

142

142
146
159
163
169
171

173
174
174
181
184

186

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

 

Illustration

1. Fez: The typical closely knit labyrinth
of an Arab City.

2. Tunis: Medina Bazaar

3. Baghdad: Golden Mosque

4. Rabat: Typical narrow street

5. Cairo: Al-Ghuri Khan

6. Lahore: Badshahi Mosque

7. Cairo: Al-Azhar Mosque

8. Damascus: Umayyed Mosque

9. Kuwait: Markedly out of context . ... often
approaches comic . . . architecture.

10. Riyadh: 'modern' architecture often disregards
,. . . needs

11. Benghazi: Old Square 1889'

12. Tripoli: Al-Gouzgou Mosque

13. Zliten: Sidi Abdul Salam Mosque

l4. Tripoli: Villa Volpi, now Museum for Islamic
Art

15. Murad Agha Mosque.in 1912.

16. Present: After restoration

1?. Interior

18. Column

19. Garian: Aerial view

59

 

Illustration

 

20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.

37.

38.

39.
40.
41.
42.

43.

Troglodyte Cutaway View

Section

Entrance

Interior ‘

Exterior

Nalut: Old house

Watchtower

Hun: mosque as a focal point
Murzek: general view

Murzek: Old Castle

Ghat: Roof

El-Barkat: Old Mosque

Ghat: Built-in bench

Ghat: Old popular handpainted doors
Hun

Um Al-Araneb: Old School

Ghadames: aerial view of oasis and town
Ghadames: aerial view

Huge maze of covered streets

They are dark, cool and quiet
Entrance to the old pedestrian city.
Usaiet et Tuta: Intimate, human scale
The ancient mosque of El-Kebir

Entrance

vi

Illustration

 

44.
45.
46.
47.
48.

49.

51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.

65.

69.

Interior

Geometric three-dimensional designs
New hotel with traditional character
Walled farms

Ancient Ain El-Faras

-50.
The realm of the women is on the rooftops

The five-sided Old City of Tripoli

Old City — General View - Mid 18th Century
Old City: aerial view - 1685

Old City: aerial view - 1530

At Bab Al—Hurria

At Bab El—Jedid

At Sug Al—Mushir Entrance

Castle: Aerial view — 1685

Castle: at present

Castle: 1873

Castle: late 19th century

Castle: at present

Tripoli: Old and new urban fabric

The vistas are mainly ended by a minaret

-68.
The urban form

An-Naga Mosque

vii

98

Illustration

 

70.
71.
72.
73.
I 75.
77.
78.
79.
I 82.
83.
I 84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
I 89.

91.
92.

93.

 

El-Kahadria Mosque
Usaiet A1 Dalia

Sug Er-Rebaa is the characteristic Arab bazaar

-74. Clock tower

~76. Sug Al-Mushir

Sug Er-Rebaa

The Silhouette of the Old City of Tripoli

~81. Ahmed Basha Mosque: Interior

The oldest mosque in Tripoli: An-Naga
Examples of Tripoli's minarets

Fonduk Er-Rakkah is typical

Old elaborate courtyard houses

Karamanli House

French Counselor House

Libyan Masharabia "Ein El Zarzoor"

a - d Frequently used styles of arched doorways
Floral reliefs show the Byzantine influence in
the Old City of Tripoli

Old bedroom and furniture

Ziliz - glazed tiles used to decorate doorways
and interiors.

Examples of frequently used stone columns

94.-95. Libyan modern housing units

viii

126

 

Illustrations

 

96.
97.
98.

99.

100 O
101.

Tunis, Tunisia
Mohammadia, Morocco ’-
St. Louis, U.S.A.

Tripoli's New Market: No resemblance to the
concept of the old sugs

Omar Al-Muktar St. 1938

Omar Al-Muktar St. present

102.-103.

Out of scale plastic and metal billboards

104. -105.

106.
107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.
114.

Views gone forever since the project to fill
in the sea started in 1975

Infill began in late 1950's

Same view in 1911.

The destroyed wall

Sidi Shan Es-Ishan Mosque

Sidi Hamouda Mosque

Proposed freeway on the north side
Al-Fatah Street - Main promenade
French counselor's house

Fonduk

115.-116.

117.

Deterioration

Cluttering of the silhouette by abundance of
utility poles and wires

ix

126

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

\DQQO‘UI-waH

L:
To

;a
[.0

12.

£13.

114.

.15.

16.

17.

Development of courtyard house.
Fatimid Cairo

Map of Libyan Arab Republic
Historical Development of Murzek
Historical Development of Ghadames
Ghadames Quarters and Ethnic Groups
Old City of Tripoli Development
Old City of Tripoli - 1897

Old City Circultaion: "Hierarchy"

A two-story Libyan courthouse, Old
City of Tripoli, 1746 A.D.

A two-story Libyan courthouse, Old
City of Tripoli, 1790 A.D.

Sectional view through a typical alley
in the Old City, Tripoli.

Typical modest contemporary Libyan
courthouse (Hosh).

Merchants Hotel (Nozol El-Toggar)
Old City of Tripoli, 1731, A.D.

Tripoli: Major streets and extent of urban
growth for 1988.

Tripoli: Map showing the Italian wall
surrounding the City - 1939.

Section across Al-Fatah St., showing the
proposed filling in of the sea, heliport
and parking area.

Page

 

16
26
34
43
44
46

66
72

85
92

92

92

92

94

101

126

106

INTRODUCTION
STATEMENT OF PROBLEMS

The process of rapid modernization efforts that cities
are undergoing raises the question whether thexgygrall
33€S9$ésa§s terireement reedstsniossEim!Births
\qualitykgf life; Major highways and road construction,
massive demolition of old areas and.gigantic urban
renewal projects, are examples of such efforts. Outcries
of protest against pollution, traffic jams, overcrowding
and the growing distance between home and work place
are all indications of dissatisfaction with the urban,
environment. All of these physical ills of the cities
have negative social and psychological effects on the
urban population and disrupt traditional intimate
patterns of social relations.

Although these conditions and aspects of urban
life are generally found in urban areas, 91d cities,are
EEEQT9§t«baniIY affected. Changes in the physical
form of a given city first take place in its old districts.
Because of its age, major road expansions, massive
renewal projects and high rise building construction
usually find a place within the boundaries of old districts,

regardless of the historic or cultural significance they

may have .

This is the problem that faces urban develOpment
in Libya and most of the developing countires. Confronted
with population pressures, both as natural increases and
internal and external immigration--coupled with tremendous
urges to develop and modernize, developing countries have
adopted the industrialized countries approach gerIQQking
~iE§xnegatiyenaspects. This has committed these countries-“
to great mistakes as a result OfViREQEanEEAEISPEIggnthat
ignores the special characteristics of the domestic cul-
tures and local environmental conditions.

This kind of development, in most cases, leaves an
undesirable impact and causes damage to the social, cultural
and physical fabric of the urban environment--exemplified
by the deterioration of the old and historic districts.-
yAlthough much damage could happen to any old city, district,
or building in the work regardless of whether it is in an
industrialized country or a developing one, the eagerness
for development and the urgency felt to satisfy immediate
needs, makes the old cities of the Third World particularly
vulnerable.’>

In Libya, as other developing countries, the steady
deterioration of historic urban areas is aggravated by the
continuous misunderstanding of the significance of such
areas; historic, cultural and as an inspiration to future

generations attempting to understand the richness of their

 

national heritage. These countries are also overlooking
the urban—cultural values inherent in old cities that are
highly applicable as aids in developing a foundation of
principles and ideas for building humane urban environments
now and in the future. I- —
Another threat to the historic cities and districts
is‘prixateyspgculation, The search for more profits on the
part of speculators makes them insensitive to the values
attached to old structures. Owners and land developers,
often motivated by dreams of profitable high-rise buildings
or modern structures, usually fight measures intended for
historic preservation. For example, in the Old City of
Tripoli, Libya, some home owners and speculators have
resisted the freeze imposed on building_permits.l
,As the dangers to old cities and districts become more
vivid and obvious due to the fast deterioration of their
structures, concerned citizens and preservationists start
to organize and act in order to generate concern over the
fate of these areas—-even beginning to perform primary
preservation tasks. Although such community-based efforts
may be productive and influential in the industrialized
nations, they often fail to achieve noticeable results
in developing countries. The circumscribed role of such
efforts in the developing countries is caused by the very
limited access of such efforts to the institutionalized

and structured planning and decision—making process.

Their failure can also be attributed to the lack of any
national cultural policy or objectives, previous preser—
vation work, or established traditon in community-based
organizing. In Libya, such efforts have only succeeded
in creating some concern over the destiny of the Old City
of Tripoli, but failed to score any concrete results,
except for the decision by the central government to stop
the alteration plan designed for the Old City.2 Though
this was a victory won by preservationists, its real impact
has been relatively meaningless in the long run, as no
strong action program has been developed.

Old cities with rapid deterioration rates cannot sur-
vive forever. “It is the task of this thesis to develop_an
yunderstanding of the blight of old cities, districts, and

buildings in Libya; the factors that may contribute_to such
‘blight and propose actions that could preserve them and.
venhance their roles as centers for cultural heritage and
,92i9951E95 building future human environments; with the

focus on the Old City of Tripoli.

IMPORTANCE OF STUDY

 

The preservation of the cultural and urban heritage
of a nation is important for its well-balanced cultural
and social development. Eradication of the national heri-

tage deprives individuals and communities from their own

roots as source of inspiration. The development process
must be based on, and keep as a point of reference, the
fundamental social and cultural ideas carries in the
national heritage. Although the historic, cultural and
environmental arguments for the preservation of such a
heritage are closely related, their individual presentation
is necessary to reach a thorough understanding of the

importance of the subject of this study.

CULTURAL FACTORS

 

Urban form is the physical manifestation of cultural
activities interacting with nature. These cultural acti—
vities are defined as the sum of the combined institutions
in relation to one another. These relationships, adapting
and reacting to each other and to nature delineate the
physical pattern of the urban structure.3 The traditional
urban form, shaped by the beliefs and values of its time,
left us with a valuable legacy in the form of its archi—
tectural, structural and aesthetic expression. Though
some of these components have become completely outmoded,
the rest are still relevant and vital for contemporary
life. The retention of some of these traditional urban
patterns symbolizes an assertion of the continuing rele-

vance of earlier generations' values, beliefs and customs.4

 

 

 

HISTORICAL FACTORS

History is essential to the growth and development
of humanity as a whole. It is a carrier of the "ideal of
freedom“ according to Hegel. This thought is concisely _
expressed by H. Marrou, " Evolution of humanity . . . has
transmitted to us a heritage . . . yet from the moment
that this evolution becomes history . . . from the moment
when I become conscious of the heredity, when I know what
I am and why and how, I have become it—-that knowledge
liberates me with respect to that heritage, and I can
now consider it simply under the aspect of inventory."5
Awareness of history can liberate the individual as part
of society from the obstacles in mankind's experience,
as well as aid in the psychological balance for humanity.’
."Being able to envisage his own life span as a culmination
of a long past and the beginning of a forseeable future,
man cannot help but value his time higher than as an

accumulation of sense impressions."6

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

 

The preservation of the urban heritage is essential
“to the development of future decent urban environments.
Trhe history of man's efforts to build shelter and develop
(Hommunities offers a reference point for those who are

<iiscontent with the deteriorating quality of their life.

Past communities existed in a harmonious and balanced
relationship with the natural habitat. ManIs interaction
with nature ranged from "adaptation to the forces of

nature as perfeCted by Bushmen and Eskimo to attempts at
their domination. The Maya,TAztecs and ancient Chinese
developed controls . . .[over nature]. . . no more than
adequate to secure the bases for their great cultures. It'
remained for our Western civilization to push the develop-
ment of tools of domination over nature far beyond any

"7 The rapid and unchecked

conceivable communal needs.
growth of the forces of industrialization, population
mobility and technology have resulted in the imbalance of
the environmental relationships with the urban habitat.
Such imbalance produces an accelerating degree of pollution;
air, noise, water and visual; urban sprawl and the dis-
functioning of the physical order of the city. The result
is an inevitable decline in the quality of urban life,
manifested in the disintegration of the social and culturalw
fabric, loss of the feeling of intimate relatedness to other
people, and natural habitat, and an emerging feeling of
alienation.

As we compare the social, cultural and physical
realities of the present urban environment with the tradi-
tional, it is obvious that much of value has been lost or

ignored through development. The megaform and mechanization

<3haracteristic of modernization often is in violent conflict

with the sensitive social and internal human systems. The
demands today for the preservation of the cultural tradition
confirms the Daifuku conclusion that the "Rescue and restor-
ation, the revitalization of what had been vigorous and
living quarters of the city } .I. can contribute towards "

the salvage of the quality of the urban environment."8

SCOPE AND OBJECTIVES

 

The sc0pe of this study will addresss itself to preser—
vation issues in Libya. The lack of awareness of the
national urban and cultural heritage and consequently the
lack of a commitment to protect it, requires, as a highest
priority at this stage, the presentation of a strong case
for this heritage, as well as the need for its preservation.
A_g§nsra1_ouerview.ofuthe_characteristicsuof«its—national

components, coupled withra more vivid and detailed‘example

 

_9£M3Higgalflherirage element, the Old City of Tripoli,
becomes a highly indispensible objective.

The sc0pe of this thesis is also necessitated by
Waningful—preservation mlidesmms,
andLanlagalvwadministrative and financial framework, both

on a national and local leveléigUhese factors make itfl

impossible to narrow the scgpe to the task of comprehensively

and adequately planning for the preservation of this heritage
W”. ..-'-"""""’""' ' "
on any level.

“- _~“-T

 

"‘—-"""‘-'——_""* -_

Another factor of importance in deciding the scepe of
this study is the commanding role of the central government-
of Libya in shaping and directing the functions of the
local units of government. Such a role makes all local
preservation efforts inadequate in themselves unless there.
exists an efficient preservation framework to support them.

For this reason, a major objective of this study willrb9'

 

'mr—ah—q

the discussion and recommendation gfwa cgnceptualiframeWQrkm

necessary for the establishment of a more centrally-oriented
preservation framework with needed legal, administrative,

‘ ,"uw-m‘ «a.—

financial and technical measures.

METHODOLOGY

 

In developing the thrust of this thesis,<personai_
inv_°1.ven1srs:-sg<1-iigrnereseepgehere. -beiereiéesfirgsg;
Until the last few years, historic preservation of towns
and quarters was never an important issue. After the
approval of Tripoli's Master Plan in 1970 and the realization
of its disastrous implications for the Old City of Tripoli,
concerns over the destiny of that Old City have been raised.
This brought about the General-Directorate of Antiquities,
some members of the faculty of the Deparmtment of Architec-
ture and Urban Planning, University of Al-Fatah, and other

concerned individuals to start a movement aiming at the

eliminating of the major proposals concerning the Old City

10

in the Master Plan. Being close to this experience and
observing the subsequent problems that resulted from the
lack of awareness and appreciation of this urban heritage,
has inspired the research of this thesis topic. The scope,

as previously shown, is enlarged to include a wider and —

 

‘geographically-diverse range of preservation problems and‘

-1 ._. rm“ .... ~- -1-—-I-—- .— H i. .__

issuegmand an examination of the threat that has~beennv
imposed_onmthe delicate, historically and architeQ£E§§}ly_

significant areas by rapid and abrupt development_patterns

hfi¢Ar "‘ J"

and a blind desire to "modernize."
From this orientation the research methggglggy_emerged.

It igglndedrergpmbiggtion-of“techniques~and~preeednress

Field Nuggkand pbservetiongin -the old .Citx -Qf....

1hr

urban area rich in its urban heritage, the need
_,_rrwrr _ - , -
'forwits preservation, and the environmental impact

of recent development projects on its future.

A ~searchforxfactuai material pertaining to the.

-!' \y‘t‘.

evolution and develOpment of old Muslim cities
as well as the characteristics of the urban

heritage in Libya was fundamental to the develop—

4_..\-: dun- h‘” "

———.;ih"~_—4I-—'m r“--

In this regard,

.-

ment of Part One of this study.
“11.1:me ..... 4‘“ ’

an absence of Special studies on the architecture
and urban development of old Libyan towns and

villages was substituted for by discriptive literature.

11

Interviews with concerned and responSIble indi-

\x‘“ A

1111

viduals coupled with a careful study of preservation

Wd-H‘KT“.

committee meeting minutes was necessary to.havsm§,

m1”

 

feel for the positions and attitudes of the govern-

.in mkwwm.
ml ’ --

 

mental agencies on the subject of preservation. '
This was especially true for the Old City of Tripoli

as it represents a major indicator of these trends.

Examination of the state Official _Gazette, and

 

Mam“. "a. "" M"““I-—..
documents and reports relevant to this topic in
”WW "New" _ .. - 4.... .- - ....._..,. ......

order to pin down existing concepts, policies,

nun-

 

objectives, and structures that could give indi-

wfi—F‘M-h u“"n1-”ln-...F

cations of the state policy on development, and

W,

preservation of the national urban heritage.

-. pi

Against this background, a comparative study of the

.international experience in preservation especially
TofU.N.E.S.C.O. was of a valuable service in laying
the groundwork for the recommendation of preservation

framework for Libya.

Focusing on the need to enhance the quality of the

urban environment and preserve the human values inherent
in the old cities of Libya, this thesis will briefly review
the development of old Muslim cities” their architecture

and environments.“ In Part One; this study will provide
Iv““~'“*-r W--~.

insight into the general Significance of these old cities

- u-i‘
we . -

12

and sites, which share a common history with Libyan old
cities. ChapterIII\§ill briefly review the historical
development owaibya and discuss her urban heritage as
evidenced in the old Libyan settlements. The importance
and the need for their preservation, as it is inspired

by the historical cultural and social values attached to

”.wmm—h-W --1I

them, will also be studied. These values will provide

U‘kw

a frame of reference to the discussion of the impact of
modernization on the "quality of life" in these old settle-
ments. Amstudy of their deterioration and the problem
of awakening awareness in the Libyan people of their
cultural heritage will follow.

The ease of the Old City of Tripqli——Al—MadinaIAl-
Qadimah--as a compelling example of a place rich in

cultural heritage in urgent need for preservation, will

#WM

be presented in art TwpI. (The study will focus on the
historic development of its urban environment, with
m" “NHL, 1 .

_ emphasis on the structure andhthe social, cultural and‘

aesthetic values conveyed within it A value comparison
W waufln—m ~nn-v" ”K.“ M.‘ 1

between the old and new Tripoli with respect to their
Wm — . mm."

urban environments, will provide some observations relevant
to Tripoli's future developmental course and the need for

its preservation. The discussion of the problems facing

h.” .—~

'the Old City of Tr1poli as well as the present situation

Mm

Iand efforts to deal with the preservation of the Old City

Inn-n

will direct the thesis into more specific issues of

ha...“ ,

13

M“

.fi

preservatiopé) Thus the thesis will begin towset up 9.

frame of ref rence for the treatment of other local

7 #‘ __;‘V}'I-I~orm ‘ I'm

preservation cases. This will be followed in Part 4hreei

,1“

 

by a discussion of the general, legal and administrative
framework that carries the responsibilities of planning -
and preservation in the country. (MALigoigde- ya .
critique of different laws andflggencies and their
efficiency as measured by their performance in regard to
preservation.) The conclusions and criteria developed

in the previous discussions.uéééhbe used to treat the
topic of the future of preservation in Libya, concluding
with the development of proposed objectives, policies

and recommendations for a framework to accomplish the

task as defined in this study.:]

l4

' Footnotes

1The freeze on building permits was imposed by the Municipality
of Tripoli and the Department of Antiquities in order to allow more
time to begin preservation action.

2This plan came as a prOposal in Tripoli's Master Plan to con-
struct a major T—shaped road in the heart of the Old City. '

3Lawrence Haworth, The Good City, (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1963), pp. 27-28.

 

4George Banz, Elements of Urban Form, (New York:.McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1970), p. 111.

 

5Henry Marrou, The Meaningyof History, Trans. (Paris: Helicon
Press Inc., 1959), p. 283.

 

6James R. Malone, ”Planning and Meaning: Some Considerations
of value Theory as Related to the Urban Planning Process" (master's
Thesis, Michigan State University, 1965i, p. I.

7Banz, Op. Cit-; pp. 5—6.

3Hiroshi Daifuku, "Introduction: Urban Retrieval TOO," in
\ Conservation of Cities, (Paris: UNESCO Press, 1975), p. 12.

 

PART I

LIBYAN URBAN HERITAGE: ORIGIN AND VALUE

CHAPTER I

OLD MUSLIM CITIES: HERITAGE AND VALUES
DEVELOPMENT OF OLD MUSLIM CITIES

It is necessary to understand the historic and cultural
forces that shaped the evolving Arab urban form, in order to
understand its distinctive structural significance. Old
Muslim cities were evolved from the inter—relationship of
the natural environment, customs, heritage and beliefs of
the Arab peoples communicated through the city as form and
structure. This is evidenced by the repetitive pattern of.
urban design in the medinas (or old cities) which is a
manifestation of the development and continuity of Arab
culture. In short, one could say that the medinas are the
living monuments to the distilled experience and essence of

Arab life.

ENVIRONMENTAL ELEMENTS:

Much of the traditional Muslim pattern of urban

design reflects cultural and structural adaptation to

15

16

the natural environment. Constant interaction with
nature caused these human settlements to be highly
functional and harmonious with their surroundings. For
example, walls were used both for protection from
sandstorm and heat. "Old Kuwait. . . protected by a
wall against sandstorms. . . had its buildings . . . as

a closely knit labyrinth that repelled heat and sand-
storms to the maximum, having thick walls, narrow
apertures and properly located streets for ventilation."1
Narrow and winding streets made it easier to receive
shade and helped block desert sand-filled winds (see 1 and
4). Residential units were built as much to make the
best use of the environment, as to meet social needs.
Houses closed off to the outside protected people from
hot daytime temperatures and dust, while the inner
courtyard trapped the cool night air and allowed it

into the house. l'Most inner patios or courtyards had
trees, shrubbery, and a fountain or water basin."2 Many
had a cooling system where water was dropped into a

3 Outside

courtyard pool through a corrugated surface.
windows were covered by a type of shade, masharabia,
which illuminated without gloom or glare. Walls were
also built to receive the least possible exposure to
the sun, and thus to create more shade 4 (see fig. 1).

The old Muslim cities have a distinct relationship

to the regional landscape they occupy, using local

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

1.1

 

 

 

 

a. Row house - Giza, Egypt,
" - t. B.C.
26th Cent.,B.C. b- Mansson Babylon. 5th Gen ,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

___.I ___l
.___J L___,
mt? J
‘L ‘nfifif ' d. Colonial Latin America
c. Ancient Egypt. (Venezuela)

 

 

__-.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O
——+ \ .
w‘r .Q
_ _ I l _j
A ‘5"‘31’ s—tzr' A
e. acroccan House - Ground Floor f. Ancient Greece

Figure 1. Development of courtyard house (a-f).

17

resources as building materials. "In Iraq and Persia,
streets were_made of tamped earth; in Egypt and Syria,
tamped earth and crushed stone, and in North Syria and
throughout Anatolia, stone slabs and cobbles made up the

streets."5

In the Old City of—Tripoli, Libya, the streets-
were also of stone and palm trunks were used for roofing.
The results of these structural adaptations, was an urban

setting uniquely suitable for human activity which formed

an integrated, organic whole with its environment.

RELIGION:

Another major influence on the structural pattern
was the religion of Islam itself. The urban environment
was the focal point of religious life, and the mosque
became the center of the city. "Prior to 650 A.D., old_
cities of Muslims had an open space near the center of
the city called masjids used as a meeting place for
praying . . . Between 650 and 750 A.D. the open spaces

"6

‘were replaced by buildings. "The twenty-seven archeo-

logically definable mosques were related in form and

"7 Common features were

‘were considered the hypostyle.
the small dome in the center, decorations and minarets.
"The hypostyle mosque was a reflection of the early

Islamic religious beliefs that man can praise God

18

directly without clergy or mystery. In conservative
areas like Morocco this style was used for centuries."8

Old city life was coordinated by religion which
also determined much of the urban form. The location
of the mosque in early cities determined the location
of other important city structures. Islamic law schools,
if not held within the mosque were nearby. The mosques
also functioned as meeting houses, as well as teaching
centers,and formed a reference point for daily activities.
Another important building, often connected physically
with the mosque, was the public bath. These served
social and recreational, as well as hygienic needs.
Religious law courts and government buildings were also
near the mosque in the central old city.

The first three centuries of the Islamic era, to
the collapse of the Abbasid Empire in the middle of the
tenth century, formed one major period in the evolution
of the city. "The break up of the empire and the
substantial completion of the conversion of the Middle
Eastern people to Islam, created a new era of city
experience in the eleventh and twelfth centuries."9 At
this point, the hypostyle open mosque evolved into
mosques with an interior facade and a division of the
covered parts into four separate areas through the
creation of large eyuans on each side of the courtyard

(see 3 and 6-8). After the eleventh century, Muslim

19

cities and pre-Islamic city characteristics merged and
created the common Muslim or near Eastern cities, such
as Baghdad, Damascus, Aleppo and Cairo.

In the twelfth century a rising increase in the
number of cultic—spiritual groups led to an increase in a
the number of mosques. The life of the city became
tied to a number of buildings rather than a few. As
new ethnic, social and religious groups came to the
cities they tended to band together in their own districts
commonly called quarters. Sizes Varied, but basically
they were neighborhoods often separated by walls with
, gates closed at night for protection. Functionally they
became small, independent cities with their own mosques,
baths, water supplies, bakery and bazaars. This provided
protection against invasion, and allowed for controlled
mingling with other quarters.

Bazaars, another important aspect of urban life,
were often arranged according to which products were
related to the functions of the mosque (see 2).

Crafts not directly related to the mosque, or those

that were noisy or dirty were furthest away. Often

they were arranged so that an entire street of the

quarter would be devoted to a particular craft. They
were concentrated in tight grids of narrow streets

often with roofs over them. "Khans, which were collections

of warehouses, shops and boarding facilities, generally

20

surrounding a court, were also located near the mosque
(see 5). Primarily for traveling merchants to offer
their wares to residents of the quarters, their location
was convenient for travellers, city officials and
visitors.10 The result of the.mosque as the centralizing
and organizing force in the medinas, was to reflect in

the urban pattern the cultural focus on Islam.

SOCIAL RELATIONS:

 

Traditional social relations impacted structural
design along with environmental and religious considerations.
The internal and private life were strongly valued by
Muslim people. This strong privacy ethic Was rooted in
the separation of the sexes and the traditional veiling
of women. "Housing was always oriented away from the
streets and doors seldom faced one another . . . to
maintain privacy and achieve as complete a withdrawal

"11 The court which was

from the public as possible.
entered from the outside with one or two turns in the
passageway, e.g., as in the Old City of Tripoli, was

designed to prevent a clear view of the courtyard,

usually the scene of domestic activity. The home was

“I

considered the -o-- ' ' ' a“ 3

' i;

u
. u...

 

21

steps and used for private family purposes, and the
salamlik, which was used for visiting male friends.
Windows that opened to outside walls used trellises or
masharabias--people from inside could see out, but
outsiders could not see in.; "The right of the family
to live enclosed in its house led to a clear separation
between public and private life; private life turned
inwards, towards the courtyards and not towards the

street; . . ."12

However in the thoroughfares, the
bazaars and mosques, a certain intimate public life
went on.

The value placed on personal contact and primary
group relationships can be noted in the structural
emphasis on the pedestrian scale of buildings and
'streets. Most residential units were one and two story
buildings. The residential units, markets, mosques,
bath houses and khans were within relative scale to
each other. "The maze type streets were functional to
trade and pedestrian traffic. Large streets were for
bulky shopping —— narrow for quiet areas. The main
streets are broader and lead to the city gates in a
simpler pattern than the narrow streets. The main
streets have winding lanes and blind alleys to them

. . . 3 .
1ead1ng to houses 1n the c1ty."l Main streets were

related to arrangements of city walls, mosques and

 

 

 

22

military needs. Many old cities must be entered on
foot. These pedestrian oriented streets allowed more
personal contact between people and the structure of
the city itself. This imparted a sense of belonging
and intimacy. The streets,3quarters, mosques, markets
and residential units were all integrated with the
social realities of the cities. The courtyard, towers
and open squares were parts of the urban-architectural
tradition based on the solid foundation that derives

its "definition and diction from the cogent compellants
and determinants operative in time and space. The
resultants of forces and counterforces at play produced
a culture, a heritage, as era which was commensurate
with the then prevailing social, physical, economic and
political forces at play in period and on place . ."14
The similar physical pattern of the medinas were a
material manifestation of the Arab-Islamic culture

inclusive of climate, history, function, people and

religion.

 

23

PRESENT SITUATION: DECLINE

 

In the last twenty or thirty years traditional Arab
culture has been heavily influenced by Westernization.
Population pressure and industrialization is putting
cultural property in grave danger. The rush to accomodate
modern technology rather than evolve modernity causes a
disregard for the old cities, which often results in
their rapids deterioration or outright destruction. For
example, due to the new industries and demand for oil,
many people are crowding into the cities. White collar
workers are moving to the suburbs. Many medinas are
becoming slum areas while still containing historical
and aesthetic artifacts, as well as the key to the
Muslim cultural heritage. In Tunis, "46% of the families

"15 In the old medinas, housing is

today live in one room.
accomodating several families instead of one.

Due to modernization, "the angular and curved
streets of the medieval commune of early cities, which
at every turn delighted the eye with a new and unexpected '
scenic tableau, are being replaced by straight, mono-
tonous vistas of the same featureless buildings and
shOps . . . squares inherited from the past are reduced
to nodal points for traffic and highways are wantonly

carved into vital neighborhoods dividing and finally

subverting them."15 These new wide avenues destroy*

24

much of value (See 9) -— the human scale, personal
contact and intimate relationship of the old streets
arranged in a logical progression around people's
spiritual, economic and social lives.

