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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

AN INITIAL ANALYSIS OF THE GOTTSCHALL ROCKSHELTER
LITHIC ASSEMBALGE.

presented by

Aaron Joseph Naumann

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

Master of degree in An ‘hropology
Arts A

 

 

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Major Professor’ 3 SignatUre

 

 

L’J A‘ofivfi” 2005

Date

MSU is an affirmative-action, equal-opportunity employer

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TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
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5/08 K;lProj/AccaPreleIRC/DateDue.indd

AN INITIAL ANALYSIS OF THE GOTTSCHALL ROCKSHELTER
LITHIC ASSEMBALGE.

W

By

Aaron Joseph Naumann

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTERS OF ARTS
Department of Anthropology

2008

ABSTRACT

AN INITIAL ANALYSIS OF THE GOTTSCHALL ROCKSHELTER
LITHIC ASSEMBALGE.

By
Aaron Joseph Naumann

The Gottschall Rockshelter, in southwestern Wisconsin, is a hypothesized
ritual locale of as yet unknown specific fimction. The presence of 40 pictographs,
with one panel or collection of figures reported to depict the characters described
within the Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) oral tradition of Red Horn, coupled with the
discovery of a carved and painted sandstone head, in association with both
hypothesized feasting debris and sediments interpreted to be of anthropogenic
origin. The primary goals of this study are twofold; first, to provide a
comprehensive formal description of the lithic assemblage, and secondly to
independently test of the hypothesis that there is differentiated sacred and secular
space.

The formal description and analysis of the lithic assemblage includes
3,762 stone artifacts. The lithic assemblage is dominated by locally available raw
materials with the majority of the present exotic raw materials and foreign
diagnostic point types associated with Late Woodland deposits. The spatial
analysis indicates it is only during this time period that significantly differentiated
space is observable through the lithic assemblage. It is evident from these results
future research at the Gottschall Rockshelter should focus attention on the Late
Woodland time period in order to fithher elucidate the nature of the ritual

activities that took place at the site.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to all of those who have those who have supported me

throughout my journey of curiosity, especially my family and loved ones.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am not sure where to begin because this thesis has been eight years in the
making and the people who have helped this process along are beyond my ability
to accurately remember. I will do my best to acknowledge these who played a
critical role in the process but unfortunately some may be accidently overlooked.
Please forgive me for my short—sightedness, but know if it were not for your help
this project would never have been completed.

I am forever indebted to my thesis guidance committee consisting of
Lynne Goldstein, Bill Levis (chair), Jodie O’Gorman, Larry Robbins and Robert
Slazer for supporting this research. Lynne Goldstein was instrumental in helping
to mold and form this project from its beginning. Jodie O’Gorman’s advice and
questions at the end of the process helped to give shape to this final version. Larry
Robbins was an invaluable resource, especially at the onset of this project as he
caused me to pause and consider the complexities of rockshelter deposits. Bill
Lovis was single-handedly the main reason why you are reading this thesis. I will
never be able justly rely the amount of time, energy and effort be has unselfishly
donated to this cause. It is difficult for me to address the contributions of Robert
Salzer and not also thank Grace Rajnovich; both of whom are mentors, colleagues
and friends. If it were not for their willingness to support, provide assistance and
data leading up to this degree and beyond this thesis would never have been

possible. To all of you I am deeply grateful and thankful!

iv

There are many other professional colleagues that need to be
acknowledged for their assistance during this process. The folks at the Mississippi
Valley Archaeological Center (MVAC), especially Robert “Ernie” Boszhardt and
Jim Theler helped a great deal during the formation of the data collection stage of
this project. Bill Green the director of Logan Museum at Beloit College gave an
afternoon to review point types, raw materials and generally discuss his initial
thoughts on the site. Mark Cupp, Bill Gartner and Dan Miller have all served as
unique sounding boards for ideas, artifact descriptions and general interpretations
of material from the site due to their familiarity with it. George Christiansen also
played an important role by providing key “grey” literature and advice during the
slow years. Jeanine Gershom helped provide much need photographic advice and
equipment. Shaun Phillips assisted in the final data collection stages by providing
space, endless supplies of Dr. Pepper and jalapeno burgers. Alex Barker, James
Bielo, Dillon Carr, Charles Cleland, Dan Goatley, Dale Henning, Robert Jeske,
Tim Pauketat, Sara Pfannkuche, Dawn Scher-Thomae, and Dan Winkler assisted
the process by either looking at artifacts or providing valuable resources. I also
need to collectively thank all of the people who have assisted in the Gottschall
Rockshelter Research Project over the last 20 years without which none of this
would exist.

I also need to thank Amber Rivers-Burkett my partner of six years who
drove me to completion of the initial draft. If it was not for her persistence the
initial drafi would yet remain incomplete. She provided support when the process

had me downtrodden and sacrificed much to allow this document to come to

fruition. I can never thank her enough for following my hair brained dreams and
schemes.

Finally, but not least of all, I need to say a much needed thank you to my
family and friends for their continual belief and support in this process. My
parents Bonnie and Joe have supported the research and even visited the site with
me in the late 19903. My brothers Jason and especially Ben have always been
willing to lend an ear and provide both comic relief and assistance when needed.
Ben, a published technical artist, has rendered a number of sketches that are not
included in this thesis but will be published in a future volume. Most importantly,
my grandmother Lela, who upon understanding this research began to more
openly discuss our Native American heritage and her youth in ways she dare not
venture before. She is not the only Native American who has felt a sense of
empowerment from this site and this is in fact the greatest gift.

Finally and most importantly, thanks needs to be given to the Gottschall
Family especially Ron and Becky for allowing and supporting this research
project. I am also personally grateful to the Ho-Chunk Nation, in particular Cloris
Lowe, for their support and continued assurance this data needs to be published
and made available. I remain honored to have been allowed to continue to work
with this very sensitive data and tell this story. It is my hope this collaborative

relationship can be strengthened in the future because much work remains to be

done.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................ xi
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING .......................................................... 4
Definition and Glacial History .................................................... 4
Varied Topography and Potential Benefits ...................................... 8
‘Loeal Environment and Hydrology ...................................................... 13
CHAPTER 3
Culture Historical Framework ............................................................ 15
Late Archaic Stage (1500/1200 — 500/ 100 BC.) .............................. 15
Durst Phase (1000 — 500 BC.) ......................................... l6
Archaic/Woodland Transition .................................................... 17
Red Ochre Complex (1200 BC. — AD. 1) ........................... 17
Woodland Tradition ............................................................... 20
Early Woodland Stage (300 BC. — AD. 100) ........................ 21
Indian Isle Phase (300 BC. - 100 BC.) ..................... 23
Prairie Phase (100 BC. — AD. 100) .......................... 24
Middle Woodland Stage (AD. 100 — 500) ........................... 25
Trempealeau Phase (AD. 100 - 200) ........................ 26
Millville Phase (AD. 200 — 500) .............................. 28
Late Woodland Stage (AD. 500 - 1050) ............................. 30
Mill Phase (AD. 500 -750) ................ ‘ .................... 31
Eastman Phase (AD. 750 — 1050) ............................ 33
Terminal Late Woodland Phase (AD. 900 — 1200) ........ 36
Summary .................................................................................... 37
CHAPTER 4
Descriptive Analysis of a Sample of the Gottschall Rockshelter Lithic
Assemblage ................................................................................. 39
Sample and Sampling Strategy .................................................. 39
Chipped Stone Artifacts .......................................................... 4O
Debitage ............................................................................ 43
Groundstone and Miscellaneous Rock .......................................... 44
Summary ........................................................................... 46

vii

CHAPTER 5

Spatial Analysis ............................................................................ 48
Calibrated Radiocarbon Dates and Aggregated Chronometric Units ...... 49
Statistical Methods & Data Sets ................................................ 54
Results ............................................................................... 58
Further Investigations — Analysis of the Late Woodland Eastman Phase.64
Summary ........................................................................... 70

CHAPTER 6

Conclusions and Future Research ........................................................ 74
Summary of Descriptive Analysis .............................................. 75
Summary of Spatial Analysis .................................................... 79
Future Research ................................................................... 81
Conclusions ......................................................................... 82

APPENDIX A

History of Previous Research at the Gottschall Rockshelter ......................... 84

APPENDIX B

Stratigraphic Correlation Charts ......................................................... 93

APPENDIX C

Chipped Stone ............................................................................... 99

APPENDIX D

Debitage .................................................................................... 142

APPENDIX E

Groundstone and Miscellaneous Rocks ................................................ 247

APPENDIX F

Spatial Analysis Samples ................................................................ 257

APPENDIX G

Master Feature List ....................................................................... 278

BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................... 289

viii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Summary of Chipped Stone Artifacts ....................................... 41

Table 4.2: Summary of Debitage Observed from the Gottschall Rockshelter. . . ..43

Table 4.3: Summary of Groundstone Artifacts ......................................... 44
Table 5.1: Results of the Spatial Distribution of the Debitage Tested

against the D zone with Feature Data ................................................... 63
Table 5.2: Results of the Spatial Distribution of Debitage Tested against the D
zone Excluding the Feature Data ......................................................... 63
Table 5.3: Results of the Spatial Distribution of Debitage Tested against the D
zone Excluding the Feature Data ......................................................... 64
Table 5.4: Results of the Spatial Distribution of the Late Woodland Micro-Strata
Debitage Tested against the D zone Excluding Feature Data ......................... 69
Table 5.5: Results of the Spatial Distribution of the Late Woodland Micro-Strata
Debitage Tested against the D zone Including Feature Data ......................... 69
Table 5.6: Results of the Spatial Distribution of the Late Woodland Micro-Strata
Projectiles Tested against the D zone .................................................... 70
Table 6.1: Summary of Raw Material Type per Artifact Class ...................... 76
Table 6.2: Summary of Rarely Occurring Drifiless Region Point Types Present
within the Gottschall Assemblage ....................................................... 77
Table B. 1: Stratigraphic Correlation for S18Wl6 ...................................... 94
Table B.2: Stratigraphic Correlation for 818W12 ..................................... 95
Table B.3: Stratigraphic Correlation for S22W16 ...................................... 95
Table B.4: Stratigraphic Correlation for S18W10 ...................................... 95
Table B.5: Stratigraphic Correlation for S20W16 ...................................... 95
Table B.6: Stratigraphic Correlation for S18W14 ...................................... 95
Table B.7: Stratigraphic Correlation for S24W16 ...................................... 96
Table B.8: Stratigraphic Correlation for S16W10 ...................................... 97

ix

Table 8.9: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZOW9 ....................................... 97

Table B. 10: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZOWll .................................... 97
Table B] 1: Stratigraphic Correlation for S20W10 .................................... 97
Table B.12: Stratigraphic Correlation for S20W12 .................................... 97
Table B.l3: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZlWlO .................................... 97
Table B.l4: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZlWll .................................... 97
Table 3.15: Stratigraphic Correlation for 821W13 .................................... 97
Table B.l6: Stratigraphic Correlation for S22W1 l .................................... 97
Table B.l7: Stratigraphic Correlation for 822W19 .................................... 98
Table B.l8: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZOWll .................................... 98
Table B. 19: Stratigraphic Correlation for S22W1 8 .................................... 98
Table B.20: Stratigraphic Correlation for S23Wl3 .................................... 98
Table B.21: Stratigraphic Correlation for S23Wl 7 .................................... 98
Table C.l: Chipped Stone ................................................................ 120
Table D. 1: Debitage ....................................................................... 143
Table E. l: Groundstone and Miscellaneous Rocks ................................... 254
Table G.l: Master Feature List .......................................................... 279

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Location of the Driftless Region (Martin 1965: 85) ....................... 5
Figure 2.2: Driftless Region during the last glacial (Martin 1965: Plate VI) ........ 7

Figure 5.1: OxCal Derived Calibrated and Grouped Late Woodland Radiocarbon
Dates ........................................................................................ 53

Figure: 5.2: OxCal Derived Calibrated and Grouped Late Archaic Radiocarbon
Dates .......................................................................................... 54

Figure 5.3: Excavation Showing Assigned Case Number per Excavation Unit. ..57

Figure 5.4: Combined debitage box plots ............................................... 59
Figure 5.5: Combined projectile box plots ............................................. 60
Figure 5.6: Combined Late Woodland Eastman Phase Debitage Box Plots ....... 67

Figure 5.7: Combined Late Woodland Eastman Phase Projectiles Box Plots. .....68

Figure 5.8: Distribution of I Zone Diagnostic Bifaces — Excavation Units SZZWIO

and SZ3W11 are represented by bolded numbers ........................................ 73
Figure A. l: Gottschall Site Map .......................................................... 87
Figure A.2: Profile wall ................................................................... 87
Figure C. 1: Hopewell blades from the Gottschall Rockshelter ...................... 99
Figure C.2: Large chopper (S22W12 JB 1) ........................................... 100
Figure C.3: Bifacial core (822Wl9 EHB 1/15) ....................................... 101
Figure C.4: Multidireetional Core made from Burlington Chert

(S23W13 JK 4) ........................................................................... 101
Figure C.5: Unidirectional core (SZ3W13 F81) ...................................... 102
Figure C.6: Tested cobble (S22W12 LAl/2) .......................................... 102
Figure C.7: Denticulate (818W8 T2) ................................................... 103
Figure C.8: Kirk Comer Notched ...................................................... 104

xi

Figure C.9: Raddatz Point ................................................................ 105

Figure C.10:
Figure C.11:
Figure C. 12:
Figure C.13:
Figure C.14:
Figure C.15:
Figure C.16:
Figure C.17:
Figure C.18:
Figure C.19:
Figure C.20:
Figure C.21:
Figure C.22:
Figure C.23:
Figure C.24:
Figure C.25:
Figure C.26:
Figure C.27:
Figure C.28:
Figure C.29:
Figure C.30:

Figure C.3l:

Madison Side Notched .................................................... 1,06
Durst Stemmed Point Recovered from Feature 137 .................. 106
Kamak unstemmed ........................................................ 107
Reworked Turkey Tail .................................................... 108
Kramer Point Reworked into a Drill .................................... 108
Dickson Broad Bladed Biface ........................................... 109
Liverpool stemmed projectile ............................................ l 10
Waubesa Point ............................................................. l 10
Snyders Point ............................................................... 111
Steuben Expanding Stemmed Point ..................................... 112
Lowe Flared Base Projectile ............................................. 112
Honey Creek Comer Notched Projectile ............................... 113
Okoboji Projectile Point .................................................. 114
Cahokia Side Notched Point ............................................. 114
Madison Triangular Projectile ........................................... 1 15
Nodena Elliptical Projectile .............................................. 116
Side-Notched Triangular projectile point (SZlW9 KJAI) .......... 116
Two T-drills ................................................................ 117
Late Woodland flake point .............................................. 117
Retouched debitage or an expedient tool (S21W9 Feature 94).....1 18
Scraper (822W11 I 3) .................................................... 118
Unidentifiable uniface (S22W11 KGA 2) ............................. 119

xii

Figure E.1: Groundstone oval and circle .............................................. 247
Figure E.2: Ground stone cone and triangle .......................................... 248
Figure E.3: Groundstone trapezoid ..................................................... 248
Figure E.4: 3% grooved axe ............................................................... 249
Figure E.5: Limestone bowl ............................................................. 249
Figure E.6: Ground stone artifacts ...................................................... 250
Figure E.7: Piece of gabbro ............................................................. 250
Figure E.8: Limestone tablet ............................................................. 251
Figure E.9: Example of a hammerstone ................................................ 252
Figure B. 10: Example of a sandstone abrader ........................................ 252
Figure E.11: Sandstone gorget ........................................................... 253
Figure E.12: Sandstone sphere .......................................................... 253
Figure F.l: Distribution of D Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................ 258
Figure F2: Distribution of E Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................. 259
Figure F3: Distribution of G Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................ 260
Figure F4: Distribution of H Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................ 261
Figure F5: Distribution of I Zone Diagnostics Bifaces .............................. 262
Figure F6: Distribution of J Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................. 263
Figure F7: Distribution of K Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................ 264
Figure F8: Distribution of L Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................. 265
Figure F9: Distribution of 0 Zone Diagnostics Bifaces ............................ 266

Figure F. 10: Distribution of combined E, H, I and J Zone Diagnostics Bifaces.267

Figure F1]

: Distribution of D Zone Debitage ........................................ 268

xiii

Figure F.12:
Figure F.13:
Figure F.14:
Figure F.15:
Figure F.16:
Figure F.17:
Figure F.18:
Figure F.19:

Figure F.20:

Distribution of E Zone Debitage ........................................ 269
Distribution of G Zone Debitage ........................................ 270
Distribution of H Zone Debitage ........................................ 271
Distribution of I Zone Debitage ......................................... 272
Distribution of J Zone Debitage ......................................... 273
Distribution of K Zone Debitage ........................................ 274
Distribution of L Zone Debitage ........................................ 275
Distribution of 0 Zone Debitage ........................................ 276
Distribution of combined E, G, H, I and J Zone Debitage ........... 277

xiv

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The Gottschall Rockshelter in southwestern Wisconsin is referred to as a ritual
locale of an unspecified function (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). The data used to support
this interpretation includes the presence of 40 pictographs, with one panel or collection of
figures reported to depict the characters described within the Winnebagol oral tradition of
Red Hom, as first recorded by Radin (1948) (Salzer 1987a, 1987b, 1997; Hall 1993;
Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). The presence of these pictographs, coupled with the
discovery of a carved and painted sandstone head, unique in North America, in
association with both hypothesized feasting debris and sediments interpreted to be
anthropogenic, support the conclusion that the site is of ritual significance (Gardner 1993;
Salzer and Rajnovich 2001)? I

The primary goals of this study are twofold; to describe the lithic assemblage
recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter and to independently assess the potential
partitioning of sacred and secular space. The sample of the lithic assemblage used in this
research is the product of adjusted excavation strategies and the employment of a
stringent recording system (Salzer 1987a; Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). These precise data

collection strategies combined with the results of in-depth sedimentological research

 

1 The Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe, as Paul Radin knew them, changed their name to the Ho-Chunk
Sovereign Nation (Ho-Chunk) in 1994. The research referenced within this thesis directly refers to the
recorded oral tradition of Red Horn by Paul Radin as told to him by the Sam Blowsnake, a member of the
Ho—Chunk Nation in the early 19003. It should be noted the Ho-Chunk are one member of the Chiwere-
Siouan speaking peoples and other members of this linguistic group include the Ioway and the Oto. who
share versions of the Red Hem legend (R. Salzer personal communication). Therefore, it is based on the
general consensus of the Chiwere-Siouan speaking people and the geographic location of the Gottschall
Rockshelter that this site be directly affiliated with the Ho-Chunk. In addition, the Ho-Chunk Nation of
Wisconsin continue to retain a connection to the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska.

2 For the reader who is unfamiliar with the Gottschall Rockshelter please refer to Salzer and Raj novich
2001. An overview of this work is presented in Appendix A.

1

(Gartner 1993) form the foundation of this study. The wealth of contextual and spatial
information collected over the span of 18 field seasons at the Gottschall Rockshelter
allows the study to proceed in a manner consistent with the research goals. The site is
dated by 24 uncalibrated radiocarbon dates. The descriptive analysis of the lithic
assemblage forms the empirical core of this thesis and is presented first, while the spatial
analysis of a sample of this assemblage is presented second.

The descriptive analysis of this thesis includes all of the diagnostic and non-
diagnostic chipped stone artifacts, retouched and utilized debitage, ground stone,
minerals, miscellaneous rocks, and sandstone artifacts recovered and thus far identified
within the collected assemblage regardless of the associated spatial context. A sampling
strategy was designed to isolate those pieces of unmodified lithic debitage amenable to
spatial analysis, because a large percentage of the lithic debitage is attributed to a non-
provenienced spatial category.3 The results of this descriptive analysis are presented in
Chapter 4 and Appendices C, D, and E.

The second objective of this research is to evaluate the hypothesis that the interior
space of the rockshelter was differentiated and/or organized in accordance with the
placement of human-prepared and deposited sediment referred to at the Gottschall
Rockshelter as anthropogenic sediment (Gartner 1993), while concurrently assessing the
hypothesis that ritually related behavior was the causal agent (Gartner 1993; Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001). The null hypothesis formulated at the outset of this research is based on
the belief the lithic material from the Gottschall site should also be partitioned because

ritual space tends to be highly organized (Renfrew 1994); thereby further reflecting

 

3 Non-provenienced categories used during excavation at the Gottschall Rockshelter include: no-vertical-
control “NVC”, no-verticaI-control or no-horizontaI-control “NVC-NHC”, and surface.

2

differentiated ritual and secular spaces. Regardless of the observed patterning in the data,
this approach holds promise for understanding the evolution of and changes in
rockshelter space overtime, i.e. through the span of its occupation. This part of the study
is presented in Chapter 5 and Appendix F.

In summary, this thesis serves a number of goals simultaneously by providing the
first formal description of the lithic assemblage from the Gottschall Rockshelter and
serves as the first independent test of the hypothesis that sacred and secular space is
differentiated at the Gottschall Rockshelter. The process of assessing the presence or
absence of a spatial partition associated with these anthropogenic sediments jointly tests

the functional hypothesis that the site is a site of ritual significance.

CHAPTER 2
ENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND

This chapter presents a summary of the geological history of the Driftless Region,
an overview of the complexity of the environmental setting and an introduction to the
regional environmental context of the Gottschall Rockshelter. The effort was taken to
flesh out these aspects because they are often used to provide additional supporting
evidence for the hypothesis that the Gottschall Rockshelter is a ritual location (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001). An overview of the paleoenvironmental reconstruction for the region is
typically included in this type of a chapter, but in this thesis it is integrated into the

presentation of the regional culture history in Chapter 3.

Definition and Glacial History

The Driftless Area was formally described by Chamberlin and Salisbury (1885),
summarized by F enneman (1938) and later elaborated on by Martin (1965) as being a
15,000 mi2 (38,850 kmz) area located within the four-corners area of Minnesota, Illinois,
Iowa, and Wisconsin (Figure 2.1). It is called the Driftless Area because it lacks ice-laid
drift as typically represented by the presence of glacial till, indicating that the area was
surrounded by glacial ice but not covered by the last major glacial advance (Figure 2.2).
The region is occasionally referred to as the Quad State Region (Benn 1979; Benn and
Green 2000:429-430), but the terminological use of the “Driftless Area” predominates in

the published record and will be used within this thesis.

   
  
  

   

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(Martin 1965: 85)

 

Fenneman (19382518) considered the area to be larger than the former definition,
which is the definition commonly ascribed to by archaeologists (Arzigian 1987; Stoltman
and Christiansen 2000; Birmingham et a1. 1997), “For geological purposes it is found
best to include in this section a small area once glaciated and thinly covered by till, but so
long ago that the topographic effect has been lost Fenneman identifies the
topographical similarities between the Driftless Area and this area to the west referred to
as the Western Young Drift (Fenneman 1938). The incorporation of the Western Young
Drift into the Driftless Area increases the size of the area to 20,000 mi2 (51,800 kmz), in
addition to increasing the territorial range westward from the Mississippi River and to the
northwest toward the upper reaches of the Wisconsin River. Fenneman’s revised
definition is advantageous from an archaeological viewpoint because it includes the
headwaters districts of larger western tributaries of the Mississippi. Thus, it is the
preferred physiographic definition of this thesis and may help provide an understanding
for why westward cultural materials are associated with the site.

The Driftless Area is characterized by a series of “dissected cuestas whose trend
is northwest-southeast”, while the rock bedding dips to the southwest (Fenneman
1938:522). The topography of the area ranges from its highest levels of 365 m to 396 m
asl to lower elevations that are 274 m asl. The most prominent location of sustained
higher elevation within the Driftless Area is the Military Ridge composed of a smooth
crest running parallel to the Lower Wisconsin River at a distance roughly 12 miles to its
south. The ridge was an important path for travel, first for prehistoric people, and
subsequently for the early European settlers. The first European farmers started working

the soil in 1840 after the government lifted farming restrictions in the Driftless Area, as a

 

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Figure 2.2: Driftless Region during the last glacial (Martin 1965: Plate VI)

result of the declining lead mining business within the region (Smith 1997). The Military
Ridge is presently the roadbed for Highway 18, which connects Madison and Prairie du
Chien, Wisconsin.

The Wisconsin River is the second largest river in the Driftless Area, second only
to the Mississippi River. The section of the Wisconsin River beginning at the lock and
dam in Sauk City and terminating at the Mississippi River is referred to as the Lower
Wisconsin River and remains today essentially a wild river. The Wisconsin River Valley
is 114—152 m below the Military Ridge and the roughly 12 mile slope from the ridge to
the river is characterized as “one of the most rugged tracts of land in Wisconsin”
(Fenneman 1938:529).

The Lower Wisconsin River trench contains a floodplain that is 5 miles wide in
the eastern most portion, gradually narrowing to less than a mile in width at its
confluence with the Mississippi (Fenneman 19382529). The tributaries of the Lower
Wisconsin River are typically wide and flat at their entry into the trench. In many
instances the tributaries have experienced periodic pending due to the collection of silt in
the Wisconsin River basin as a result of its mouth being elevated by periodic aggradation

of glacial outwash along the Wisconsin River banks (Fenneman 1938:529).

Varied Topography and Potential Benefits

The environmental context of the Driftless Area is described as an ecotone
situated between the deciduous forest and prairie (Curtis 1959). The vegetational ranges
of each ecotone are dependent upon a number of variables including topography,

microclimate and the frequency of fire (Arzigian 1987; Curtis 1959; Gartner 1996). The

complexity of the regional environment is more clearly recognized if it is subdivided into
four different topographical zones; with the lowest being the floodplain, followed by the
slightly higher terraces, that transform into higher rolling dissected hills and conclude
with the highest elevation areas being comprised of the prairie (Curtis 1959).

The Driftless Area contains wet to mesic prairies with scattered trees along the
floodplains of the major river valleys. The micro-environments identified in this
topographic zone include localized marshes and sedge meadows, which tend to be
species rich, as the major river valleys form micro-climatic conduits allowing plants and
animal species to stray outside of their normal ranges. These areas also tend to be
dominated by such floral species as silver maple, American elm, green ash, red oak and
basswood. Large stands of willow and river birch may be found in wet areas. Lesser
amounts of cottonwood, swamp oak, honey locust, boxelder, buckeye and sycamore may
also be present. The ground layer is typically occupied by flowering plants such as
toothwort, green dragon, Virginia bluebell, and various species of sedges, grasses and
nettles. These lowland areas can also support a diverse community of lianas, including
hog peanut, moonseed, wild yam, groundnut, wild cucumber, poison ivy and bittersweet
(Curtis 1959). It appears based on the present archaeological evidence, that some of the
earliest evidence of domesticated plants in the Great Lakes region are generally
associated with this type of environment and include goosefoot, knotweed and sumpweed
(Stevenson et a1. 1997).

The faunal resources associated with these environments include those from both
aquatic and semi-aquatic habitats, such as fish and mussel species. Fish species played a

major role in the subsistence practices of prehistoric peoples and remains have been

found at a number of sites along the margins of the major river valleys including such
species as gar, bowfin, buffalo, pike, bullhead, largemouth bass, channel and flat head
catfish (Arzigian 1993; Theler 1987). There are also many edible aquatic plants including
water plantain and arrowhead, wild rice and pickerel weed.

The next higher topographical subdivision, the higher terraces, includes a range of
micro-environments such as lowland forests, scrub oak barrens and lowland prairies.
These three micro-environments tend to separate each other largely predicated on the
underlying soils. For example, the scrub oak barrens form where the soils are extremely
sandy often separating large expanses of the mesic prairie. These scrub oak barrens are
often considered analogous to the upland oak openings, and it is likewise assumed fire
was used as a mechanism to maintain these locations. While, lowland prairies tend to
dominate soils that hold greater amounts of moisture and are dominated by grasses such
as big bluestem, joint grass, sloughgrass, wild rye and prairie muhly. The numbers of
edible and medicinal plants are fairly low as only swamp milkweed and sneezeweed are
presently assumed to be of value (Niering and Olstead 1992). The fauna associated with
this topographic zone tend to be larger game birds such grouse and prairie chicken whose
population numbers tend to be larger than those associated with the floodplains (Cleland
1966).

The next topographical subdivision, the rolling dissected uplands, also contains a
series of micro-environments including oak openings, cedar glades, and what is collective
referred to as the southern mesic and xeric forests (Curtis 1959). These microclimates are
defined on the basis of the localized topography, soil type, presence of spring water,

grade of slope and facing direction (Arzigian 1987; Curtis 1959). Cedar glades tend to be

10

highly interspersed locations on the landscape in very specific conditions, but tend to
make wonderful locations to view large expanses of the landscape (Curtis 1959). The two
types of forest pervade in this topographic subdivision of the Driftless Region with the
oak opening being a direct result of the application of fire to maintain the landscape
(Gartner 1993). These oak openings provide an abundance of wild game such as elk,
bison, deer, turkey, and an array of small mammals. The presence of such fire resistant
species as black and burr oak trees with some shagbark hickory provide an abundance of
nuts.

The southern xeric forest tends to line the side of the Driftless region coulees,
while the southern mesic forest tends to dominate in the moist valleys and sheltered
locations across the region. These areas are typically considered to be resource poor
although they support a diverse biotic community. The flora within this environment
includes a number of plant species used by historic Native Americans such as bladdernut,
mayapple, trillium, beech, gooseberry and hawthorn (Arzigian 1993; N iering and Olstead
1992; Theler 1987). Several useful hardwoods are found within this zone too, including
basswood and ironwood (Radin 1923). The fauna residing in this forest type tend to
include smaller game animals such as squirrel and chipmunks, but populations of
porcupine and turkey tend to be higher in these areas (Cleland 1966).