Instead of deriving inspiration from the past
heritage, the present trends show no sensitivity to it.
Rapid modernization, population pressure and the trend
toward Westernization result in a willingness to accept
solutions that do not integrate with local environmental
conditions. The trend to use European models and
architectural training that completely ignores Arab
architecture, results in these completely inappropriate
designs while traditional buildings are demolished.

The harmony and charm of old cities are disturbed with
the introduction of high rises, which are in conflict
with climate, aesthetic variables_and repvailing human
values (See 10).

High rises . . . yield their own psychic toll

in physical gigantism and bureaucratic manip-

ulation. Structural monumentalism, in the form

of residential skyscrapers and shopping com—

plexes, with their odious homogeneity and

heremetic environments, invades the neighborhood
and destroys it. Aside from their featureless

gigantism, these residential units allow for

no spontaneous scoiation and novel life styles.17

Standardization of private life and privacy itself may
reach tremendous proportions. The automobile is another
factor which pushes this "standardized privacy" to

appalling proportions.

 

 

25

The medinas were based on the quarter or neighborhood,
the type of streets allowed people to relate to each
other face-to-face, and homes allowed for individual
family privacy rather than the "standardized privacy"
intruded upon by paper thin walls. Streets in the
quarter also allowed pedestrians to be able to walk
through the area without feeling pushed or exhausted.
The new wide streets designed for autos and fast access
take the sensitivity to human needs and values out of
the city. An example isEMdun Street in Baghdad, "a new
four lane avenue designed for cars. Many poor peOple
must come by bus, leaving their own quarter and shop on

foot among motorized traffic."18

Even sensitive planning
cannot always avoid the harsh metods of imposing new
structural forms like the high rises and highways,
which usually destroy much of the old cities. The
continuing neglect of the old forms to make way for the
new, hastens their rapidly deteriorating condition.

The rush to accomodate new technology, rather than
evolve it, places immense stress on every aspect of
cultural life. The intimate relationship of form and
structure, when confronted with such rapid change,
breaks down and a process of cultural disintegration

results--the whole cloth of the social fabric is torn.

The present situation of the medinas is serious. For

26

example, Al—Kahera Al-Fatima today, despite its extreme
age, historic value, beauty and charm, has been allowed

to become little more than Cairo's ill—kept slum. "The
insidious, irresistable powers behind the slighting

forces which have attacked the sector [Fatimid Cairo]

with devastating success are the constantly accelerating
population growth and migrations that the entire world

is experiencing, augmented and intensified by the leaps
and bounds with which its various civilizations are moving
forward."19 (See fig. 2)- Another example, Aleppo in Syria,
is also under the threat of extinction from new construction.
due to the city's expansion. Although planning took into
account the need to retain the integrity of the neighbor-
hoods of the old city, rather than keeping them just as
monuments, relief roads will further divide and reduce

the extent of the historic center.20

In many cases it is
too late, and what is left diminishes rapidly. Certainly
modernity is a many—faceted and largely beneficial pro-
cess. But to destroy a unique history and culture's
best artifacts is to recreate many of the worst mistakes
of the West.

In order to avoid the domination of technology over
the urban and natural environments and halt the trend
toward sterile standardization, it is necessary to under-

stand the value inherent in the old Muslim cities. Many

of the guiding principles and ideas needed to develop a

    
  

/

   
   
  

I

-—‘__ -_.

a. Spatial Form: Courtyards

Figure 2. Fatimid Cairo (a,b).

 

.P..“.
‘,' o .’1
,/ _ 5,. .v‘
’€‘3.orn'—\'
“M 5 .t\\‘. 9"
' *“ I” .
f $ '0.
t 27' ' ’-
.. r 1
‘9‘, /’3 1
«of .'
..~ g .. .é; ‘
5 ‘t1; .
:“3; f! "2 3 I"~
~ «A? . e- ,5
«we {6})" 's a .- -
‘ = / o I
‘5 34'“: ‘9 '6‘] \. 5 ’
“g'WQ IJ'

- ‘0’ . c ’-
- . "-/° I c
#mqucnqk ’33.“ . wafti")

:75 "15:7th “'0';\'.I
'. "0' Ct

 

27

modern yet humane and culturally coherent urban environment
can be found in the medinas. In addition, as Greame

Shankland points out in Wherrouble With Historic Towns,

 

. . . the almost magical power of the past
does not lie only in the intrinsic beauty
of what is being preserved, survivals of an
age when towns were made by artisans, but
above all in the identity they confer. This
sense of continuity seems today more impor-
tant than ever, as national groups and ethnic
minorities battle for identity and survival
in an age of multi-national economic groupings,
uniform machine-made products, and supra-
national political settlements.

Third world countries, on the verge of modernization,
have a strong urban heritage to guide them past the mis-
takes of the developed countries. They alone have a
chance to truly integrate the new with the old. The
insight into the means to an organic develOpment which is
suited to the unique needs of the cities' peoples lie in
the old traditional cities. But the chance to retrieve

their lessons and retain the past will be lost forever

without immediate steps toward their preservation.

28

Footnotes

 

IGeorge S.£hiber, Recent Arab City Growth, (Kuwait:
Kuwait Government Printing Press, 1969), p. 158.

 

zRichard Ettinghausen, "Muslim Cities: Old and New,"
in From Medina to Metropolis, ed. L. Carl Brown (Princeton:
Darwin Press, Inc., 1973), p. 311.

 

3rb1d.

4Ade1 A. Ismail, "Origin, Ideology and Physical Pat-
terns of Arab Urbanization," Ekistics 195 (February 1972),
pp 113-23.

5A.H. Hourani and S.M. Stern, ed., The Islamic City,
A Colloquim, (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer Ltd., 1970), p. 181.

 

601eg Garbar, "The Architecture of the Middle Eastern
City From Past to Present: The Case of the Mosque: in the
Middle Eastern Cities, ed. Ira M. Lapidus (Berkeley and
Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1969), p. 34.

7Ibid., p. 35.
soleg Garbar, "Architecture," in The Legacy of Islam,

ed. L.E. Boswarth and Joseph Schacht, (Longdon, Oxford
University Press, 1974), p. 256.

 

9Gargar, "The Architecture of Middle Eastern City From.
Past to Present," 22, Cit., p. 23.

loRaphail Wahba, "Cairo," in The New Metropolis in
the Arab World, ed. Morroe Berger, (New Delhi, Congress for
Cultural Freedom, 1963), p. 29.

 

llflourani and Stern, Op. Cit., p. 182.

121bid., p. 24.

136. Bear, "The City," in Readings in Arab Middle East-
ern Societies and Cultures, ed. C. W. Churchil and A. M.
Lutifiyya, (The Hague, Mouton & Co., N.W. Publishers, 1970),
p. 631.

14Shiber, 92. Cit., p. xxII.

15W. B. Mahmoud and S. Santilli "What to Do with the
Medina?" Ekistics, 227 (October 1974), p. 260.

16Murray Bookchin, Limits to City (New York: Harper 5
Row Publishers, Inc., 1974) pp. 90-91.

 

 

 

29

17Ib1d. , pp. 83—84
IBShiber, QR: Cit., p. 777.

19Ahmed Monir Abd El—Kader, Al-Kahera Al-fatimia, A Renewal
Program for a Historic City, Dissertation, (washington, D.C.,
Catholic University of America Press; 1965) p. 60.

 

ZOSherban Catacuzino, "Aleppo," Architectural Review, "Volume 158,
October 1975, pp. 241-251.

zlGraeme Shankland, "Why Trouble With Historic Towns?" in
Conservation of Cities, et. UNESCO (Paris, UNESCO Press, 1975), p. 25.

 

.M. 4 I “Railway! .11?

 

1. Fez: The typical closely knit labyrinth of an Arab City.

2. Tunis: Medina Bazaar

Baghdad: Golden Mosque

I - \\\\\\\.‘~ \

Cairo: Al-Ghuri Khan

4.

6.

m l ‘d ’. ‘0
t.'.“I‘L"‘”‘“"H .:4flt."
4 f i ‘, '1'an yQ-t‘?!"

15';

 

 

 

 

 

I.

t

t
\..
2K
to

.01 '
O ’V‘

l

 

”9.9.,”
' rfls‘ ‘
3

q
0
o
O
Q
0
O
o

 

._.. a f

7. Cairo: Al-Azhar Mosque. 8. Damascus: Umayyed Mosque.
i.
9. Kuwait: 10. Riyadh: «

markedly out of con- ’modern' architecture . .
text it often approaches often disregards
comic and cosmetic types cultural and social
of architecture. needs.

- a
’~.‘r.‘ - ~

N u&‘ 3!

   
 
 
     

     

-K Q. | .

it“!

 

CHAPTER II

LIBYAN URBAN HERITAGE AND THE NEED FOR PRESERVATION

Historical Background

 

O

The area that is now Libya has one of the longest
histories in the civilized world. 'A land of many
peoples, archeological evidence grows daily of early
man in this part of the world, but much remains to be
discovered. The general history of the area, at least
since the sixth century B.C., is fairly clear. It was
about this time that the Phoenicians founded Sabratta,
Ui'at (Roman Oea, Modern Tripoli) and Leptis Magna
(Phoenician Leptis). For a while the area flourished
as part of the trade empire of Carthage, then as Rome
grew and became dominant, it became part of the Roman
Empire. Large scale buildings, water works and roads
were built, portions of which still stand today. The
poweriof Rome extended inland beyond the coastal
towns. In 20 B.C., L. Cornelius Balbus led an expedition
to Garama (now Germa), capital of the Garamites and to
Cydamus. They established a line of defense in the interior.
In 439 A.D. Genseric and his Vandals invaded; but in 533
A.D., the Byzantines took the area under the orders of

Justinian.

30

 

31

The Arab invasion occurred around 642 A.D., the.
whole of North Africa coming under Arab rule by 709
A.D. The Middle Ages brought a period of great trading
prosperity, political confusion and piracy during which
the region became infamous as the Barbary Coast. A ~
Conquered by the Turks in 1551, Libya remained under
Turkish domination until 1911, with a period of semi-
independence under the Karamanli Dynasty from 1711 to
1835.

With the advent of Italian rule in 1911, the
modern period began. New construction, transportation
and industry was started to serve the needs of the
colonizers. In 1943, Tripolitania and Cyraneica, the
western and eastern regions of Libya, went under British
rule. The Fezzan, the southern region, became a French
protectorate. In 1951, Libya got its independence as a
kingdom, with a federal government set up over the
three regions. The federal government was abolished in
1963 and the three regions consolidated under a central
government. The monarchy was in turn abolished by the
First of September Revolution in 1969 and declared the
Libyan Arab Republic.

Libya, since 1969, has been undergoing extensive
<ievelopment to meet the needs of her people. Although
‘the standard of living has risen considerably, many

IAroblems are engendered by the abruptness of development,

 

32

which are leading to deterioration of the human environ—

ment and neglect of the cultural heritage.

'THE CULTURAL VALUE OF THE URBAN HERITAGE

 

Libya's historical heritage is unique and vast,
containing pre-historic clues to the origins of civil—
ization and humankind itself. The shaping forces of
Berbers, Phoenicians, Carthagenians, Romans, Greeks,
Byzantines, Arabs, Spanish and Turkish peoples were all
felt on this area. The coastal cities, as mentioned,
served as both caravan towns and Mediterranean ports
since the time of the Phoenicians and were considered
strategic ports of the Phoenician and Roman Empires.
Many of the projects which were undertaken by the
Romans, stand today. With the coming of the Arabs,
Islamic culture took root and shaped this heritage into
a pattern distinct to the region.

The buildings in Libya's human settlements are a
sort of "crystallized culture," actual physical monuments
to the generations of people who lived, worked and died
in them-~and for them. Culture has been described as
a:

. . . system of standard situations, each

of which specifies roles, prescribed possible

limits of behavior for the persons in these

roles and the requisite setting for this

behavior. Each situation specifies a certain

physical pattern which recurs many times with-
in the city structure. The form of the city

 

 

33

is a product of these patterns combined.

In this sense, the urban form, looked

upon as a purely physical system, is a

direct manifestation of the culture.1
Each cultural group uses its city as the means to
transfer and transform itself. Using such definition,
the old human settlements can be considered the storage
vaults of Libyan culture in their buildings, archives,
monuments, tablets, books and structure in general.

What is characteristic and significant in Libyan
culture is reflected in the choices it makes in meeting
certain needs. As Amos Rapaport writes, the "buildings
and settlements are the visible expression of the
relative importance attached to different aspects of
life and the varying ways of perceiving reality." 2
Libyan traditional architecture is the end result of gen-
erations of people making concrete their ideas and
feelings. The housing, in particular, although adapting
to environmental factors, meets a complex of needs
defined by culture in terms of social interaction, in
addition to providing shelter. The cultural prOperties
of Libya--old buildings, sites and human settlements,
may be the only and perhaps best information available
about that heritage. Thus, it is important to understand
the types of architecture to be found in the various

regions of Libya, and the changes they may be experiencing.

 

 

34

OLD HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

 

The old Settlements of Libya will be discussed here
accordingto where they are found; in coastal areas,
mountain areas or in the cases (see fig. 3). These
settlements will share many features, but it is convenient
to consider them separately in a general way to get a
sense of the regional variations. A more definitive DDDDD
look at the ancient oasis town of Ghadames will follow
to give a fuller picture of popular Libyan architecture.

In addition, in Part Two, a case study will be presented

of the Old City of Tripoli.

COASTAL TOWNS:

 

The coastal towns are situated both on harbors and
oases, since like most towns in the area they must tap
sub—surface water for drinking and agricultural purposes.
They have been busy and prosperous centers of international
trade for over 2,000 years. Generally, they were fairly
small and usually situated within a larger oasis. The V
town itself had high bastioned walls for protection, both
from invaders and from blowing sand. Smaller walls
surrounded the gardens and groves of the oasis, forming
narrow, winding walls between them and also protecting

them from sand. Wells were frequent.

  

ousmwk

 

 

f)

(I

   

 

mimoo . . Sam...

                

 

     

 

 

.. ..... one... a Janna . $33 4%... s.
‘,' .a ’ o . It. a . o . n n u. .’ A
..... I: (.3 . . sea as .. enemas... cess.... . unnee- p 3...:
It: . “sf $233.13 . .. .. .s 1...... 4.
4 N I . . r O a
I: ..\.7.. /oo . .q .k. 1..
i (1‘ .Irots .QHQ . . u n . . I
I! “\.(’hlh|h" 3 h . oh [4- ‘0 ’ n
4 .u «Na-IN.“ Equ .W h” I
.....: . K 1.. A“. 1..
L _c m m .
M l
# 01‘ a I 7
..\Pll/ s m c U a o 0 #3
Oau’\\ ‘ NM
all-nil]... all" It . e
f \fl/ .l f _ ....a r.\\ .1......_......1..9...p..§ 9
in”... ‘0 t. ‘ Pa). . r .
i .. Hans.
O .I «\I I.
in. NH: .53... n Maw. .» 3 a
. b.3132 .2......... . I -- .
.Mfimynv . .

 

I‘ll.

     

          

‘ l "
to §.M"‘...J . 1-

’

9§§&"«\

v.0\1\2mmxo

nofimpmzu
had. I

   

wannmnwm.c

“.‘ \(V...“(UNL\Q\:\

 

35

The towns were compact and divided into quarters.
Derna, for example, had five quarters: Medina, which
contained the chief public buildings, the bazaar and
the great mosque; Jebel, a small group of Arab houses
on the north; Moghara in the southwest; and two quarters
on the other bank of the Wadi Derna, Lower and Upper Bu
Mansur.3 The quarters were chiefly, though not
exclusively, the living areas of the various ethnic-
groups within the town.

Streets are narrow and twisting with many dead.
ends; only a few mainstreets Open through the walls
with gates. The scale is, at all times, intimate and
human, geared to foot traffic and family living. The
houses are built compactly in an attached form, having
flat roofs. The closely compacted houses serve as
barriers to sun and sand, and as spheres of family
privacy. Family life is oriented toward the open
courtyard in the interior of the house. These are
sized proportionately to the height of the walls, so
that there is shade within them at most hours of the
day.‘ The house is entered through a corridor which
turns or opens tothe court on the side so that a
casual visitor cannot see through to the central area
of the house. There is a room for receiving male
visitors (marboaa) off this corridor. The remaining

rooms open tothe court and are long and narrow (See 91%

 

36

This shape is dictated by the shape of the courtyard

and the use of sectioned palm trunks as rafters, which,

due to their load-bearing limitations, effectively

limits the width of the rooms. Throughout the area

building materials varied from mud to stone, brick or

wood and metal elements, depending upon what was locally

available.5 Specific details of this style of archi-

tecture will be more extensively dealt with in Chapter IV.
Each town contains at least one mosque, centrally

located, generally with an attached Quaranic school,

perhaps a zawia (a mosque with living quarters for teachers,

a school and accomodations for travellers),6 a bazaar or

market and a sug or row of shops which usually included

a cafe. At Derna, the Great Mosque is considered a

masterpiece of the oldest typical style of Libyan

religious architecture. "Its striking hall of prayer

is divided by thirty Corinthian columns into forty-two

squares, surmounted by seven rows of six small domes."7

The village of Tajura has a fine old mosque, the sixteenth

century mosque of Murad Agha, which incorporates Roman

columns taken from Leptis Magna,8 (see 15-18). Zliten also

has a mosque dating from the end of the fifteenth or the

beginning of the sixteenth century, the Mosque of Sidi 'Abdul-

Salam al-Asmari. This consists of "stepped platforms one

Rabove the other covered by several series of cupolas and

flanked by a fine conical minaret . . . (and) forms the

37

centerpiece round which are laid out a number of two-story
rectangular buildings, used for accomodating students from
all parts of Africa and bounded on the ouside by mastabas
(tombs)."9 (See )3). All of these structures are in danger
of undergoing extensive remodeling, with no plans as yet for
their protection.

Another common feature of these settlements is the
kasr or government palace, a large enclosed fortress
for protection of the townspeople against invaders. Today
these are often in ruins. One which was still in active
use in 1920 was the Kasr of Merj.(ancient Barke) built on
the side of anancient Roman fort. It was fifty-five yards
square, built of stone and clay mortar, and had round
turrets at the corners. In 1920 it was used by the Italian
military as barracks and offices.10

One other type of building must be mentioned, the
fonduk or nozol, used as a resting place for caravans and
in the coastal towns, at least, a place where they could
market some oftheir goods. Fonduk Tajura has been
described as typical. It consisted of a thick-walled
enclosure, open in the center (here the camels were kept),
with arcades along the sides which protected the sleeping
men in bad weather. There was one entrance with heavy
doors which were bolted at night. There was only one

roofed public room, used as a prayer chamber.

 

 

. 38

Outside it was surrounded by the palm and olive groves

of the prOprietor and his family.11 The fonduk is not

in current use due to its deteriorating condition.
All these structures must be regarded as typical

of the whole of Libya with local variations discussed

below. However, heavy pressure exercised by urban

expansion is breaking up the texture of traditional

architecture in Derna.

Around the beautiful tombs of the Companions

of the PrOphets the old buildings have been
replaced by concrete structures. The picturesque
markets of Az-Zalam and Kharaza Khidrawat, at the
approaches to the Great Mosque, await demolition
with their stalls closed and walled up to provide
construction sites for the high buildings which
are rising everywhere.

At Benghazi, the process of demolition to make way.

for new construction has been going on since 1911.

Only a few groups of the traditional architecture are
left. The other coastal Muslim towns are also suffering
from rapid urban expansion, with enormous increases in

construction "causing the traditional framework to

burst open at the seams." 13 According to the UNESCO

report to the Libyan government,

The most serious threat they have to meet occurs
when the center around which the new quarters
revolve is virtually identical with the historic
nucleus of the old city. This means that the
functions of an administrative center cannot be
accomodated within the old structures of the
traditional quarters unless they undergo brutal
and far-reaching modification.

L— ‘

LIL

 

' 1 ‘

- , J-*1E :11 a).

' MOUNTAIN TOWNS: '

 

 
  
   

39

At this time there are no special measures being,

taken to preserve the integrity of these areas.

These towns are generally built on a hill or
mountain, with an oasis on lower ground. The towns are
isolated, well fortified and do not use up available
agricultural land. One of the most interesting features
to be found in this area are the troglodyte (or under-
ground) dwellings. These houses consist of an open
courtyard dug into the ground, with rooms dug into the
earth around it. Entrance is through a sloping tunnel
which opens some distance away from the court. These
houses are cheap, easy to build and cool in the summer.

The following is a description of a troglodyte
house at Garian, which may be taken as typical. The
entrance tunnel had a massive olive wood door. The
rooms had no windows and only one door each, but these
were made in such a way as to allow plenty of diffused
light. The ceilings are low, the walls spacious and
carved with red and black designs. In the rooms are
large wooden chests full of family possessions and many

hand-woven rugs. Old weapons and musical instruments

-- I
.0 L.-- fi- ‘fi§ -u- — -—-- -----_-- --_- _' - --’--
afie 00‘..-” 5"- ”-0-: u - § -— —— — - — — _ ' v’
-

fi'w-‘fi ._ ——~

, .
“ --- ,9 ‘ 70“ . —-
...._ oI-I—&II————._— _

O ‘ . ,
~‘ 1’ II ‘
“Vk'é ”flit”; . I r
4 a I " ."¢,fr:'-ir-‘ at»;
-. “ J" "a " 'I ' 453-}: .
‘ . elitism; “r"- .
_ A- 1 ‘
v ' . '
‘.‘ u ‘q ‘n '

40

the hot summer ghibli and its sand. In the opinion of
one observer, "These caves are certainly a safe refuge,
both materially and spiritually."15 (See 19-22).

The highest point is generally the site of the kasr,
although at Nalut the present village has climbed “
higher. The kasr at Nalut is said to resemble a giant
dovecote or beehive.l6 It contains about 300 small
cells which have evolved into a communal storehouse
similar to modern safety deposit boxes. Each cell is
used by a family to store theirgrain or other valuables.
From the outside it looks simply like a ruined fortress
high on the mountains (see 23—24). This same kind of
storehouse system is found also at Kasr al-Haj in Kabau.17
Although these still stand they have deteriorated
considerably.

S. Abdul-Huk, in the UNESCO report, has suggested
the "preservation of specimens of widely different
varieties of popular . . . rural architecture, represented
in particular at Nalnut and other villages of the Jebel
escarpment."18 (See 25-26). Development projects are
particularly threatening to these areas, as their

social fabric is easily destroyed.

OASIS TOWNS:

 

Due to the lack of surface water, most Libyan

towns are really oasis towns. But only those which do

41

not fit into the other categories will be considered
here. Generally, the whole oasis town is surrounded by
a wall, holding back the encroaching sand. Houses lean
against each other and unite to form hive-like groups
with narrow winding alleys here and there between them.
Bright, windowless walls reflect heat and light and
airy roofs are made of palm tree parts. Houses are
made of sun-baked clay, bricks or stone. The interiors
of the homes are fitted out in a sophisticated way to
meet the daily needs of the inhabitants in their
confrontation with the Sahara. Near the center of the
town is a mosque with a minaret (see 27). The archi—
tectural form reflects the way the hard struggle for
existence in the desert necessitates mutual aid and a
strong sense of community.

Aujila may be used as a specific example. An
ancient town and oasis, it was mentioned by Herodotus
as being famous for its dates.19 The mostly one-story
houses were built of limestone taken from the nearby
hills, in typical courtyard pattern. The streets are
narrow and crooked. In 1920, Aujila had thirteen
mosques and Sanusi zawia.20 Most famous is the Mosque
of Abdul Lah Ibn Sarah, Companian of the Prophet,
dating from the twelfth century, which is judged to be

the:

 

42

oldest typically Libyan mosque with parallel
cupolas . . . The persistance of this archi—
tectural model can be seen at Aujila itself
in two other mosques (those of the Sabkhas
and Zaghaghina tribes) which form part of
a traditional group from the nineteenth
century. All these monuments urgently require
restoration.21 L -
Another example of the oasis form is Murzak, one
of the chief towns of Fezzan. This walled town encloses.“
an approximately square area. Outside the south wall a
semi-circular area [Ras] once part of the town, still
shows traces of the old walls with three famous gates--
Bab el Kebir on the east, Bab el—Bahari on the north
and Bab el-Gharbi on the west. The main street runs
from Bab e1 Kabir to the kasba or citadel, a large
solid fort of mud and bricks used by the Turks. The
market is on this street. Homes are made of earth and
therefore the town is rebuilt about once every generation.
Some homes have walnut doors and glass windows while

22 The

others have palmwood doors and shutters.
visual effect is of a town totally in harmony with its
site. The lines and contours and the use of natural
building materials bring it into a close and natural
relationship with its surroundings (see 28—29). This
town is also feeling the problems that are concomitant
with rapid change. The modern town is crowding the old

and encroaching on its building sites. It is in danger

of being neglected due to the sand-covered streets

43

which forbid motor traffic, although the mosque at its
center has been recently restored (see fig. 4).

Another example of the oases towns is Sinaun,
where houses in the town are ancient. They are "piled
on top of each other and supporting each other, arranged-
in such a way that by closing the few entrances on the
outer side a unique system for defenseis obtained." 23
As with the kasrs of the mountains towns, at Sinaun, the
Kasr el-Otani has fallen into ruins. Sinaun also has a
special irrigation system. Water from the hills is
brought to the oasis through underground channels which
have been dug and lined with stone. At the beginning

of each channel there is also a well and a gusbet or

I I O 4
watchtower for protection against 1nvaders.2

Ghadames:

 

Ghadames is a unique and special town and deserves
a detailed look for both architectural and historical
reasons. Continuously lived in and thriving for centuries,
its recorded history began in 20 B.C. when it became
allied to the Roman Empire. It was then called Cydames.
It had already been a major caravan town with many
fonduks, as it lay on the main route across the Sahara
between north and south Africa. Throughout the centuries,
as travellers passed through, the people of Ghadames

retained the unique integrity of their town and their

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

      

‘\ '4: ‘ . .
r- ‘6 R ' m.“ "
\ .V..—f::a“.’Al

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

b. 1874
c. 1930-31
In»: W

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

“an

 

 

 

Figure 4. Historical DeveIOpment of Murzek (a,d)

 

 

 

44

way of life. In 1913, when the Italians first occupied
Ghadames they found the town very much as it had always
been and the same was true when the French began to
administer it as part of Tunisia in 1943.25 But, by
1956, when the French finally left, things had begun to _
change. The old caravan routes were no longer important,
and thus the main reason for Ghadames' existence was
ended (see fig. 5).

Ghadames stands like a fortress against the sun
and the desert, surrounded by high walls with few
openings.

It seems rather like a giant coral reef. One

thinks of it as the slowly extended crust of

collective life that has gone on through gen-

erations of always similar individuals, as a

natural product that has arisen spontaneously

through thousands of years.25

Ghadames is built on the simple, compact plan of
leaving as little open space as possible and having
that mostly covered so as to obtain shade. There is a
huge maze of covered streets, slightly dug into the
earth and surfaced with damp, nearly black sand. They
are dark, cool, quiet; all sounds seem softened. But
there are two special voices in Ghadames, the sounds of
childrenand of carefully regulated flowing water. The
dark streets, sometimes straight, frequently winding,
are lit by occasional well-like skylights. Often they

open out into unexpected niches or small porticos open

to the sun. There are large irregular benches of earth

 

 

 

 

 

45

and plaster lining the sides of the streets for peOple
to sit on, 37 (see 38—39). On this level of the town,
one sees only men. The realm of the women is above,
the rooftops and walled passageways between them that
cover the streets below and'give them access to all
parts of the town. Up there the houses seem jumbled
together. The roofs are flat with raised projections
at the corners called T'Shurafin (see 40, 49 and 50).
In the cool dusk, families gather on the roofs and
much visiting from house to house is done.

The houses do not have courtyards. They have
few windows opening to the inside, unless they overlook
the farms. One central skylight, covered by a grid,
provides light and air.' The doors are heavy and made
of halved palm trunks. Typically, the outside appears
ancient and neglected, while the inside is white and
cool, a maze of corridors with many doors leading to
family rooms. Some rooms often have raised floors and
living areas have built—in benches. Much decoration is
used, especially in the central visitor's room, using
such things as mirrors, embroideries, dishes, portraits,.
‘vases, baskets and rugs--all displayed profusely.
<3eometric three-dimensional designs made from bright,
IIatural dyes decorate the receiving area (see 45).
Ihoofing is made of halved palm trunks, laid on their

Side and lashed together with the palm tree branches.

 

 

 

46

Palm fronds cover this arrangement and over this is
packed a mixture of mud and straw. When this hardens,
a layer of plaster is put on top to reflect the sun.
The whole roof is about one and a half feet thick when
completed. L
Ghadames is fairly small, an oval enclosure nine-
tenths of a mile north to south by one mile east to ‘
west. As expected, it is_divided into quarters with
doors separating them. There is one Arab quarter
called Ulad Bilel, entered from the southeast gate
which contains a Sanusi zawia. The other six quarters
are Berber: Djarasan, which extends along the principal
north to south street of the town; Tinghesin, which has
a few patches of flagged pavement, a fine old mosque
and the central sug; Amazigh, which is entered through
the oasis by a staircase and contains Usaiet et Tuta
(square of the Mulberry Tree) or the old slave market
(see 41).' From this open the doors to the Derar and
Tesku quarters which contain the highest houses in the
town; and T'ferfera (see fig. 6) where parts of the
street are Open to the sun. In this region the oases
(zome up between the houses (see 37). Beyond is an
iabandoned area, with crumbled houses and walls, partly
covered by sand.28
Two of the major mosques, both white and plain,

Eire Djmaa el-Kebir with its massive square minaret (see

 

 

 

 

 

-

-

O

n

..

.

.-

.

-o ._..-A—' an...

In
'6';"|:I:...l;1'-qg I: \\
. I. ”1.3:! unfll‘ ' ]
o.::;|::::”-“M "Z" . .' ' ‘
("lulu-cv a .| l .4;
-’ ..§’.‘\:::;;:!::f;'lo' ,4 H lwlP
‘ m E'§E:L!T'§'3§E‘fil"' ‘ I' ll ’
-‘ . .. "Hi?"';’;1";.:2::;::f.‘3 '5 “I 1
n'f: Llul;‘ii;'q“l"'=-nu}-.')?‘I-u'|'1"" ‘11/1 [1-
4:91.2 E !‘l£:'."' :‘sI-1'-‘.’.'v--' ' 4
.:.:;,;,..:;:,:.,g,-_;,r .....' H “ii
4. ‘I gain"... I. n,'l.u‘ nu.
.. .( '4- ,Il. ||| I‘:"|" (1:. I h
° ~ "“ , .':a.!t.::m{.:‘.s:' i: . dI
3;; ':::t::.".”..;:; rl .~
. - -| It...I .
' v
I- 1
t :3 .: . 1" 3
up. .. 4‘ : . {:H l
'7: lit 4" ' “ii i 0
N Eb 5'3;- 'i-'::.':."-.‘3.- : If
‘..or' P"... ‘1'; '
01:3,?”'.:I.':':;:':-‘"-' 'If /,/»‘
',,‘I., .‘b-I. :14). /'/ .-' 4
’-','l‘ -"O‘.. .'
-.£,_’.:1 .:.—-‘a;.:.' ?/.2‘/’ f? ()5.
'l.'.n " .":' ‘J;‘ .‘ /7’ )./ll
:..;,;.;..,.;.:.-.,,_-;; /’-‘.-. i’
2555;;- :-;-: '72-?!" 91:»; ..~\ "
.3 .Il.. .I.‘:. I'..: _¢- a..
05%.?! 7.31113 '-”" . :.:::::?:.\~5:; 5'1-'\ ._
\ - ~. ':‘-'C‘:'. - ~ 'I-'-.'s'"“ 1‘“.
\Vgha‘u '-‘-.-'-:. '-..'-,'-.- .J v:~.\\.
. «WE-z" ' .' :- 7.’-:~u.€» ;.I:.".-.‘-.'-. .
\\w;\\~ ' ',‘-.".' {£355.
. v‘\ -\ \\~ q.

11V
111V

flfi;
“I:

. 1'
1:39:11
w

 

laugh

V/A tum.“
3&5 "soul.
030“».-

Oulo‘ Dali”

Soot.

 

EHIIB {35%

.
M o‘
031' . g '00 200 n.
A A

Figure 6. Ghadames Quarters and Ethnic Groups

47

42-44), and the Mosque of Sidi Badri, which has twisted
columns with elegant capitals which may be from the
Byzantine basilica erected by order of Justinian when
the town was an Episcopal See. It also has a beautiful
square minaret. ; _

The oasis, which also enters the town, lies outside
it for the most part. It is a maze of gardens and
groves bordered by low walls to keep out the sand, with
narrow paths between, dotted here and there with the
clay domes of the tombs of mura'bat529.(holy men) and
watered by irrigation canals (see 47).. Plentiful water
is the lifeblood of Ghadames. Here is the ancient Ain
El—Faras [Spring of the Mare], which opens to a pool
near the center of town (see 48). There are two other
artesian wells. Water is regulated by an age-old
system, employing men called gaddus [water regulators].
A man sits at the head of the system with a bucket with a
hole in it and a bunch of palm leaves. He fills the
bucket with water, then lets it run out. When it is
empty, he puts a knot in a palm leaf. After so many
knots, the irrigation gates are changed and water flows
to the next plot, in an unending cycle, so each grove
and_garden gets its fair share.

Immediately outside the oasis begins the vast
cemeteries of Ghadames, stretching for acres. As is

customary the tombs bear no names. Here and there are

 

 

 

48

asnam, the concrete cores of Roman tombs, long ago
. . 0
stripped of their fac1ng stones.3
This then, is Ghadames, of which Piccioli said in

1935,

In few places on earth, I believe, is one

dominated, as at Ghadames, by that singular

charm which is exercised by traces of a

vanished way of life, of a world that has

lasted from immemorial times. Everything

here is as it has been for centuries.

The architecture of Ghadames.exerted a profound
influence on the Italian occupiers, which can be seen
in the Hotel Ain El-Faras (see 46). Once lost, it
could never be replaced. However, due to the changing
conditions in Libya at the present time, it is just
these human settlements that are in grave danger.
Ghadames needs to be put under special protection and a
careful development plan designed to consider its

unique pOpular architecture and monuments. 32

‘ MODERNIZATION AND ITS IMPACT ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS

After the struggle of the Libyan people reached
its victorious climax in 1951 and Libya won her indepen-
dence from the Italian colonizers, the enormous economic
wand social needs of the long-oppressed people were
obvious. .The seventeen years that folloWed, however,
resulted in insignificant deve10pment, despite oil

revenues, due to the political and economic corruption

 

 

 

 

49

of the monarchy. The establishment of the Libyan Arab
Republic in 1969 led to a development and construction
boom to try to meet the pressing needs for adequate
housing,schools, health and medical care and other
services. This rapid modernization contributed greatly ‘

to the continuing destruction of the urban cultural

heritage.

'DECLINE IN THE QUALITY OF LIFE:

 

Although thousands of housing units and scores of
schools and hospitals have been built and the "standard
of living" in the traditional sense has risen considerably,
it is obvious to the observer that a loss in the intangible
"quality of life" is accompanying these changes. This
is demonstrated by the numerous urban-environmental
problems that keep hammering at the fine texture of the
traditional urban, social and cultural fabric of the
human settlements in Libya. There is no final and
clear definition of the term "quality of life" and the
issues revolving around it, yet it is apparent that
there exists dissatisfaction and concern with the
physical surroundings and complex of intangible factors
that make up the human environment. As we have pointed
out in Chapter I,this is not limited to the industrialized
countries, but:t1a growing degree to the developing

countries as well. The overwhelming needs of an

50

increasing population coupled with the desire to modernize,
have caused the developing countries to experience many

of the same urban problems as the more developed countries
they seek to emulate. In Libya, the threats to the

urban environment are manifested both in physical and
intangible ways. The oil boom and population pressure
have put development at the head of the government's
agenda. Pressing needs have resulted in abrupt solutions
and uniform applications that ignore local social,
economic or environmental conditions. For example, the
acute housing shortages led to the adoption of prototype
high-rise housing design all over the country, erected
irrationally wherever there was an empty lot. These
apartments were often rejected as dwellings by rural
people who found them culturally unsuitable. The

problems of meeting health, educational and social

needs becomes more critical with the rapid urban expansion.
Traffic congestion and transportation problems have
resulted in delays, discomfort and visual disorder. The
answer has been to widen the streets. But, as cars are
pumped into the ports daily, traffic problems steadily
worsen. Though these problems are mainly limited to
Tripoli and Benghazi at the present time, other urban
settlements have started to suffer from the same

symptoms as they try to catch up with them. The effects

of these problems are showing up much faster in these

settlements as the whole cloth of their culture is much

51

more sensitive, due to their urban—rural characteristics.
The problem has been, and continues to be the
overwhelming desire to modernize. Too often progress
is measured by the highest buildings, widest roads and
even the amount of traffic on the streets. This is a
manifestation of both the experience of colonization
and the advent of mass communication which has forced
western culture and the industrial revolution resulting
from the advances of technology 0n the Arab world. This
"impact of the West on East can be more truly described
as onslaughts forcing [Libya]. . . to try and catch up
with the economic social and cultural patterns focused

33 In Libya, this drive to meet the onslaught

on it."
has often resulted in disastrous attacks on Libyan

culture as conveyed in the urban form itself.

'IMPACT OF WESTERNIZATION:

 

Two factors in the process of rapid development
are particularly destructive of the urban heritage.
The first is the tendency to identify modernization
with Westernization and look to the West as the sole
source of guidance. The second faCtor, which goes hand
in hand with this dependency on the West, are the
feelings of inferiority and embarrassment about the so-

called "backwardness" of the traditional culture.

52

These tendencies are reinforced by reliance on WeStern
"experts," due to the lack of Libyan professionals,
technicians and skilled laborers, who have no sensitivity
to the indigenous cultural values, as well as the
functional and social needs—of the Libyan people.

Alien forms are imposed with no regard to the lessons

of the past, while the people are left to c0pe with the

problems they create.

-The task of assimilating an alien culture
almost overnight is quite beyond the means
of any people to achieve. As a result,
a hybrid style of architecture emerged

below the level of pure Arab and Western.34

‘ IMPACT OF RAPID CHANGE:

 

Rapid development itself, a process exacerbated by
the position of Libya as a major oil producing country,
is a problem in itself. While the urgent needs of the
peOple have to be met, too often what the Arab nations
call their infrastructure,

.. . the nuts and bolts of their new societies——

is increasingly threatened by the specter of

factories without workers, products without mar—
kets, ships without ports and houses without

plumbing. 5
Huge projects are undertaken with little regard for
their applicability to the people's needs and capabilities,

climate or cultural long term impact. Contracts given

to foreign firms to "develop areas" or "plan towns"

53

have no adequate accountability, supervision or coherent
plan. The preoccupation of the governmental agencies
with public projects of pressing urgency, has also
helped to deflect the attention of government, in
_general, away from the elusive, if very realistic and ~
important field of urban planning. The urban components
are not studied together so they are harmoniously
integrated. FOr example, housing units built without
any cultural, social or physical studies sometimes lack
essential services. These prototype housing units are
designed according to "modern standards" and fitted

into all kinds of socially, culterally and topographically

different areas of the country.

‘ THE PROBLEM OF AWARENESS:

The combination of Westernization, the sense of
cultural inferiority, and too rapid and haphazard
modernization, is destroying much of value in Libya--
not only culturally, but functionally. A simple example
is the automatic adoption of building codes which
demand the western-style villa with open space external
to the home and therefore forbids freedom in design
which may incorporate elements of the courtyard housing
concept, uniquely suited to the climate, culture and
social interaction patterns of Libyans in the areas

where they are characteristic. AS Amos Rapoport

 

 

S4

writes in House Form and Culture;

There is a danger in applying Western concepts
which represent only one choice among the many
possible to the problems of other areas, instead
of looking at them in terms of the local ways of
life, specific needs and ways of doing things

. . . experts and officials often deplore tradi-

tional solutions in spite of their clear social

and climatic advantages.35

Clearly, ‘Libyan housing needs could best be met
by taking into consideration some of the elements of
the unique housing solutions to be described in the
cities of the various regions, that are particularly
suited to the needs of the inhabitants. This would
begin anew the evolutionary process of development, so
abruptly shattered by the impositions of Western solu-
tions in total.

The need to search for the meaningful, the beautiful
and uniquely suitable in Libya's urban heritage is
vital if the future human settlements are to be more
than awkward, plastic imitations, signals of the death
of the culture. "The traditional ways of living must
be thought out again and must face the challenges of
the modern scientific approach."37

Old forms often retain their validity even when
the world around them has changed very greatly. Human
needs and ways of behaving, in many aspects, change

very slowly and the constant drive for new forms may be

"due more to the prestige value of novelty rather than

55

lack of utility or even unsatisfactory relation to the
way of life." 38

A meaningless aping and imitation of the past is
not the answer either. The preservation of old urban

forms would allow Libyans to derive inspiration from “

their roots, in a continuum with the past which also

takes into account the'"forms, spaces and scales consonant

with the dynamics of our times from the physical,
social, spatial and economic points of view and modes

of influence." 39

Only in this way can the future
truly convey the unique Libyan identity based on pride
and faith in the validity of her own past.

Yet, unless a massive educational program is
instituted to develop an awareness of the value of
their culture, this goal will not be attained. The
~responsible authorities must first be made aware that
this tendency to be ashamed of the traditional and
distinctly native is the worst enemy of a country rich
in lessons for future generations. This problem of
cultural insensitivity is found at all levels of
society. Many officials are ignorant of the applicability
of certain principles that can be derived from their
own culture. It is often easier to copy rather than to
research and develop creative solutions to the problems

of design in Libya. This can be traced to a complex of

factors, chief, among them being the university curriculum.

 

56

The University of Al-Fatah's Department of Architecture
and Urban Planning still does not pay attention to
Islamic and urban architectural history. The Department is
oriented toward modern theories of design and is so
structured as to produce "azsort of human automaton, a
man better prepared for contracting, trading and profit
making than for design, creativity and research." 40 Conse—
quently, the Department as well as the University does not
offer any courses or programs in the field of historic
preservation and the national urban heritage. The problem
is compounded by the fact that primary and secondary
schools have no subjects devoted to studying local
culture. Students are taught standards of artistic
taste and judgment that ignores or denigrates traditional
art and forms. Programs are structured in such a way as
to stifle creativity and new outlooks. The media, an
important influence in Libyan life, also does not pay
enough attention to exploring the country's heritage
and presenting it to the peOple in an educational
format. All these factors are reflected in the general
public's feelings of their own culture and tradition as
somehow inferior to that of the "advanced" countries of
the West.

Unless an understanding and appreciation of the
traditional is instilled in the people of their past,

as well as future, continuing negligence of the bearers

[mu]! I.

57

of that past may cause them to be destroyed--an irrepar—
ible loss. Uncritically using the West as a model and
ignoring the treasures contained in cities such as

Ghadames, may contribute to the creation of a future no

one can identify with.

58

Footnotes

1M; Zahran, Challenge of the Urban Environment, (Beirut:
Bouheiry Bros, 1973), p. 74.

ZAmos Rapaport, House Form and Culture; Foundations of
Cultural Geography Series, (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 47.

 

3Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division,
Naval Staff, Admiralty, compilers, A Handbook of Libya, (London:
His Majesty's Stationary Office, 1920), pp. 170-176.

 

4M.Z. El-Dars and 5.2. Said, "Libyan Court Houses," Bulletin
of the Faculty of Engineering, university of Libya,VOlume 1, Number
4, 1972, p. 200.

5 .

Ibld, p. 209.

6Philip Ward, Tripoli, Portrait of a City, (New York: The
Oleander Press, l969), pp. 14-15.

7S. Abdul-flak, Protection of Historical Buildings, (Paris:
UNESCO, 1975), p. 6.

8Philip ward, Touring Libya, The western Provinces, (London:
Faber and Faber, Limited, 1967), p. 43.

gAbdul-Hak, Op, Cit., p. 10.
1QA Handbook of Libya, Op, Cit., p. 180.

11Charles wellington Burlong, The Gateway to the Sahara, (London:
Chapman and Hall, Limited, 1909), pp. 184-188.

 

12Abdul-Hak,‘gp_. Cit., p. 6.

13Ibid.,p. 9.

14Ib1d..pp. 9-10.

15Angelo Piccoli, The Magic Gate offthe Sahara, Trans. by Angus
Davidson, (London: Metheun and Company, Limited, 1935), p. 117.

15mm. .pp- 155-157.

17W3rd, Touring Libya, The western Provinces, Op, Cit., p. 77.

 

laAbdul-Hak, 92. Cit., p. 10.

13A.M. Hassanein Bey, The Lost Oases, (New York: The Century

 

59

Company, 1925), p. 89.

20A Handbook of Libya, gp. Cit., p. 186.

 

21Abdul-Hak, _o_p. 91., p. 6.

22A Handbook of Libya, 9p. 2.1.5” pp. 205—207.
23Piccoli,‘ ‘92. Cit., p. 175. ‘
24Ibid., p. 177. '- _

25.701111 Wright, Libya, (London: Ernest Benn, Limited, 1969), ‘
pp. 51-234. ' ‘

26Piccoli,‘ 92. 935.. pp. 215-217. _ f “
27Ibid.-,pp. 210-214.

28A'Handbook of‘Libya, 92. 931., pp. 192-194.

29Piccoli,‘ '92. _c_-_i_1_:_., pp. 221-222.

301bid.,pp. 255-257.

311bid...p. 209.

32 Ward, Touring Libya, The Western Provinces, ‘92. gig. , p. 84.

33George S. Shiber,‘ Recent Arab City Growth (Kuwait: Kuwait
Government Printing Press, 1969), p. 170.

34Hassan Fathy, "Constancy, Transposition and Change in the
Arab City," in ‘From‘Medina to Metropolis, ed. L. Carl Brown,
(Princeton; Darwin Press, Inc., 1973), p. 319.

35"Second Thoughts? Rush to Industrialize Wealthy Oil Countries
Begins to Slow Down," Wall Street Journal, 17 September 1976, p. 16.

36Rap0port, gp. Cit., p. 129.

37UNESC0, Cultural Rights as Human Rights, Studies and Documents
on Cultural Policies Series, No. 3. (Switzerland: UNESCO, 1970), p. 29.

38Rapoport,‘ 92° Cit., p. 78.
39$chiber, 9P; Cit., p. 555.

4°Ibid., p. 506.

 

 

 

Libyan traditional archi-
tecture is the end result - ,
or its generations making ’1"
concrete their ideas and iii,
feel i ngs . max. 3 ,
W ' _- ' is

. t

I
a .

\

3%!

   

 

COASTAL TOWNS:

I.
‘34--

ll. Benghzi: 01d Square 1889

12. Tripoli: Al-Gouzgou Mosque D

 

 

 

 

 

. ‘m—w
‘ .‘fJ. ? .‘:‘J&wV‘:V .v fr . . o
n ‘ _ .. .

{17"}: - «a».
. . [I

.13, Zliten: Sidi Abdul Salam Mosque ‘

‘14, Tripoli: Villa Volpi, now Museum
for Islamic Art. >

    
        
    
  

,. : .“ ' , ,
c ' I _.. - ..’ - ( , ‘_

. V ." “ :- “" I ' - ' —- ‘. - ‘ _ ..—d.:: ="- :.t’?& - _'!. 'F

’ hunky.“ 2.3— “"5 1." L1“. . 9.14:; ",{.._._.Jt_':..f {5.7%, 2:5 1 '~‘£.1."‘L-'._?‘—t - - '

 

 

 

15. Murad Agha Mosque in 1912. Tajura
The Village of Tajura has a

fine old mosque, the sixteenth
century mosque of Murad Agha,
which incorporates Roman
columns taken from Leptis
Magna.

16. Present: After restoration.

L‘i‘ijr T‘ ~‘
, -.

     

 

. . N. ‘h' “ ‘ f“.
_ ‘90. Jll." L . -
MW. ' " '1'“ h . '. . /cl/

 
 
     

 

‘.
:3 3'

f")

o

|

‘.
<

17. Interior . 18. Column

The relationship between an architectural
work and nature is expressed by this net-
work of columns. . . . the pointed outlines
that jut out of the base of the,capital
then curve inward in elegant parallel
arches, remind us of the shape of palm
leaves. (Ramdan)

1.. I... ll Illllllr

 

 

 

19. Garian: Aerial view.

Mountain Towns:

 

I

. . l‘ _ "f . . iii”;
In Garian there is an example ,. _ _ - . _ y .. Mam p't,"2‘:'

of vernacular architecture.

20. Troglodyte Cutaway View:
court 30'-40' on all sides is
the center of the dwelling
with the various rooms, stores,
etc., evacuated as needed.
Roofs are vaulted and corners
rounded.

   
    
  
  
 
 

. 2 21. Section
Sloping tunnel to _
\fqround'surface. ..
\ \_..:n.;. . . . . ” .
\‘\ ~ Z‘j'I'Granaries qm'u .__: 22. Entrance.

(knit 53t.lb1(9 . \ ~
I 3.. - .. .. -‘ ' o. . 'I' \
:-_-._';.;-. g E r x
. ‘oZ°-; .-‘ --'. \ts
HIJII-l! U WA-‘f'H-k 1 ‘~

(«H'I‘S :. ' \‘r-nrilwt 1'01)
.11er tu::r;u~r.:ture- mum“;

1'. any; - .-

 

 

.9.

 

 

 

 

25. Nalut: Old house.

23. Interior

 

24. Exterior

 

Nalut: The Kasr at Nalut is said

to resemble a giant dovecote or
beehive. It has evolved into a 26. Watchtower.
communal storehouse. (23-24)

 

 

 

 

Oasis Towns:
architectural form
reflects the way
the hard struggle
for existence in
the desert necessi-
tates mutual aid
and a strong sense
of community.

27. Hun: mosque
as a focal point.

28. Murzek:
General view.

(‘- to‘.

.3rvflt” -

29. Murzek:

30. Ghat:

 

 

    

Roof

Old castle

 

 

320 Ghat:

a . Built-in bench

 

\ L‘QJ'h
COL).

9
*4

31.

n.
H

,l
'l

33. Chat

Old popular
handpainted
doors-(33-34)

.\' [/1] a

‘..¢’l““
V \.~.

&
3..

34 . Hun

C.“q
‘Q r‘.
C

‘i
“L;

o

\I‘J‘
Q

‘9' LJ.“ 1.!
. . -

\‘dc’

\‘

35. Um Al-Araneb:
Old school.

 

i‘i’l‘IOI-‘I' ' .

,0
{$.ng

Ghadames:

Ghadames:

aerial view of oasis and town

aerial view

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ghadames

 

 

38.
There is a huge maze of covered streets.

Throughout the centuries. . .
the peeple of Ghadames retained
the unique integrity of their
town and their way of life.

 

39.

. They are dark, cool, quiet.

41.

 

Entrance to the old
pedestrian city.

Usaiet et Tuta:
Intimate, human
scale.

 

The ancient mosque of El-Kebir
with its massive square minaret.
(42-44)

 

 

  

45. Geometric three-dimensional
designs made from bright natural
dyes decorate the receiving
area.

44. Interior.

43. Entrance.

46. New hotel with
trd(Iitiondl
character.

' 47. Walled farms.

 

  
 
    

48. Ancient Ain El-Faras

The realm of the women is on the
rooftops and walled passageways
.below. (49-50)

'7*’\ihi

    

H.-.‘

t h

, -. ' ‘--’ t
: M'ng

:'

 
 
 
 
 
  
  

 

PART I I

OLD CITY_0F TRIPOLI! THE CASE FOR PRESERVATION

CHAPTER I I I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The earliest known name for the Old City of Tripoli,
is the Neo-Punic "Wy't" or "Uiat." It is believed to
have been founded, along with Sabratha and Leptis by
the Phoenicians between the thirteenth and twelfth
centuries, B.C.l Another source mentioned the dates of
the eighth to seventh centuries B.C.z as the time the
Phoenicians built these cities on the southern central
shores of the Mediterranean. The purpose of the
Phoenicians was to trade through the oasis for slaves,
ivory, gold and ostrich feathers from Africa, and silk,
cotton textiles and tools from Europe. Thus, even in
these earliest recorded times, the city served as both
a caravan oasis and an international port. Since the
Phoenicians were occupied mainly with trade, they did
not pay much attention to the urbanization of "Uiat,"
except for some minimum improvements. Some of their
ruins were discovered in the northeastern port of the
existing Old City of Tripoli.3

The Cathagenians dominated Tripoli after the
collapse of the Phoenician empire.4 After the battle,

Zama, in 202 B.C., the Carthagenians lost to the Romans,

 

 

61

who then gained control over the area and changed the

name of the city to "Oea."5

Other sources place the
beginning Of Roman domination over Libya between 111
B.C.6 and 163 B.C.7 The Romans replanned the Phoenician
cities according to their Own style, with more extensive
building, especially for Sabrathh and Leptis. Oea was

a smaller city with few governmental buildings and
houses, limited inside the walls which surrounded the
city from its eastern, southern and western sides.

When Emperor Septimus Severus recognized the strategic
importance of Oea he designated it as the capitol,
moving it from Leptis. The name was changed once more
to Trripolis or the three cities. During the Roman
period the city enjoyed a richer architectural experience,
as evidenced by the archeological discoveries Of the
foundations of houses and streets paved with mosaics

and colorful sandstone, the triumphful Arch of Marcus
Aurelius and the four Roman columns at the Arb'a Arsat
area. The exact location and dimensions of the Roman
city are unknown. It is believed that the old walls
disappeared as the Islamic dynasties erected new walls
on the top of the Old ones.8 During the fourth century
A.D., amid the crumbling of the Empire, the Berber
tribes rebelled and finally occupied the Roman cities
for a period of time.

9

Some time between 426-455 A.D., the City of

.Tripoli and North Africa was pillaged by the Vandals

62

led by Genseric. Their control, which lasted until 533
A.D., resulted in extensive destruction to the city,
the emmigration of many of its inhabitants and a cycle
of rebellions by the interior tribesmen. The Byzantines,
who failed to hold Tripolizfor more than three years, ;
came back in 533 A.D. and took over Tripoli under the
leadership of Belisarius. The Byzantines strengthened
the walls, bastions and forts. Civic development was
slow, except for the building of some churches.

In 642 A.D. (22 A.H., Islamic Calendar), the Arabs
conquered Tripoli. The Arab rule Of Tripoli lasted
until 1510 A.D.--about nine centuries. The city was
the political and administrative capitol for most of
the different states and dynasties that evolved during
this long period in and outside Of Libya. This period
was characterized by the rise and fall of a number of
dynasties as autonomous, semi-independent or completely
under the jurisdiction of the different Islamic empires
that ruled the Middle East. Tripoli, which grew enor-
mously inside the wall, with the construction of new
houses, mosques and markets or sugs in this period;
suffered from a long cycle of revolts, sectarian wars
and distruction at the hands of its occupiers, indigenous
inhabitants and neighboring tribesmen and heretics in
general.

At the beginning of the Arab invasion, parts of

 

 

63

the City's walls were destroyed by Ibn Al-As, the
Muslim leader, in order to make the City defenseless
after the Byzantines tried to recapture it. His exper-
ience of the walls' impregnability, convinced him to
destroy it in the event the Byzantines succeeded.10
The wall was restored around 752 A.D., after Abdul
Rahman Ben Habib put down the heretics' revolts.

In 800 A.D., Harun Al-Rashid, the Abasids ruler in
Baghdad, annoyed with the anarchic situation in the
area, surrendered its rule to the Aglabids, who promised
to restore order and tranquility. Their domination
over Tripoli was an era of relative progress and order.
The Fatimids dynasty began their control in 909 A.D.

The following two centuries may have been the worst
suffered by Tripoli. After the Fatimids moved their
capitol to Egypt, they gave the contrOl over Tripoli to
the Berber family of Beni Zeri, who were in power on
and off as they allied with or confronted the heretics
and neighboring dynasties. Extreme disruption followed
when the Beni Zeri (around 1035 A.D.) proclaimed their
independence from the Fatimids, who, in revenge, sent
the Arab tribes of Beni Hilal and Beni Salim to Libya,
and Tunisia to punish them. The Beni Salim,
controlling Tripoli by force and violence for more than
a century, were able to push most of the Berbers to the

south. Intermingling between the remaining Berbers and

64

Arabs resulted in the coastal area of Libya taking on

its Arab identity. After a short occupation by the
Norman dukes Of Sicily, Tripoli fell under the Almoahads
dynasty from Morrocco, which lasted from 1160 A.D.

until 1183 A.D. Ali Ben Ghania, one Of the last princes
of Al-Moravids of Morrocco and Andalus in collaboration
with the Mumluk Garagoosh from Egypt, took over the whole
area for about sixty years. In 1241 A.D. the Almoahads
returned and appointed Beni Haufus for the governorship
of the area. Their dynasty lasted until 1510 A.D., except
for a seventy year period, and was one of peace and
construction.

In 1510 A.D., the Spaniards occupied Tripoli and
drove out most of its Muslim inhabitants. The Spaniards
gave up Tripoli to the knights of St. John of Malta in
1530 A.D., but returned it in 1533 A.D., after the Turks
tried to capture it and after the Arabs had asked them
for assistance against the invaders. Nothing was added
to Tripoli during the Spanish occupation except the
fortification of the castle and walls for their own
use.11

The year 1551 A.D. marked the beginning of the
Turkish Empire's domination over Tripoli, which lasted
until 1911. Most of the Old City as it now stands was
built, rebuilt or altered during this period. During

the firSt Turkish Dynasty (1551-1711), the city enjoyed

65

a relatively high degree of development, evidenced by

the construction of residential buildings, baths, primary
schools and mosques, as well as the restoration of the
walls and forts. Some of the historic buildings such as
Jamah Darghut, Jamah Shaib El—Ain (mosques), Madrasseh

of Osman Basha (school), and Hammam Darghut (bath), were
built during this period.

In 1711, the Karamanli Dynasty was founded in
Tripoli. As a semi-independent state, it lasted until
1835, when the Turks abolished the power of the Karamanlis
and founded the second Turkish Dynasty. The Karamanlis
undertook more development projects and built more
historic buildings, such as the Jama Ahmed Basha (mosque)
and the Madrasseh (school) that is attached to it. Be- .
cause of the Turkish naval activities and control over
the Mediterranean, the Karamanalis had to fortify the
walls around the city and build a new one along the
eastern side. During the second Tukish Dynasty the
city expanded, which resulted in the destruction of a
part of the western wall. Most of the rest of the new
construction took place outside the.city except for the
say Al-Mushir.12

When the Italians occupied the city in 1911, it had
already begun growing outside the walls. The Italian
occupation Of Libya was pointed towards colonization

and transforming it into a settler state. By 1939, Libya

 

 

66

was declared the nineteenth region of Italy by the Facist
regime. By 1940 there were around 40,000 Italians in
Tripoli, around 35% of the population.13 The occupiers
concentrated on plans and projects that were designed to
accomodate more Italian settlers in the new parts of the
city. The plan for Tripoli in 1912 did not disturb the
Old City. Their projects included the improvement of the
substandard Jewish Quarter, the paving of Some lanes and
alleys with both asphalt and Sicilian basalt, the
construction Of sewage and water systems in some parts

of the Old City, and the replacement of petroleum

street lamps with first gas.aceti1ene and later electric
ones.14 In the Italian period, despite some restoration
Of the castle and the area around it, major destructiOn
to some of the historical monuments of the Old City,

such as the wall, gates and sabeels (decorated drinking
fountains) occurred.15 However, the core of the Old

City was ignored, except for minor improvements. (See
Fig. 7 for the development of the Old City and the 4

wall, also, see 52-54.)