The southern xeric forests occur on well-drained southern and western slopes and
ridge tops typically forming the buffer between stands of southern mesic forest and oak
savannas. This forest type is highly scattered, but is among the most species rich of the
upper portions of the region. There are many nut-bearing tree species present in black,

red, burr, chinquapin and Hills’ oak. The understory contains a host of flowering plants

11

such as nightshade and creeping honeysuckle in addition to many shrubs like blackberry,
gooseberry, prickly ash and hazelnut (Curtis 1959). This type of environment tends to
support a large array of animals including the majority of the song birds, gray and fox
squirrels, cottontail rabbits, groundhogs, raccoon, gray fox, deer and occasionally bear,
turkey, elk, bison and porcupine.

Repeated fires would have the effect of maintaining a savanna or thin oak woods,
maximizing forage opportunities, particularly for deer and humans (Arzigian 1987; Curtis
1959; Gartner 1996). It is estimated that the deer population for the region was high,
ranging from 20-50 per square mile (Theler 1987). Thus, in summary, “the considerable
vertical and horizontal zonation resulting from the dissected topography means that most
resources would have been available in close proximity to one another" (Arzigian
1987:222). The result of the presence of such a landscape undoubtedly contributed
greatly to the formation of stable seasonal rounds that most archaeologists characterized
pervades local population beginning in the Archaic and extending into the Late
Woodland.

The oak savanna or English prairie sometimes referred to as the xeric uplands
prairie dominates the highest topographical areas in the Driftless Region. This prairie is
dominated by short grass species such as big bluestem, little bluestem, Indian grass,
prairie panic grass and side-oats grama. The few edible plants that grow in this area are
extremely interspersed but include sunflowers, strawberry-tomato and wild onion. One of
the most valuable plant species would have been wild indigo, as it was a popular dye. The
faunal community includes larger game animals including elk, deer, and bison along with

skunks, badgers, rabbits and grouse (Cleland 1966).

12

Local Environment and Hydrology

The rockshelter is positioned adjacent to an upland environment forming one of
two large amorphous upland islands fashioned between deeply incised drainages north of
the Military Ridge. All of these drainages eventually empty into the Wisconsin River.
The closer of these two upland areas is the eastern one situated between the Military
Ridge and the Wisconsin River. The closest drainages to Morrey Creek coulee are the
Sixmile Branch, an upper branch of the Blue River drainages, and Pompey Pillar Creek,
an upper branch of the Otter Creek drainage, which archaeological speaking remains
entirely unexplored.

The Gottschall Rockshelter sits at the headwaters area of an unnamed intermittent
stream forming the southernmost upper reaches of Morrey Creek, a southern tributary of
the Wisconsin River. The headwaters area is formed by a deeply incised trench lined with
towering 10 to 13 m sheer cliffs of Galena or Platteville dolomite overlying exposed St.
Peters sandstone formation. The rockshelter is situated at the base of the southern bluff
and is the by-product of the scouring of the St. Peters sandstone formation by the periodic
heavy volumes of water draining from the surrounding uplands. The area around the
upper rim of this coulee is lined by white pines along one side, which is a rare occurrence
in this area because the majority of the upland forests are composed of various
hardwoods such as oaks. The remaining portion of the vegetation along the upper rim and
within the coulee is dominated by large oaks. The coulee itself contains biological aspects
related to the southern mesic forest.

The drainage beginning at the Gottschall Rockshelter, Morrey Coulee, presently

flows directly northward to the Wisconsin River. Based upon a review of the aerial

13

photographs of the region it appears that during prehistoric times Morrey Creek would
have made a sharp bend westward upon entering the floodplain of the Wisconsin River,
paralleling it until reaching the present town of Muscoda at which point the creek flowed
into the larger river. Thus, the present course of Morrey Creek is a product of 19th

century European channelization activities (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001).

14

CHAPTER 3
CULTURE HISTORICAL FRAMEWORK

The following overview of the cultural historical sequence of the Driftless Region
focuses on describing the temporal span associated with the fabrication of anthropogenic
sediment at the site, which is from the Late Archaic period to the Terminal Late
Woodland. The reason why this synthesis is presented is because materials relating to
each of these temporal units frequently occur within the Driftless Region but yet not all
occur within the Gottschall Rockshelter. This discussion represents the cultural historic

backdrop for the descriptive analysis presented in the next chapter.

Late Archaic Stage: 1500/1200 B.C. - 500/100 BC.

The Late Archaic stage is defined within the boundaries of Wisconsin as
reflecting the immigration of peoples into the area from southern and eastern localities
(Lovis and Robertson 1989; Stoltman 1997). The documented transformations between
the former Archaic periods and this one are largely based on the excavations of
rockshelter sites such as Preston, Knoop, Durst and Raddatz (Wittry 19593 and b).

It has been noted by several researchers (Emerson 1986; Griffin 1967; Lovis and
Robertson 1989; Stoltman 1997) that southern immigrants imported innovations into the
region such as different projectile related technologies emphasizing a reduction of size
and the shift of notch placement from the side to the corner. These immigrants likewise
reduced their rate of utilitarian copper artifact discard. The reason why it is expressed as a
reduction in discard rather than a decrease in the overall use of copper acknowledges the

potential for an increase in copper recycling. During the Late Archaic, there is an absence

15

of identified organized cemeteries, which suggests a declining regional population
(Stoltman 19972134).

These observed cultural changes correlate with regional climatic shifts as evident
in the paleoenvironmental data from the Late Archaic Stage. This indicates the
replacement of the oak and savannah by closed oak forests circa 1500 BC. (Baker et a1.
1992; Winkler et al. 1986). These vegetation shifts represent a period when the region
experienced a xerothermic span summarized as a warming and drying trend (Baker et a1.
1992; Winkler et a1. 1986). Coinciding with these floral shifts, lake levels steadily
declined until they eventually stabilize circa AD. 0 to levels comparable to those at

present (Larsen 1985).

Durst Phase (1000 — 500 BC)

The second chronological subdivision within the Late Archaic stage is the Durst
phase, which is marked by the Durst Stemmed point. WittryI first defined the Durst
Stemmed point during excavation at the Durst Rockshelter (1959b). The original
observation made by Wittry is supported by excavations in other rockshelters throughout
the Driftless region such as the Lawrence I Rockshelter (1959a and b). These combined
data strengthen the argument that these artifacts date to the time frame of 1,000 BC. —
500 BC. (Stoltman 1997: 136; Wittry 1959b). The tentative consensus concerning the
material assemblages is that the Durst points are closely aligned with materials to the
east, whereas Preston phase materials are associated with southern localities (Justice

1987; Lovis and Robertson 1989; Stoltman 1997).

16

Archaic/Woodland Transition (800 BC. — A.D. l)

The transition from the Late Archaic stage to the Early Woodland stage is
unsettled because of an absence of data, and is further muddled by the fact the Woodland
tradition was a time-transgressive event that differentially spread throughout the region
between 500 BC. to 100 BC. There are particular technological and behavioral
hallmarks distinguishing the Woodland tradition from the Archaic Tradition including the
presence of pottery containers. The adoption and use of pottery was followed by a
behavioral shift reflected through the development of new mortuary practices orientated
toward interments within specially prepared mounds. The transition from the Archaic
stage to the Woodland stage is even further complicated by the fact that the
transformation is not considered complete until adoption of plant agriculture/horticulture
practices permeates the region. Yet, despite these seemingly clear distinctions, the
cultural persistence of the Red Ocher burial complex originating in the Late Archaic
stage and continuing into the Early Woodland stage complicates this seemingly clear cut

transition.

Red Ocher Complex (1200 B. C. — A.D. 1)

Red Ocher is a burial complex that includes the transitory period from the Late
Archaic stage to the Early Woodland stage circa 1200 BC. to A.D. 1 (Ritzenthaler and
Quimby 1962). The Red Ocher complex is ubiquitous throughout the Upper Midwest
based on observed similarities in burial contexts. The shared mortuary practices are
reflected through parallel elaborate burial customs knit together through the repetitious

presence of specific exotic raw materials and artifacts (Stevenson et al. 1997).

17

The common methods of internment include burials that are either “cremated,
bundled, or flex[ed] into a fetal position, and are almost always covered with red ocher or
a mixture of red ocher and red sand” (Stevenson et a1. 1997: 144). Ceremonial chipped
stone objects such as Turkey Tail or Adena bifaces manufactured from the blue~grey
homstone of either Indiana or Illinois are typically found in association with these
burials. It is also common to observe objects made from Burlington Chert that have
source locations in southeastern portion of Iowa and western-central Illinois. Obsidian
identified as originating from the Yellowstone Park sources is associated with burials
within the Red Ocher complex (Griffin 1967). Ground stone artifacts affiliated with these
burials commonly include atlatl counter-weights, referred to colloquially as bannerstones
or birdstones because of the artifact shape (Ritzenthaler and Wittry 1962).

The Red Ocher burial complex includes artifacts designed for personal
adornment, such as beads or gorgets fashioned from Atlantic and/or Gulf of Mexico
marine shell. Copper was frequently manufactured into tools, used and/or deposited
within the burials associated with this complex in the form of awls, celts, or beads
(Halsey 1972; Mason 1981; Overstreet 1980; Ritzenthaler and Quimby 1962). The
presence of copper artifacts associated with the Red Ocher interments is alluded to as
being an adoption from the Old Copper mortuary complex (Mason 1981; Ritzenthaler
and Quimby 1962; Stevenson et a1. 1997).

In addition to the material associations, individuals at the Convent Knoll cemetery
site display signs of violent trauma (Overstreet 1980). These traumatic events are evident
from projectile points embedded in individuals and apparent characteristics affiliated with

dismemberment. One should be cautious about using the conclusion that dismemberment

18

is indicative of violent death though, because the dismemberment of an individual could
be intentional or unintentional postmortem processing such as secondary reburial rather
than ante mortem, and indicate potential ritual activities rather than violence. The report
lacks a description of the analysis relating to the time of dismemberment in relation to
death of the individual. Regardless, the evidence is interpreted as representing increasing
population and social complexity (Overstreet 1980; Stevenson et al. 1997).

There are no habitation sites directly associated with the Red Ocher burial
complex, which may reflect the meager archaeological evidence associated with the
Archaic/Woodland transition. It is assumed the emerging Woodland tradition lifeway
remained similar to the practices of the Late Archaic. The one addition to the subsistence
strategies during this transition is a greater dependence and exploitation of aquatic
resources as a result of stabilizing lake levels and technological shifts (Larsen 1985). In
accordance with the stabilizing lake levels and jointly connected Upper Great Lakes
water sources, technological developments were created to exploit these more predictable
and reliable aquatic based resources. The technological shifts include an expanded fishing
tool kit comprised of toggle-head harpoons, fixed barbed harpoons, fishhooks and
possibly nets (Pleger 1992; Cleland 1982). These technological innovations accompanied
by sturgeon bones in a burial at the Riverside site in Northeast Wisconsin (Hruska 1967)
and evidence for wild rice within a cremated burial at the Dunn Farm site in Michigan
(Ford and Brose 1975) support the assumption that a greater reliance was being placed
upon aquatic resources.

The lack of associated habitation data is bothersome, yet it does not preclude

increasing social complexity because differential mortuary treatment is interpreted as

19

reflecting recognized status ranking. These facts combined with the association of exotic
materials within burials throughout the region indicate a more complex ceremonialism
than that practiced during the Old Copper mortuary complex (Stevenson et al. 1997).

The confusion of this Archaic/Woodland transitional Red Ocher burial complex
has resurfaced due to review by Pleger (1998, 2000) of the evidence from the Riverside
site (Hruska 1967). The material from this site coupled with Esarey’s (1986) re-
investigation of earlier excavation notes indicate some previously defined Red Ocher
burials are potentially associated with mounds and Marion Thick pottery, which are both
Early Woodland traits. For example, it is reported that Dane-Incised pottery was
associated with a Red Ocher burial at the Riverside site (Hruska 1967). Dane-Incised
pottery is firmly dated to the Early Woodland stage of southeastern Wisconsin (Salkin
1986). The present temporal disputes over the Red Ocher mortuary complex continue, but
it is noted the developing social complexity reflected here in association with the expanse
' of trade networks orientated toward the attainment of exotic materials is ideologically

tied to the subsequent Hopewell Interaction Sphere (Stevenson 1997:150).

Woodland Tradition
The Woodland Tradition spans 1500 years of prehistory between circa 500 BC.
to A.D. 1000 in southern Wisconsin. It is commonly subdivided into Early, Middle and
Late stages. The overarching cultural trends observed throughout this tradition include
the manufacturing of pottery containers, a shift in mortuary practices involving specially
prepared earthen mounds and evidence for plant cultivation (Stevenson et a1 19972141).
These characteristics were not ubiquitous throughout the region, but were similar

to the practices of the Archaic, in that they were time transgressive across the landscape.

20

The varied cultural adoption of these technologies is deemed reflective of the
environmental differences within this region, and the belief that cultural groups were
becoming more restricted in their landscape associations. The tradition also reflects an
increase in trade that is evident through the Woodland tradition until the decline of the
Hopewellian Interaction Sphere, after which, the intraregional network subdivides into

isolated cultural localities with minimal interaction (Emerson et al. 2000).

Early Woodland Stage (500 BC. - A.D. 100)

The Early Woodland Period is distinguished on the basis of three technological
innovations. These technological innovations likely represent the migration or diffusion
of technological concepts from the south and east. One of these innovations involves the
manufacture and use of earthen pottery containers. The presence of pottery containers as
witnessed through the archaeological record is a traditional although increasingly
contended dividing point between'the Archaic and the Woodland traditions (McKem
1931b; Griffin 1952, 1967). A second innovation often utilized to separate the Late
Archaic stage from the Early Woodland stage is represented by an increase in preserved
plant resource remains. This increased evidence is often used to draw the conclusion that
by the Early Woodland Period prehistoric peoples participated in horticultural practices
(Arzigian 1987). The third innovation involves lithic projectile styles and technologies
that switch from larger side or corner notched varieties to smaller either straight-stem or
an expanding stemmed forms (Stevenson et al. 1997).

The regional database of materials attributable to this stage from southern

Wisconsin is sizable enough to allow for the identification and construction of a formal

21

cultural historical sequence indicating the presence of a cultural separation between
southwestern and southeastern Wisconsin. The materials discovered on archaeological
sites in southwestern Wisconsin are aligned with the northward expanse of materials
relating to the Indian Isle and Prairie phases associated with more southerly sections of
the Mississippi River Basin (Stoltman 1986, 1990), while those sites located within the
southeastern portion of Wisconsin appear to have a stronger relationship to the material
culture originating within the Illinois Valley and points to the east (Salkin 1986). The
separation of these two geographic areas is a common practice used in the discussion of
the cultural history of this tradition: therefore, this thesis will focus on the cultural
historic sequence as it pertains to the Driftless Region and move away from data
pertaining to southeastern Wisconsin.