THE WALL:

The first mention of the wall was at the beginning
of the Roman Empire. The exact location of the Roman
wall is not well established, as consecutive dynasties

altered it or erected new walls on the top of it. The

.1 '

 

Roman Times

 

b. Medieval Times

 

%

 

Figure 7. Old City of Tripoli Development (a-c)

 

 

 

67

'Roman wall extended to surround the eastern, southern

and estern sides.16

The Byzantines strengthened the
walls when they occupied Tripoli in 533 A.D. Amr Ibn A1-
As, the Muslim leader who conquered Tripoli ordered
some of the walls destroyed in 642 A.D. Abdul Rahman Ben
Habib, one of the Umiyyad rulers Of Africa restored the
parts of the wall facing the interior around 752 A.D.17
As the danger to the city from attack by sea became more
obvious, a wall from the seaside was erected in 800 A.D.
In 969 A.D., the wall was raised and extended once more.
Around 1240 A.D., Abu Mohammed Beni Haufus ordered the
construction of another smaller wall on the outside of
the original ones called Al-Stara, following the Islamic'
style Of building. This was found by excavations in 1964
around the presently existing west wall. The smaller one
was found to be six meters wide and placed thirteen meters
apart from the larger one at its foundation. Other remains
of the same wall were found along the southeastern side of
the city.

At the beginning of the fourteenth century, plans
were developed to dig a khandik (moat) around the city
and connect it with the sea, according to Al-Tejhani,
an Arab traveller in Tripoli around 1307. This contradicts

the previously held belief that the moats were constructed

by the Spaniards after 1510. Ruins of this moat were

68

visible when the Italians invaded in 1911, but they had
them filled in. Al-Tejhani reported that the walls
were extremely well kept, to the extent that a portion
of the taxes of the Old City went to paint and decorate
them. He estimated the diameter of the wall as 3,728
paces and the moat around the castle at 44 paces.18
The total length north and south was 1130 paced yards
and its width 780.19 Batistino DeTonsis, a Spanish
soldier confirmed Al-Tejhani's reports Of moat and
walls in 1510.20 When the Spanianksoccupied Tripoli
they used building materials from abandoned homes in
fortifying the walls and bastions.

More restoration of the wall was undertaken during
the first Turkish dynasty. In the Karamanli Era (1795-
1832), a new wall along the eastern side of the city
was erected. This was completely destroyed at the
beginning of the Italian occupation. In 1909 part of
the western wall was destroyed to make way for construc-

tion.21 The Italians removed the remainder of the

wall, except for the small portion that stands today.22

THE CASTLE:

 

The As Saraya Al-Hamra (red castle), also known as
the kasr (palace) and the castle was Roman in origin.

Like the wall, it underwent varying degrees of destruction

69

and modification with each successive occupier. Today,
it shows most strongly the Spanish influence, being
rebuilt after the Spaniards took over Tripoli at the
beginning of the sixteenth century. The designation
"red castle" refers to its traditional color, having

23 Used for military

been painted white in recent times.
purposes, it was also the headquarters and residence

of all the rulers and governors of the region. During

the Karamanli Dynasty it was extensively modified for the
large family's use as a residence, with new houses built
within. In the second Turkish Dynasty it was used as
governmental Offices and residence for_officials, the
lower level serving as a prison. The Italians used it as
offices for the governor after a major beautification
project. They moved some fountains from the Old City

to occupy the courtyards within the castle and constructed
arches over the southeastern part.

In times of foreign invasion, the castle was the
destination of the inhabitants seeking a refuge under its
walls and forts. The castle prepared its bakeries,
baths and food stores to meet such emergencies. Now the
castle stands as the home of the main museum in Libya

as well as the headquarters of the General-Directorate

of Antiquities.

70

The architecture Of the castle is a major component
Of the historical urban structure of the Old City. It
is Spanish in external design and Turkish in the interior.
The Turkish touch is reflected in the large rooms,
corridors, terraces and courtyards. After the Spaniards ~
took over Tripoli, they restored the fort on the south-
east angle of the castle and named it St. Marcus. They
also named the fort on the southwest angel St. George,
and the fortified wall that runs between the two the St.
Barbara bastion. The knights of Malta added another
fort on the northeast corner which was extensively
altered by the Italians with new arches and a tunnel
running north and south through the castle. The seventeenth
century maps show a khandik full of sea water surrounded
the castle with only one bridge connecting the gate to the
land. At the present time the castle has two gates in its
western wall and One high gate in its southern side that is

entered after climbing a ramp.24

FORTS AND GATES:

 

Other forts were built in different places along the
walls surrounding the Old City and outside of it. Inter-
spersed between them were the gates. The chronological
order of their construction is not known except for those

built by the Spaniards and Darghut Basha.

 

71

Starting clockwise from Bab El-Menshia (gate)25
west of the castle, the next structure was Dar E1 Baroud
(gunpowder house) which was built by Darghut Basha
in 1568.26 Further west the small entrance gate
believed to be the one Al-Tejhani called A1 Bab A1
Akdar (green gate).Bab Al-Hurria (Freedom Gate) was
built in 1909,27 when the Turks Opened a big gap in the
wall that extended from Dar A1 Baroud to Burj Al
Karmah. Next to the latter fort was Bab Al-Adala
(Justice Gate). The next bastion, probably called Burj
Al-Hedar28 was in the middle of the wall between Burj
Al-Karma and the fort of Bab Ez-Zenata (a tribal name).
This latter gate was closed in 1833. The substitute,
Bab El—Jedid (New Gate) was Opened in 1870.29 The
latest gate was Burj Al-Trab (Earth Fort), which was
located in the middle of the northern wall that extends
to the Spanish bastion. Burj Al-Trab is constructed on
the site of another but ancient bastion. Across from
this fort stood Burj Bu-Lelah on a rock in the middle
of the sea. The Spanish bastion at the northeast angle.
was reported to be in ruinous condition in 1897 due tO
bombardment.30

From here begins the Mendrik headland which consisted
of a defense line (wall) and the Mendrik or Spanish fort.

The old Bab El-Bahr (Sea Gate) is located south of the

Spanish bastion. Inscriptions over the gate show that

it was built or rebuilt around 1310 A.D. On the same

72

eastern wall it is suggested that the Knights of St.
John Of Malta built a fort upon the ruins of which
Dorghut Basha built his mosque. North of the castle, in
the area of Burj Al-Saa (clocktower) stands Bab Abdul-
lah.31 -

At the present time, only the castle and the wall
on the south from Dar Al Baroud to Bab A1 Hurria, and
the west from Bab Al Jedid to the northwestern angle,
stand. Bab Al Jedid remains intact, but where Fum A1
Bab and Bab A1 Khandik once were are only two large
arches constructed by the Italians. Inhabitants use
the names of Bab A1 Bahir and Bab A1 Hurria to designate
the areas where these gates once stood, but like all
the other towers, gates and parts Of the wall, they
were destroyed. The extent of this destruction is
underlined by the fact that it has all occured since
the beginning of the twentieth century, (see 55-62 and

Fig, 8).

.kmou a wqomwua mo moan pee .e cusses

tel 8.6.4.5» HMS.— ..uuwufiou I.

vacuumiwm «on
. . ....’..
awemcozuem son a

ILIIII... . 6.33.3 _
R .uwuuamlws-.nmm

4.8.0.... .
A 15525. 3228
«Quasi: nuns 3:23 am «332.:
5.. 33...me non.

. .3232.

 

 
                  
             

   

 

4935—02.? .5 3..» 3 do

.3836 ed on
.24.» as .823“ o... 3 8:8 .25 8m 8 .53..» .1: .on

46.8.5

8.533% .3 68.....80 en
Sagan 923.. on B826 .8
€30.63 3 u 823 .8358 525,—. an
i. . 43m 33.—N .3. . 3.035 .N«
.. . .ESU «25 mm u .3 squ .5

a_ufiunvnns sum \H .uuusmNINN. hum 9669.?er .3. m .52. x2...

I //
«annex nuam , .

4957. a: me
$880 Est .1236 on i

.283 4«
“387.53%:

 

- . aria—r. g .mu
m ”stun... an a an item .35: Below... 859..» ram .8
. all“! I

5232..» son .3
245.3 «0 35m

   

[5 _( then

.She

duh—:04» Ens-Ea: do

.599 _ Sum

«.5930 3 £331 EdEEnI .9 _ .920 8 63330 Ens—Edm— du
.mefd

as... .353 3 #68: .s _ 52...... can a.
.. .633— fieam .2 _ 4.8..— .83 .3
. . ....... .mzoFmE oz... PEP.

Hammad.» mambo
ss 02.0: 5330 m\‘

  

33.9 _ 422m..— ._ 33.:
39537.8
. .850 65...: 3:6 an... .n
.... sauna» is... .8 . .391: one... .v
m :36553sm3i34 _ Jessica—gum
m anemuenam whom 13856348382 .e H £1.33mfi5...
.w 33%., . nu». 1232..» .35.. a . .8362 .85 on. 8
.. he.“ hum» “Q! .97.... one: .o. i ease-x and Beer .35.. .—
Ilnumou #:3le . .1. 3:80:
no J. .
u m sunset 6 . . nirawaxhdu. any?“ 3:... 65...:
. V gar. 9 I315}! gj‘ CMNOHIDQ .fihzm
{EXACT/3.2.x Am“. 59%? 331R (

.SOASC. m0 Z<Am OH >MM

73
' Footnotes

lMahmud Naji, Tarikh Tarabulus Al—Gharb, (History of Tripoli-
West), Arabic Trans., A Adham & M. Al- -Ousta (Benghazi: Faculty of
Arts, University of Libya Publications, 1970), p. 21.

 

2Ba1adiet Tarabulus Fi Miat Am., (Report of the Committee on
the Centennial Celebration of the Municipality of Tripoli: 1870- _
1970), Abdulla A. Al-Sharif, Chairman (Tripoli: Al- -Tebaa Al-haditha
Co, 1973), p. 38.

 

31b1d.,p. 39.
4Naji,'gpf'Cit., p. 122.
51bid. ,p. 123.

6Phi1ip ward, Touring'Libya,‘The western Provinces, (London:
Faber and Faber, Limited, 1967), p. 14.

 

7Baladiet, '92. Cit., p. 40.
81bid.., pp. 39-40.

9Historica1 sources differ on the exact date of the vandals
attack. The years 426, 429, 439 and 455 have been mentioned.

10H.S. Cowper in his book The Hill of the Graces, suggested
that the Kasr was built by the Arabs on the spot from which they
beseiged the original town. Eventually markets, fOnduks and
bazaars grew up around the fOrt and merged with what was OEA. Later
the town walls were extended to include the new town. Cowper
based his account from the records of Leo Africanus and Arab
historians.

 

11Naj1, 92. 933., pp. 134-146.
lzBaladiet,.gpf £i§,, pp. 47-52.
13Ib1d.,pp. 422-432.

14rbid.,pp. 255-265.

15Ib1d.,p. 273.

16Ibid.,p. 39.

IZNaji, 22, 923:! p. 132.

188a1diet,'gp,'Cit., pp. 62-63.

74

19H.C. COWper, The Hill Of'the Graces, (London; Methuen & Co.,
1897), p. 7.

 

”zoBaladiet, Op. ‘O_J_.'_t_., p. 45.
211b1d.,pp. 48-50.
221bi‘d.,p. 64.
2‘3Ibi'd.,p. 55.
24rbid.,pp. 53-55.

25According to Naji, this gate was once sealed amid 'wars
between the Howara tribes and the Aglabides around 860 A.D.

2.5Ba1adiet, Op.‘ Opp” p. 64.
27Baladiet, Op.‘ g}, p. 242.
281bid.-, p. 40.
29Ibid.., p. 64.
30Cprer, Op. gig, pp. 8-9.

313a1adiet, Op. Cit., pp. 47-48.

 

 

Old City of Tripoli

51. The five-sided Old City of Tripoli appears to the roof—top
viewer as a snowy expanse of flat-topped houses in almost '1ace—
like cellular fOrm,’ caused by the interior courtyards of the
homes.

 

 

OLD CITY

52. General view - Mid 18th Century.

IIKII'U UL D.\I‘D‘\I‘l.‘\
. ' by

   
    
 

  
  
 
  

LI
. f'“
$.. .'*b . — ~. )1
. _.‘\ ‘ ‘, Li. ._ WANx“; ;
7‘R h - .. . I. ‘ ll,»—
"W

.-
‘0

 

53. Old City: aerial view-1685. 54. Old City: Aerial
view-1530.

 

  

The Wall: Existing
parts. (55-57)

55. At Bab Al-Hurria.

56. At Bab El-Jedid.

 

 

57. At Sug Al-Mushir
Entrance-

 

 

58. Castle: Aerial view—1685. 59. Castle: at present.

The As Saraya Al-Hamra
(Red Castle):

 

Also known as the
Egg; (palace) and
the castle, it was
Roman in origin.
Like the wall, it
underwent varying
degrees of
destruction and

modification 60. Castle:

with each succes- 1873.
sive occupier.
(58—62)

61. Castle:
late 19th
century.

62. Castle:
at present.

ii 23%;: Laq' l‘
IllkEanF: I

  

 

 

CHAPTER IV

URBAN ENVIRONMENT

The unique location of the Old City Of Tripoli,

added to its special character that has survived the

 

. ravages of modern planning, merits a detailed examin—
ation of its structure, as related to its physical
and sociological environment. The Old City has an

"integral unity"1 and is a good example of organic

 

development that extends itself to serve, accomodate

and provide a sense of well-geing to the inhabitants.

CLIMATE AND TOPOGRAPHY

 

CLIMATE:

The area of Tripoli is especially favored climati—
cally in the context Of the whole of Libya. Although this
country as a whole may be generally described as dry and
desert-like, over Tripoli, rain is more generous and the
climte is characteristically semi—arid. However, the
need for the conservation of water and protection of land
and dwellings from wind is still a major factor in Tripoli's
design and development decisions.

Generally, the predominant winds are from the south

75

 

 

 

76

during the winter and from the north during the summer.
Thus, the winds blow from the Mediterranean cooling the
area during the summer heat, and from the sun-warmed
lands during the winter. The city itself is located on
a prominence of land that extends northerly into the ‘
sea. This not only provides an especially fine view
for its inhabitants and adds to the city's own visual
impact, but also allows the east and west winds to
further modify the climate. As a result, the Tripoli
coastal area enjoys warm summers and mild winters, with
winter temperatures almost never below freezing and
summer temperatures ranging from seventy degrees Fahren—
heit to ninty-seven degrees Fahrenheit. The comfortable
to sometimes hot summers are generally only disturbed

by the_ghibli, a hot, dry, dust-laden wind from the
interior, which usually occurs about three times in the
summer months. Due to the sea breezes, Tripoli has a
higher humidity than other regions enjoy.

Nearly all local ground water supplies depend on
the rainfall within the area. The City of Tripoli was
built on a site relatively favored by rainfall. On the
long-term average, a small area not much larger than
the presently developing portion of Tripoli and Sug E1
Jumaah receives about 370mm of rain a year.2 Homes
in the Old City of Tripoli were built with the aim of
collecting this valuable resource. Roofs were kept

cleanly plastered, with a pipe running from the roof to

77

water storage system underneath each house. A small
window in the couryard wall opened to a bucket and
pulley system, that brought the cold water up for
household use. This water system is called a majin.

TOPOGRAPHY:

 

The region in which Tripoli is situated is character-
ized by a gradual slope toward the sea. The microtopo-
graphy of the city itself is varied. For example,
the Bab el—Bahir Mahallah (district) in the northern
part of the Old City of Tripoli is fifteen meters above
sea level. But to the south of the city, another
mahallah is twenty meters above sea level. In between,
heights vary from five to ten meters. The lepe on which
the Old City in its entirety rests upon ranges from
five to fifteen meters above sea level. The Old City
being the highest point of the entire city area, is

the visual focal point and dominates the larger scene.3

SOCIOLOGICAL FACTORS

 

The intimate relationship between social patterns and
the urban structure are exemplified in the Old City of
Tripoli. The Old City was divided into quarters, not
well defined physically, but which functioned as closely-

knit communities. Common use of public buildings and urban

#1....

 

 

78

spaces;h1that limited area was a basic element Of the
daily life of the inhabitants. Most of the people are
Muslims and were called to prayer by the muezzins from
the top of the minarets five times a day. Mosques were
located close to homes andlplaces of work, usually only-
a few minutes walk from any one point. This frequent
gathering intensified social contact, as is encouraged
by Muslim teachings. A rich community life is also the
result of the Old City's mixed land use. The existence
of many small, family run shops within the area helped
to integrate the work and living places. The shopkeepers
or craftsmen lived in the area and traded with their
neighbors. This, in addition to the small population in
a defined area, (about 215 people per acre and 25,000
total), combined to provide the Old City's residents
with a high degree of interaction and cohesiveness.

For example, people showed great sympathy to each other
in times of sorrow, shared happiness and material help
and support was often given, if needed.

In 1871, a system was instituted to appoint mukhtars
in each muhallah (district) to act as liasons between
the people and the government.4 The mukhtar was
responsible for explaining the laws, acts and decrees
Of the government to the people and to have personal
knowledge of the families in the mahallah, and to give
assistance to them in times of need. The modern role

of the mukhtar is one of a respected community leader,

79

consulted and depended upon in times of crisis. The
social life of the men centered around the cafes, while
women were restricted to entertaining female visitors
in the home. This resulted in little need to go beyond
the city's walls. 3 -
Economic relationships were simple and depended on
personal contact.‘ The buying or selling Of goods was
considered to be a matter of trust and complicated
legal procedures were unnecessary. To be employed
within the community did not require submission of
credentials, but only recognition in the area. People
in general worked inside the Old City and held jobs
such as shop-keepers, craftsmen, or other professions
or services such as barbers, bakers or fishermen.
Specialization on the part of craftsmen was considered
to be a source of pride. The range Of crafts varied
from making traditional vests, leather work, silver-
smiths, weavers, jewelers, female barracans (traditional
clothing) burnuses, slippers, sewers, engravers, makers
of traditional blankets, etc. Most of the handicrafts
are still in existence, though they have suffered some
decline and introduction of mass-produced crafts.
Although driven Out to some degree by industrial goods,
a tour of sugs in the area near the castle shows that
most of the traditional handicrafts survive to comprise

10% of the total handicrafts and small industries in

80

the entire metropolitan Tripoli area. The says (the
workshop and display area for one or more handicraft)
still "especially serve the traditional customer group
with the traditional specialties such as cloth, jewelry,

"5 Up to;1969, the specialty retail

carpets and so on.
businesses in the Old City comprised 8% of Tripoli's
total and was still dependent on the one-family store.
The maze of narrow, partly covered, winding streets
are the scene of much activity and provide the setting
for a vital social life. Their pedestrian nature
allows people to walk with their neighbors and maintain
an intimate, face to face relationship with the community.
This can be contrasted with modern life, where the
alienation of a resident of a high—rise building who
may step from the car to the elevator and then to the
apartment without speaking to anyone has become a major
prOblem of urban life. Most residential streets dead—
end and are quieter than the few major streets. The
former serve as children's playgrounds for lively
games, safe from the fear of traffic. Fruit, vegetable
and fish peddlers push carts from door to door, a
convenience almost unheard of by modern urban dwellers.
Men in traditional clothing can always be seen, in
conversation or going to the small shops which Open onto
the street. There were drum players of all kinds, using

different sounding and sizes of drums, from the Bendear

81

and Dunga to the Noba. All these were added to the
Ghitta (traditional flute) and the Zokra (similar to
bagpipes). All of these popular artists found in the
intimate alleys and lanes of the Old City the place to
express their talents, and-added another special element
to the character of the place.

The streets are also the setting for many of the
festivities around the holidays. During Ramaden,
people visit each other during the evening and arrange
for social gatherings at their homes and in the cafes.
ArOund two or three A.M. the streets are filled with
the sound of the Tbe-Beila, small drums beaten by
groups of men waking up the community for sohur, the
meal eaten before sunrise, the commencement of the
fast. During this time people also make special
cookies they take to the Open air bakery, the scene of
much excitment. Children are treated to the garagoos,
(a shadow play theatre ) that opens only in the evenings
Of Ramaden, in the Sug El-Turk. For the Hadra, Sufe
.groups from the Zawais used to go around the streets
wearing traditional dress, burning incense, singing and
beating traditional drums, to be joined by the people
in a rejoiceful celebration on the day of the Birth of
Mohammed. Also, Sidi Makari, a festivity of Negro
Africans whose ancestors were brought originally to

Tripoli as slaves, is celebrated in a tour from the

82

tomb of a holy man around the streets of the Old City.
The Hadra and Sidi Makari no longer have street
celebrations.6

Family life, traditionally highly personal and
private, revolved around the courtyard house with its
formal and informal areas to control access by visitors,
particularly males. The home was the domain of women
and organized around the domestic activites. The
courtyard served as an area for cooking, laundry and
the children's play space. Much visitng between
families occurred during the day in the homes. During
holidays, festivities or holy days activities were also
focused there. The public and private life were both
active, but clearly separate, reflecting the traditional
separation of the sexes.

The particular set Of customs, traditions and
behavioral rules common to the area were shared by
everyone. The lifestyle, including social functions,
were also common to all. This cohesiveness is breaking
down somewhat at the present time because of the large
immigration of foreign laborers who tend to settle in
the Old City because of its cheap housing. Rural
immigrants also flock there, attracted to the traditional
lifestyle that eases their transition into urban life.
The courtyard houses are becoming multi-family dwellings,

loosing much of their former privacy, as courtyards

83

become public space. Still, the Old City of Tripoli
represents the link between the old and the new in

terms of the social life of its inhabitants.

'ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN FORM

 

As mentioned in Chapter I, old Arab-Muslim cities
share-many of the same features and enjoy a similar
urban form. Still, each of them has its own special
character which is a product of the inhabitants use of
adaptive forms and shaping them to their local cultural,
social and material conditions and physical surroundings.
This also holds true for the Old City of Tripoli. This
City, unique in its location, long history and urban
form, unfortunately does not receive its proper share
of attention in architectural and urban design research
circles. It deserves a closer analysis Of its urban
structure.

The Old City is a totality comprised of its urban
and architectural form and social, economic and cultural
institutions. Not a single traditional building, or
collection of them; not one historical component or
scattered numbers of these; not a group of people; and
not an individual mosque, say or alley is alone
responsible for determining the success of the Old

City. It is all these factors working together to

84

achieve what one architect called the medina of which
”modern architecture is not yet able to create the
equivalent."7

The Old City is the place where the ordinary
people with their customs,:traditions, festivites,
moral and spiritual values and simple everyday life,
find expression in their houses, mosques, sugs, kahwas
(coffee shops), institutions and the intimate spaces
and alleways. The simplicity and functionalism of the
urban structure is very impressing. The artisans and
builders who shaped it were traditionally highly skilled,
creative and had a thorough knowledge of building
materials and orientation, wind direction and climatic
conditions. Shiber's description of the traditional
Arab city is an apt one of Tripoli's Old City also: "It
has a distinct overall urban structure, and it has a
distinct personality in relation to the regional landscape
it occupies."8

The five-sided Old City of Tripoli appears to
the rooftop viewer as a snowy expanse of flat-topped
house in almost flace-like cellular form," caused by
the interior courtyards of the homes. The silhouette
is dominated by the towers, minarets and the hemisphere
of the more traditional mosques (see 63). Alleys, which
narrow, widen and curve to shape the space and aid in
articulating building masses creates the most charming

and pleasant urban environment. The upper floor of one

85

house extends from its side of the street to the opposite
side to provide extra rooms, spanning part of the

street. This serves to form the covered passageways

over the streets. In other areas, flying buttresses

are formed connecting the two sides of the street.

These buttresses, with the rooms which cross the streets,
were built to reinforce the houses structurally, inter-
locking the houses together in a kind of maze. The

visual effects of such architectural treatment is very
dramatic as light and shadows play on the bare wall
surfaces, creating ever changing patterns and the constant
interplay of light and dark areas. The vistas are mainly
ended by a minaret or a deflection in the alley path leading
to a small intimate and irregular space with a tree or a
grape arbor overhead (See 64-71).

The "hierarchy" in the street design adds another
advantage to this pattern. This system, which is primarily
pedestrian, functions organically, as the quiet and safe‘
minor dead-end alleys connect the houses to the fewer, but
busier and more animated ones (See fig. 9). The major
streets in the system "are mostly straight and intersect
at right angles, evident traces of the former chessboard-
like Roman pattern."9 As the streets turn to commercial
handicrafts and manufacturing uses, one starts to experience

the excitement Of shOpping in the colorful pedestrian

 

 

Old City Circulation: "Hierarchy."

Figure 9.

86

malls of the past. Handicrafts, and workshops are
grouped according to their specialties in separate
sugs, such as es seyaga (jewelers), al—attara, perfume
and cosmetic sellers, and framel (traditional hests).
Other sugs are classified according to the type of
_goods they sell or make. Sug Ed-Dbach is where leather
and textiles are dyed. El-Nejara,woodworkers, and
El-Hedada, irOn workers, are grouped in one say.
Parallel to this say is Sug Al-Gazdara, bronze and
brass cleaners. Sug Al-Mushir is where ropes were
sold; now it is full of clothing shops. Al-Nuwala,
makers Of women's barracans, are grouped in the most
intimate alley, El-Fnidga. Two of the most colorful
sugs are the Sug Al-Turk and Sug Er-Rebaa, which are
connected. Sug Al-Turk displays more modern clothing,
some inside the shops and some on the outside. This
sug (around twelve feet wide), is cooled and shaded by
a wooden trellis-roof overgrown with grape vines. At
the southern end of this sug, connecting it with Sug
Er-Rebaa, is the smaller Sug Al-Framel. Sug Er—Rebaa is
the characteristic Arab bazaar which is completely
covered and where native goods such as traditional
hand-made clothing and textiles are sold in square,
box-like shops, very small, with raised floors that are
about two feet above the floor of the sug. This extends

about two feet in front of the shops into the say, to

 

87

form a long, continuous bench used as a seat by shop-
pers while bargaining with the shopkeeper, who sits on
the carpeted floor of his shop. This sug surrounds the
mosque of Ahmed Basha from three sides (see 72-77). The
Old City of Tripoli is characterized by the concentration
of mostof its sugs in a relatively crowded area which
they share with seven out of the fifteen mosques the Old
City has.

The largest and most famous of these mosques is the
Ahmed Basha, which was completed in 1736 on the site of
two other ancient mosques: Amr Ibn Al—As and Al—Ashra.
It has a large central hall soaring to a domed and
stuccoed ceiling, surrounded by twenty Islamic Baroque
marble columns. The walls are tiled in many colors and
the floors are covered with carpets. It is beautiful
_and quiet and lighted by rays of diffused light (see 79-81).
The Oldest mosque in Tripoli is believed to be Jama An-
Naga. Stories indicate thatiifis‘was built either at the
very beginning of the Islamic era in 643 or when the
Fatimids first occupied Tripoli in 909. It has been
restored frequently, with the major restoration taking
place in 1610 by Sufferdie Ben Bakkir after being
bombarded in 1510.10 This mosque is very simple in
its exterior and interior design. The central hall is
almost square in shape with bare white walls and thirty-

six white-pointed columns of different styles and

88

origins. The floor of this hall sinks about 40cm from
i the level of the street. The suhen (courtyard) is
surrounded by four reewages or eyuans (arcades) with a
group of trees in the center. The low minaret is
square in its shape and resembles the famous Morrocan
stylell (See 69 and 82). Other mosques are the

Shaib El-Ain, Darghut (See 78), Mahmud, El-Kharouba,
Ben Moussa, El-Druj, Sidi Attia, Osman Basha, Sidi
Salem (See 64), Sidi Shan Es-Shan, Sidi Abdul-Wahab,
El-Khadria (See 70), and the most decorated, Jama of
Gurjie.

The architecture of most of these mosques is
simple and less decorative compared to the famous
mosques of Cairo or Damascus. The simple shapes of the
mosques, their courtyards and the expressive plains of
the domes and minarets interplaying with the bare walls
and buttresses of the streets, create arresting three
dimensional formations of masses and voids in space.
This public spatial arrangment is contrapuntally met
by the private space created by the arrangement of the

courtyard houses in the Old City.

THE COURTYARD HOUSE:

 

The courtyard house has a long history in Libya.12

Both Romans and Phoenicians introduced their building

89

techniques, as the climate of their countries were very
similar. After the Arab conquest in the seventh century,
Libya and the Old City of Tripoli came under the influ—
ence of eastern Muslim architecture, followed much

later by Byzantine-influenced architecture, developed

by the Turks, who introduced it in the sixteenth century,
A.D. Andulusian influence was added through the

Spanish immigrants, Bashas and Beys. The historical
court houses range from 250-300 years old to those

built during the second Turkish occupation period of
Tripoli, from 1835-1911 A.D. Some of the most recent
show EurOpean influence, from the early part of the
Italian occupation. The Older homes are_good examples

of a Turkish dominate style, especially in their layout.
Most in the Old City were built by the well-to—do and
had two storiesl3 (see 85-87). '

Two story courthouses were generally laid out in
rows. Three sides are shared with other homes, with one
side facing the street. Although the ground area
covered is generally irregular,the court and main
rooms have a regular shape. The size of the site varies,
but averages around 300 square metres.

The entrance is through an arched doorway decorated
with painted tiles or floral leaf designs around it.
Sometimes the "faience tiles" are used on the top sides

of the arch (see 89). Over the door is generally a

90

small Ein El-Zarzoor (Libyan masharabia) with a slot at
the bottom so as to observe and identify callers without
being seen (see 88). As in other Apgp homes, entranceways
are angled to block the view into the court.

The court is usually e rectangle, close to square,-
approximately between 70 and 100 square meters. The
average proportion of the court to the walls is close
to 1:1 to shade the courtyard.14 As has been discussed
earlier, the courtyard is equipped with various techniques
to modify "the micro-climate by lowering the ground
temperatures and radiation.”5 Besides this, the water
and greenery of the court provide a soothing and cooling
psychological effect, and the courtyard increases the
living space. The court is always entered from one or
two corners through a portico, which always has three
bays and is built of stone. The most usual arch is the
pointed horsehoe type. A similar portico may be on the
upper floor with stone arches overlooking the court.
This portico, or a gallery, may extend on three or four
sides of the court to provide access to the rooms on
the upper floor. It was usual to construct this gallery
from wood, using wooden poles to support the wooden
roof covering the gallery. The rooms that open into
the court are entered through an arched doorway. In
the larger homes, the lower floor rooms were largely

fOr reception, and the upper for sleeping and family

91

use. The arcade around the court is on the same level
as the courtyard itself.16
In place of the traditional marboaa, for male
visitors, which is generally found in single story
houses, the Libyan courthOUSe may have a room directly-
above the entrance called ghurfat as—sugifa, from which
the view into the courtyard is also shielded. There is
often another larger reception hall, opening on to the
court, with access either from the other side of the
entrance or on the sides of the court. This is called
dar el-kobool and is used by women and more intimate
guests. This has a large recess in the center holding
several divans and acts as a salon, usually having a
slightly pointed horseshoeftype arch. Both sides of
this area have small rooms, usually with a place for a
bed, to be used by guests. More elaborate houses may
have more than one reception hall opening into the
court, to use at differenttimes of the day or seasons.
Bedrooms are mainly located on the second floor
and can be used as both sitting and sleeping areas.
They are long and narrow, about two and one-half to six

meters,17

and entered through an arched doorway, next to
which is usually one window facing the courtyard with a
grilled covering (see 91). ‘The bedrooms sometimes have a
recessed area at one or both ends called a sedda, with

a raised wooden built-in bed. The sedda is enclosed by

92

a curtain and short grilled fence, except for the
entrance. A storage box is placed in front as a step.
Underneath is another storage area. Divans, or large
cushions on a carpet and mat in the center of the room
make up the sitting area. :Built in storage closets are.
also typical (see Fig. 10-12).

The single story court house is usually occupied
by average and lower income families. The layout,
including the angled entrance and marboaa are basically
the same as the two story house.‘ The inner court is
usually more rectangular and smaller, about 25 to 50
square meters in general. The height of the house is
about three to four metres. The proportions are very
personal and human and provide plenty of shade. Usually
there is no portico or gallery but a tree or vine to
supply the shade. This area serves as a circulation
area between rooms. Three or four long narrow rooms
are located around the court, and serve for all family
actbfliies and receiving guests. Bathrooms and kitchens
are on the southern side with a high-level Opening over-
looking the street for cross-ventilation. Light enters
other rooms through the doorways onto the court. There
may be an additional small opening, 30 x 30 cm approxi-
mately, on the street side for ventilation (see fig. 13).

The artisian well that used to be located in the

court has been replaced by running water. The court may

  
    
 

Ground Floor Plan

/

ad flm plan

10582 XL SUVLR 91331?

./VCWV / ‘4%aZaZZZRZZZZ%2%%5%¢ZZEZZH%Z%7

I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

First Floor Plan

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The alley is covered by a room which

is supported by the Opposite building

 

 

 

Sectional elevation

 

.
In
', I

 

:3);

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 10. A two-story Libyan Court House,
Old City of Tripoli, 1746 A.D.

Ground.floor plan

First Floor Plan

hflvgk" ' Foun'o rumpsi
. ) ' (2c 01 kobool)
2’; ., a: in: c ---
'5 ' ”1:;\

     

.ELA ;:

4,, ”MM/1174““ x y -2/ //

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Flying Buttress

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sectional elevation

 

 

 

 

Figure 11. A two-story Libyan Court House.
Old City of Tripoli, 1790 A.D.

Plaster work _______
Stone wall —————__

Palm timber joist

Timber boards . I
I"

 

Fine concrete _J.

/

iii? Typical Mashrabia
.',",(Ein El-Zarzoor)

 

5a
f

 

"

Flying buttress

 

 
 
 
 

- ...1\

"re

 

 

---

 

 
  

_U

 

 

 

Lawn“...

 

 
 

I
1’;
I

    

I
‘l.

   

  

 

'-I'rI-* ‘w

‘I‘INUIZUJZI‘I.

   
  

Din—1:137

    

 

'znr.1“"
numbed-.3

Ch

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

Floor tiles over a layer. 1 ' '3 Stone fOundation
of broken Stones 1”} >4

L_3rick cross vault _ . Pointed horseshoe stone arch
With concrete filling with ornamental tiles

 

Opening fOr ventilation
over the door lintel

_

Figure 12. Sectional view through a typical alley in the Old City, Tripoli.

: Lobby

‘ . ‘ ' (4551292331
4 ' Kitchen . .C Reception

     

fOr men

 
   

”xxx/w" ' 'm.

  

 

I
f ’ Very Narrow Alley , A .
y Entrance
fish.” ~ - - l/Ill’; ///;)';;211’2:Z;2' //'7//)4;//f?//ITWZ/}///Vv n o . to ./"///I. ’l/I/W/Z‘
.Z

 

 

 

 

 

Elevation

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

- . - - - As Cross Section

Figure 13. Typical Modest Contemporary Libyan Court House (Hash).

93

not be paved or paved simply with cement plastering or
tile. Drainage off the roof is toward the court. Most
of the roofs are inaccessible to insure privacy.18
Decorative elements include the 21112, faience, or
glazed tiling with colorful-patterns which is the domi—
nent color element and forms a vivid contrast to the
white stone. The ziliz is used mainly on the interior,
very rarely on the exterior except for the top of the
arched doorway. There were also used on the court walls
of old Turkish houses in Tripoli "in small panels
forming different patterns. This was either in a geo-
metric form showing the influence of Andalusion art, or
in floral and plant forms revealing Byzantine and Turkish
influence."19 (See 92). Ziliz is used in later built
homes "in bigger areas with repetative patterns, some-
times covering a good part of the court walls up to the
height of the door. In reception rooms and bedrooms, the
21112 was used over bigger areas to cover parts of the
walls. . . the size of such ziliz was usually 13 x 15cm,
and was also used to pave the floor in some specially
important rooms of the house."20
Columns were used in many of the two story houses as
part of the arcade around the lower story. Most of the
capitols were "the typical Byzantine trapazoidal type
with four scrolls. To give them an Islamic character, a

crescent was carved on each side. Typical Roman capitols

94

were also used, particularly simplified kinds of composite,
Doric and others."21 (See 93). Based on a Byzantine floral
and leaf pattern, reléf sculpture often decorated the side
pilasters of the round horse-shoe type arches which were
used for the porticos of the court as well as for the
doorways. (See 90).

Contempory court houses are built much the same as the
old courthouses with minor modifications. Modern construc-
tion techniques have introduced flat arches and lintels and
projecting galleries over the court. Decoration is rarely
used, due to lack of interest and craftsmen. The single
story house is far moregopular, with less use of porticos
covering the sides ofthe court. When this is true, vege-
tation is used to cover part of the court. Some of these
courts have a central court area covered with a high roof
leaving a skylight. This leaves an inner hall, and win-
dows are then Opened in the outer walls.22

Fonduks, also called nozols (khans)‘were once used as
stopping places for caravans. Built on the lines of the
courtyard house but much larger, the fonduk has "stables
and warehouses on the ground floor and the sleeping rooms
Open to the gallery whcih runs around the central court-
yard, on the upper floor."23 The main entrance on both sides

is flanked by shOps. The fonduks are Open to the streets and

1_1 Second Entrance

    
     
    

 

 

tun Inc'”
.\-. “ I’ '.c.
1 . _
I“,
:00: i'.‘ m
II'
.7
:1
1:1
I... ’;/‘ n.
l.
m 'g'
5:33 .3
i'°/
':,‘ RX.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

)‘LJ r

'—v

Ground Floor Plan a

Main Entrance

 

Sectional _ Elevation

Figure 14. Merchants Hotel (Nazel El—Toggar)
Old City of Tripoli, 1731 A.D.

95

defended by gates at night. The courtyard always had a
well (see fig. 14). Presently, fonduks in the Old

City are in active use but in poor condition. The
handicrafts and small industry which have taken them
over are generally unsuitable and leading to their
rapid deterioration (see 84 and 114).

The Old City historically was occupied by distinct'
ethnic and cultural groups, who occupied particular
quarters. This situation has changed and quarters are
now more used as area designations, since the Old City
became primarily Arab. -

This overview of some of the architectural forms
of the Old City of Tripoli presents clearly the unity
of the city, with the elements of streets, sugs, mosques,
houses, fonduks, baths and other public structures
‘standing in an intimate, natural and necessary relation
to each other. "Libyan Muslim architecture manifests a
conspicuous lack of external ornamentation, emphasizing
form and making the soundness of the structural mass an
expressive, abstract support of the work itself."24
These forms express the personality and character of the
Libyan people themselves especially in the sense of
serenity, community and security conveyed by the close-
knit walls leaning against one another, with the austere
majesty of the minaret always in view. The Old City is

the Wellspring for the way of life within it, and to

96

consider a historic building or mosque or groups of
them an adequate substitute is to gravely misunderstand

the true nature of the Old City.

97

W

lGeorge s. Shiber, Recent Arab City Growth (Kuwait: Kuwait
Government Printing Press, 1969), p. 413.

 

2Tripoli.Master Plan Final Report, Prepared fOr the Ministry
of the Interior, L.A.R., by Whiting Associates International and
Hennington, Durham and Richardson, (Omaha:-Hinningson, Durham and -
Richardson, 1969), pp. 11-12.

 

'ibaladiet Tarabulus Fi Miat Am. (Report Of the Committee on the
Centennial Celebration of the Municipality of Tripoli: 1870-1970),
Abdulla A. Al-Sharif, Chairman (Tripoli: Al-Tebaa Al-haditha CO, '
1973), p. 18.

 

4Baladiet, Opg'Cit., p. 164.
5Master P1an,‘Op3'Cit., p. 69.
6Ba1adiet, gpg Cit. p. 412.

7Frank C. Zandar, "The Old 'Medinah' of Tripoli, Libya," in
Shiber's Recent Arab City Growth, p. 731.

 

8S’hiber, Opg'Cit., p. 159.
9Master P1an,'Op3 Cit., p. 144.

loPhilip ward, Tripoli, Portrait of a Cipy, (New York, The
Oleander Press, 1969), p. 29.

 

llBaladiet,'Opg‘Cit., pp. 66-69.

12MOst of the infOrmation on the courtyard houses in Tripoli was
obtained from the study done by M.Z. El-Dars and 8.2. Said, one of
the few existing research effOrts in this area.

13M.Z. El-Dars and 8.2. Said "Libyan Court Houses," Bulletin
' of the Faculty of Engineering, University of Libya, VOl. I, No. 4,
1972, pp. 198-200.

 

14Ibid.

15Amos Rapaport, House Farm and Culture, Foundations of Cultural
Geography Series, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969),
p. 90.

 

.15E1-Dars and Said. 22; Cit-I P- 200-
17Ibid.,p. 202.

131616.,pp. 202-209.

98

lgl’bidup- 217.

70113161.

22Ibid. ,pp. 217—220 .

i' . 71112111.

1

t

1 23Zander,‘Op,‘Cit., p. 731.
1

l

24A.M. Ramadan, Reflections‘Upon'ISlamic‘Architecture In
i ‘ £3235, (Tripoli: Arabic HOuse For Books, 1975), Introduction.

 

 

63.

Tripoli:

 

Old and new urban fabric.

 

           

. .IIIVIIW M“..II Ll IW.o
IMWMJW Ir JHHUIDMIIWHU.LPI lllw .nl I‘I'IV all:

9‘ ”y!

 

.‘T p... .1.” .49,

 

 

' l f

1". ..IIIII'IIII u.| . LIV
h.§ 1.1. IIIUIhiu ll? I05 n

 

 

       

  

C. J...
1.2.
. ..

.wv.”.'fla

that;
out)!" ”A.M.. . . Jr...“

.....

A.“

  

 

 

 

 

Urban Form

 

The visual effects of such architectural
treatment is very dramatic as light and
shadows play on the bare wall surfaces,
creating ever changing patterns and the
constant interplay of light and dark
areas. The vistas are mainly ended by
a minaret or a deflection in the alley
path leading to a small intimate and
irregular space with a tree or a grape
arbor overhead. (64-68) D
65. V 66.

 
 
 
 
  
 
 
 

0

We

 
  
 
 
 
 
    

 

     

 

sug Al-Framel

 

 

.. .1. V..... . vtw .... . .x .. ,. a
1.. ...Eéégg 3
Mn . :........a.. .. “...;qu» d
l . d... ... $3.11....” m
A . .I n; h
w U A
b s 4
C 9
a m m.
a“ w. r ......u
u o : e “M
m. M w n ......
o .a n a ...m.
M n m w w u...»
9 a e a . .V.
a h S 9 r u
N K d o k.‘
. . d .m x“
o o a
w m Q m.
A 4

 

‘ 7l. Usaiet Al—Dalia. c

 

 

 

 

 

23

 

72. Sug Er—Rebaa is the characteristic Arab bazaar which is
completely covered and where native goods are sold.

 

| ll‘I I 'V I

 

 
 
 
  
 
  
 
 
  
  
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  

Clock Tower
marking the
entrance to
Suq Al-Turk.
(73-74)

<‘
73. Present.

74. 1912. P

 

‘ 75. Sug Al-Mushir. ‘

76. Bag Al-Turk. V

 

78. The silhouette of the Old City of Tripoli is dominated by
the towers, minarets and the hemispheres of the more traditional
mosques.

 

 

 

 

,.. “ Fit 11
mu» 7‘
..;I 17"" ~ ; . -

o 1"\%V II'Y“'"
“4* }

‘

39“

I . ‘

‘ 3’s .
B: ~

r .

‘ ‘ ‘. ' '.00
J a" 3‘. .4”: d

o
.-."-C-

l I \
l \\
.

I.

 

s 80. ‘ 81.

 

t

' The largest and most famous mosque
in the Old City of Tripoli: Ahmed
Basha.(79-81)

82. The oldest mosque in Tripoli:
An-Naga. '

 

 

 

" I . y». I- -
. x A - .l ‘V""“‘.' ‘v .. _tc. °~‘
. ‘WJLN- ..
.— 'nso ‘

'Ifl' ... .. ‘1 ‘ 'M
. A”"
f 01 ',

.1 0'“ "f’

 

83. Examples of Tripoli's minarets.
<1

 

84. Fonduk Er-Rakkah is a typical 85.
one. All have many small rooms
on two levels opening into a
square coutyard.

   
  
 

 

Old Elaborate Courtyard Houses
(85) British Counselor House.
(86) Kakamanli House.
(87) French Counselor House.

 

 

 

 

 

   
 
  
 
 
 
  
 

88. Libyan Masharabia
“Ein El Zarzoorfi
(a,b)

89. Frequently
used styles of
arched doorways.
(a.b.c,d)

   

Floral reliefs show
the Byzantine influence
in the Old City of
Tripoli. (a,b)

 

91. Old bedroom and furniture.

92. Ziliz - glazed tiles used to
decorate doorways and interiors
showing Andalusian influence.

--—

 

93. Examples of frequently used
stone columns in two story
courtyard houses in Tripoli,
Libya.

 

CHAPTER V

NEED FOR PRESERVATION AND PRESENT PROBLEMS

NEED FOR PRESERVATION

 

As it has become clear, the Old City should be a source
of pride to the Libyan people, and needs to be preserved,
not as a monument, but as a way of life that still holds
much validity. The Old City of Tripoli is rich in history,
the cultural focus of its region and beautiful for its own'
sake. ‘Upon its walls, through its streets and buildings,
was written the history of Libya, its defeats and victories.
The feeling it evokes in its residents has been described
by the sculptor Ali Mustafa Ramadan:

From the days of my early childhood in the

outskirts of Tripoli the images of the great

houses of prayer and the unassuming rural

buildings remained indelibly stamped on

my consciousness. That child's impression

of dazzling white structures silhouetted

against the blue Libyan sky unconsciously

inspired in me an attachment which was

reflected in my earliest artistic endeavors.

The labyrinthal streets of the old 'medina'

with its unexpected twists and cul-de-sacs

provided a wealth of raw material fundamen-

tal to my art.1

The 1969 Master Plan has also agreed on the tremendous

importance of the Old City, and has noted that it is

99

100 ,

very much a social focus for the region. According to

the report, "People's desire to meet one another within
the area is the premise for the development of specialized
activities there. Central residences have been identified
as a characteristic of the social role of the Central
Area."2 The demand for the continuation of this tradition
is assured. Many people prefer to live in traditional
housing, in a traditional environment. At the very least,
lit is important to preserve the Old City in its entirety
to make possible that choice. Other historic cities have
been found to become a preferred living space--perhaps
because they speak to human needs in a way lost in much
modern housing. The Old City should be an outlet for
people in the modern environment who are not satisfied
with it physically or socially. "Field inquiries indicate
that persons desiring relocation would strongly resist a change

3 This fact, perhaps

in the Old City's essential features."
should be viewed by architects and town planners as one
‘which would lend insight into their future efforts.

It is important to understand what elements of the Old
City have made it such a satisfying place to live, in

order to intelligently plan the human settlements of

the future.

 

 

 

 

 

 

101

SIGNIFICANCE FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENT:

The historic setting of the Old City has vanished.
Population pressure and the need to develop has forced an
expansion of the Old City on the "Menshia," (part of
Tripoli's oasis) on the south and west sides. This
natural setting with its palm trees, orchards and olive
groves is all but consumed by the development of the
modern, much newer parts of Tripoli (see fig. 15).

A major argument for the preservation of Tripoli is
the significance of this area as a source of pride, origin-
ality and environmental guidance in relation to the future
development of the whole city. Consequently, it is impor-
tant to discuss the misguided urban and architectural
efforts to which Tripoli has been subjected. This will
supplement the discussion of the impact of modernization
on Libya, as there are a number of additional topics to
consider pertaining directly to Tripoli. In order to
understand the disfunction and unpleasantness of much
of the modern urban environment one has to analyze its
components as they relate to the structure, circulation

and the visual form of the city.

Structure:

 

The primary problem with most modern buildings of all

functions is that they are thought of and designed only in

 

 

 

 

 

.muwu two msu Mo puma mum canon
mmammum monomoum may muoz

.oomq non coaoum
nmnua Mo unmuxm tau muomhum N0hm= uwHOQWhB .mH

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

«known
, N .o\ u _
. m
\4/ .
. _ I:
. /.
_ /
./ ....
Wit!!!

1.

 

     

l g: m... I... i
_______._....,_o i...

 

   

Ul‘l‘l

s ..
5.4....- w... s

,. J z
/):m»
\

III‘

 

ooma 333 52.25..

m . :
“0”” ”Ho "......“U

Hmwumua< I. :1
unannoumxm...re-

mmzomhh ......i...

 

102

a 'technical sense,‘ with " . . q . no affiliations with
environmental, social and cultural compulsions."4 Although

Shiber, author of Recent Arab City Growth, sometimes seems

 

very critical of Arab architects and the modern designs
they produce, one can not help but agree with him when
he says,

As it is, except for a very few buildings, the

average run-of—the-mill product scarcely shows

any affiliation to the place. The mass of

buildings in concept, detail and color . . .

is out of context. Being markedly out of

context it often approaches caricatgre, comic

and cosmetic types of architecture.

This statement describes thoroughly the problems
with modern buildings in Tripoli. Most of the structures
that public or private sectors build, all share the same
architectural deformities, confusion and unattractiveness.
Although speculation and "fat and fast returns" are

mostly the reasons behind the private sector going into

the construction field, the public sector in Libya has no

 

other motive but to present good housing projects and
public buildings.6 The Ministry of Housing and the
municipality of Tripoli keep constructing more residential
units, schools, markets, hostpials and other public
buildings, but the results, despite the spending of
millions of dinars, are anti-organic, monotonous and
unoriginal designs. The housing projects, for example,
mainly follow a few prototypes which are erected in

different parts of the city regardless of the micro-climatic

103

conditions of the area and the social, cultural and
behavioral backgrounds of the people who are to occupy
these housing units (see 94-95). One reader of a Libyan
nespaper described the situation in some of these medium~
rise residential buildings, where inhabitants used the
balconies for such purposes as raising chickens, building
fires for cooking, and as a storage area for trash cans.7
The blame for this situation can never be put on the resi—
dents as the designers completely ignored the cultural
environmental and social realities of these people. Many
of these people come from rural areas while almost all of
them have lived in simple houses with courtyards as the
focal point of daily activities. It is no wonder that the.
elements of 'modern' residential units seem functionally
inadequate and inappropriate. The radically different
mode of living presented by apartment units does not
satisfy the psychological, cultural or functional demands
of the people who live in them (see 98). According to

F. C. Zander in The Old "Medinah" of Tripoli, Libya, in

 

speaking of the Old City, "It is, at least, the only_
place where life can develop harmoniously from the
traditional way to modern forms, both possible in the Old
City, while flats or villas do not admit traditional
behaviors--they have just nothing to do with Arab
customs."8(See 96—97 for contemporary architectural forms

that were inspired by the traditional building styles.)

104

Another example is the market places the municipality
builds in Tripoli. Although one municipality report
praises the concept of the Old Arab say or bazaar, one
finds these new markets in contrast to the concepts
valued both functionally and aesthetically.9 The'
plan, the material and the architectural form of these
markets represent everything but the concept behind the

old Arab sug and bazaar (see 99).

Circulation and Traffic:

Like a number of other cities, Tripoli suffers
from bottleneck traffic congestion and a saturated road
capacity. The almost complete dependence on the automobile
is starting to jeopardize the well-being, safety and
patterns of social inter-action of Tripoli's residents.
Cars are jamming the streets, taking over the sidewalks for
parking and causing complete visual disorder (see 100-101
and 103). Compared to the solution the Old City presents
for circulation, the Central Business District (CBD)
fails most of the time, to consider any human functional
or aesthetic factors for pedestrians. As the number of
cars jumped from 5,000 cars in 1957 to more than 150,000
cars in 1971, or thirty times the number in 1957,
the radial—concentric street system with its nucleus in
the heart of the CBD has experienced a multiplicity of

traffic problezs. Traditional solutions

105

congestion such as widening streets, paving or building
more parking facilities are inadequate. Projects such
as the extending of the airport highway to the Central

10

Business District or the construction of heliports on

the most attractive parts of the main promenade in Tripolill
can not alleviate the problem of traffic as much as add to
the crowding, noise pollution and visual unattractiveness

of the already troubled area.

Visual Form:

 

The result of the problems mentioned above, and
the construction of other urban structures that are
disfunctional as well as alien to the whole, creates a
"ramshackle appearance" over the entire newly developed
area. The construction of concrete water towers thirty-
five meters high on hills about 15 to 20 meters above the

12 did not help the cityscape as these towers

sea level
are the highest structures in the metropolitan area.
These completely dominated the skyline of Tripoli and
terminated a lot of vistas. The destruction of historic
buildings such as the old mosque of Maolie Mohammed,
aggrevates the situation more and more. (See 108-110
and fig. 16). The incongruous use of plastic and

metal and frequently out-of-scale billboards which are

used as street furniture, prevents the kind of visually

106

harmonious atmosphere Tripoli needs (see 102). Currently,
the city is being defaced by the filling in of a part

of the sea adjacent to the Castle and along beautiful
Al-Fatah Street. This project is supposed to provide a
temporary dock and storage area for Tripoli's harbor

13 and

and the site for the recommended parking lots

the first heliport. This would push the shoreline a

few hundred yards forward and fill the site of the

newly created sea fronts with hundreds of parked cars

and landing helicopters (see 104-107 and 112 and fig. 17).
As one compares the urban environment of the more

"modern" parts of Tripoli with the Old City from a

social cultural, aesthetic and even functional perspective,

one can not but rule in favor of the Old City as a

humanly satisfying urban environment. Before the hasty

modernization of the last ten years, Tripoli, Old and

New, was considered the "Bride of the Mediterranean."

Tripoli needs to remain the pride of Libya, representing

the best efforts of her people in every way.

' PRESENT PROBLEMS

 

The Old City of Tripoli faces a complex of problems
common to many historic cities. Deterioration, misuse of
historic buildings, unsanitary conditions, the exodus

of its permanent residents, decline of its functions

 

 

 

.mmum mcwthm new “Homwflmn .mmu on» no aw mcwHHHM
venomoum man mcwaocu ..um.nMumh|H< muouum nowuumm .RH mhzmwm

. moz_

.OJSm moimo 02d. mmmzimnm 20mm >>m_>

widmm 4.:3

. um. amummuam 020.3

0254450244 ><3qunHIoE oz< xmddnu

.<mm< xm<a 20m...

.mommdf “.0 3m; mmtbqo mo koambmmo 0...
...Oz m< 0m ommmmmamo 5mm z<Eo< .Im m0

. mr<>>o<om 1Com zmmzfimm 8:384“. oz§m<¢fl
1.12.114.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ijJJ l».w3).1s0
J I<>_o<n_<m :3. .Im flammmwmdmou
_ . <mm< m2§m<d
*- . m. H 1+
\\\\\\\.\w\\\\NM\\\\\\\\\\ FE -191.
a rig... A ..
. \I‘
”WW.\ fl». «WWW .WMNWKMM 4% "m }.m_\|/l\\\\ .. . M
all! ‘4; W . s .‘II‘ a a.“
AM. E... u. I! m... FfiOQfiJMI HM
[H.\.r\\‘ 4...)“ j m m.
|..-..|u[ _ xmq - .om £3372 Ill,
1:1
A Mwamm qwm

 

_wauilsaJusfifiéwqfiili

mMNmmmm oz_.:<>wmd mo zo_._.<N_..__.rD
232x42 mom mfluomd m23>xm

 

 

107

and neglect are the most pressing of these (see ll3—ll7).
Because of the neglect of the sewage systems, foundations
of buildings have become saturated with the sewage flow
and collapse frequently. Adequate facilities for the
residents are missing. People who rebuild their homes
use materials that are out of harmony with the existing
structures in architectural style.

Structural damage caused by the vibration of
traffic, particularly heavy transport on the highway
surrounding it is an additional menace to the historic
city. The proposal to build a railroad to the port is
an indication that further problems of a serious nature
in this area will not diminish. The expansion of the
harbor faCilities through the pushing forward of the
sea front robs the Old City of its famous natural
setting, depriving Tripoli's residents of a visual
panorama that has been praised throughout its history (see
111).

These problems are aggravated by some mayors and
officials of the municipality of Tripoli who have a
Inechanical outlook towards problem-solving. Although
giving lip service to the Old City's historic and
.aesthetic qualities they insist on projects such as the
Inaster Plan proposal for two roads through the heart of
-the city; The authorities of the municipality has

:fodlowed a policy of allowing the Old City to deteriorate

108

to the point where they can easily introduce a massive
demolition and rebuilding project. This is evidence of
what F.C. Zander meant when he said: "It seems that
many people in Libya feel 'ashamed' of these quarters
and want a complete transformation. This is only a
ridiculous expression of an inferiority complex, a
completely wrong understood sense of honour.“14
Because of the increasing deterioration, former
residents leave and become replaced by a temporary
limmigrant labor force, both families and single men.
This results in overcrowding, the use of what was meant
to be single family housing for many families, and
further deterioration due to the reluctance of tenants
or landlords to invest in improvements. The 1969
Master Plan notes the area's use as a "transition area

"15 and recommends that it continue to

for newcomers,
function in that manner. This attitude is a dangerous
one in light of the need for a stable population with
ties and a sense of committment to the Old City if it

is to regain the full measure of its former dignity. A
transitional population will cause the Old City to lose
the continuity and coherence of its social character,

so vital to its authentic conservation. Another problem
this is causing is to discourage families from staying

there due to the social sensitivity to unmarried men

living alone. Observers have also reported an increase

107

and neglect are the most pressing of these (see 113—117).
Because of the neglect of the sewage systems, foundations
of buildings have become saturated with the sewage flow
and collapse frequently. Adequate facilities for the
residents are missing. People who rebuild their homes
use materials that are out of harmony with the existing
structures in architectural style.

Structural damage caused by the vibration of
traffic, particularly heavy transport on the highway
surrounding it is an additional menace to the historic
city. The proposal to build a railroad to the port is
an indication that further problems of a serious nature
in this area will not diminish. The expansion of the
harbor facilities through the pushing forward of the
sea front robs the Old City of its_famous natural
setting, depriving Tripoli's residents of a visual
panorama that has been praised throughout its history (see
111).

These problems are aggravated by some mayors and
officials of the municipality of Tripoli who have a
mechanical outlook towards problem-solving. Although
giving lip service to the 01d City's historic and
aesthetic qualities they insist on projects such as the
Master Plan proposal for two roads through the heart of
the city. The authorities of the municipality has

followed a policy of allowing the Old City to deteriorate

 

 

109

in juvenile delinquency and the formation of gangs due
to the breakdown of social cohesiveness caused by a
transitional population.

From 1964 to 1973 the population declined from
28,820 to 20,182. In l964,"ma1es made up 54.8% of the
population and females 45.2%. By 1973, males had
increased to 57.8% of the population and females declined
to 42.2%. This reflects the increase in single male
workers settling in the Old City. At the same time,
the number of families declined by 800 [16.3%] and the
number of residential units by 328 [10%] either through
collapse, demolition or change of function to warehouse
or shop. 16

The 1969 Master Plan has recommended the population
be stablized at around 15,000. This is an important
goal, however, it is important to note that the present
decline is an unhealthy one, inasmuch as it represents
the flight of permanent families.

It is obvious that these problems are growing
rather than diminishing and promise the imminent destruction
of the Old City. The danger of doing nothing is as

sure as the danger from wholesale demolition.

PRESENT EFFORTS

 

It is important to have an overview of the current

preservation efforts for the Old City of Tripoli to

110

develop a context in which to discuss what needs to be
done in that area. The Master Plan for Tripoli recommended
in 1969 a series of measures to be taken over the next
ten years, to counter the increasing deterioration of
the Old City. These included the construction of two
main streets at right angles, twelve and sixteen meters
wide throughout the town.17

On May 24, 1971, the Council of Ministers issued a
decision to form a standing committee for the protection
of the Old City. It was headed by the Director-General
of Antiquities and included representatives of the
Municipality of Tripoli, Ministry of Housing and Public
Works, General Organization for Tourism, General Organization
for the Aouqaf (Islamic Trust) and the Department of
Architecture, University of Al-Fatah. The Committee
was charged to look into the problems of preserving the
character of the Old City of Tripoli. On February 19,
1972, the Committee issued its final recommendations
after lengthy meetings and extensive field work. The
Committee recommended the cancellation of the Master
Plan Proposals for the construction of the two roads,
and the formation of a permanent committee to do the
actual work of protecting and preserving the Old City.
In February of 1973, the Secretary-General of the

Council of Ministers issued orders to cancel the Master

Plan prOposals and to preserve the Old City as it is.