The environmental conditions during this period remained fairly constant and
more or less reminiscent of the modern climatic conditions. In fact, it is assumed that by
1000 BC. the climatic setting in the Driftless Region had stabilized to what it is today
(Arzigian 1987; Knox 1983). This period of relative stasis allowed people the opportunity
to rely on accumulated life experiences relating to subsistence resources in new ways. It
is also during this time the first extensive evidence relating to shellfish exploitation
occurs within the region (Stoltman 1986, 1990; Theler 1983, 1986, 1987). The use of this
new food source during the Early Woodland period is thus far isolated to sites along the
Mississippi River and the mouths of the basin’s major tributaries such as the Mill site and
the Clam Shell Point site (Stoltman 1986, 1990; Theler 1983, 1986, 1987). The
exploitation and expansion of the perceived and utilized resource base and the

introduction of pottery coupled with landscape investments in the form of earthen

22

mounds, and possible habitat management through the use of fire, indicates increasing
sedentism and territorialism (F arnsworth and Emerson 1986).

The increase in plant utilization is displayed through regional evidence indicating
people were using squash, sunflowers, and potentially the bottle gourd (Arzigian 1987).
The collection of nut resources such as hickory, hazel and walnuts persisted through this
time period, similar to that observed in association with the Late Archaic. Also present in
contexts associated with this time period is evidence for the harvesting and utilization of
sumac, grapes, raspberries, blackberries, black nightshade and hawthorn berries (Arzigian
1987).

The Early Woodland stage in the Driftless Region of southwestern Wisconsin is
subdivided into two phases. These phases are separated on the basis of two distinct wares
or pottery types and observed differences in the associated projectile styles. The first
phase is termed the Indian Isle phase (Stoltman 1990), whereas the subsequent phase is

referred to as the Prairie phase (Stoltman 1986).

Indian Isle phase (300 BC — AD 100)

The Indian Isle phase in southwestern Wisconsin is defined on the basis of
Marion Thick pottery (Emerson 1986; Munson 1966; Stoltman 1990). Marion Thick
pottery and/or variants of this style are ubiquitous throughout the Midwest (Griffin 1952).
The archaeological cultures associated with Marion pottery types are generally paired
with the Red Ochre ceremonial complex, such as the Ryan focus defined in northeastern
Iowa (Logan 1976) or the Marion culture of Illinois (Munson 1966, 1982, 1986). But,

within the Driftless region of southwestern Wisconsin Marion Thick ceramics are the sole

23

secular diagnostic artifact present, as no other aspects of the Red Ochre ceremonial
complex have been identified. Thus, Tiffany (1986) and Stoltman (1990) called for a new
term to be used to identify this phase — the Indian Isle phase. The presence of Kramer
Stemmed projectiles is assumed to be a second diagnostic artifact of this phase (Stoltman
1990), but Waubesa projectiles are also associated. It is clear that additional evidence is
sorely needed to help understand the Early Woodland of the Driftless Region (Benn

1979; Logan 1976; Munson 1966, 1982, 1986; Stoltman 1990; Tiffany 1986).

Prairie Phase (100 BC — AD 100)

The second phase in the Early Woodland specific to Wisconsin’s portion of the
Driftless Area is the Prairie Phase (Stoltman 1986, 1990). The Prairie Phase is defined
largely on the presence of the Prairie Incised series of pottery types (Stoltman 1986,
1990; Theler 1986). The Mill Pond site and the Dillman I site near the Prairie du Chien
locality are identified as two sites possessing Prairie Phase occupations; in fact, these two
sites represent the sample upon which the division between this phase and the former is
predicated (Stoltman 1990; Theler 1986).

Another factor contributing to the decision to subdivide the Early Woodland into
these two phases is the difference in observed subsistence practices. Evidence from
Indian Isle phase sites is scare due to the limited rate of preservation because these sites
tend to be in sandy soils. The rates of preservation on Prairie Phase sites tend to be better
and indicate the extensive use of shellfish through the presence of large shell middens. It
is assumed, based on the lack of shells found on Indian Isle phase sites, that these groups

did not utilize such resources.

24

Dickson/Waubesa (Kramer) points continue to dominate the lithic assemblage,
despite the fact the pottery styles between the phases are distinctly different. This phase is
related to the Black Sand culture of Illinois, but more evidence is needed to understand
the true relationship between the different phases (Benn 1979; Logan 1976; Munson

1966, 1982, 1986; Stoltman 1990; Tiffany 1986).

Middle Woodland Stage (A.D. 100 — A.D. 400/500)

The Middle Woodland Period is divided into two phases in southwestern
Wisconsin, the Trempealeau and Millville phases. The Middle Woodland Stage is
assumed to begin circa 200 BC. throughout most of the lower Midwest but due to the
time transgressive nature of the diffusion of materials and migration from southern to
northern localities it begins slightly later in southern Wisconsin. Regardless of the Middle
Woodland stage’s date of inception, the distinct characteristics marking its beginning are
associated with developments in the Hopewell and Havana Traditions.

The three cultural traits commonly associated with this period are the construction
of conical mounds, especially for the purpose of multiple internments. There is a
continual increase in evidence indicating a greater diversification and intensification
selection of indigenous seed plant resources. The pottery of this stage adopts stylistically
more complex patterning and typically gets thinner, employing a greater variety of
tempering materials. The lithic technologies of this stage continue to exhibit the same
type of innovation, but begin to exhibit trends of economization through the reduction of

size.

25

Large mound complexes and campsites represent the Middle Woodland stage in
the Driftless Area of Wisconsin. The regional Hopewell related manifestation is referred
to as the Trempealeau phase (McKern 1931a, 1931b; Stoltman 1979), while the phase
following the decline of the Hopewell Interaction Sphere is referred to as the Millville
phase. The Trempealeau phase is discussed here in the past tense because at the 2000
Midwest Archaeological Conference in Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota, Stoltman
officially withdrew the assignment of such a phase (Stoltman 2000). Despite the fact that
the phase has been eliminated, the wider archaeological community still utilizes the
designation of the Trempealeau phase because it is historically entrenched in the

literature and at present a suitable substitute is lacking.

Trempealeau Phase (AD 100 — 200)

The characteristics of the Trempealeau phase are almost entirely derived from the
excavation of conical burial mounds. These burials, located primarily along the bluff tops
of the Mississippi River, contained the artifacts displaying interaction with the Havanna-
Hopewell Tradition. These burials are often interred in either the fill or in the subfloor at
the base of conical mounds. Both fully extended primary burials and secondary bundle
burials are reported, while there are no reports of cremations from any Trempealeau
phase sites.

The artifacts included large chipped stone knives or “blades”, copper axes,
earspools, ornamental breastplates, and platform pipes. The materials used in the HIS
traditionally are fashioned from exotic raw materials such as obsidian, Knife River flint,

Hartville Uplift chert, and Morrison orthoquartzite that have origin points in the upper

26

Western Great Plans and Eastern Rocky Mountains. Other exotic materials typically
associated with the HIS include a large number of marine shell and mica artifacts from
the Southeastern United States, but excavations in southwestern Wisconsin have failed to
produce any evidence of mica (Stoltman 1979).

The ceramics attributed to or associated with the Trempealeau phase are closely
related to Havana or Hopewell wares (Griffin 1952; Stoltman 1979, 1990). The number
of vessels classified as true Havana or Hopewell wares in the Driftless Region of
Wisconsin are few, but a greater number of local variants or imitations have been
observed. These local varieties are collectively classified as composing the Baehr Group
of ceramics (Griffin 1952). Thus, it appears, based on the present data, the full expression
of the Hopewell ritual and exchange was present in the Mississippi River trench, but as
one moves further north into the Driftless Region the intensity of the expression through
material culture becomes more subtle.

There are a number of similarities observed between the lithic assemblages
associated with the Trempealeau phase and the Havana groups. There are a number of
shared projectile point styles including the diagnostic Hopewellian Snyder biface,
Manker, Clear Lake, Marshall and Gibson projectile (Stevenson et al. 1997; Stoltman
1990). Other shared lithic technology diagnostic of Hopewell includes the production of
lamellar blades struck from prepared cores typically of Burlington Chert.

The material record reflects clear evidence for the interaction between Illinois
Havana people and local populations in the Driftless Region but the nature of the
interactions is uncertain. One possibility is that groups along the margin of the

Mississippi River served as facilitators between the Havana Hopewell and those groups

27

within the interior of the Driftless Region. Research in the Driftless Region is presently
not pursuing such questions because the majority of the research is focused on the Late
Woodland and Effigy Mound studies.

Thus, the debate continues over the exact nature of this phase, as the majority of
the data referred to in this section was recovered from burial context (Beaubien 1953a;
Freeman 1969; McKern 1931a, 1931b; Thomas 1891, 1894). Despite all of the associated
burial data we know precious little about the other aspects of the Treampealeau phase
peoples lives. There are few habitation sites attributable to the Treampealeau phase and
of those excavated even fewer that have been fully analyzed and documented in the form
of written reports. There is a clear need to fully address this lack of data and in order to
reconcile the statements made by Stoltman (2000) regarding this phase and clarify the
nature of the relationship between the Driftless Region and areas further to the south at

this time.

Millville Phase (AD 200 — 500)

The final phase in the Driftless Region associated with the Middle Woodland is
referred to as the Millville phase, aptly named after the Millville site near the confluence
of the Wisconsin and Mississippi rivers (Stoltman 1979, 1990). The Millville ceramics
appear to be closely related to the Weaver ware of Illinois, which is basically a
continuation of Havana related ceramics. General Weaver ware characteristics include
thinner vessel walls, and a more elongated jar form with less ornate decoration (Stoltman
19901247; Wray and MacNeish 1961:52-60). The ceramics associated with the same

temporal period in Iowa are slightly different but closely related to Weaver ware; this

28

ceramic group is referred to as Linn wares (Benn 1978, 1979; Logan 1976). The ceramics
observed in Wisconsin associated with this phase are identical to the Iowa type, therefore
the Linn ware classification is utilized in Wisconsin (Stoltman 1990).

Linn wares tend to be thinner than the earlier Havana wares. The exterior surficial
decorations include impressions and other decorations that are less bold. Nodes common
to Havana—Hopewell wares are no longer applied to these vessels. The most common type
of Linn ware is the Levesen Stamped variety, which is believed to be a local adaptations
evolved from Havana wares (Benn 1978, 1979).

The lithic technology associated with this phase indicates a growing familiarity
with local materials, further spurring manufacturers toward the refinement and
economization of stone, through the reduction of projectile size. The projectile types
common to this phase are referred to in southwestern Wisconsin as either Steuben
expanding stemmed points, McCoy corner-notched or Ansell points (Freeman 1969;
Stoltman 1990). Other diagnostic aspects of the chipped stone tool kit for this period
include side-to-ovoid and triangular scrappers, drills fashioned from flakes and
generalized chopping tools (Freeman 1969). There is also an identifiable bone working
industry indicated through the preservation of bone awls, needles, antler billets and turtle
shell bowls from sites such as the Millville site (Pillaert 1969).

The present data for this time period are largely based on the fully excavated
Millville site, which is well documented (Freeman 1969). These data suggest a lifeway
similar to previous cultural periods, which included a season round of living on the flood
plain during the spring, summer and early portion of the fall. Then, during the late fall,

winter and early spring these groups dispersed into the uplands and rockshelters. The

29

archaeological evidence from this period includes well preserved assemblages containing
macrobotantical evidence of plant domestication and mussel shell harvesting. The faunal
assemblages from these sites all indicate high frequencies of white-tailed deer
(Christensen 1999).

In contrast to the previous phase, little is known about the mortuary behavior of
this phase. The Rehbein I site (47R181) in Richland County is the only dated cemetery
site with burials and, rarely accompanying grave goods. It appears that specially prepared
conical mounds were created on top of prepared ground surfaces for the interment of the
dead. Burials during this phase include similar treatment as observed in the Trempealeau

phase, with the inclusion of a small percentage of cremations.

Late Woodland Stage (A.D. 500 - A.D. 1050)

At this point it must be noted that this overview continues the practice of
subscribing to the Wisconsin perspective due to the location of the Gottschall
Rockshelter, but because of the wealth of information known from more southerly sites
some of this more southerly data must be discussed. The Late Woodland Stage as it
manifests itself in the Driftless Region of Wisconsin is a transitional phase from the
perspective of major shifts in subsistence practices. The general economy of these groups
eventually becomes dependent on maize based agriculture. This wholesale shift to
intensive agriculture altered socially land use and settlement patterns. Despite these
dramatic events, a unique well-developed complex ceremonialism with cultural roots that
stretch back at least as far back as the Hopewell Middle Woodland (Green 2000)

manifests itself in the form of the construction of effigy mounds. For unknown reasons,

30

groups abandon this deeply rooted ceremonialism and associated territory during the
Terminal Late Woodland Phase.

The resulting localized archaeological culture in post-Hopewell times represents
the first of three major transformations associated with the Late Woodland Stage as
whole (Emerson et al. 2000; Stevenson et al. 1997). The second transformation is the
widespread technological development and/or adoption of the bow and arrow. Bow and
arrow technology is represented in the archaeological record by small triangular bifaces,
which range from side, comer, basal notched, combinations of these attributes, and some
examples are unnotched. The third transformation occurring during this stage is the
introduction, and subsequent intensification of maize agriculture.

The three perceived transformations are defined as follows: (1) a

fundamental demographic shift that implies substantial and regionally

variable changes in settlement systems following the decline of the Middle

Woodland stage; (2) the widespread adoption of the bow and arrow, and;

(3) the adoption of a maize-based economy (McElrath et al. 2000: 12).

The Late Woodland Stage of the Driftless Region of Wisconsin is commonly subdivided

into three phases: the Mill phase, the Eastman phase and an unnamed Terminal

Woodland phase.

Mill Phase (AD 500 — 750)

It is assumed the Mill Phase of the Driftless Region of Wisconsin evolved locally
from the Millville Phase (Stoltman 1990). The Mill Phase is set apart from the Millville
Phase largely based on a shift in the decorative treatment of ceramics. The decorative
change involves the addition of dentate and/or rocker stamping in conjunction with the

application of single cord impressions onto smoothed exterior surfaces, which is

31

commonly referred to Lane Farm Cord-Impressed. The decorative arrangements appear
to be regionally discrete (Christiansen personal communication 2005), while the
technology of using grit tempered thin-walled vessels is ubiquitous throughout both the
Iowa and Wisconsin portions of the Driftless Region.

There have only been two small projectile points recovered from Mill phase
context. These points were originally reported as small comer notched projectile points
classified as Snyders points from the Land Farm Mounds (Logan 1976). These corner
notched chipped stone projectiles have since been reviewed by Stoltman and Christiansen
(20002500) and reclassified as unidentifiable Late Woodland comer notched points based
on the available photograph of the point since the point has been lost. It is the author’s
opinion the point is most likely an example of a Honey Creek Comer Notched projectile
(Mead 1979). Despite the fact, the establishment of the Honey Creek Corner Notched
projectile was designed to subsume the continuum of Late Woodland comer notched
projectiles (Mead 1979: 145) and simplify a classification problem, much debate still
exists. The confusion comes from the fact these Honey Creek Corner Notched points are
associated with mixed deposits or lack provenience. It is assumed these points represent
the initial presence of the bow and arrow in the Driftless Region but this has yet to be
demonstrated through in situ data from a multi—component site.