 

111

In April of 1973 this was confirmed by orders from the
Prime Minister himself.

S. Abdul-Hak submitted a report to the Department
of Antiquities in July, 1973, drawing their attention
to the Old City's progressive deterioration, and proposing
a pilot project with UNESCO for its protection and
conservation. On August 12, 1974, the Libyan Council
of Ministers decided to set up in the Ministry of
Education a permanent committee under the chairmanship
of the Director-General of the General-Directorate of
Antiquities, consisting of representatives from the
same areas as the former committee, "to carry out a
scientific study of the Old Town of Tripoli, to prepare
the necessary measures for its proection and for the
conservation of its environment and original plan,
and_to determine the best means of making use of it for
the development of culture and tourism."18 The Committee's
other functions included the supervision of the restoration
of historic monuments and other structures of historical
interest and to issue Opinions on the purposes to which
expropriated buildings and free space should be put.
It is to call on the technical staff from other ministries
.and.departments represented-on the committees to accomplish
-these tasks. It was also allocated an annual budget,
tinder the auspices of the General-Directorate of Antiquities.

I}: 1975, the UNESCO report "Protection of Historic

112

Buildings" by S. Abdul-Hak, was presented to the Libyan
Arab Republic, with a series of recommendations for long—
term and immediate steps to be taken in regard to the Old
City. The Committee under the Department of Antiquities
charged with the conservation-of the Old City assigned
preparation of a pilot study to a British firm, Colin
Buchanan and Partners, with other consultants. Their
recommendations were submitted in 1975. Since that time
the Committee has been deliberating over future actions to

be taken.

MASTER PLAN PROPOSALS:

 

The 1969 Tripoli Master Plan recognizes the historic
and cultural significance of the Old City. The report

points out that:

. . . The Old City offers a comprehensive
picture of Libyan history of inestimable
value.

Despite its structural obsolescence, the

Old City offers today an impressive example
of sensitive Arab town planning. While the
other traditional quarters, even the former
rural ones, are destined to alter their
character, the Old City of Tripoli remains
‘the only typically Arab environment in the
region likely to retain its historical

and cultural characteristics.19

The report also notes that the area now serves an
important function as a residential area. Both for immi—

grants who need a traditional area as a transitional stage

113

in integrating themselves into the urban environment, and as
the social focus of the region. Central area residents are
a component of this social role, and "the demand for the
continuation of this role is unquestionable."20 The Plan
stresses that the Old City's bharacter must be maintained'

and its historical and environmental heritage emphasized.2

Alternatives Proposed:

Tripoli's Master Plan suggests two approaches towards
the future development of the Old City. The first is to
conserve the present pattern and carefully upgrade it. The
second, and in the eyes of the the authors of the plan, most
attractive method is to implement "more ambitious projects .
. . which conserve the pattern in its most valuable parts,
while discovering some of the more antique traces and provide
new constructed buildings of really first-class architec-
ture, with the purpose of creating an exciting urban entity,
combining the antique with the modern."22 The Master
Plan does not propose the detail or type of plan for urban
.renewal that should be undertaken, but calls for a compre-
Ihensive plan for the area which safeguards its unique
«character. The Old City is designated a special zoning area
vflnich subordinates any building or demolition to the future
(development plan. Until such a time as the plan is devel-

oped, specific recommendations are suggested to be imple—

mented directly.

114

Both approaches project the future function of the Old
City to be a central residential district, as the Master
Plan does not feel that the expansion of the harbor and
Central Business District to be feasible into the area. To
accomplish this, the upgrading of social and hygienic con-
ditions is called for, with the addition of new dwelling
units to alleviate crowding. Utilities are considered to be
a minor problem, with surveys to "define the amount of
utilities in good repair, those suitable for repair, and

"23 Housing needs are to be met

those needing replacement.
with medium high-rise apartments with small ground coverage,
at the western sea—front. The Master Plan also proposes to
open the Old City to automobile traffic. A north-south
through street is proposed with a perpendicular street from_
the east to the west to allow additional access and permit

24 These

easier installation of the new utility network.
would be twelve and sixteen meters wide. The Plan also
calls for the dismantling of the northern rampart to provide

ventilation.25

"Small open spaces, such as playgrounds" are
to be cleared while public facilities are urged to use

buildings of historic interest.

Critique of the Master Plan:

 

Although the 1969 Master Plan for Tripoli emphasizes
the importance of the Old City historically and culturally,

as well as its importance and meaning to residents of the

115

I

area socially, still the real effect of the proposals will
destroy these very qualities. The first alternative pro-
posal for the future urban plan was to conserve the urban
pattern and upgrade it. However, that this approach was
abandoned in favor of "more ambitious projects" is evident.
from the recommendations. Frequent references to the post-

"26

poning of "extensive demolitions in the Old City for ten

to fifteen years indicates that "large-scale transformation

projects in the Old City"27

are not only accepted, but
encouraged, contingent only on completing the development of
the Central Business District.

Not only does.this indicate that priority for consider-
ation is given to the harbor and Central Business District
—-contributing to the acceptance of the further deterior-
ation of the Old City—~but that the authors of the Master
Plan regard the Old City as a_"monument" rather than a
living entity. The destruction of the Old City will be as
swift and inevitable with the demolition of large areas and
introduction of modern elements that rend its unity, as it
would if it was delivered directly into the hands of the
speculators.

For many reasons it is fortunate that these proposals
have not been implemented:.

Renovation of the dilapadated structure with—

out detailed advanced planning and the large-

scale introduction of motor traffic among the

fragile structures of the old town would have
resulted in the destruction of many of the

116

monuments and architectural groupings of

ancient Tripoli, which also stands in no

further need of 'ventilation' after the

efforts of the Turks and Italians at the

beginning of the century. . . the streets

of the old town of Tripoli are laid out

in such a way as to take advantage of

the sea breeze at all seasons of the

year.28 '-

Any proposed "reconstruction" should be examined very
carefully for its real impact on the Old City structurally
or socially.

The proposed highways will lead more directly to the
destruction of the Old City than to its "modification." The
area would be divided into three parts, out off from each
other, and so isolated would deteriorate gradually. A Libyan

student of architecture predicted the effects of the roads

on the Old City as:

a) The destruction of all buildings including

important, historic monuments in their path;

b) 'The new traffic will require parking lots

leading to more demolition;

c) More traffic, including trucks for trans-
port and construction use, means vibration
which causes structural damage to neighboring

buildings;

117

d) This would lead to the destruction of more
buildings,the modification and alteration of others.
This would encourage the construction of more ware-'
houses, and medium or high-rise buildings. These
intrusions, leading to the bastardization of the
urban form are the beginning of an endless cycle
leading to the annihalation of the character of

the Old City.29

These proposals are clearly out of scale, as well as
incongruous to the setting. They reflect an insensitivity
to the Old City as a living entity, with its own form
determining the pace and social patterns existing within
it.’ The narrowness of_thestreets, and their use as a public
space, contributes to the sense of community and strong
social relationships. The crude method of imposing harsh
solutions such as wide highways has been deplored by urban
planners concerned with the conservation of historic
quarters elsewhere enough to give ample precedent for
maintaining the pedestrian nature of the Old City. The up-
grading of utilities could be carried out fairly easily
using modern techniques without the construction of these
roads.

The plan for the expansion of the harbor and constructing

ea freeway on the north side of the Old City also presents

118

similar problems in terms of damage to the structures, and
the impact on the visual and cultural unity of the area was
ignored (see 111). Further study should be made to deter-
mine the environmental results of such expansion, and to
consider locating another port at a different site, as Libya
boasts an extensive shoreline.

Finally, although the reservation of the Old City of
Tripoli as a residential district is sound, it is dangerous
to consider it as a "transitional area" or simply a "stock
of cheap housing." This attitude will lead to the further
deterioration of the area physically and socially if no
plans are made to encourage permanent residents. The intent
of the Master Plan to offer "a perfect choice of residential
types; from cheap to expensive and from traditional to

"30 leaves little doubt as to the author's insensi-

tivity to their own observations about the need to conserve

modern.

the "unique character" of the Old City. The need to alleviate
overcrowding isclear, but should be met in other ways than
destroying the unity of the urban formby imposing medium
and high-rise structures upon it. i

In summary, although the 1969 Master Plan for Tripoli
expresses appreciation of the value inherent in the Old City
of Tripoli, many of their specific proposals would cause its
destruction. The imposition of other forms and structures
upon the living tissue of the traditional pattern would be

an irreparable mistake. The first alternative approach to

119

the future of the Old City, to conserve it as an entity and

upgrade its facilities, must be given serious attention.

PROJECT FOR SAFEGUARDING THE OLD CITY OF TRIPOLI:

S. Abdul Hak, in the Protection of Historic Buildings,
1975 UNESCO Report, also makes a series of recommendations
for the conservation of the Old City of Tripoli. These
recommendations are for both long and short term projects to
be undertaken by the Department of Antiquities under the
Ministry of Education. S. Abdul—flak recommends the estab-
lishment of "multidiciplinary teams of research workers, in
order to build up a bank of historical, architectural and

"31 which could be used for the long-term

technical data,
protection and renovation of the Old City. This includes
compiling a detailed inventory of structures, those which
can be kept for their present functions, those which can
undergo a change of use with modifications, and those
dilapidated and valueless which should be replaced or
removed to make way for open spaces. In addition, this team
would determine the aesthetic standards for all categories
of building, espcially height, colours and porportions.

It was recommended that a thorough census of the
inhabitants be carried out to determine their composition;

*whether they planned on being permanent residents and what

services were needed. The installation of underground

 

 

120

electricity and telephone cables and improved water sUpply
and sewage systems were called for. Prohibition of traffic
and the gradual preparation of a detailed and flexible plan
to determine the kind of town;planning adopted for the
complete old town and its environment, with careful docu-
mentation were stressed as necessary measures.32

Because of the state of decay of the Old City and its
progressively deteriorating situation, the report proposed a
series of immediate projects that should be taken to halt
this process. This would entail an elaboration of the
existing laws to clearly delineate the responsibilities of
the state and private owners in regard to rehabilitation.
Where free spaces exist and in the case of dilapidated
buildings where Staheaction is necessary, initiating expro-
priation operations, as well as implementing the maintenance
of monuments which need immediate attention. To induce
private owners to maintain or restore their property, it is
proposed that fiscal regulations also be elaborated, for
example to accord allowances or deferred payments. Also the
roads, drains, and waterpipes should be repaired.

This report considers it paramount that the aim and
scope of this renovation should be defined. In particular,
other functions besides residential, such as cultural and
the tourist potential should not be overlooked. However,

plans should be made for tourists accomodations, according

121

to S. Abdul-Hak, and he suggests using the As-Saraya Al-
Hamra fortress or Red Castle.33
These recommendations are sensitive to the need to
preserve the character of the Old City. Particularly
important is the recognition that the area should remain
pedestrian and that any rebuilding or demolitions that take
place should be done extremely cautiously. The suggestion
that wiring and utility installations should be buried is
also a welcome one, as the present situation of above-ground
wires clashes with the unity of the Old City (see 117).
It is also important to add to these recommendations

that in road repair work that original materials should be

used, such as stone.

BUCHANAN REPORT :

 

The British firm, Buchanan and Partners, in conjunction
with other consultants prepared a preliminary study for the
standing Committee for the Preservation of the Old City.
This report was submitted in 1975 with a series of recom-
mendations for a more comprehensive study in four stages,
planned over a fifteen month period. This firm also recom-
mends some immediate steps that need to be taken in order to
halt the progressive deterioration of the Old City. Another
proposal was that two Libyan architects and planners be

included in the working team.

122

The stages in the proposed comprehensive plan are to be

as follows:

a) The collection of data and the study of the physical
social and economic characteristics of the Old City; including

circulation and access, cost and implementation procedures.

b) The generating of alternatives in design and the
testing of those alternatives by applying them to selected
areas, controlling for differences between the areas, and

the selection of an alternative.

c) The modification of the selected alternative according
to further study and analysis, and the final designation of

special areas in which to implement pilot projects.

d) The preparation of the final report.

The consultants will be aided by consultants and
technicians from other firms in specialized areas such as

civil engineers, accountants and planners.34

Critique of the Report:
The British firm, in its understanding of circulation
in historic towns, seems to be drawing on its European

experience. The Old City was not designed for vehicular

 

123

traffic, as were many other historic cities in Europe, and
fix introduction would be dangerous. Their recommendations
are unclear on this point, and alarming. Another major
problem with the report is that although it shows concern
for both its beauty and social aspects, one wonders about
the ability of foreign firms to grasp the complexities of
the traditional cultural characteristics and social real-
ities that are an essential part of the fabric of the Old
City. The experience of Master Plans prepared by foreign
firms in the past has not been very encouraging in this
regard.

However, the technical detail in this report is very
good and this group of consultants should be drawn upon for
their technical expertise. To alleviate some problems
encountered in the past, a multi-disciplinary working team
of Libyan professionals should be involved in the execution
of the selected preservation plan. '

The reason that this comprehensive study has not
commenced is largely due to the difficulty in getting the
funding necessary for such projects. This particular study
has been estimated at 179,000 Libyan dinars, or about $500,000.
There is an erroneous feeling on the part of some author—
ities that preservation should not require expensive studies,
that it can just be begun. This is misguided, and results

in further delay in implementation of a desparately needed

  

program.-

 

 

 

124

substitute for action in the face of a progressively wor-
sening situation. It is to be hoped that the General-
Directorate of Antiquities will not allow much more time to
pass before instituting at least the immediate steps that
are needed to halt this process in the Old City. On the
other hand, the implementation of the recommended framework
in Chapter VII along with the necessary funds could relieve
the General-Directorate of Antiquities from the heavy duties
of such projects and start a whole new program for the
preservation of old cities and quarters such as the Old City

of Tripoli.

125

Footnotes

 

1A. M. Ramadan, Reflections Upon Islamic Architecture
in Libya, (Tripoli: Arabic House for Books, 1975), Intro-
duction.

 

2Tripoli Master Plan Final Report, Prepared for the
Ministry of the Interior, L.A.R., by Whiting Associates
International and Hinningson, Durham and Richardson, (Omaha:
Hinningson, Durham and Richardson, 1969), p. 144.

 

31bid., p. 164.

4George S. Shiber, Recent Arab Citngrowth (Kuwait:
Kuwait Government Printing Press, 1969), p. 218.

 

51bid., p. 225.

6L.A.R. Ministry of Planning. The Three-Year Economic
and Social Develgpment Plan In Brief, (Tripoli: 1973), pp.
29-31.

 

7'Urban Development in L.A.R.” Al-Fatah, 22 November,
1975, p. 6.

8Frank C. Zandar, "The Old 'Medinah' of Tripoli, Libya,"
in Shiber's Recent Arab City Growth, p. 732.

9Ba1adiet Tarabulus Fi Miat Am. (Report of the Committee
on the Centennial Celebration of the Municipality of Tripoli:
1870-1970), Abdulla A. Al-Sharif, Chairman (Tripoli: Al-Tebaa
Al-Haditha Co, 1973), p. 682.

 

101b1d., p. 741.

llrbid.

121bid., p. 749.

13Master Plan, Op. Cit., pp. 133-137.
14Zandar, 22, gig., p. 371.

ISMaster Plan, 22, 913, p. 144.

161964 figures were obtained from Tripoli Master Plan,

and 1973 figures were obtained from the Population, Housing
and Establishment Census, Census and Statistical Department,

Ministry of Planniy, Tripoli, 1973.

126

17S. Abdul-Hak, Protection of Historic Buildings, (Paris:
UNESCO, 1975), P. 6.

131b1d..p. 23.

19Master Plan, 92' _C_i_t_., p. 144.
zoIbid.

zlrbld.,p. 145.

221bid.

23Ibid,yp. 147.

24Ibid.

25Abdul-Hak, 22. g£5., p. 23.
26Master Plan, 22. gig., p. 146.
27Ibid., p. 146.

28Abdu1-Hak’ 9g. Cite I p. 230

29"‘The Old City: Vital Points to Consider," Al-Fatah,
27 December, 1975, No. 130, p. 6.

30Master Plan, 22, gig., p. 148.
31Abdul-Hak, 92. gig., p. 24.
32Ibid., p. 24.

33Ib1d., p. 25.

34Colin Buchanan & Partners, Proposals For A Conser-
vation Study, (London: 1975), Unpublished report.

 

 

 

Libyan modern housing units.
(94-95).

Life can develOp harmoniously
from the traditional way to
modern forms.(96-97)

‘
. _.-j. 96. Tunis, 97. Mohammadia,
4'15““; I ._ Tunisia 0 ' Morocco .

Third world countries have a strong
urban heritage to guide them past the
mistakes of developed countries.(98)

98. St. LOUIS, U.S.A. '

 

i‘rhuwu Hung. L

Tripoli

Cars are jamming Omar Al-Muktar
Street, causing complete
functional and visual disorder.
Trees have disappeared. (100-101).

 

100. Omar Al-Muktar St. 1938. 99. Tripoli's New Market: No resemblance to the
concept of the old sugs.

 
   
  
 

101. Omar Al-MUktar St. - present.

Out of scale plastic and metal
billboards -overwhelming number
of cars.(102-l03L

102. 103.

,.-~£'. U .’ . .47.? ”’ -'fi_
SnDIIFII llé‘“." ‘I l‘;

3"." :4

- |
\

 

 

 

    

.‘ a..."r-:‘.".o.l
o "Ila "0 "

I] ... ...
I . -u‘ ' \s
.0 _-. ‘ u
l | IAI.I..~ z ....... H 9 \v ..‘1
,. Q. ‘ \ .
c .5...ov"‘ . ~r' a..:‘\\.. ,
... R‘Q‘g \‘ . 2‘ _. - ‘. ~ 1'
"lull ‘. “ ‘.°”.§ -.'\LL~~‘. ‘
._ .
Q ‘1“ ' . ... ,-. ' ‘ \‘Nl Ia"0"0 }s:}‘s \.
1‘. 4. 9 , , a ' ’ Q
JQJII‘ ' ‘0‘... _,.I‘:: ... ' A. Q‘ s :s‘::“..~ ,
N'II’ .f-.',.t I ‘ ‘s‘ -.‘.\ '
H JO Q . I‘ . .

 
 
 

 

      
 
 

 

 

 

 

This Italian wall as
historic evidence of the
Libyan liberation move-
ment should have been
preserved . (Fig. l 6 493108)

108.' The destroyed wall.

Demolition of old mosques.(109-l10)

' 109. Sidi Shan Es-Ishan Mosque.

llO. Sidi Hamouda Mosque. p

 

 

 

 

111. Proposed freeway on the

< North side would lead to
structural damage to the
Old City - note the fillir
in of the sea.

.I ”m " r

'.
O 0 V‘
.- s .
. 1",.
I /,
I o
a.
— .-.

 

   

112. Al-Fatah Street - main promenade
cannot be lost to heliports and
parking lots after filling in
the seafront . p

 

 

_-
_—
_-
- .—
_-

 

’

‘1 O

_)
Q

C
\

. §
2 - . O '

 

‘ 113. French counselor's house.
114. Fonduk. A

Misuse of historic buildings.
(113-114)

Deterioration.(llS-ll6)
115. ' ll6.>

 

 

.117. Cluttering of the silhouette
by abundance of utility poles
and wi res . ,

 

PART III

PRESERVATION IN LIBYA: EXISTING AND PROPOSED FRAMEWORK

CHAPTER VI
EXISTING LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK
Introduction

An important aspect of the state philosophy of the
Libyan Arab Republic, is a committment to cultural revol-

ution. As stated in the First of September Revolution

Achievements, 5th Anniversary;

Deeply believing in the importance of man being

the first and last fact in social construction,

the Revolution has realized that this aim cannot

be achieved but through cultural revolution . . .

the aim is not to ban modern ideas, but to subject

them through filters to choose what suits our heri-

tage, traditions and needs and to leave what

contradicts them.1

It is gratifying that such emphasis is placed on
retaining the integrity of Libyakscultural heritage against
the wholesale onslaught of modernization. The historic and
cultural treasures of Libya are vast, as has been discussed
in the proceeding chapters. The problem is, that although
the goal of cultural revolution is clearly a mandate for the

<:onservation of Old Tripoli and other historic sites as a

Ineans to retaining the Libyan heritage, this has no substance

127

128

in terms of practical programs. The Ministry of State,
Ministry of Housing and Ministry of Education, have no poli-
cies, principles or programs for this philOSOphy to be trans-
lated into action. None of the ministries are clearly assigned
to the task of safeguarding the national cultural heritage.

The lack of committment to preservation of historic
quarters and significant architectural sites can be clearly
seen in the Three-Year Social and Economic Development Plan
for Libya from 1973-1975. Though the plan recognizes the
importance of antiquities as evidence of the historic and
cultural heritage of the country, the only programs in the
plan under the Education Section dealing with the General—
Directorate of Antiquities were to establish four museums
and three technical centers for Antiquities Services
throughout the country, at the estimated cost of 300,000
Libyan dinars. This contrasts with a total budget for the
Ministry of Education of L.D. 220,435,000.2 The Committee
for the Preservation of the Old City of Tripoli alone
submitted a [rejected] budget for one year's work of L.D.
444,872,3 more than the entire allocation for the General—
Directorate of Antiquities for three years. No mention is
Inade of the need to preserve historic sites or groupings in
this section of the plan.

Even the educational policies include the goal of
(develOping a sound understanding of the Libyan national
cfiaaracter and foundation, with the Arab and Islamic heri-

tuage. However, there is no reflection of this goal in the

129

programs and curriculum at any level of the educational
system. This is especially striking in view of the fact that
the Ministry of Education is responsible for the General-
Directorate of Antiquities.4
Housing programs_in the plan contained the same sort of
omission. Though the plan committed itself to the improve-
ment of substandard residential areas and the upgrading of
services, no programs were aimed toward the restoration of
historic residential areas, such as the residential quarters
of the Old City of Tripoli or Ghadames, even though the Old
City alone contains 2,909 housing units according to the
1973 census. Under the housing section of the plan the
Government presents its goal as a decent house for each
family. This was to be partly accomplished by giving
families houses built by the public sector, with only a
token payment for low income families, and for just the cost
of construction for those with higher incomes. Another
method was to provide loans through the Industrial and Real
Estate Bank for home construction, For the period between
1973-1975 it was estimated that the bank would supply L.D.
75 million for the construction of 20,000 residential units
in loans to individuals. Other state commerical banks would
supply L.D. 15 million for the construction of 3,000 units.
Here we see that no allocations were made for loans to
owners of substandard housing in historic residential areas

for restoration and repair, as a means both to upgrade

130

existing housing, and to preserve historic areas. Tax
incentives were also used as a means of encouraging the
private sector to construct more new residential units. The
same problems exist here, as homeowners or tenants of
substandardhousing were not eligible for those incentives.5
Even the goals in the section on Culture did not reflect
concern over the preservation of the cultural heritage and
its development, and consequently had no program for this
purpose.6 This review of related areas concerning historic
preservation makes clear the absence of any effective pro-
grams to deal with the problems. As well as the situation
of a general lack of awareness of the need for historic
preservation in these key areas. For a more thorough under-
standing of the current situation in regard to preservation,
a review of the specific legal and administrative framework
which is applicable to preservation and urban planning in

Libya, is necessary.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

 

ANTIQUITIES LAW:

 

The Libyan legislation that exists concerning preser—
vation has been thoroughly critiqued by S. Abdul Hak.7
As he has pointed out, the major legislation in this area,

Libyan law No. 40/1968,8 is primarily a vehicle for the

131

protection of ancient ruins. Therefore, it does not encom-
pass the more recent trends evolving that include living
historic sites and quarters for preservation. This law
omits in its detailed list of antiquities, historic quarters,
traditional groupings, urban and rural sites, and vernacular
forms of architecture--as well as individual historic Muslim
buildings such as mosques, fonduks and old famous houses.

However, there are portions of this law which have
limited applicability to these areas and a review of these
would be helpful.

Articles 3, 8, 13 and 15 define and classify monuments
and sites in terms quantitative more than qualitative. The
lack of a systematic and scientific inventory of historic
monuments, sites, quarters and towns needs to be rectified
through legislation setting down more complete and definitive
criteria under which this work should be carried out. The
fact that there are no individualized regulations for
classifying buildings, either singly or "by zones" means
that there are no provisions for ranking their relative
importance by a distinction made between special and general
protective measures. This limits the Department of Anti-
quities in effective intervention to protect architectural
groups in historic towns. Articles 16 through 21 are of a
preventive nature only and make no provision for the repair
or restoration of a protected building or area. Articles 22

through 24 are only concerned with the conservation,

132

restoration and preservation of monuments and consist of a
brief description of the General-Directorate of Antiquities
is responsible for. There is a lack here of general princi—
ples for the interdisciplinary, scientific, technical or
artistic methods, which leads to a myriad of problems for
the Deparmtent of Antiquities in its working with private
owners as to the manner in which restoration is to be
carried out.

Articles 6 and 7, which deal with urban planning,
prohibits any government agency from designing plans for
any city or villages where there are archeological sites
before consulting with the General-Directorate of Antiquities.
The thrust of this provision is mainly for the protection and
preservation of ancient archeological sites, and has no real

meaning for historic quarters or other sites in current use.

TOWNS AND VILLAGES PLANNING LAW:

Law No. 5/19699 is the major law for town and village
planning in Libya. This law was proposed by the Minister of
Municipal Affairs and deals with the preparation of master
plans for the different municipalities of Libya. This law
also requires cities to pass zoning ordinances, subdivision
regulation, and building codes. It provides for the replan-
ing of slum and substandard areas. Articles 2, 7 and 20 of

law No. 5/1969 are the only articles which deal with preser-

133

touristic and historic areas, their restoration and pro-
tection of their character. Also, in this same article the
law advises that master plans could take all the procedures
and necessary means to promote the aesthetic values of an
area and the advancement of its Arab-Islamic architectural
features. This article does not lay down procedures or
specifications on how these tasks are to be carried out.
Although Article 7 of this law corresponds to articles
6 and 7 of law No. 40/1968 in terms of consultation between
responsible agencies before passing master plans, there is
no provision, in Article 7 of law No. 5/1969 for consequent
procedures to achieve full coordination between the General-
Directorate of Antiquities and municipal agencies. Article
20 also permits the zoning ordinances to include historic
areas. Though these articles in themselves are insufficient
as a basis for thorough, comprehensive preservation programs,
they constitute a starting point for municipalities and
other governmental agencies to launch their preservation
projects. Other articles that do not directly involve
preservation but could be used as vehicles to achieve sub-
stantial results in this field of preservation are Articles
52 through 57 in Section 8. These articles deal with the
replanning of Slum and substandard areas and charge the
Inunicipalities with the preparation of new plans for them.
Such articles could be carefully used to upgrade and conserve

historic quarters such as the Old City of Tripoli and Ghadames.

 

 

134

MUNICIPALITIES LAW:

 

The recent law No. 39/197510 on municipalities deals
with the establishment of municipal boundaries and their
jurisdiction. It also charges the municipalities with the
tasks they are to perform and addresses other related issues
to their function. This law does not include any provisions
for the preservation of historic areas except to require the
municipalities to implement the laws discussed above and
supervise all urban and construction functions that take
place within their boundaries. From this law it is clear
that the municipality is charged with responsibility for all
urban functions including the jurisdiction over historic

areas.

ORGANIZATION OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT LAW:

 

Law No. 116/197211 on the organization of urban devel-
Opment was passed to stabilize the land prices and to
encourage housing construction. It also includes provision
for the government to exercise the right of eminent domain
over land and real estate that is needed for the state
housing and public utilities construction, as well as any
other urban development projects. Article 18 specifically
allows for the expropriation of slum and substandard areas
for the purpose of their redevelopment, according to law
5/1969. Other articles in the law deal with the procedures

for compensation.

__:;(1969.

  

135

LOCAL ZONING ORDINANCE AND BUILDING CODE:

To show the extent to which these laws are implemented
on a local level, Tripoli's zoning ordinance and building
codelz can be used as an example of municipal involvement
with preservation. Although ih Article 11 the zoning
ordinance classifies areas according to their artistic or
historic character as well as classifying the Old City of
Tripoli as a special residential area, there is nothing else
of significance in the manner of detailed and scientific
criteria for this classification. Article 14 defines the
touristic and historic areas simply as the areas which
involve major touristic activities and historic heritage.
Once more the emphasis here is primarily put on ancient
archeological sites.

Article 20 ofiflmaZoning Ordinance temporarily regulates
the works relating to the maintenance and the reconstruction
of deteriorating buildings in the Old City of Tripoli, as
well as the height and congruancy of the style and building
:materials with the surroundings. This article remains in
effect until a plan is prepared for the Old City. Beyond
tflris, the zoning ordinance which was effective at the
beginning of 1971, did not provide for any detailed aesthetic
anni architectural controls that would sufficiently regulate
the preservation of this area. Nor did it designate the Old
City as a historic area, which was allowable under law No.

Pur r berm-om:

7'2?”
5 .l ’L‘. L;~l-.,‘

   

  

 

136

almost at the same time did not include any technical,

structural or aesthetic specifications for the Old City.

ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK

 

GENERAL-DIRECTORATE OF ANTIQUITIES - MINISTRY OF EDUCATION:

 

 

The Department of Antiquities had developed since 1952
and initially became a part of the Ministry of Tourism and
Antiquities. After an administrative reorganization in
1969, it was designated a General-Directorate under the
Ministry of Education and has remained there. The General—
Directorate of Antiquities has been traditionally responsible
for the protection, restoration, and presentation of archeo-
logical sites and monuments, as well as the deve10pment of
museums and excavations. It recently took upon itself the
enormous task of the safeguarding of the urban heritage of
Libya because of the lack of clarity among the Ministries as
to their responsibilities in this area.

Unfortunately, the inadequacies of law No. 40/1968 are
reflected in the functioning of the General-Directorate of
Antiquities, as it has no real effective jurisdiction or the
power to take decisive steps in the realm of preservation.
This situation is further aggravated by the General-Direc-

torates' severely restricted funds and lack of the necessary

137

diverse technical expertise in the area of prserving
historic quarters. Another major problem it faces is its
placement in the Ministry of Education, which is so over-
whelmed by its own tasks and priorities in building an

educational system in a developing country that the General-

Directorate of Antiquities merits little attention.

GENERAL-DIRECTORATE OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT - MINISTRY OF

 

MUNICIPALITIES:

 

This agency began in the early 1960's as a section
called Town and Village Planning as part of the Ministry of
Planning. From 1969 to 1974 it moved from the Ministry of
Municipal Affairs to the Ministry of the Interior to the
Ministry of Housing and then to the Ministry of Local
Government. In 1974, when the Ministry of Local Government
was terminated to become the Ministry of Municipalities,
the agency became the General-Directorate of Urban Deve10p-
ment, and has remained in that Ministry since then.

Between 1966 and 1969 this General-Directorate was
involved with other foreign consultants in the preparation
of 184 master and layout plans for towns and villages in
Libya. The need for special and general protection was not
a factor in the planning at that time, and the result was
that little attention was given to problems concerning the

preservation of historic sites and quarters and their

138

environment.13 In spite of the articles in law No. 5/1969,
that were discussed earlier, nothing was done to correct
this ommission in the master plans. Law No. 39/1975 on
municipalities and law No. 38(197514 on the organization of
the Ministry of Municipalities did not add any impetus to
the General-Directorate of Urban Development incorporating
historic preservation into the master plans, nor did they
charge the municipalities with such a task. S. Abdul-Hak has
studied a few of these plans, particularly those for Tripoli,
Benghazi, Cyrene, Derna, Ghadames, Tagoura, Sebha and Sokna,
and has indicated "the undesirable repercussions they will

have on the Libyan cultural heritage.”5

At the present
time the General-Directorate for Urban Development is
undertaking a revision and modification of these master and

lay-out plans under the program for the development and

protection of the environment.15

THE MUNICIPALITY:

 

The body responsible for development, construction,
utilities and all other urban functions is the municipality.
An example of preservation at the municipal level is seen in
the Municipality of Triopli's actions concerning its juris-
diction over the Old City of Tripoli. The municipality's
lack of concern or awareness over the importance of the 01d

City's historic and cultural heritage can be seen in the

139

absence of any effort to improve the substandard conditions
in its historic quarters. This neglect is also evident in
the lack of any structure for preservation in the municipality,
and a virtual ignoring of law No. 5/1969, articles 2, 7 and
20 or the zoning ordinance, articles ll, 14 and 20; which
call for the designation of areas such as the Old City of
Tripoli as a historic afifiithat needs special treatment. The
Old City has been overlooked to the extent of the municipality
even failing to prepare a plan for it, which was called for
in 1971 in the zoning ordinance, article 20. This attitude
was also reflected in the argument put forth by the munici-
pality's representative on the Committee for the Preservation
of the Old City of Tripoli, and the rigidity of the munici-
pality's stance in backing the Master Plan's proposal for
two roads through the Old City, which required the matter to
go to higher authorities.

After reviewing this legal and administrative framework.
it is apparent that there exists no adequate structure
for the preservation of historic sites, quarters, vernacular
forms of architecture or their environment. The scope of
preservation is limited as it does not include these cate-
gories in its consideration. There exists no clarity between
ministries as to where the ultimate cultural and technical
responsibilities belong. Even among the existing modest
legal and administrative structures there is no coordination
or implementation. For example, the General-Directorate of

Antiquities was not consulted in the discussions of the

140

Master Plan for Tripoli by the Municipality of Tripoli and
the General-Directorate of Urban Development,17 although
this was called for in Article 7 of law No. 5/1969, and .
Article 6 of law No. 40/1968.

In Chapter VII, a framework will be proposed that will
attempt to provide an effective structure for the protection
of the urban heritage as a vital component of the preser-

vation of the cultural heritage.

141

Footnotes

1L.A.R., Ministry of Information and Culture, £55
September Revolution Achievements, 5th Anniversary.
(Tripoli: Ministry of Information and Culture, 1974),
pp. 12-14.

2L.A.R., Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research,
Development Budget for Fiscal Year 1975, in Arabic (Tripoli:
Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research, 1975), p. 48.

3L.A.R., Ministry of Planning, Arab Development
Institute, Plan For the Study of the Old City of Tripoli
Proiect, in Arabic, prep. by M. Abdul Wahab (Tripoli:
Arab Development Institute, 1975), p. 2.

4L.A.R., Ministry of Planning, The Three-Year Econ:
omic and Social Plan, 1973-1975, in Arabic (Tripoli:
Ministry of Planning, 1973), p. 384.

51bid., pp. 302-309.

61bid., pp. 334-335.

7S. Abdul-Hak, Protection of Historical Buildings,
(Paris: UNESCO, 1975), pp. 15-16.

8K.L. Ministry of Justice, The Official Gazette, in
Arabic, No. 38, 1968.

91bid., No. 11, 1969.

10L.A.R. Ministry of Justice, The Official Gazette,
in Arabic, No. 20, 1975.

111bid., No. 50,1972.

lzcomplete Set of Town and Village Planning Laws in
L.A.R., in Arabic, (Tripoli: Dar Muktabat Al-Feker, 1972),

lsAdeI‘Hak, .920 Cit. p p. 19.

14Official Gazette, 22. Cit., No. 33, 1975.

lsAdel-Hak, .92. Cit., p. 20.

16L.A.R., Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research,
The Proposed Five-Year onnomic and Social Plan 1976-1980,
in Arabic, (Tripoli: Dar Al-Hurria Leeteabaa, 1975), p. 844.

17Report of the Committee on the Study of Old City of

Tripoli andaeans for IdzPreservation, Awad Al-Sadaweya,
Chairman (Tripoli; General-Directorate of Antiquities, 1972),

p. 4.

CHAPTER VII
PROPOSED FRAMEWORK

The fact that culture and education are not synonymous
is gaining recognition throughout the contemporary world.
Cultural promotion, or the making accessible of culture to
all people as their right rather than the province of an
elite, is necessarily a state responsibility. Any state
cultural policy should have as its paramount aim the mani-
fold development of the human personality-~based on a belief
in the value of the struggle of humanity to perfect itself.
To achieve this end, it is necessary to conserve and
encourage the appreciation of progressive elements of the
cultural heritage, using the best of the past to unite with
the present. Only in this way can a people retain their
unique and authentic identity,carried on in an organized and
wholistic way, so necessary in resisting the pressures of

neo—cultural imperialism.

OUTLINE FOR A NATIONAL CULTURAL POLICY

The concept of cultural revolution in the Libyan Arab
Republic could be understood to be in the spirit of the

above principles. However, the demands of development have

142

143

more often than not, superceeded the committment to the
cultural element, to the people's detriment. Libya needs to
reassess her national priorities and reaffirm her commit-
tment to cultural promotion, through a national policy that
places the emphasis on the cultural needs of her people on‘a
par with their economic and social needs. Whether or not
leisure time is spent in enriching and enhancing the human
potential of all the people, or their time is spent in
beautiful and harmonious cities rather than the ugly,
dangerous, nerve-racking confusion of 'modern' cities, must
be deCided while there are still choices left. This requires
a recognition that cultural promotion (as the means by which
the quality of life is improved through the communication
and preservation of the people's ideas, thought and works)
should be planned for in the same systematic and compre-
hensive way as other facets of the national life.

Planning provides the opportunity to consider the
future course of the people, in their needs and ideals, as
well as to strike a balance in economic growth and social
and cultural progress. Cultural planning would work toward
expanding cultural Opportunities in a rational way throughout
society. The cultural sector in the comprehensive national
planning would include these main areas of activity: literary
and artistic (literature, publishing, libraries, the arts,

music, drama, ballet, etc.); the environment and the setting

144

of daily life (town-planning and architecture, protection of
nature, mass media, leisure); and those affecting the
relations between education and culture.

These components should be addressed under two areas of
consideration, contemporary expression and the protection -
and encouragement of the cultural heritage in all its
manifestations: folk dance, song and stories, crafts, arti-
facts, architecture, town design and so on. The domain of
town design and architectural preservation, the concern of
this thesis, necessarily would fall under the jurisdiction
of the latter and would comprise all those areas related to
the preservation of buildings, sites, vernacular archi-
tecture, quarters, villages, towns and their environment
that are of historic or architectural significance. This
should include areas of archeological interest, however, the
emphasis in this thesis is on the value of preserving the
living urban environment as a totality. The protection of
the urban cultural heritage must be the intention of the
central government, which should consider it as a vital
element in the planning and future development of the
Icountry. It should also be recognized that the preservation
(of the urban heritage is a matter of public service and
(nonstitutes a public service undertaking rather than a
profit-oriented effort. .

To implement a national cultural policy goal of the

preservation of the urban heritage it is necessary to meet

145

the following objectives:

a) Define clearly and scientifically the components
of the urban heritage.

' b) Establish a legal framework to provide for the
safeguarding, planning and resotration of these areas.

c) Establish an administrative framework to carry out
the policies and programs of the preservation plans.

d) Provide public funds to meet the cost of the
preservation and presentation programs.

.e) Define a sequence of technical procedures.

f) Consider the interrelationship of urban form and
social patterns as an essential aspect of the urban cultural
heritage to be preserved.

9) .Study the needs of the inhabitants of protected
areas to give rehabilitation a social objective.

h) Integrate the planning for protected areas into

the master and development plans of town and villages.

To meet these obejctives will require an administrative and
legal framework for preservation that would have the scope
and authority to implement the comprehensive, large—scale,
program so vitally needed to save Libya's urban heritage.
The series of recommendations for a framework and other
measures to be taken to implement the above objectives

are meant to begin to answer that need.

146

ADMINISTRATIVE FRAMEWORK

When considering the proposed framework, it has to be
clear that this is only a framework and not a procedural
program. It is put forward to establish the necessary high-
level central agency to supervise and coordinate the preser-
vation responsibilities assigned to different ministries and
general directorates. These responsibilities either directly
involved with preservation, subordinate to or those that are
in complementary functions, are proposed to be assigned to
different agencies and ministries. Legislation required
to establish the new ones or change the scope of the old is
indicated. General provisions for financial, technical, and
educational measures and international cooperation are also
included. This framework also deals with the enlargement
of the scope of municipal responsibilities on the local

level to encompass preservation as a main task.

COUNCIL OF MINISTERS:

Establishment of a Council for the Protection of the Urban

Heritage:

Purpose: To ensure the protection of the urban heritage
from neglect or destruction caused through public and
private works, it is recommended that a Council for the
Protection of the Urban Heritage be formed under the

authority of the Prime Minister. This Council would

147

secure the c00peration of the Ministries responsible
for these works to ensure that adequate attention is
given to the needs for the preservation of historically
and architecturally valuable sites, quarters, villages
and towns and their environment and review all projects

which could provide a threat to cultural property.

Composition: The Council should be composed of the

 

Minister of State as chairman; the General-Directors of
the Protection of the Cultural Heritage and of Antiquities
under the Ministry of State; the General-Directors of
Urban Development, for the Protection of the Urban Heritage
and for the Protection of the Enironment under the
Ministry of the Municipalities; the Director of the National
Committee for Education, Sciences and Culture (The
National UNESCO) under the Ministry of Education; the
General-Director for Planning and Supervision under the
Ministry of Housing; the Chairman of the Department of
Architecture, of the University of Al-Fatah; and Directors

of the General Organziations of the Aouqaf and of Tourism.

Responsibilities:

 

1. To define the principles and policies to guide the
work of the Council and the General Directorate for the

protection of the Urban Heritage.

 

 

148

2. To review all plans or projects that pose a threat
tothe designated objects or areas under protection and
if necessary, demand replanning for the purpose of
compliance with the principles and objectives of the
cultural policy for the preservation of the urban

heritage.

3. Disseminate information to the governmental agencies,
community groups and individuals concerned, to facilitate

coordination of efforts in this area.

4. Appoint an Executive Director with the authority
ofta General Director and provide a staff for the

purpose of carrying out the tasks of the Council.

5. To coordinate the activities of the General—
Directorate for the protection of the Urban Heritage,
under its supervision, with the Ministries or General-
Directorates in related areas such as the Ministry of
Housing or the General Directorate of Urban Development,
as well as laying out procedures and rules organizing
the smooth working relationship between all of these
agencies and the municipalities in the area of pre-

servation.

l I. f? 1

149

Legislation Required: A new law to establish a
Council for the Preservation of the Urban Heritage,
under the Council of Ministers should be created. This
law should define the purpose, composition and tasks of
such a council outlined in the above proposals and

compliment an amended version of Law No. 5/1969.

MINISTRY OF STATE (Culture & Information)
Establishment of a General-Directorate For

The Protection of The Cultural Heritage:

Purpose: To protect and promote all tangible, intangible,
and folk culture components of the cultural heritage,
except for the urban heritage. Tangible components

are works of art, ancient documents, etc. Intangible
components are music, drama and arts of historic or
artistic value. Folk culture consists of such things

as manners and customs related to the culinary arts,

clothing and festivals.

Legislation Required: Amendment of the law establishing

 

the Ministry of State to include a General—Directorate

for the Protection of the Cultural Heritage.

150

Removal of the General-Directorate of Antiquities From

Under the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of State:

Purpose: To allow for more logical and appropriate
handling of archeological sites and monuments, and to.
limit the responsibilities of the General-Directorate
of Antiquities to the discovery, restoration, preser-'

vation and presentation of such importaant cultural

properties not in current use.
Legislation Required: Amendment of Law No. 40/1968
on antiquities and laws establishing the Ministries of

State and Education.

MINISTRY OF MUNICIPALITIES

 

Expanding the Scope of the General-Directorate for

the Protection of the Environment:

 

Purpose: To provide for the protection of the human and
natural environment from air, water, noise and

visual pollution. This would include the destruction

of the harmony of vistas, natural scenic sites, shores,
forests and disorder in the urban environment of any

human settlement.

Legislation Required: Amendment of law No. 38/1975

151

on organization of the Ministry of Municipalities and

39/1975 on municipalities.

Expanding the Scope of the General-Directorate

for Urban Development: l

Purpose: To integrate components of the urban heritage
in the revision or future development of master and
layout plans as well as making provision for their

protection, rehabilitation or restoration.

Legislation Required: Amendment of laws No. 38/1975

 

and 39/1975.

Establishment of the General—Directorate for the

Protection of the Urban Heritage:

Purpose: To propose to the Minister of Municipalities
the designation of historically or architecturally
valuable monuments, sites, quarters, villages or towns
and their environment and to work toward their
restoration, rehabilitation and protection; to admin-
ister and implement major preservation projects throughu‘
out Libya; to inspect all protected buildings or areas
and report annually to the Council for the Protection

of the Urban Heritage on their condition and progress

made; to provide technical assistance in the designing

152

of preservation plans or in rehabilitation or restor-
ation work; to supervise and demand compliance with
applicable laws, regulatibns, or implementation of
preservation plans; to do research in all areas related
to the preservation of the urban heritage; to develop.
training programs to create skilled technicians in all
preservation fields on local,regional and central
levels; to acquire technical expertise and assistance
from international firms, UNESCO or other agencies as

needed to carry out the preservation program.

Composition:

 

l. The Research Section: To perform the

 

following functions:

a. To prepare and keep an updated inventory
of historic monuments and protected areas and to
define criteria for their classification under

special or general protection.

b. To propose to the General-Director for the
Preservation of the Urban Heritage, buildings,
sites, quarters, villages, towns and their
surroundings to be designated as monuments or

protected-areas.

153

c. To publish the inventory.

d. To research before restoration the historical

or artistic aspects of the monuments or protected

areas. ;

2. The Programming and Design Section: To perform the

 

following functions:

a. To analyze all architectural, physical,
infrastructural, social, economic, environmental
and other areas relating to monuments or protected

areas .

b. To develop programs for taking into account
the above considerations and assess the nature
of the functions and the pOpulation density that

are most suitable to maintain the urban character.

c. To draw up preservation plans and specific-

ations.

154

3. Implementation Section: To perform the following

 

functions:

a. To implement large-scale and centrally

supervised preservation projects.
b. To provide assistance and coordination to
regional centers and municipalities in the

implementation of projects of a smaller scale.

4. Regional Service Centers: To perform the following

 

functions:

a. Are to be established in Ghadames, Benghazi

Sebha, Augila.

b. To initiate the proposal of protected area

designations within the region.

c. Supervise the implementation of preservation
projects too extensive for the municipality to

undertake alone.

d. Provide technical assistance to local

authorities.

155

e. Exchange and mediate information between
local authorities, community groups and the
General-Directorate for the Protection of the

Urban Heritage.

f. Inspect the protected monuments and areas

in the region annually.

9. Report annually to the General-Directorate for
the Protection of the Urban Heritage concerning

conditions and progress in the region.
h. To develop training programs to create
skilled technicians in all preservation fields on

local and regional levels.

Legislation Require: Amendment of laws No. 38/1975

 

and 39/1975.

156

Expandingthe Scope of the Municipalities:

 

Purpose: To protect the urban heritage within the
municipalities through requiring all major towns to
establish a Section for the Protection of the Urban
Heritage. The municipalities' jurisdiction should
include:

1. Designation of monuments or areas for protection;

2. Designing preservation plans for these areas in
cooperation with the General-Directorate for the

Protection of the Urban Heritage;

3. Implement preservation plans with assistance from
the General—Directorate for the Protection of the Urban

Heritage as needed;

4. Develop special legislation for these monuments or

areas:

a. zoning regulations - describing the
protected zone and perimeters of visual‘
control, procedures and criteria to establish
them should be included - these should also
provide for the special and general protection

of monuments, sites, quarters, villages and towns.

157

b. building codes - should either be extended to
provide for specific controls over materials,
construction, architectural details, colours,
heights, related street furniture in the protected

areas or established separately for these zones.

5. Provide services such as utilities, for these

areas out of regular budgetary allowances;

6. Integrate planning for protected areas into master

plans for the municipality.

7. Protect individual buildings and sites and develop.
the financial resources to prevent neglect or destruction

through:

a. .purchase of the property
b. subsidization of the owner for repairs, rehabil-
itation or restoration

c. compulsory purchase

Legislation Required: Amendment of law No. 39/1975

 

on municipalities and local zoning ordinances and

building codes.

158

GENERAL LEGISLATION REQUIREMENT:
Expanding the Scope of Law No. 5/1969 on Town

and Village Planning:

 

Purpose: To provide a clear and comprehensive approach
to performing the tasks of preserving the urban
heritage, protecting the human and natural environment
and incorporating all this in the revision or develop-
ment of master or layout plans, it is recommended that
a new section or sections be added or revision of
existing sections be undertaken in law number 5/1969 on

Town and Village Planning.

These additions or revision should authorize the muni—
cipalities to enact new provisions in their zoning
ordinances, building codes and other pertinent regul-

ations to incorporate the proposed tasks.

GENERAL ORGANIZATIONS

 

Expanding the Scope of the General Organization

for Tourism:

 

Purpose: The General Organization for Tourism should
participate in the promotion of the urban and cultural
heritage, its presentation and its accessability to the

Libyan people.

1.: Al ,
is“:

159

Legislation Required: Amendment of the law estab-

 

lishing the General Organization for Tourism.

 

Restricting the Scope of the General Organization

for Aouqaf (Islamic Trust):

 

Purpose: Buildings that are administered or owned by
this organization of historic or architectural value
classified as components of the urban heritage should
be technically and aesthetically put under the control
of the General Director for the Protection of the Urban

Heritage.

Legislation Required: Amendment of the law estab-

 

lishing the General Corporation for the Aouqaf.

FINANCIAL FRAMEWORK

 

It is recommended that the Libyan Arab Republic adopt
the proposals for financial and technical measures in the
annex entitled the "Preliminary Draft Recommendations
Concerning the Safeguarding of Historic Towns, Quarters, and
Villages and their Surroundings, and Their Integration into
Contemporary Life" in the August 1975 UNESCO report 322

Preservation pf Historic Quarters, Towns and Sites and

160

Their Integration into a Moderannvironment, as revised

below. [See Appendix A]

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE AVAILABILITY OF NECESSARY

FINANCING

 

General Funds: To make available the funds necessary to

 

meet the level of public investment provided for in
plans for the protection and presentation of historic
of architecturally valuable monuments, sites, quarters,
villages and towns and their environment through
adequate appropriationstn the budgets of central and
local authorities. These funds should be centrally
managed by the coordinating body, or bodies, so as to
channel and strengthmnall the forms of aid available
to the public authorities and prevent the dispersal

of resources and effort.

Shared Funds: Government departments and agencies

 

active in the field of public works such as Housing,
Health and Education ministries or General-Directorates
should arrange their budgets so as to contribute to

the rehabilitation of areas by financing work which is
both in conformity with their own aims and the aims of
the safeguarding plans. For example, funds allocated

by the Ministry of Housing for the purpose of up-grading

substandard residential areas one be channeled to the

1 “~

I . '
. m0? Wqu.”
.1 .6‘ " ..‘2-’ ..
.. - .. .._ . .’.
.H car

..1 41".“ A‘ W“; ~:.* \ _.
~‘k Aha .. ‘- ‘- ‘ '

U ’ .
M‘,.‘~“§b_ _. 5 ' ‘ 'l‘.’

161

rehabilitation or restoration of subestandard housing

in protected areas.

Tax Incentives, Grants or Loans: These should be made

 

available at favorable rates to private owners and to.
users carrying out work provided for by the safeguarding
and rehabilitation plans and in conformity with the
standards laid down in those plans. The financial
concessions granted to private owners and users should,
where appropriate, be dependent on their observance of“
certain conditions laid down in the public interest.
The government should purchase, whenever feasible, all
historical monuments such as fonduks, suks, bazaars,
etc. and provide long term leases at reasonable rates
to users, using the same criteria as for housing.
Neglect, or inability to pay for, or failure to comply
with regulations for their upkeep by owners or users of
protected buildings or areas should lead to compulsory
purchase by the government, as provided for in law

No. 116/1972. Compensation could be payable to owners
of protected buildings or sites for losses they might
suffer in consequence of a safeguarding and rehabili-
tation program. Facilitation of the financing to work
carried out for rehabilitation and restoration should
be carried out through utilization of the Industrial
and Real Estate Bank, and other public loan corporations

to make loans to owners at reduced rates of interest

 

 

162

with repayments spread out over a long period. Tax
concessions, grants and loans could be made first and
foremost to groups of owners or users of living
accomodation and commercial prOperty, since collective
operations are more economical than individual action.
Housing Cooperative Associations should be eligible
for incentives, grants or loans for the rehabilitation

of homes.

Legislation Required: Amendment of the laws and

 

executive orders applicable to provide allocations to
fund the various authorities responsible for carrying
out the protection and presentation of historic or
architecturally valuable monuments, sites, quarters,

villages, towns and their environment.

Amendments of laws or executive orders applicable to
channeling funds from the Ministries or General-
Directorates of related areas to use in the rehabili—

tation of protected areas.

Amendment of laws applicable to providing tax incentives
and grants to organizations or individuals for compliance

with guidelines for restoration.

Amendment of laws applicable to the Industrial and

Real Estate Bank to enable it to make long—term

 

 

 

- A. “A. A A '- A
a: n::;t .‘ a -’ 1....
' "‘ e .544. A H; Duran—Tm P1-

40.!-

163

low-interest loans for the purposes of

rehabilitation or restoration.

TECHNICAL MEASURES

l. The General-Directorate for the Protection of the

Urban Heritage should, without delay, draw up a list of
towns, quarters and villages which are to be safeguarded and
should take whatever urgent protection measures are necessary

without waiting for the safeguarding plans to be prepared.

2. A detailed inventory should be drawn up for each of
these groups of building. For each individual building,
this inventory would include historical, architectural and
technical data enabling, in the first place, the authorities
to call a halt to any work emkugering the buildings and, in
the second, to arrive at a reasoned finding in regard to the
buildings concerned. Additionally, an inventory of public
and private open spaces and their vegetation should be drawn

up for the same purposes.

3. In addition to this architectural survey, thorough
surveys of social, economic, cultural and technical data and

structures and of the wider urban or regional context are

 

164

necessary. These studies should include, in particular,
demographic data and an analysis of economic, social and
cultural activities, ways of life and social relationships,
land-tenure problems, the urban infrastructure, the state of
the road system, communication networks and the reciprocal.
links between protected areas and surrounding zones. The
State should attach the greatest of importance to these
studies and should bear in mind that valid safeguarding

plans cannot be prepared without them.

4. After the analysis described above has been completed
and before the safeguarding plans and specifications are
drawn up, there should be a programming operation in which
due account is taken both of town-planning, architectural '
economic and social considerations and of the ability of the
urban fabric to assimilate functions that are compatible
with its specific character. The programming operation
should aim at bringing the density of settlement to the
desired level and should provide for the work to be carried
out in stages as well as for the temporary accommodation

needed while it is proceeding.

5. Once the safeguarding plans and specifications have
been drawn up and approved by the competent public author-
ity, it would be desirable for them to be executed either by

their authors or under their authority wherever possible.

 

\t'rv‘fiwq: . .;...,-E‘. f. “ ,

A 2r-

whilfilpll

165

6. - Urban development or slum clearance programs consisting
in the demolition of buildingsof no architectural interest
and which are too dilapidated to be kept, the removal of
adjuncts and additional storys of no value, and sometimes
even the demolition of recent building or structures which-
break the unity of the urban landscape, should be carried
out exclusively in the public interest and in strict confor-
mity with the standards and criteria for the conservation of
the group of buildings as a whole. Constant supervision is
necessary to ensure that these operations are not conducive
to speculation nor serve other purposes contrary to the

objectives of the plan.

7. In order to provide optimum conditions for the conser-
vation of old towns, quarters and villages they should
always be adapted to the contemporary needs of society.
However, this should be done in such a way as to take into
account the relevant criteria in respect of authenticity and
seek to preserve the most homogeneous period aspect whilst

not rejecting valid contributions made by any age.

8. Particular care should be devoted to regulations for
new buildings so as to ensure that the modern architecture
adapts harmoniously to the spatial organization and setting

of the groups of historic buildings. To this end, an

166

analysis of the urban context should precede any new
construction, not only so as to define the general character
of the group of buildings but also to analyze.its dominant
features, e.g. the harmony of heights, colours, materials-
and forms, constants in the way the facade and roofs are
built, the relationship between the volume of buildings and
the spatial volume, as well as their average proportions.
Particular attention should be given to the size of the lots
since there is a danger that any reorganization of the lots
may cause a change of mass which could be deleterious to the
harmony of the whole. In historic areas where demolition
has caused the clearance of two or more adjacent lots,
particular attention must be given to the scale of any new
construction erected on them. Any need for public buildings
should be met as completely as possible by utilizing his—
toric buildings. Contemporary requirements may need to be
modified to ensure that new buildings fit harmoniously into

their surroundings.

9. The isolation of a monument through the demolition of
its surroundings should not generally be authorized, neither
should a monument be moved unless in exceptional circum-

stances and for unavoidable reasons.

10. Historic towns, quarters and villages should be protected

 

 

167

from the disfigurement caused by the erection of poles,
pylons and electricity or telephone cables and the placing
of television aerials. Bill-posting, neon signs and other
kinds of advertisement, commercial signs and street furni-
ture, should be planned with the greatest care so that they
fit harmoniously into the whole. Traditional street
furniture such as built in benches, grape arbors, and

decorated drinking fountains should be restored.

11. The General-Directorate for the Protection of the Urban
Heritage should protect historic towns, quarters, and
villages against theincreasingly serious environmental
damage caused by certain technological developments -- air
and water pollution shocks, vibrations and noise--by banning.
harmful industries in the proximity of these towns, quarters
and villages and by taking preventive measures to counter
the destructive effects of supersonic flights. Provision
should further be made for measures to counter the harm

resulting from over-exploitation by tourism.

12. Programming and Design Section.should seek solutions
to the conflict existing in most historic groupings between
-motor traffic on the one hand and the scale of the buildings
and their architectural qualities on the other. To solve

the conflict and to encourage pedestrian traffic, careful

168

attention should be paid to the placing of, and access to,
peripheral and unobtrusive car parks and routing systems
established which will facilitate pedestrian traffic,
service access and public transport alike. Rehabilitation
procedures such as installing utilities could be done
simultaneously with road repair work. Roads should be paved
using original materials such as stones or cobbles. Major
highways or facilities requiring heavy transport should be
sited an adequate distance from the protected areas to

prevent structural damage from vibration or air noise and

visual pollution.

13. Protection and restoration should be accompanied by
revitalization activities without which there is a risk of
creating towns, quarters and villages like museum pieces,
preserved only for their aesthetic or historical interest.
It would thus be essential to maintain appropriate existing
functions and establish new ones, which, if they are to be
viable, in the long term, should be compatible with the
economic and social context of the town, region or country
where they are introduced. These functions should answer
the social, cultural and economic needs of the inhabitants
without harming the specific nature of the group of build-
ings concerned. Street musicians, artisans and craftsmen are
an integral part of urban fabric and should be encouraged

and their means of living protected.

169

14. Safeguarding activities should couple the public
authorities contribution with the contribution made by the
individual or collective owners and the inhabitants and
users, who should be encouraged to put forward suggestions
and generally play an active'part. Constant cooperation
between the community and the individual should thus be
established at all levels through the medium of information
and surveys, the inclusion of owners', inhabitants' and
users' representatives on decision—making and management
bodies concerned with the safeguarding plans or the estab-
lishment of advisory groups attached to the research

section.