It is also complicated by the presence of Cahokia points and assumed local
imitations of Cahokia points collectively referred to as Terminal Late Woodland. More

data is necessary to properly assess the value of this particular phase.

32

Eastman Phase (AD 750 — 1050)

The Eastman Phase is synonymous with the zenith of Effigy Mound Culture in
southwestern Wisconsin (Stevenson et al. 1997; Stoltman 1990) and temporally
comparable to the Horicon phase of south-central Wisconsin. The single most
distinguishing characteristic setting this cultural stage (apart from others) is the
constmction of mounds in the shapes of effigies. In addition, a unique pottery type
collectively referred to as Madison Ware is found in association with these mounds albeit
rarely. Madison wares are typically grit-tempered and represent a vessel with a rounded
body, neck narrower than the body, an occasional flaring rim with decorative techniques
using single or multiple cord impressions in linear bands or geometric patterns (Baerreis
1953; Benn 1980; Hurley 1975; Keslin 1958; McKern 1928, 1931a, 1931b; Stevenson et
al. 19972171).

During the Eastman Phase, the lithic assemblage trends toward smaller triangular
shaped bifaces. It is assumed the decrease in size is directly related to the wide spread
shift to the bow and arrow technology. Initially, these points are either side or corner
notched and shortly thereafter the practice of notching was largely discontinued. These
small triangular points are commonly referred to as Madison Triangular points (Barrett
1933; Justice 1987; McKern 1930), while the small corner-notched points referred to as
Klunk projectile are also associated. Occasionally, these bifaces are serrated but are
almost always made from local raw materials. There were also non-diagnostic stone tools
present including groundstone “spuds”, scrapers, denticulates and retouched flakes

(Stevenson et al. 1997).

33

Despite the tendency for the majority of the artifactual material dating to this time
to be of local origin, a few items appear to be imported or constructed from exotic
materials. Pipes dating to this time period, discovered within this region are frequently
reported as manufactured from Devil’s Lake pipestone. The paucity of exotic artifacts
hints at the cultural significance of these few exotic items and the greater dependency on
localized resources potentially reflecting increased territorialism.

Settlement patterns at this time shift to large village sites located away from the
major river sources during the season of warmer-weather, and the evidence of cold-
weather occupation along major river ways (Stevenson et al. 1997). It is assumed that the
presence of mounds along less significant tributaries and smaller valleys represents
evidence of population increase (Stevenson et al. 1997). It is during this period that
specialty sites or logistical sites increase in number, such as mussel extracting stations
along the Mississippi and lower Wisconsin Rivers (Theler 1987).

The evidence from northwestern Illinois relating to this time period is limited due
to a lack of research in the area except along the Mississippi River and Rock River
(Emerson and Titelbaum 2001). Except for the major riverways, it appears the majority
of the Driftless Region, located within Illinois south of the Military Ridge, may have
served as an area for elk and deer hunting (Emerson and Titelbaum 20012416; Penman
1999), and locations for nut processing, and eventually corn cultivation (Emerson and
Titelbaum 2001:416; Simon 1998).

The ceramic assemblage within the northwest corner of Illinois includes collared
wares such as Stewed Rock Collared (Hall 1962), which are at the center of a debate

concerning their association with the Effigy Mound tradition (Benn and Green 2000;

34

Emerson and Titelbaum 2001: 415; Goldstein 1991; Salkin 1987, 2000; Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001; Stoltman and Christiansen 2000). The lithic assemblage from the
southern portion of the Driftless Region exhibits stylistic similarities traditionally
associated with more easterly peoples, such as Jack’s Reef-like bifaces found during the
Greater Rockford Airport Expansion Project (Emerson and Titelbaum 20012415; Justice
1987; Titelbaum 1999). Thus, it is apparent that differing cultural manifestations occur in
the Driftless Region during this time period.

It is during the beginning of the Eastman phase that com agriculture is introduced
to the area. Evidence of corn has been found at several sites in southwestern Wisconsin
including the Gottschall Rockshelter, the Fred Edwards site and the Mill Pond site
(Arzigian 1987; Bender et al. 1981; Salzer and Rajnovich 2000). The presence of com is
often used to support the interpretation that southern influences were present south of the
Wisconsin River and along the Mississippi River at this time. The nature of the relations
between the intensively maize-based Mississippian society and local populations is
uncertain at this time.

There are a number of sites exhibiting evidence of both Mississippian and local
Eastman Phase populations that are providing insights into these questions. The Fred
Edwards site is a large village site, with a large bird effigy mound in proximity. The
association between the village and the effigy mound are uncertain, but excavations
indicate evidence of Mississippian style house construction, collared pottery types, and
vessel forms representing an amalgamation of local Late Woodland with more southerly
characteristics are present (F inney and Stoltman 1991). It is thought that the art styles at

the Gottschall Rockshelter show a similar amalgamation between what is considered

35

local style and more southerly style (Stevenson et al. 1997). This conclusion is further
strengthened by the fact that collared ceramics, identified as having chemical signatures
similar to clays local to the site of Aztalan, have been recovered from the site (Stoltman
personal communication 2001).

Regardless of the nature of the interactions between these two cultures, the end of
this phase seems marked by a massive migration of peoples out of the region. The lower
Wisconsin River is virtually abandoned, while large village sites are constructed along
the Mississippi River at the present locations of La Crosse, Wisconsin and Red Wing,
Minnesota. It is unconfirmed but highly likely the populations from the interior of the
Driftless Region are pushed westward out of the Wisconsin River valley due to severe
flooding and pressures from hostilities with Mississippian groups (Salzer and Rajnovich
2001). The present evidence and associated literature do not account for much activity
within the Driftless Region between the end of the Eastman Phase and the beginning of

the fur trade (Stevenson et al. 1997; Theler and Boszhardt 2006).

Terminal Late Woodland Phase (AD 1050 — 1 200/1 3 00)

Based on the present archaeological evidence from approximately A.D. 900,
major cultural shifts were occurring in the Driftless Region, mostly including those
mentioned in the previous section associated with transformations of hunter and
gathering groups to agriculturalists. Technological shifts correlating with the economic
shifts followed, and by the beginning of the Terminal Late Woodland Phase many groups
throughout southern Wisconsin were supporting the rims of pottery vessels through the

use of distinct collars. This shift in ceramics is used to mark the beginning of this phase.

36

The eastern manifestation of the phenomena is referred to as the Kekoskee Phase (Salkin
1987; 1993), while the Driftless Region lacks a formal designation for the phase. It is the
author’s opinion that the reason a formal designation is lacking is because of the apparent
mass exodus from the region.

There are a number of sites throughout the Driftless Region containing data
relating to mature Late Woodland Phase, but very little exists relating to the Middle
Mississippian or Oneota cultural phenomena. The evidence is sparse, and probably
indicative of localized populations experimenting or trading with peripheral groups,
rather than these internal groups constructing their own collared wares. The collared
vessel from the Gottschall Rockshelter for example is identical in form and composition
to those associated with the site of Aztalan. Other isolated reports of collared wares occur
at the Rosenbaum Rockshelter (Stoltman 1976), Mayland Cave (Storck 1972), the Statz
site (Meinholz and Kolb 1997), Syttende Mai site (F inney and Meyer 1991) and the Pine
River site (Christiansen 1999). It would be a beneficial avenue of research to conduct
trace element analysis of these sherds in an attempt to identify the clay source used for

these vessels.

Summary

The history of archaeological inquiry in Wisconsin has roots that stretch back to
the survey work of Increase Lapham in the mid—18005. Lapham identified and mapped
many of the effigy mounds and other earthworks present on the landscape at this time.
The fascination with these mounds and their connection to both prehistoric populations

and present populations has been one of the main archaeological foci in Wisconsin ever

37

since. Therefore, the majority of the research conducted in the Driftless Region has
focused on the establishment of culture chronologies. The cultural framework for the
region is in place, but additional work is needed.

The current research within the Driftless Region is utilizing this cultural historic
framework as the backdrop to address questions of cultural continuity, identity and
boundary maintenance. Research directed at explaining these complex cultural
phenomena are in their infancy as the amount of data collected throughout the region has
grown to the point of surpassing the requirement to establish basic culture histories.
Research questions focused on such behavioral questions will hopefully be able to
provide the basis for constructing models relating to how social groups in geographically
isolated locations become or fail to become integrated into surrounding larger socio-
political mainstreams. The Gottschall Rockshelter is a critical site for this region, because
it provides data amenable in assisting with both endeavors simultaneously. The stringent
recording systems and associated 24 radiocarbon dates will aid greatly in the refinement
of this cultural historical sequence, while further analysis of the artifacts associated with
the anthropogenic sediments will help to clarify the cultural continuity of groups

participating within the ceremonialism attributed to the Gottschall Rockshelter.

38

CHAPTER 4
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF THE GOTTSCHALL
ROCKSHELTER LITHIC ASSEMBLAGE
Sample and Sampling Strategy

The study sample examined for this thesis consisted of a subset of the lithic
assemblage recovered during the 18 years of excavation at the Gottschall Rockshelter.
The sample was created through a multi—stepped process with the first step involving
isolation of the previously identified lithic materials from those artifacts having
undergone preliminary analysis. The second step involved the inspection of the
unanalyzed level and No-Vertical-Control (NVC) artifact bags (bags of artifacts having
only horizontal provenience) for lithic materials. Each bag was reviewed individually,
and once lithic materials were identified they were removed, labeled and incorporated
into the study. Upon completion of the backlog review, the study sample was subjected to
several analytical manipulations. The end result was a combination of some materials
being analyzed for the first time and others being reanalyzed. The author employed this
strategy because the majority of the preliminary identification and analysis conducted on
this assemblage prior to this study was done by an untrained volunteer labor force in a
field lab setting.

This study represents the most comprehensive lithic analysis thus far completed
on the Gottschall Rockshelter assemblage and describes a total of 3,348 lithic artifacts,
but remains inherently limited. These limitations relate to the fact a backlog of
unanalyzed heavy fraction and flotation samples remain in storage and require analysis.
The full analysis of these materials will undoubtedly greatly assist in the understanding of

this site.

39

This chapter presents a summary of the descriptive analyses of the lithic
assemblage sample. This chapter is subdivided into four sections based on general artifact
class: chipped stone (Appendix C), debitage (Appendix D), groundstone and
miscellaneous rocks (Appendix E) and details of individual artifacts can be accessed
through these Appendices. Samples from the chipped stone projectile points and the
debitage are the two classes of artifacts later used in the spatial distributional study

described in Chapter 5.

Chipped Stone Artifacts

A total of 511 chipped stone artifacts were identified and analyzed during this
study (Table 4.1 and Appendix C). There were 167 diagnostic chipped stone projectile
types attributable to previously defined diagnostic types. The diagnostic bifaces present
within the Gottschall Rockshelter assemblage represent archaeological cultures spanning
from the Early Archaic (8000/5500 BC.) to the Terminal Late Woodland (ca. A.D. 900 —
1200/ 1300). In addition, another 88 non-diagnostic chipped stone projectile fragments
were identified in the forms of bases, mid-sections, notch fragments, and tips; included
are a few unidentifiable fragments. There were 19 preforms identified during the course
of this analysis that are likely blanks used in the creation of various Late Woodland
projectile points.

There were 66 less formal bifaces of unknown function observed during this
study, two of which are unidentifiable flake points. It is possible these bifaces are various
types of preforms, but it is more likely they represent a generalized tool category that

incorporates the functions of both a chopper and a scraper. Two of these bifaces are

40

manufactured from Burlington chert, while the remaining are made of locally available
cherts. The hypothesis that this biface category represents a generalized tool group at the
Gottschall Rockshelter is further supported by the fact that only nine scrapers and 65

blades were identified within the assemblage.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4.1: Summary of Chipped Stone Artifacts
Artifact Class Frequency
Diagnostic Bifaces 167
Unidentifiable Biface Fragments 88
Preforms 19
Less-Formal Bifaces 66
Blades 65
Chopper 1
Scrapers 9
Drills 2
Cores 49
Denticulates 7
Uniface 1
Retouched 39
Debitage
Total 511

 

 

 

One of these 65 blades is a diagnostic Burlington Chert Hopewellian blade that
was likely transported to the site and there are five other blade fragments
morphologically similar, but fashioned from locally available raw materials. The reason
why the diagnostic blade is thought to have been transported is due to the fact there is no
evidence of an associated core, core fragments or lithic debitage. In addition, there were
two “T” shaped drills recovered from the site manufactured from local materials.

There are seven denticulates, sometimes referred to functionally as “shredders”,
contained within the assemblage. These denticulates are assumed to be functionally

associated with the shredding of vegetal material to be utilized in the manufacture of

41

cordage or rope (Salzer personal communication). All of these denticulates are
manufactured from locally available cherts, with the exception of one fashioned from
Burlington chert. There are three denticulates each associated with the Late Archaic
period and the Late Woodland stage, while the remaining one is associated with the
uppermost deposits.

There were also 49 cores and/or core fragments identified within the assemblage.
The majority of these core are multidirectional (n=44) in addition to one bifacial and
unidirectional cores and two tested cobbles. All of these cores except one are associated
with strata dated to the Woodland Tradition Stage, and that core is tentatively associated
with the Late Archaic. A total of 22 of the cores are made from locally available cherts,
with the exception of two fashioned from Burlington chert.

The chipped stone class of artifacts also contains 39 retouched pieces of various
types of debitage. Three are made from Burlington chert, while the rest are manufactured
from locally available cherts, and all but one of them are from strata associated with the
Woodland Tradition.

Finally, there was one chipped siltstone uniface recovered from the bottom of a
pit superimposed by other pits and post-molds. This uniface is unlike any other artifact
recovered from the site. It has obviously been struck repeatedly on one side but was not
worked along the margins or the opposite site. This uniface has been heat treated, as
evidenced by and has a questionable chronological affiliation due to the super positioning

of features above, but is assumed to be associated with the Late Woodland Stage.

42

The frequency of chipped stone projectiles makes this class of artifacts especially

useful for spatial analysis. Therefore, the sample of chipped stone projectiles will be

subjected to spatial analysis as detailed in Chapter 5.

Debitage

During evaluation of the lithic assemblage, 2801 pieces of lithic debitage were

observed to both possess the contextual and chronological integrity to satisfy the

parameters of this study (Appendix C). There were 437 piece of lithic debitage from

feature contexts and 2364 from non-feature contexts (Table 4.2). The contextual

association of these pieces of lithic debris included piece-plotted, level, and general

feature affiliation. The lithic debitage from the site is almost completely dominated by

local raw materials, as only 103 flakes within the population, roughly four percent, were

identified as being of non-local raw material. It was observed that 101 of these exotic

flakes were Burlington chert and the other two were orthoroquartzite. Only 173 flakes are

attributed to the Archaic, roughly six percent, while the remaining 2628 pieces of

debitage are associated with the Woodland Tradition.

 

Table 4.2: Summary of Debitage Observed from the Gottschall Rockshelter

 

 

 

 

 

Context I Frequency Local Exotic
Feature 437 4 22 15
Non-Feature 2364 2276 88
Total 2801 2698 103

 

 

 

 

The presence of such high frequencies of lithic debitage make this artifact class

amenable to the same spatial distributional analysis as will be applied to the chipped

stone projectile points. The end result will be the ability to superimpose the results of the

43

 

spatial analysis of these two lithic categories for the purpose of further testing the

hypothesized partitioning of sacred and secular space at this site.

Groundstone and Miscellaneous Rocks

There were five other artifacts classes identified during this research that are
represented by either a small number of objects or a single artifact (Appendix E). The
small quantities of these artifacts make them impossible to use in the spatial analysis, but
they are nonetheless worthy of discussion because they are associated with the site. The
artifacts include: five ground stone geometric shapes, one fragmented 3%: grooved axe, 13
unidentifiable fragments, one granitic rock, a limestone tablet, five hammerstones, five

sandstone abraders, one sandstone gorget and a sandstone sphere (Table 4.3).

 

Table 4.3: Summary of Groundstone Artifacts

 

 

 

 

Artifact Class Frequency
Geometric Shapes 5
3% Grooved Axe 1
Unidentifiable Fragments 13

 

Granitic Rock 1
Limestone Tablet 1
Groundstone Bowl 1
Hammerstones 5
5

1

1

 

 

 

 

Sandstone Abraders
Sandstone Gorget
Sandstone Sphere

Total 34

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

There were five different groundstone geometric shapes recovered from the
Gottschall Rocksheter. These artifacts include such shapes as a circle, cone, oval,
trapezoid and a triangle. These artifacts are all associated with the Late Woodland Stage

and are made of various materials including dolomite, granite and locally available chert.

44

The function of these artifacts is unknown but use-wear analysis my help clarify if a few
of these were as possible abraders.

There were two pieces of ground greenish tinted basalt recovered during
excavations that conjoining to form a three-quarter grooved axe. This grooved axe has
been obviously used as one end exhibits evidence of use-wear through the presence of
many peck marks. The fracture parallels the long axis of the stone tool and appears to be
a byproduct of use. In addition, there may be another much smaller grooved axe but there
is very little of it yet recovered and it is made of a type of dolomite, which is uncommon
given the assumed purpose of these artifacts. Those fragments of the other possible
grooved axe are considered at present to be part of the 12 unidentified groundstone
fragments unit additional pieces and refits are identified.

There is one granitic rock within the assemblage identified as a piece of gabbro.
This dark stone is easily fractured into small squares, and appears macroscopically to
match well with the tempering material observed in at least one of the Late Woodland
ceramic vessels. It is worth mentioning that at least two piles of clay were excavated from
within the rockshelter, and one of the piles of clay had textile impressions on its
underside. There was also a large poorly fired shell tempered “squeeze” recovered from
the site, which likely represents a raw material test. These pieces of evidence have been
used to justify the claim that ceramics were manufactured on or within the proximity of
the site.

Five hammerstones are present within the lithic assemblage. All of these

hammerstones come from a fairly spatially isolated area within the shelter and come from

45

the temporal boundary between the Late and Middle Woodland stages. All of these
hammerstones are from locally available materials.

There were several sandstone artifacts recovered from the site including five
abraders, a gorget and a sphere. The sandstone abraders were likely used in associated
with the flaking of stone. All of these artifacts are associated with the Late Woodland
Stages and are evenly distributed through the rockshelter. The sandstone gorget is a
perforated piece of highly consolidated sandstone and likely is not a true gorget. The term
is being used here because it is the best terminological fit presently available. The
sandstone sphere was recovered out of context and is probably natural rather than
cultural. One final note, the number of sandstone artifacts is reportedly greater than seven
according to the original field notes, but a number of these artifacts have since

disintegrated into piles of sand before they were formerly analyzed.

Summary

The lithic sample used in this study is composed of 3,345 artifacts from 23 artifact
classes. The full detailed descriptive analysis is presented in each of the associated
Appendices and a summary of those findings are described in this chapter; therefore, the
interested reader is urged to refer to the appropriate Appendix for information on the
individual artifact: chipped stone (Appendix C), debitage (Appendix D), groundstone and
miscellaneous rocks (Appendix E). The results obtained from the process of formally
describing the Gottschall Rockshelter lithic assemblage indicates these two artifacts
classes of sufficient size to be amenable to spatial analysis are debitage and chipped stone
projectiles. These two artifact types form a strong comparative base for assessing the

hypothesized differentiation of sacred versus secular spaces within the rockshelter. The

46

remaining artifact classes have sample sizes too small to assist in the type of spatial

analysis conducted in association with this thesis and reported in Chapter 5.

47

CHAPTER 5
SPATIAL ANALYSIS

The spatial analysis was designed to test the hypothesis that the anthropogenic
sediment present within the Gottschall Rockshelter demarcates differentiated space
assumed to represent the partitioning of sacred and secular spaces. As a result of testing
this hypothesis two critical assumptions supporting it need to be addressed, which
include: 1) sacred and secular space is partitioned and reflected by other artifact classes at
the Gottschall Rockshelter and 2) the proposed period of anthropogenic sediment
fabrication and deposition, extending from the Durst Phase (1000 BC) to the Eastman
Phase (AD 1050) reflects a similar and continuous trend of spatial partitioning.

The spatial analysis conducted in this thesis focuses on two classes of artifacts
within the lithic assemblage, the chipped stone hafted bifaces or projectiles and the
unmodified debitage including shatter, complete and broken flakes. These two artifact
classes were selected because they have the greatest frequencies within the lithic
assemblage and represent polar opposites along the continuum of chipped stone
manufacture. The debate concerning the analytical strengths and weakness of each
artifact class are well documented in the archaeological literature and will not be
summarized here (Inizan et al. 1999), but it should be noted these two artifacts classes
provide converging lines of evidence.

The spatial analysis was contingent upon the development of a mechanism to
minimize the complications of chronostratigraphy and lithostratigraphy. This process was
accomplished by establishing aggregated observational units through the analysis of the

calibrated radiocarbon dates. Once these observational units were established, the

48

associated projectiles and debitage were pooled together to form the sample for this
study. The full discussion of the methodology used in this process is included in this
chapter under the discussion of calibrated radiocarbon dates and aggregated chronometric
units.

Once the chronometric units were established, the second step was to tabulate the
projectiles and debitage separately according to excavation unit per chronometric unit for
the purpose of analysis. This process was accomplished by compiling and recording the
raw frequencies of each artifact class as described above, followed by the entry of those
data into the appropriate spreadsheets for statistical analysis. The ultimate goal of the
spatial analysis is to identify those chronometric units having greater variability in their
distributions from the D zone than chance alone, because the D zone post-dates the
hypothesized period of anthropogenic sediment manipulation and associated ritual
activity. Thus, the D zone is assumed to represent a more secular distribution of material.
The methodology used in relation to the spatial analysis is fully discussed under the
heading of statistical methods and data sets in this chapter.

The concluding portion of this chapter presents the results of these investigations
and discusses the significance of these findings in relation to the tested hypothesis and

associated assumptions.

Calibrated Radiocarbon Dates and Aggregated Chronometric Units

The first hurdle in the investigation of the spatial distribution of the lithic
assemblage at the Gottschall site was to devise a method to reduce or negate the potential
complications attached to that of lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy. These

complexities are present on every archaeological site, but they are exacerbated at the

49

Gottschall site because some of the sediments are fabricated, deposited, and manipulated
through human behavior as well as natural processes. A quick snap-shot of these
complexities can be witnessed through the inspection of the stratigraphic correlation
charts (see Appendix B). Thus, as a means to avoid these unforeseen pitfalls it was
decided that all 24 radiocarbon dates associated with the site would be calibrated, but
only those 18 assays associated with the period described above would be statistically
investigated for the purpose of identifying those radiocarbon ages that are statistically
similar. The radiocarbon ages statistically proven to be similar would then be aggregated
and form the defining temporal parameters of the study units used in this analysis.

The original strategy implemented by Salzer (personal communication) was to
obtain a sample of datable carbon from each respective Zone or strata. It was originally
thought that this was going to be a fairly simple task because of the fact that surface
burnings or small hearths occur frequently at the site, and at most rockshelters (Salzer
and Rajnovich 20003). It should be noted that the terms burning or small hearth are used
here to refer to a feature not likely used for extensive food processing. These features are
rather small discrete burnings unlike large roasting pits or earth ovens. The Gottschall
Rockshelter is known to have been periodically flooded with charcoal from forest fires,
thus instigating the requirement that all potentially datable carbon from the rockshelter
needed to be covered on at least three sides by remnants of the oxidized portion of an
intact feature (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001).

The succession of submitted radiocarbon dates from the site is difficult to trace
because these dates were originally processed through the generosity of researchers at

each respective institution. The “Wis” assays were gratis provided by Ray Steventon,

50

while the “AA” samples were transmuted to graphite by John Junkin at the former
University of Wisconsin-Madison laboratory in accord with the University of Arizona
requirements. The AMS dating was then paid for by a research grant provided by Beloit
College. It is for these reasons that formal radiocarbon data sheets were neither produced
nor readily available, thus making the process of obtaining reliable information on the
samples difficult. For example, the weight of the processed samples remains unknown.
The radiocarbon dates processed by the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory at the Center for
Climatic Research at the University of Wisconsin-Madison were published in
Radiocarbon while the others were never published. The Canadian web site
(http://www.canadianarchaeology.cal) has digital records of these radiocarbon dates
available to the public.

Twenty—four charcoal samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating from the
Gottschall Rockshelter. Eight of these samples were conventional samples processed by
the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory at the Center for Climatic Research at the University
of Wisconsin-Madison (“Wis” prefix). The other sixteen samples were processed by the
NSF-Arizona AMS facility at the University of Arizona-Tucson (“AA” prefix), for
accelerator dating. These radiocarbon dates have never been calibrated, thus the 24
radiocarbon ages from the site were calibrated using CALIB Radiocarbon Calibration
HTML version 4.2 (Stmiver, Reimer and Reimer 1998). These dates were calibrated for
the purpose of inspection, but because the Late Woodland radiocarbon ages are visually
inseparable a statistical analysis was needed to determine the discrete chronometric units.

The establishment of these chronometric units was conducted using the freeware

OxCal program as provided by the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit

51

(http://cl4.arch.ox.ac.uk/embed.php?File=oxcal.html; Kidder 2006). The OxCal program
during this process was set to calibrate the radiocarbon dates using the calibration curve
referred to as IntCa104: Northern Hemisphere (Reimer et al. 2004). The raw data was
entered into the program and then each individual date was tested against its nearest
chronological affiliate (s) using the C14 date combination function that tests probability at
a 95% confidence rate that the two or more dates in question are from the same
population using a Chi—square related analysis. The groupings were continually enlarged
until the results failed the test, resultingin the establishment of preliminary groupings.
The next step in this process was to take these preliminarily identified groupings
and test them using the contiguous phase model function present within the OxCal
program. This function tested the preliminary groupings by assessing if the dates
assigned to each of three closely related phases (Eastman Phase, Mill Phase and Millville
Phase) were statistically distinct from one another using an agreement index based on
Bayesian modeling. The other identified phases involved with this study, the Terminal
Late Woodland and the Late Archaic, are obviously well outside the possibility of being
considered part of the same population as the others. The end result is that either the
groups will be found to be separate discrete groups or enough overlap remains to warrant
further revision (Kidder 2006:200). The results of this run indicated the preliminary
groupings did in fact represent separate and discrete groups; thus, these groups formed

the temporal bounds for the aggregated spatial study units (Figures 5.1 and 5.2).

52

Phase: ermlnal Late Wopdland
AA—21154(M dle ofDZon

) AA.

 

Phase: astman
AA-21155 (T p of E Zone)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

M21167 (T p of J Zone)
AA-21166 (T p of J Zone)
ase: H

Alt-21169 __ I. . _ (Mid le of K Zone)

PIA-21168 - _ (Mid le of K Zone)

[Elia—Em T—T

Wis-1818 ( op of L Zone)

Wis-1819 H ( op of L Zone)

Wis-1834 (Mld le of L Zone)
506 lllll item; L U T‘sor‘ ““““ ioo'r' ' I 1 l L 750‘? T ‘7 2001
BC AD AD AD AD

Figure 5.1: OxCal Derived Calibrated and Grouped Late Woodland Radiocarbon Dates

53

 

Phase: Durst

AA'21106(0 Zone) __‘.__

L J

 

AFT-21161 (0 Zone)

AL

 

 

 

 

 

 

411111lllllllJlllllllllllllllllll

1500 1000 501] 13 CHAD
BC BC BC

 

Figure: 5.2: OxCal Derived Calibrated and Grouped Late Archaic Radiocarbon Dates

Statistical Methods & Data Sets

The shift in excavation strategy from the two-meter test trench to the one-meter
excavation units, combined with the backlog of unanalyzed materials has continuously
hindered attempts at conducting spatial analyses of the artifacts from this site. The shift in
excavation strategy in the early 19905 changed the observational scale by effectively
subdividing a larger analytical unit to a more refined one. The typical process used to
ameliorate this problem usually involves some type of an averaging mechanism, but this
has the tendency to blur the nuances contained within the data. Rather, in an ideal world,
a more statistically sound option would be to aggregate the 1m2 into 2m2 blocks, but this
would obscure the potential strengths of the data collected at the site post the two-meter
trench and in essence obscure the distinctions presently available through this 1m2
resolution. The compromise generally undertaken by those conducting spatial
distributional studies on the Gottschall collection is to in effect ignore the two-meter

trench data by focusing exclusively on the 1m2, but this type of analysis ignores more

54

than 25% of the area excavated within the rockshelter and an unknown percentage of the
assemblage.

The nature of the question being asked in this study focuses on attempting to
identify change in the use of space during the span of hypothesized anthropogenic
sediment fabrication and manipulation between the Late Archaic and the Terminal Late
Woodland. Thus, a method was adopted using the nonparametric statistical measure
referred to as the Wilcoxon Matched—Pairs Signed-Ranks statistical test to compare each
individual excavation unit to itself over the course of the previously calibrated and
aggregated radiocarbon study units. This statistical measure was adopted because it
focuses on the comparison of the observational pairs overtime, which in the case of the
Gottschall Rockshelter means the 2m2 blocks are compared to each other rather than to
the lmz.

The test ranks the difference without regard to the sign of the difference, ignores
all zero differences and affixes the original signs to the rank numbers. It essentially uses
the sizes of the differences to assign a level of significance by dividing the number of all
distributions of signs over the ranks that have a SUM(+ranks)<=W+(if W+<W—) by 2**N
(i.e., the total number of possible distributions of signs) and assigning a value that can
then be cross-referenced and translated into a level of significance. The level of
significance set in this study was to a 95% confidence level. This statistical test works
well with small numbers with unknown distributions and is more sensitive than the
Student t-test and in fact is recommended as a statistical measure when the number is less

than 50 (Blalock 1972; Siegel 1956).