15. The General-Directorate for the Protection of the Urban
Heritage should encourage the formation of voluntary con-
servation, development and rehabilitation groups and the
establishment of honours or money prizes so that specially
meritorious work in the field of restoration and present-

ation may be recognized.

RESEARCH, EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

1. The General Directorate for the Protection of the Urban
Heritage should encourage the systematic study of and

research into, urban development as it affects groups of old

170

buildings, conservation methods applied to such groups, and

the vitally necessary craft techniques. They should further
expand research into the weathering of materials and the use
and adaptation of modern techniques in building conservation

work.

2. The Department of Architecture, University of Al-Fatah,
should introduce a curriculum that emphasizes the archi-
tecture, urban design and planning of protected areas and on
the techniques relating to their safeguarding. The Depart-
ment should also encourage research on the history and
evolution of national forms of vernacular architecture and
urban design. The possible establishment of a research
center dealing with such areas should be investigated
further as well as the offering of special diplomas or

degrees.

3. The GeneralFDirectorate for the Protection of the
Urban Heritage in cooperation with the Department of Archi-
tecture should institute programs to train skilled workers
and craftsmen specializing in the areas related to the

safeguarding of monuments and protected areas.

4. Awareness of the need for safeguarding work should be

 

171
press, television, radio and cinema.

5. The study of old towns, quarters and villages should be
included in education at all levels, espcially in history
teaching, so as to inculcate in young minds an understanding
of and respect for the works of the past and to demonstrate
the role of this heritage in modern life. Education of

this kind should make wide use of audio-visual media and of
visits to groups of historic buildings. The General—Direc-
torate should facilitate the refresher training of teachers
and the training of assistants so as to aid groups of young

people and adults wishing to learn about their architectural

heritage.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

 

The Libyan Arab Republic should cooperate with regard
to the protection, conservation and presentation of historic
towns, quarters and villages, seeking aid, if it seems
desirable, from international organizations, both inter—
governmental and non-governmental. Such multilateral or
bilateral cooperation should be carefully co-ordinated and

should take the form of measures such as the following:

. :Ilunlll

 

 

 

172

exchange of information and of scientific publications;
organization of seminars and working parties on parti-
cular subjects;

provision of study and travel fellowships and the dis-
patch of scientific, technical and administrative
staff, and equipment;

joint action to combat pollution;

coordination, within a group of Member States, such as
the League of Arab States, of large-scale conservation,
restoratiOn and rehabilitation projects for groups

of historic buildings, and publication of the experience
acquired.

The National Committee for Education Sciences and

‘Culture [National UNESCO] should play a more active

role in the dissemination of the UNESCO documents,
as UNESCO has been playing a major role in the area
of preservation of the urban and cultural heritage-
It should also perform as the liason between preser-
vation agencies in the county, UNESCO and other

international agencies involved in preservation.

 

173

CONCLUSION

 

After the discussion of the origin and value of
the urban heritage as a source of pride and a guiding
light for the future, and reviewing the threat unchecked
modernization and development pose to this heritage, it
should be obvious that the protection of this heritage
is necessary through the achieving of a harmony between
the human habitat and humanity's desire to grow.

The recommended framework for safeguarding the urban
heritage presents a chance to initiate a meaningful preser-
vation program in Libya. This framework was prOposed with
the lack of technical expertise and skilled labor in mind
as well as the vast geographic area Libya occupies relative.
to the size of its population. This, coupled with the
limited scope of the thesis makes it impossible to study
the whole area of cultural preservation in detail. In
this regard, initial thought were to include all aspects
of the cultural heritage to be preserved within the scope
of the proposed Council for the Protection of the Urban
Heritage. Nonetheless, future research studies or practical

experience could lead to the advancement of such a proposal,

and the coverage of the field of cultural heritage.

 

S
E
C
I
D
N
E
DI
P
A

 

 

 

APPENDIX A

The Preservation of Historic Quarters,
Towns and Sites and Their Integration
Into A Modern Environment.*

 

 

Technical measures

20. All Member States should, without delay, draw up a
list of the towns, quarters and villages which are to be
safeguarded and should take whatever urgent protection
measures are necessary without waiting for the safeguarding
plans to be prepared.

21. A detailed inventory should be drawn up for each of
these groups of buildings. For each individual building,
this inventory would include historical, archaeological,
architectural and technical data enabling, in the first
place, the authorities to call a halt to any work endangering
the buildings and, in the second, the research departments

to arrive at a reasoned finding in regard to the buildings
concerned. Additionally, an inventory of public and private
open spaces and their vegetation should be drawn up for the
same purposes. - w

22. In addition to this architectural survey, thorough
surveys of social, economic, cultural and technical data
and structures and of the wider urban or regional context
are necessary. These studies should include, in particular,
demographic data and an analysis of economic, social and
cultural activities, ways of life and social relationships,
land-tenure problems, the urban infrastructure, the state
of the road system, communication networks and the recip-
rocal links between protected areas and surrounding zones.
Member States should attach the greatest importance to these
studies and should bear in mind that valid safeguarding
plans cannot be prepared without them.

23. After the analysis described above has been completed
and before the safeguarding plans and specifications are
drawn up, there should be a programming operation in which
due account is taken both of town-planning, architectural,
economic and social considerations and of the ability of

the urban fabric to assimilate functions that are compatible
wit its specific character. The programming operation should
aim at bringhmythe density of settlement to the desired level

 

fiAugust, 1975, UNESCO Preliminary Draft Recommendation

174

175

and should provide for the work to be carried out in stages
as well as for the temporary accomodation needed while it is
proceeding.

24. Once the safeguarding plans and specifications have

been drawn up and approved by the competent public authority,
'it would be desirable for them to be executed either by their
authors or under their authority.

25. Urban development or slum clearance programmes consis-
ting in the demolition of buildings of no architectural
interest and which are too dilapidated to be kept, the
removal of adjuuns and additional storeys of no value, and
sometimes even the demolition of recent buildings which
break the unity of the urban landscape, should be carried
out exclusively in the public interest and in strict conform—
ity with the standards and criteria for the conservation of
the group of buildings as a whole. Constant supervision

is necessary to ensure that these operations are not con-
ducive to speculation nor serve other purposes contrary to
the objectives of the plan.

26. In order to provide Optimum conditions for the conser-
vation of old towns, quarters and villages they should always
be adapted to the contemporary needs of society. However,
this should be done in such a way as to take into account

the relevant criteria in respect of authenticity and seek

to preserve the most homogeneous period aspect whilst not
rejecting valid contributions made by any age. '

27. Particular care should be devoted to regulations for
new buildings so as to ensure that the modern architecture
adapts harmoniously to the spatial organization and setting
of the groups of historic buildings. To this end, an
analysis of the urban context should precede any new con—
struction, not only so as to define the general character

of the group of buildings but also to analyse its dominant
features, e.g. the harmony of heights, colors, materials

and forms, constants in the way the facade and roofs are
built, the relationship between the volume of buildings

and the spatial volume, as well as their average proportions.
Particular/attention should be given to the size of the lots
since there is a danger that any reorganization of the lots
may cause a change of mass which could be deleterious to the
harmony of the whole.

28. The isolation of a monument through the demolition of

its surroundings should not generally be authorized, neither
should a monument be moved unless in exceptional circumstances
and for unavoidable reasons.

 

 

 

176

29. Historic towns, quarters and villages should be pro-
tected from the disfigurement caused by the erection of
poles, pylons and electricity or telephone cables and the
placing of television aerials. Bill-posting, neon signs
and other kinds of advertisement, commercial signs and
street furniture, should be planned with the greatest care
so that they fit harmoniously into the whole.

30. Member States should protect historic towns, quarters
and villages against the increasingly serious environmental
damage caused by certain technological deve10pments - air
and water pollution, shocks, vibrations and noise - by
banning harmful industries in the proximity of these towns,
quarters and villages and by taking preventive measures to
counter the destructive effects of supersonic flights. Pro-
vision should further be made for measures to counter the
harm resulting from over-expoitation by tourism.

31. Member States should seek solutions to the conflict
existing in the most historic groupings between motor
traffic on the one hand and the scale of the buildings and
their architectural qualities on the other. To solve the
conflict and to encourage pedestrian traffic, careful
attention should be paid to the placing of, and access to,
peripheral and even central car parks and routing systems
established which will facilitate pedestrian traffic,
service access and public tranSport alike. Many rehabil-'
itation operations such as putting electricity and other
cables underground, too expensive if carried out singly,
could then be co—ordinated easily and economically with
the deve10pment of the road system.

32. Protection and restoration should be accompanied

by revitalization activities without which there is a risk
of creating towns, quarters and villages like museum
pieces, preserved only for their aesthetic or historical
interest. If would thus be essential to maintain appropriate
existing functions and establish new ones, which, if they
are to be viable, in the long term, should be ccmpatible
with the economic and social context of the town, region
or country where they are introduced. These functions
“should answer the social, cultural and economic needs of
the inhabitants without harming the specific nature of

the group of buildings concerned.

33. Safeguarding the activities should couple the public
authorities contribution with the contribution made by

the individual or collective owners and the inhabitants

and users, who should be encouraged to put forward sugges-
tions and generally play an active part. Constant co-oper-
ation between the community and the individual should thus

 

177

be established at all levels though the medium of infor-
mation and surveys, the inclusion of owners', inhabitants'
and users' representatives on decision—making and manage—
ment bodies concerned with the safebuarding plans, the
establishment of advisory groups attached to the research
departments or the creation of public corporations to play
a part in the plan's implementation.

34. Member States should encourage the formation of volun—
tary conservation, development and rehabilitation groups
and the establishment of honours or money prizes so that
specially meritorious work in the field of restoration

and presentation may be recognized.

Financial measures

 

35. Availability of the necessary funds for the level of
public investment provided fo in the plans for the safe-
guarding and preserntation of historic towns, quarters and
villages should be ensured by including adequate appro-
iations in the budgets of the central, regional and local
authorities. All these funds should be centrally managed

by the co-ordinating body or bodies at national, regional

or local level so as to channel and strengthen all the

forms of aid available to the public authorities and prevent
the dispersal of resources and effort.

36. Tax concessions, grants, or loans at favourable rates
should be made available to private owners and to users
carrying out work provided for by the safeguarding and
rehabilitation plans and in conformity with the standards
laid down in those plans. These tax concessions, grants
and loans could be made first and foremost to groups of
owners or users of living accommodation and commercial
property, since joint operations are more economical than
individual action. The financial concessions granted to
private owners and users should, where appropriate, be
dependent on their observance of certain conditions laid
downin the public interest, such as allowing the buildings
to be visited and allowing access to parks, gardens or
-sites, the taking of photographs, etc. Compensation could
be payable to the owners of protected buildings or sites
for losses they might suffer in consequence of a safe-
guarding and rehabilitation programme.

37. Special funds should be set aside in the budgets of
public authorities for the protection of groups of historic
buildings endangered by large-sale public or private works
and for the repair of damage caused by natural disasters.

178

38. In addition, government departments and agencies
active in the field of public works, such as education
and health departments, should arrange their budgets so
as to contribute to the rehabilitation of groups of
historic buildings by financing work which is both in
conformitvaith their own aims and the aims of the safe—
guarding plan.

39. To increase the financial resources available to them,
Member States should encourage the setting up of public
and private financing agencies for the safeguarding of
historic towns, quartesr and villages. These agencies
should have corporate status and be empowered to receive
gifts from individuals, foundations and industrial and
commercial concerns. Special tax concessions should be
granted to donors.

40. Member States could facilitate the financing of work of
any description carried out for the safeguarding and rehab-
ilitation of historic towns, quarters and villages by setting
up a loans corporation, supported by public institutions and
private credit establishments, which would be responsible

for making loans to owners at reduced rates of interest

with repayments spread out over a long period.

41. Member States could facilitate the creation of non-
profit-making associations responsible for buying and,
where appropriate after restoration, selling buildings by
using revolving funds established for the special purpose
of enabling owners of historic buildings who wish to safe-
guard them and preserve their character to continue to
reside there.

42. To avoid hardship to the poorest inhabitants conse-
quent on their having to move from buildings or groups of
buildings due for rehabilitation, compensation for rises in
rent could enable them to keep their homes, commercial
premises and workshops. This compensation, which would be
income-related, would help those concerned to pay the
increased rentals resulting from the work carried out.

VI. RESEARCH, EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

43. Member States should encourage the systematic study

of, and research into, urban development as it effects
groups of old buildings, conservation methods applied to

sch groups, and the vitally necessary craft techniques.

They should further expand research into the weathering

of materials and the use and adaptation of modern techniques

179

in building conservation work.

44. Member States should introduce a specific education,

to include practical training periods, on the urban develop-
ment and architecture of groups of old buildings and on
techniques relating to their safeguarding. They should

also encourage the training of skilled workers and crafts-
men specializing in the preservation and restoration of old
buildiings.

45. Awareness of the need for safeguarding work should be
encouraged by education in school out of school and at
university and by using information media such as books, the
press, television, radio and cinema.

46. The study of old towns, quarters and villages should be
included in education at all levels, especially in history
teaching, so as to inculcate in young minds an understanding
of and respect for the works of the past and to demonstrate
the role of this heritage in modern life. Education of

this kind should make wide use of audio-visual media and

of visits to groups of historic buildings.

47. Member States should facilitate the refresher training

of teachers and the training of assistants so as to aid

groups of young people and adults wishing to learn about their
architectural heritage.

VII. INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATION

48. Member States should co-Operate with regard to the
protection, conservation and presentation of historic towns,
quarters and villages, seeking aid, if it seems desirable,
from international organizations, both intergovernmental
and non-governmental. Such multilateral or bilateral
co—operation should be carefully co—ordinated and should
take the form of measures such as the following:

(a) exchange of information and of scientific
and technical publications;

(b) organization of seminars and working parties on
particular subjects;

(0) provision of study and travel fellowships, and
the dispatch of scientific, technical and
administrative staff, and equipment;

(d) joint action to combat pollution;

180

(e) co-ordination, within a group of Member States,
of large-scale conservation, restoration and
rehabilitation projects for groups of historic

buildings, and publication of the experience
acquired.

181

APPENDIX B
Illustration and Figure Sources

Abd El-Kader, Ahmed M. Al-Kahera Al-Fatimia.*
Figures: 2

Agostini, G. De. La Libia Turistica. Milano: S.A. Alfieri
and LaCroix, 1938.
Illustrations: 38, 48, 79 a 100

Baladiet Tarabulus Fi Migt Am.*
Illustrations: 87, 91, 94, 99, 101, 102, 103,
109, 110 & 112

Banse, Ewald, Tripoli. Weimar: Aleyander Duncker Verlag,
1912.
Illustrations: 74

Brodrick, Alan H. Mirage of Africa. London: Hutchinson,

1953.
Illustrations: 30

Brown, Carl L. ed From Medina to Metropolis. Princeton:
Darwin Press, Inc., 1973.
Illustrations: 1, 2, 4, 9, 10, 96 & 97

Carrington, Richard. East from Tunis. London: Chatto and

Windus, 1957
Illustrations: 21 & 22

Daza, Mahmoud. "Replanning of the Old City of Tripoli."
Unpublished study, Planning Department, Azhar
University, 1970.

Illustrations: 55, 56, 66, 113 & 114
Figures: 7 -

Eldblom, Lars. Structure Fonciere. Organization et Struc-
ture Sociale. Lund: UNISCKOL, 1968

 

Figures: 4, 5 & 6

El-Dars, M.Z. and Said, s.z. "Libyan Court Houses."*
Illustrations: 88b, 89b, c, d, 90, 92 & 93
Figures: la, b, 10, ll, 12, 13 & 14

Epton, Nina. Oasis Kingdom. New York: Roy Publishers, 1953.
Illustrations: 71, 76 & 88b

 

182

Fanter, Else. Libia, Berlin: Reimer Hobbing, 1933.
Illustrations: 29 & 33

Furlong, Charles W. The Gateway to the Sahara. London:
Chapmand and Hall Ltd. 1909.
Illustration: 61

 

Furlonge, Geoffrey. The Land of Barbary. London: Cox &
Wyman, 1966.
Illustrations: 65

 

Ghisleri, Arcangelo, Tripglitania E Cirenaica. Milano:
Bergamo, 1912.
Illustrations: 11 & 15

 

L.A.R. Ministry of Information and Culture. lst September
Revolution Achievements 5th Anniversagy.*
Illustrations: 95

 

 

Lewis, Bernard. Islam and the Arab World. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, 1976.
Illustrations: 3, 5, 6, 7 & 8

 

McClure, W. K. Italy in North Africa. London: Constable
& Company, Ltd., 1913.
Illustrations: 107

 

Micacchi, Rodolfo.La Tripolitinia Sotto il Domino Del
Caramanli. Rome: A. Airoldi, 1936.

 

 

 

Illustrations: 85 & 86

Piccoli, Angelo. The Magic Gate ofthe Sahara.*
Illustrations: 40, 41, 43, 44 & 47

Ramadan, A. M. Reflections Upon Islamic Architecture
In Libya.*
Illustrations: 12, 14, 16, 25, 26, 42, 45, 72,

78, 80, 82, 83, 84, 89a, 115 & 117

RapOport, Amos. House Form and Culture.*
Illustrations: 20
Figures: 1c, d, e & f

Richter, Lore. Islands of the Sahara, Trans. by Herman
Ehlert. Leipzig: DruckereiISachsische Zeitung
Dresden and Grafische Werkstatten, 1960.
Illustrations: 17, 27, 31, 32, 34, 35, 39,

50 & 68
Figures: 3

183

Richter, Lore. Islands of the Sahara, Trans. by Herman
Ehlert. Leipzig: Druckerei Sachsische Zeitung
Dresden and Grafische Werkstatten, 1960.

Illustrations: 17, 27, 31, 32, 34, 35, 39,
50 & 68
Figures: 3

Schmieder, Oscar, and Wilhelmv, Herbert. Die Faschistische
Kolonisation in Nordafrika. Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer,

 

 

 

1939.
Figures: 16
Tripoli Master Plan.*
Figures: 15 & 17
Ward, Philip. Touring Libya, The Western Provinces.*
Illustrations: 13, 19, 24, 36, 37, 58,
59 & 60

Ward, Philip, Tripoli, Portrait of a City.*
Illustrations: 52, 53, 54 & 77

Wilsher, Peter and Righter, Rosemary. The Exploding Cities,
New York: New York Times Book Co., 1975.
Illustrations: 98

Wright, John, Lib a.*
Illustrations: 23 & 28

 

* See Bibliography

Abbasid

Aouqaf

Bab

Bazaar

Dar El-Kobool
Euyan

Ghurfat As-Sugifa
Gusbet

Haramlik

Hypostyle

Kahn

Marboaa

Marsharabia

Masj id

Mukhtar muhallah

Salamlik

Sedda

APPEND [X C

Glossy

Major Muslim dynasty of caliphs ruling
from 750 to 1258.

land or property held in Muslim religious
trust.

Gate or door .

Covered shopping area .

Reception roan.

Arcade .

Reception room above entrance hall
Watchtower

Generally found in Egypt, the raised
part of the home used for private

family purposes .

Having roof supported by rows of columns .

A combination warehouse, stable and
inn for transit and wholesale merchants .

Reception room for males.

Wooden latticework covering projecting
window.
Mosque

Administrator and community leader
of a district.

Generally found in Egypt, the part
of the home used to receive female
visitors.

Wooden platform used for bed at
one end of a room.

184

Sug
Suhen

Zawia

185

Marketplace.
Court, mainly in a.mosque.
A mosque with living quarters for

teachers, a'school and accomodations
for travellers.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

'Abd El-Kader, Ahmed Monir. Al-Kahera Al-fatimia, A Renewal
Program for a Historic City. Dissertation. WaShington,
D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 1965.

 

 

 

Abdul-Hak, S. Protection of Historic Buildings. Paris:
UNESCO, 1975.

 

Baladiet Tarabulus Fi Miat Am,Report of the Committee
on the Centennial Celebration of the Municipality
of Tripoli: 1870-1970. Abdulla A. Al-Sharif)
Chairman. Tripoli: Al-Tebaa Al-Haditha Co., 1973.

 

 

Balan, Ion D. Cultural Policy in Romania. Studies and Docu-
ments on Cultural Policies. Paris: UNESCO Press, 1975.

 

Banz, George. Elements of Urban Form. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 1970.

 

Bear, G. "The City."In Readings in Arab Middle Eastern
Societies and Cultures, ed. C. W. Churchil and A. M.
Lutifiyya. The Hague, Mouton & Co., N.V. Publishers,
1970.

 

 

Ben Mahmoud, W., and Santelli, S. "What to Do With the
Medina?" Ekistics, 227 (October 1974): 259-63.

Bey Hassanein, A. The Lost Oases. New York: The Century
Company, 1925. '

Bookchin, Murray. Limits to City. New York: Harper & Row
Publishers, Inc., 1974.

Buchanan, Colin. "Cities in Crises-An Overview."The
Planner 61 (July/August 1975): 258-64.

Buchanan, Colin and Partners. Beth, A Study_in Conservation.
London: H.M.S.O., 1968.

Buchanan, Colin and Partners. "Proposals For a Conservation
Study." [Old City of Tripoli]. London: 1975.

Burlong, Charles W. The Gateway to the Sahara. London:
Chapman and Hall, Limited, 1909.

Burrows, G. S. Chichester, A Study in Conservation.
London: H.M.S.O., 1968.

186

187

Cantacuzino, Sherban. "Aleppo." Architectural Review
158 (October 1975): 241-51.

Ciborowski, Adolf. Town Planning In Poland. warsaw:
Polonia Publishing House, 1956.

 

Complete Set of Town andfigillage Development Laws in
L.A.R., in Arabic. Tripoli: Dar Muktabat Al-Feker,

Council of Europe. The Preservation and Development of
Ancient Buildings and Historical of Artistic Sites.
Council of Europe, 1963.

 

Cowper, H.C. The Hill of the Graces. London; Methuen
& Co., 18972

Daifuku, Hiroshi. ”Introduction: Urban Retrieval Too."
in The Conservation of Cities, ed. Paris: UNESCO
Press, 1975.

Dale, Antony. ”Listing and Preserving Historic Buildings:
The European Picture." Architectural Review 138
(August 1965): 97-104.

Ettinghausen, Richard. "Muslim Cities: Old and New," in
From Medina to Metropolis, ed. L. Carl Brown .
TPrinceton: Darwin Press, Inc., 1973). 311.

El-Dars, M.Z., and Said, 5.2. "Libyan Court Houses."
Bulletin of the Faculpy of Engineering, University
of Libyng (No. 4. 1972?} 191-232.

 

"European Architectural Heritage Year 1975." The Planner
61 (January 1975): 2-32.

"European Conservation Year." Architectural Review 148
(December 1970): 333-80.

Fathy, Hassan. "Constancy, Transposition and Change in
the Arab City." in From Medina to Metropolis, ed. L.
Carl Brown. Princeton; Darwin Press, Inc., 1973.

French Ministry of Culture. Studies and Research Department.
§pme Aspects of French Cultural Pplicy. Studies and
Documents on Cultural Policies. Paris: UNESCO Press,

1970.

Garbar, Oleg. "Architecture." in The Legacy of Islam,
ed. L.E. Boswarth and Joseph Schact. London, OxfOrd
university Press, 1974.

188

Garbar, Oleg. "The Architecture of the Middle Eastern
City From Pact to Present: The Case of the Mosque."
in The Eastern Cities, ed. Ira M. Lapidus. Berkley
and'Los Angeles, University of California Press,
1969. '

Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division,
Naval Staff, Admiralty. compilers, A Handbook of
Libya. London: H.M.S.O., 1920.

Koch, Hans, Cultural Poligy in the German Democratic
Republic. Studies and Documents on Cultural Policies.
Paris: UNESCO Press, 1975.

Haworth, Lawrence, The Good City. Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1963.

Hourani, A. H. and Stern, S. M., ed. The Islamic City,
A Colloquim. Oxford, Brune Cassirer Ltd., 1970.

Ismail, Adel A. ”Origin, Ideology and Physical Patterns of
Arab Urbanization." Ekistics 195 (February 1972):
113-23 0

L.A.R. Ministry of Information and Culture. lst september
Revolution Achievements! 5th Anniversary. Tripoli:
MiniStry of Information and Culture, 1974.

L.A.R. Ministry of Planning. Arab Development Institute.
Plan For the Study of the Old City of Tripoli Prpject.
In ArabiE, by M. Abdul Wahab. Tripoli: Arab Develop-
ment Institute. 1974.

L.A.R. Ministry of Planning. The Three-Year Economic
and Social Plan, 1973-1975. In Arabic, Tripoli:
MiniStry of Planning, 1973.

L.A.R. Ministry of Planning. The Three-Year Economic and.
Social Development Plan in Brief. Tripoli; Ministry
of Planning, 1973. '

L.A.R. Ministry of Planing and Scientific Research.
Qevelopment Budget for Fiscal Year 1975. In Arabic.
Tripoli: Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research,

1975.

L.A.R. Ministry of Planning and Scientific Research; The
Proposed Five Year Economic and Social Plan 1976-1980.
In Arabic.(Tripoli: Dar Al-Hurria Leeteabaa, 1975).

Matthew, R.; Reid, Jr.; and Lindsay, M., ed., The Conser-
vation of Georgian Edinburgh, Edinburgh: Edinburgh
University Press, 1972. .

 

o.- - sari-m1”: "

e...- qu-si .
a_Lo‘: ‘uo fa! ‘

'Z-h'rf' 'WNE‘“

mm ...-‘1‘: "I

 

 

 

 

 

189

Melvin, Peter. "Conservation and the Built Environment.”
Progressive Architecture 53 (November 1972): 83-105.

Naji, Mahmud. Tarikh Tarabulus Al-Gharb, (History of
Tripoli-West). Arabic Trans."by A. Adham & M.
AI-Ousta. Benghazi: Faculty of Arts, University
of Libya Publications, 1970.

 

 

 

National Trustfor Historic Preservation. Historic Preser-
vation Today: Essays Presented to the—Williamsburg
seminar ofiiPreservation and Restoration. Charlottes-
Ville: The univerfity of Virginia, 1966.

 

Ndeti, Kivuto. Cultural Policy in Kenya. Studies and
Documents on Cultural POlicies. Paris: UNESCO Press,

1975.

 

New Mexico State Planning Office. Historic Preservation,
A Plan for New Mexico. Santa Fe: StateIPlanning

Office, 1971.

"The Old City: Vital Points to Consider," Al-Fatah [Tripoli],
27 December, 1975, No. 130, p. 6.

 

Piccoli, Angelo. The Magic Gate of the Sahara. Trans. by
Angus Davidson. London: Methuen and Company, Limited,
1935. '

"Preservation in Contest." Progressive Architecture 53
(November 1972): 63-69.

Ramadan, A.M. Reflections Upon Islamic Architecture in
Libya. Tripoli: Arabic House For Books, 1975.

Rapoport, Amos. House Form and Culture. Foundations of
Cultural Geography Series. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969.

Report of the Committee_ on the Study of Old City of Tripoli
and Means fOr Its Preservation. Awad A1-Sadaweya,
Chairman. Tripoli: General-Directorate of Antiquities,

1972.

Roditi, Edouard. ”Morocco's Monuments and Their Preservation."
Appolo (March 1966): 210-13.

”Second Thoughts? Rush to Industrialize Wealthy Oil
Countries Begins to Slow Down." Wall Street Journal,

17 September 1976. p. 16.

190'

Shankland, Graeme. ”Why Trouble With Historic Towns?"
in The Conservation of Cities, ed. Paris: UNESCO

Press, 1975.

Shiber, George S. Recent Arab City Growth, Kuwait: Kuwait
Government Printing Press, 1969.

Tripoli Master Plan Final Report, Prepared for the Ministry
ET the Interior, L. A. R., by Whiting Associates
International and Hinningson, Durham and Richardson,
Omaha: Hinningson, Durham and Richardson, 1969.

U.K. Ministry of Housing and Local Government. Historic
Towns: Preservation and Change. London: H.M.S.O.,

1967.

UNESCO. The Consevation of Cities. Paris: UNESCO Press,
.1975. '

. The Conservation of Cultural Prpperty With Special
Reference to Trop1ca1 Conditions. Museums and Monu-
ments, XI. Paris: UNESCO Press, 1968.

. Cultural Policy, A Preliminary Study. Studies and
Documents on cultural Policies. Paris: UNESCO Press,

1969.

. Cultural Rights as Human Rights. Studies and
Documents on Cultural Policies. Paris: UNESCO Press,

1970.

. The Preservation of Historic Quarters, Towns and
Sites and Their Integration Into A Modern Environment,
Paris: UNESCO Pres, 19751

. Preserving and Restoring Monuments and Historic
Buildings. Museums and Monuments, XIV. Paris: UNESCO

Press, 1972.

 

. Protection of Mankind's Cultural Heritage [Sites
and Monuments]. Paris: UNESCO Press, 1970.

"Urban Development in L.A.R., " Al-Fatah, [Tripoli] 22
November, 1975, p. 6.

Wahba, Raphail. ”Cairo." In The New Metropolis in the Arab
World, ed..by Morroe Berger. New Delhi, Congress for
Fultural Freedom, 1963.

Ward, Pamela, ed. Conservation and Develppment in Historic
Towns and Cities. Newcastle Upon Tyne: Oriel Press

Limited, 1968.

"O

191

Ward, Philip. Tpuring Libya, The Western Provinces, London:
Faber and Faber, Limited, 1967.

. Tripoli, Portrait of a City,‘New York, The
Oleander Press, 1969.

 

Wright, John, Liby . London: Ernest Benn, Limited, 1969.

Wright, Lance. "Old Lamps for New." Architectural Review
158 (November 1975): 258-83. ‘

 

Zahran, M. Challepge of the Urban Environment. Beirut:
Bouheiry Bros, 1973.

 

Zander, Frank C. ”The Old 'Medinah'~of Tripoli, Libya."
In Shiber's Recent Arab Cipy Growth.

 

Ill[IWillIIHIIIUltllllHlllIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIMIIIHIIIHHII

 

31293400267