55

After a review of the available Gottschall excavation data it was determined 41
excavation units comprised of 34, 1m2 and seven, 2m2 blocks would be included in the
study area (Figure 5.3). The partially excavated units, those with major disturbances
and/or lack of the complete stratigraphic sequences spanning the time frame specified
within this spatial distribution analysis were deleted from the analysis. The assemblage of
projectiles and debitage as originally reported in association with Chapter 4 was reduced
to adhere to the parameters of this analysis and resulted in the formation of two data sets:
one including 165 diagnostic projectiles (see Appendix C and the other consisting of
2,645 pieces of unmodified debitage (see Appendix D).

Both data sets required a review of the specific artifactual context, especially in
regards to the feature materials because a number of initially identified features were later
confirmed to be the by products of natural or taphonomic processes. Thus, the feature
data was reconciled by reviewing the Master Feature List (Appendix G) to see if in fact
the feature was a cultural feature, if the feature had been determined to be non-cultural
then the artifact was not included in this study and assigned to the non-provenienced
category of NVC. If the feature was cultural, then the description was inspected for the
stratigraphic point of origin, which was then used as the basis for assigning the artifacts
to their stratigraphic position. This data was recorded and included in the data set tables.

The data were then compiled and entered onto graphical representations of the
Gottschall excavation grid in numerical form. The excavation units on the grid were each
pre-assigned a standardized case number between 1-41 (see Figure 5.3), and the resulting
compiled artifact data per case were then entered into the statistical program SPSS

Graduate Pack 15.0 for Windows. The data were then explored and analyzed using the

56

 

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Figure 5.3: Excavation Showing Assigned Case Number per Excavation Unit

57

Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test, in which the D zone was utilized as the null

hypothesis.

Results

An initial inspection of the data was conducted through the use of the exploratory
statistics function that reports the results of the frequency, mean, median, standard
deviation among others (interquartile ranges, confidence intervals, variance, range,
skewness and Kurtosis). The initial inspection of the data was conducted to both explore
the data and identify any potential problems with the data entry process, using basic
exploratory data analysis (EDA) affiliated functions for the purpose of identifying
patterning or order. These functions deemed most useful included the graphical
information provided through the formation of box plots and stem-and-leaf plots. A
review of these data indicated the combined box plots of each study unit (projectiles and
debitage) would be informative, and essentially serve as a preface to the results compiled
through the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test. Therefore, all of the projectile
and debitage cases were analyzed using side-by-side box plots (Figures 5.4 and 5.5). In
the instances when the frequencies were too small for the SPSS statistical package to
process the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test it defaulted to comparing the two
paired study units on the basis of positive or negative ranks.

The results of the box plots indicate the samples associated with the combined E,
G, H, I, and J zones have greater spreads than any other study unit. This was expected as
these five strata span the Late Woodland period that is also the period of most intensive
occupation of the rockshelter. This is the time period of greatest fabrication and

deposition of anthropogenic sediments, and the H, I and J zones are three of the four

58

 

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Figure 5.4: Combined debitage box plots.4

 

4 X-axis: the unlabeled boxplots in this graph are paired with the zone to its left, and do not include feature
material. The purpose is to show that regardless of inclusion or exclusion of the feature data there was no
major effect on the nature of the data sets.

59

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Frequency

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Figure 5.5: Combined projectile box plots.S

 

5 X-axis: the unlabeled boxplots in this graph are paired with the zone to its left, and do not include feature

K Zone L Zone 0 Zone

E,G,H,I and J

D Zone

material. The purpose is to show that regardless of inclusion or exclusion of the feature data there was no
major effect on the nature of the data sets.

60

Zones

strata largely composed of anthropogenic sediment with the remainder being the K zone.
One of the interesting aspects of the side-by-side box plot is that the K zone has the
second largest frequency of artifacts, because this is generally referred to as the “most
pure” or artifact absent anthropogenic strata that is more highly restricted spatially in the
rockshelter than the others.

It should be noted it was expected the outliers would be associated with the 2mg,
for the simple fact they represent four times the volume of sediment reported in the lmz.
Thus the presence of the excavation blocks from the two-meter trench among the outliers
is not too surprising, but the presence of additional outliers along the interior margin was
not expected. It needs to be stressed that the other areas of the rockshelter such as the
interior space in front of the paintings still contains debitage and in the instance of the
spatial patterning of the data the only avoidance of this area occurs during the D zone, L
zone and 0 zone times (see sequence of distribution maps in Appendix F).

The second phase of this'spatial analysis was conducted using the Wilcoxon
Matched-Pairs Signed-Ranks test and sets the D zone as the null hypothesis or control,
because it is considered to post—date the period of anthropogenic sediment fabrication,
deposition and alteration. Therefore, it is assumed to represent the distribution of lithic
materials inside the rockshelter given the absence of ritual activity. The D zone is
naturally deposited sediment that is ubiquitous across the site and contains a fairly
homogeneous associated artifact assemblage reflecting its temporal assignment to the
Terminal Late Woodland (see Appendix C). The tests conducted in association with the

debitage indicate the aggregated unit containing the E, G, H, I, and J zones is the only

61

unit significantly different than the D zone, therefore the remainder are interpreted to be
variations on the non-ritual distribution of debitage (Table 5.1 and 5.2).

These tests conducted here focused on scenarios that both included and excluded
the feature data to see if in fact there was any difference between the two. The results
were identical in that only the aggregated E, G, H, I, and J zones were significantly
different from the D zone. The remaining units were statistically similar to the
distribution of materials as observed with the D zone. A visual inspection of the spatial
distribution indicates there is fluctuation in the location of the debitage with a general
pattern including the location of concentrations during the D, L and 0 zones toward the
mouth of the rockshelter and during the K zone there are greater concentrations in
relation to the southeast corner. But, these are not statistically significant differences
based on the comparison to the null hypothesis.

The results of the spatial analysis of the projectiles using the Matched—Pairs
Signed Ranks Test indicated that the only significant difference existed between the
populations associated with the aggregated E, G, H, I, and J zones including and
excluding feature materials in relation to the rest of the study units (Table 5.3). There
were no indications of difference with zones including and excluding feature materials or
between zones. One of the reasons for this straight forward determination is the result of
the differing sample size. The sample associated with the aggregated units is five times
larger than the others that have comparable frequencies.

In summary, the results of these tests indicate a significant difference between the
aggregated E, G, H, I, and J zones as compared to the rest of the zones. It is evident part

or potentially all of this significant difference is attributable to the larger sample size

62

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63

 

present in this aggregated unit of analysis. Thus. the immediate question that arises when

viewing these data is, what happens when the aggregated unit is teased apart and the

individual micro-strata are analyzed. A further investigation designed to investigate the

complexities of this Late Woodland aggregated unit is presented next in this chapter.

Table 5.3: Results of the Spatial Distribution of the Debitage Tested against the D zone
Excluding the Feature Data.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

EGHIJ K K zone L zone 0 0 zone
EGHIJ zones zone w/out L zone w/out zone w/out
zones w/out w Fea. Fea. w F ea. Fea. w Fea. Fea.
era. Fea. -D —-D —D -D -D —D
— D zone — D zone zone zone zone zone zone zone
Z -4.38(a) -4.00(a) -1.0(a) -.84(a) -.05(a) -.05(b) -83(a) -.74(a)
Asymp.
Sig. (2- .000 .000 .307 .399 .959 .959 .409 .457
tailed)

 

a Based on negative ranks.
b Based on positive ranks.

Further Investigations — Analysis of the Late Woodland Eastman Phase

The cultural complexities of the Late Woodland Stage (AD 500 — 1050),

particularly the Eastman Phase (AD 750 — 1050) are well documented in the regional

literature and will not be reprinted in this thesis. The purpose of this section is to probe

further into the reasoning behind the significant difference in the spatial distribution of

the materials composing the aggregated E, G, H, I and J zones and D zone. It is possible

given the present understanding of the site and its associated formation processes to

formulate a preliminary understanding of this complexity by subdividing the aggregated

unit into its recognized micro-strata using the stratigraphic correlation chart. The same

type of analysis as conducted previously is applied to the distribution of the unmodified

debitage and projectiles associated with these micro-strata. The data will first be explored

64

 

using summary statistics and box plots, and then analyzed using the Wilcoxon Matched-
Pairs Signed-Ranks Test.

The exploration of the data indicates the unmodified debitage associated with
these stratigraphic zones are widely distributed with the major concentrations occurring
in the I and J zones (Figure 5.6). The immediately glaring aspect of this graph is the lack
of outliers associated with the Zmz, which is unlike the other distributions investigated
earlier with the exception of the E and J zones that have major outliers associated with
these units along the eastern wall near the mouth of the rockshelter. This is not
completely unexpected though because the majority of the anthropogenic strata (H, I, and
J zones) are concentrated in the southeast corner of the rockshelter.

The G zone and the H zone have outliers indicating increased frequencies of
debitage to the north and west of the excavated area, but also have pockets of increased
frequencies directly in front of the pictographs. The I zone outliers are located in the
southeast comer of the rockshelter with the exception of one outlier along the eastern
wall near the mouth of the rockshelter. The J zone distribution mirrors the I zone with the
inclusion of a pocket of increased frequencies located in front of the pictographs. These
results are not too surprising given the fact the majority of these sediments are
anthropogenic and concentrated in the southeastern corner of the rockshelter. But, it is
worthy to note several of the outliers associated with these units are located in the relative
area often described as being “avoided” during this time period.

The distribution of projectiles indicates the highest frequencies are associated
with the I and J zones, which are also the two zones with the highest volumes of

associated anthropogenic sediment (Figure 5.7). All of the micro—strata have outliers of

65

projectile frequencies associated with the area directly underneath the pictographs, except
for the G zone. The G zone in fact should probably be reclassified as a feature given the
fact it may represent the final burned floor within the sequence (Salzer, personal
communication). The entire zone is mostly concentrated near the central and mouth areas
of the rockshelter.

The results of the spatial analysis involving the comparison of the D zone both
including and excluding the feature debitage against the micro-strata of the Eastman
Phase mirror each other. Both of these studies indicate the distribution of the materials
associated with the G, H and I zones are significantly different (p: 95%) from the D zone
spatial patterning. The E and J zones on the other hand are similar to the D zone (Table
5.4 and 5.5).

The significant difference associated with the (3 zone can be attributed to the fact
mentioned earlier that it should be reclassified as a feature, but it should be noted there is
a possibility this zone is the result of taphonomic processes washing in the results of
forest fires. The H zone on the other hand is slightly more complicated. It is the
uppermost strata of largely anthropogenic sediment and is mostly concentrated in the
eastern portion of the rockshelter. The H zone is significantly different (p=95%) from the
D zone. The distribution of the H zone debitage includes two concentrations of flakes.
The largest concentration of debitage is situated directly beneath the pictographs, while
the other is located to the westward in sediments attributed to H zone times through the
extension of the stratigraphic correlations. This westward concentration should be treated

with some caution, as a greater understanding of the stratigraphic sequence is needed to

66

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Figure 5.6: Combined Late Woodland Eastman Phase Debitage Box Plots
67

Frequency

 

 

41

35

 

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Figure 5.7: Combined Late Woodland Eastman Phase Projectiles Box Plots

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69

 

further understand the western portion of the rockshelter. The H zone concentration
beneath the paintings tightly clustered around four units and should be explored further.
The results of the spatial analysis testing the distribution of projectile between the

D zone and the Eastman Phase micro—strata indicates the only zone significantly different
(p=95%) is the I zone (Table 5.6). The 1 zone including and excluding the feature data are
both significantly different than the distribution of projectiles associated with the D zone.
These findings are somewhat at odds with the debitage data, which was not expected.
When one looks further at the raw frequencies behind these significant differences it is
clear sample size is playing a major role; the I zone projectile assemblage is nearly five
times the size of the D zone sample of projectile points. The opposite holds true for the
debitage in that the D zone population is roughly three-and-a-half times the amount
reported for the G and H zones. Thus, as to be expected, the location of the varied
frequencies is the critical variable for determining significant differences between the
spatial pOpulations.

Table 5.6: Results of the Spatial Distribution of the Late Woodland Micro-Strata
Projectiles Tested against the D zone.

 

 

 

 

E zone —- G zone — H zone — I zone — J zone —
D zone D zone D zone D zone D zone
Z -.156(a) -.542(b) -.250(a) -3.068(a) -1.281 (a)
Asymp. Sig.
(Z-taile d) .876 .588 .803 .002 .200

 

 

 

 

 

 

3 Based on negative ranks.
b Based on positive ranks.

summary

The results of these investigations reveal several pieces of information with the

most striking being that the high frequencies of artifacts associated with the Late

 

Woodland or aggregated E, G, H, I and J zones have significantly different distributions
as compared to the null hypothesis or D zone. When this aggregated unit is separated into
its constituent parts, or micro-strata, the population of I zone projectiles and G and H
zone unmodified debitage were found to be significantly different from the null
hypothesis or D zone.

The projectiles associated with the 1 zone have long been considered to be directly
associated with the unknown ritual in the rockshelter. Units SZZWIO and SZ3W11
account for 15 of the 57 I zone diagnostic bifaces including a reworked Turkey Tail and a
small pit with three Madison points stacked on top of one another (Figure 5.8). The pit
fill also contained the evidence of at least one additional Madison point, but it was badly
burned and broken. Further research is needed to explore the data collected from this area
because it is likely a larger pit exists with superimposed smaller features such as that with
the stacked points in this locality.

The G zone as mentioned earlier should be reclassified as a feature, because it is
composed of evidence associated with the final burning of the rockshelter floor (Gartner
1993). The G zone is discontinuous across the site for unknown reasons but contains a
unique association of a broken and stacked pile of an Oneota vessel and fragments of at
least two Aztalan Collared vessels. The clay composing these Aztalan Collared vessels
has been sourced to the site of Aztalan (Stoltman personal communication).

The H zone contains numerous lenses that are easily distinguished from other
anthropogenic sediments due to their characteristics (Gartner 1993:36). The H zone is
associated with the Effigy mound and McKern phase Oneota pottery, the pigment spill

below the red horn panel and the identified sanding debris (preparation of the rock

71

surface for the red horn painting). Therefore, it is highly likely the H zone represents
individualized basket loads or offerings of anthropogenic sediment within the rockshelter.
Further investigation and refitting of the debitage associated with the H zone may help to

further explain this zone.

72

 

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Figure 5.8: Distribution of I Zone Diagnostic Bifaces — Excavation Units S22W10 and

823W] 1 are represented by bolded numbers.

73

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

The Gottschall Rockshelter in southwestern Wisconsin is a hypothesized ritual
locale of an unspecified function (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). The primary goals of this
thesis were stepwise and involved: 1) presentation of the descriptive analysis of the lithic
assemblage and 2) providing an independent test of the hypothesized partitioning of
space at the site.

The descriptive analysis provided in this thesis represents the first and only
comprehensive descriptive analysis of the 3,348 artifacts comprising the lithic
assemblage. These artifacts consist of all identified diagnostic and non-diagnostic
chipped stone tools, retouched and utilized debitage, ground stone, minerals,
miscellaneous rocks, and sandstone artifacts regardless of spatial context. The descriptive
analysis also includes all the provenienced unmodified lithic debitage, but excludes the
non-provenienced unmodified lithic debitage. This descriptive analysis ultimately formed
the data pool from which the samples for the spatial analysis were selected.

The second analytical portion of this thesis investigates the spatial distribution of
the provenienced chipped stone bifaces or projectiles and the debitage associated with the
timeframes between the Late Archaic Durst Phase (1000 BC) through the Late Woodland
Eastman Phase (AD 1050), which spans the period of the hypothesized manufacture and
manipulation of anthropogenic sediment. The purpose of conducting such an analysis was
to offer an independent assessment of the hypothesis that the anthropogenic sediment
demarcates differentiated scared and secular space, which has been assumed to be the

case for other artifact classes (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). The projectiles and debitage

74

were selected because they have the largest frequencies within the lithic assemblage.
These data and this analysis represent the only comprehensive independent assessment of

the hypothesized partitioning of scared and secular space.

Summary of Descriptive Analysis

The descriptive analysis indicated there is a tendency in all time periods of
occupation studied for the lithic assemblage to be dominated by local raw materials. In
addition, it was also observed there are several rarely occurring or unique specimens of
diagnostic hafted bifaces or projectiles and ground stone artifacts associated with this
assemblage. Finally, there are significant frequencies of lithic artifacts with observable
macroscopic use wear patterns such as identified on the minerals, which indicate
localized use and/or processing of these materials.

The lithic assemblage is overwhelmingly fashioned from locally available raw
material, which provides supporting evidence for the site being occupied and utilized by
local populations (Table 6.1). The locally available raw material sources include Prairie
du Chien chert (PDC), locally available siltstone, Galena chert and a type defined as local
river cobble that is either PDC or Galena chert naturally weathered to point of being
unidentifiable. The small percentage of artifacts identified as exotic is mostly dominated
by Burlington Chert, but does contain one instance of Indiana Hornstone, several
examples of silicified sandstone likely Hixton, igneous rocks such as granite and gabbro
and one small flake of Knife River Chalcedony. This evidence indicates the exotic
materials were coming into the rockshelter in or near their final forms and the processing

of exotic materials was minimal.

75

 

Table 6.1: Summary of Raw Material Type per Artifact Class

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Artifact Class # of Exotic (%) # of Local (%) Total #
Chipped Stone
Diagnostic Bifaces 17 (10%) 153 (90%) 167
Unidentifiable 8 (9%) 80 (91%) 88
Bifaces Fragments
Preforms 1 (5%) 18 (95%) 19
Less Diagnostic 2 (3%) 64 (97%) 66
Bifaces
Blades 5 (8%) 60 (92%) 65
Choppers 0 (0%) 1 (100%) 1
Drills 0 (0%) 2 (100%) 2
Scrapers 0 (0%) 9 (100%) 9
Cores 2 (4%) 47 (96%) 49
Denticulates 1 (14%) 6 (86%) 7
Uniface O (0%) 1 (100%) 1
Retouched Debitage 5 (13%) 34 (87%) 39
Debitage
Debitage 103 (4%) 2698 (96%) 2801
Groundstone
Geometric Shapes 0 (0%) 5 (100%) 5
Groundstone Axe 0 (0%) 1 (100%) 1
Groundstone Bowl 0 (0%) 1 (100%) 1
Groundstone 0 (0%) 13 (100%) 13
Fragments
Possible Temper 1 (100%) 0 (0%) 1
Source
Groundstone Tablet 0 (0%) l (100%) 1
Hammerstones 0 (0%) 5 (100%) 5
Sandstone Artifacts 0 (0%) 7 (100%) 7
Totals 145 (4%) 3203 (96%) 3348

 

 

 

 

There are several rarely occurring or uncommonly identified diagnostic point

types within this assemblage (Table 6.2 and see Appendix C). The Turkey Tail, Dickson

Contracting Stemmed, and Snyders types are uncommon in the Driftless Area but are

nonetheless noted as being distributed throughout the region. The Turkey Tail and

 

Dickson Contracting Stemmed types likely represent curated artifacts due to the fact they
are reworked and associated with feature contexts. The Okoboji points also potentially
occur within the region, but these types are more commonly affiliated with southerly and

westerly sites; while the Liverpool Stemmed type is traditionally found on more southerly

and easterly sites in central Illinois (Montet-White 1968). The Cahokia points are

uncommon but reported in the literature of the region. The remainder of the diagnostic

point types reported in this study are commonly observed and widely documented in the

Driftless Region.

 

within the Gottschall Assemblage

Table 6.2: Summary of Rarely Occurring Driftless Region Point Types Present

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Type Associated Period of Frequency Raw Material
Time Period Deposition
Turkey Tail Transitional Late Woodland 1 Indiana
Archaic to Hornstone
Early Woodland
Dickson Early Woodland Late Woodland 1 Burlington
Broadblade
Liverpool Early Woodland NVC* 1 PDC
Stemmed
Snyders Middle Middle 1 PDC
Woodland Woodland
Lowe Flared Middle Late Woodland 2 Burlington (2)
base Woodland
Okoboji Late Woodland Late Woodland 5 Burlington,
PDC and
Galena (3)
Cahokia side- Late Woodland Late Woodland 4 Burlington (2),
notched PDC and
Galena

 

 

It is important to point out that the Okoboji and Cahokia points possess interesting

patterns based on their raw material and condition. The Okoboji point style is represented

77

by five points and four of these possess apparent impact fractures. These points are all
associated with the Late Woodland period and are more commonly found in eastern
Plains contexts. The presence of these points coupled with the small flake of Knife River
Chalcedony strengthen the claim for relations between those individuals affiliated with
the Gottschall site and groups to the west, despite the fact the nature of these relations
remain unclear. The Cahokia points identified within this assemblage are classic Cahokia
points in that they are fashioned from Burlington chert and may have been made by the
same individual (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). If so, it is likely these points were
fashioned by someone closely related to the Mississippian culture rather than an
individual attempting to imitate or replicate this type of technology, which is more
commonly affiliated with the Driftless Region.

The hematite, calcite crystals and galena analyzed within the framework of this
thesis all posses macroscopic usewear and are likely related to unidentified activities
within the rockshelter. In addition to the heavy usewear on a majority of the hematite,
four of the chipped stone tools show evidence of heavy use near the proximal end with
what appears to be adhering hematite within the micro-cracks. The author hypothesizes
these tools were used in the processing of hematite for the purpose of processing red
ochre based pigments.

Finally, there are several unidentifiable ground stone artifacts such as the
limestone tablet, several geometric shapes, and a limestone bowl that are all associated
with the Late Woodland period. It is unclear what cultural purpose they are attributable,
but objects of similar shape and raw material are described within the context of regional

Oneota sites (Sasso 1989).

78

Summary of Spatial Analysis

The result of the spatial analysis conducted during the course of this study has
established a new method for investigating the intrasite distribution of materials at the
Gottschall Rockshelter. It is an easily transferable method that can be used to further
analyze any of the other existing subclasses of artifacts and ultimately continue testing
the hypothesized partition of space within the rockshelter. The only sub-classes
identified during this study with sufficient frequencies appropriate for this type of
analysis were the diagnostic chipped stone projectiles and the unmodified debitage.

These two sub-classes of artifacts were subjected to a multi-stepped analytical
process beginning with the calibration of the radiocarbon dates. These calibrated dates
formed the basis of aggregated chronometric units as determined by the Ox Cal program.
Once these were established, summaries of the frequencies per excavation unit were
calculated per aggregated chronometric unit, and then these combined results were
compared using the Wilcoxon Matched-Pairs Signed—Ranks statistical test.

The spatial analysis was predicated on the assumption that the D zone represents a
secular distribution of material within the rockshelter; thus, the spatial distribution of
materials in this zone was used as the basis of the null hypothesis. The results of the tests
conducted on these two sub-classes of artifacts produced identical results, in that, only
the aggregated micro-strata E, G, H, I, and J zones were found to be significantly
different (P=95%) from the D zone, despite the fact the anthropogenic sediment and
associated ritual activity is hypothesized to predate this time period. Per the results of
these initial tests, the large aggregation of micro-strata was parsed out into its individual

constituents and subjected to another series of tests. Further analysis should be conducted

79

such as a GIS based type of spatial distribution because the data is amenable to such
analysis and the large versus small sample size may be influencing these results.

The results of these tests indicated the debitage within the G and H zones, and the
projectiles within the I zone possessed significantly different distributions than the null
hypothesis. These results are best considered in the context of the present site
interpretation. The G zone represents a unique sedimentary construct and should be
reclassified as a feature due to the fact it represents the naturally eroded, last burned floor
within the depositional sequence of the rockshelter (Gartner 1993). It is possible that the
G zone is further complicated by the fact that it may possibly represent the culmination of
ritual (3) involving as many as three different archaeological cultures (Oneota,
Mississippian and an unclassified local archaeological culture) or be the result of
taphonomic processes. A closer holistic investigation of the G zone will provide insight
into not only this instance in time, but will strengthen the ability to understand the other
three burned floor features present within the rockshelter.

The H zone represents a highly concentrated mass of anthropogenic sediment in
front of the pictographs and almost exclusively contains debitage. This micro-stratum is
differentiated from others on the basis of sedimentary characteristics, and is commonly
described as being composed of identifiable individual basket—loads of anthropogenic
sediment.

The only significant difference within the distribution of the projectiles from the
null hypothesis is associated with the I zone micro-stratum. These data represent clear
evidence of ritual offerings in the form of projectile points stacked on top of one another

in a small pit, which is associated within a larger deposition of 12 projectiles constrained

80

to a small area within the southeastern corner of the rockshelter directly beneath the
pictographs. These projectiles are likely part of a larger yet undefined pit within this area
of the rockshelter filled with anthropogenic sediment. These points are representative of

multiple time periods in various uselife stages.

Future Research

The results of these analyses have highlighted several key pieces of data requiring
further investigation, which include the uncommon or rarely occurring diagnostic
projectile points within the assemblage especially those associated with the concentration
in the I zone, the Okoboji points and the Cahokia points. This study has preliminarily
identified those lithic artifacts possessing macroscopic evidence of wear, which indicates
usewear analysis would provide valuable information about the utilization of these stone
tools and the activities that occurred within the rockshelter. One avenue of research in
need of being conducted is associated with the local processing of minerals. Finally, re-fit
analysis is another type of research that would provide evidence useful for determining
onsite activity, such as providing clarity for understanding of the H zone materials.

One of the aspects hindering this study is the lack of fully analyzed and spatially
documented assemblages from other rockshelters. The view of several researchers in the
region is that the spatial distribution of materials within Driftless Region rockshelters is
bimodal, i.e., concentrations of artifacts are found distributed at both the entrance of the
rockshelter and along the internal walls (E. Boszhardt; R. Salzer; J. Theler personal
communication). This view is predicated on the belief that the central portion of the
rockshelter is commonly utilized for living space and is therefore kept relatively clean of

debris. The distribution of materials within the Gottschall Rockshelter does not conform

81

to this pattern, and that is attributable to the fact it is a ritual locale. There is a need for
further analysis to be conducted on previously excavated rockshelters such as Preston,
Durst, and Brogely in order to help establish clearly founded distributional models for
Driftless Region rockshelters.

The presence of such rarely documented materials within the Gottschall
Rockshelter assemblage provides a wealth of information useful for investigating the
relationship between the interior of the Driftless Area and greater cultural historic
sequence of the Upper Mississippi River Valley. The limited presence of artifacts
associated with some of the most influential cultural phenomena of the region including
the Hopewellian and Mississippian is useful for addressing questions of ethnicity and
boundary maintenance or frontiers. The Gottschall Rockshelter is a pivotal site in
understanding how local populations interacted with these and other influential cultural
phenomena due to its unique character and geographic position. Once the entire
assemblage has been fully analyzed and area data have been compiled these issues will

continue to further illuminate them.

Conclusions

The lithic assemblage from the Gottschall Rockshelter contains a number of
rarely or uncommonly occurring diagnostic point types, minerals and ground stone tools.
The diagnostic materials in particular provide useful information for further refining the
cultural historic sequence in the region by providing the first clearly dated Honey Creek
Comer Notched projectile points, which are shown to be bracketed at this site to between
A.D. 550 to 1300 with a mode at ~ A.D. 800 i 75 based on the calibrated radiocarbon

dates. In addition, several rarely or uncommonly occurring diagnostic projectile points

82

strengthen the connectivity of the Driftless Region populations to archaeological cultures
beyond its geographic boundary and indicates that individuals at the Gottschall
Rockshelter likely had contact outside this physiographic zone, especially during the Late
Woodland period. The nature of these relations is presently unclear but future research
will continue to illuminate these relations.

It is also apparent that only during the Late Woodland period is the distribution of
debitage and diagnostic projectiles significantly different than is assumed to be a secular
distribution of materials. The distributions of these artifacts are almost assuredly the
result of ritual behavior given the fact their distribution is structured and concentrated.
These patterns become more evident when the individual micro-stratum and their
depositional histories are illustrated. It is also clear from this research that the study of the
nature of ritual within the rockshelter should begin with a holistic review of the Late
Woodland period and then be extended back into time as the data allow. The Late
Woodland period is when the ritual is most elaborate and most easily identifiable within
the archaeological record. This is by no means an easy task, and will require a complete
review of the Gottschall site excavations, full analysis of the artifactual materials and
digitization of all records.

The wealth of information obtained from the Gottschall Rockshelter will continue
to invite and entice scholarly research for generations. The manner in which the data was
collected is a true testament to the care and professionalism forwarded by Dr. Robert
Salzer and Dr. Grace Rajnovich. These data will allow for an unlimited number of

research avenues spanning spatial analysis, individual artifact analysis and even the

83

assessment of archaeological techniques. The site truly does represent one of the greatest

archaeological data sets thus available within the Upper Mississippi River Valley.

84

APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF RESEARCH AT THE GOTTSCHALL
ROCKSHELTER

Discovery

A local 11-year-old boy named Dean Dax initially discovered the Gottschall
Rockshelter. Dean was playing in this locally well known rockshelter with a flashlight
and happened upon more than 40 different pictographs and a smaller number of
petroglyphs on the shelter walls. He notified his father, who in turn took photographs of
the paintings and began circulating them among professional archaeologists. Dr. Robert
Salzer of Beloit College observed the photographs and was eventually convinced to make
a trip to the rockshelter in the early 19803. Upon arrival Salzer recognized the
Mississippian iconography within the paintings and began formulating a strategy to test
the underlying deposits and assess the authenticity of the paintings (Salzer 1987).

Rock Art Research

The rock art present at the Gottschall Rockshelter is well studied and publicized
(Salzer 1987, 1987a, 1997; Salzer and Rajnovich 2001; Salzer, Hall and Dieterly 2005).
The analysis and recording of the rock art at the site was given first priority in terms of
the research strategy employed at the Gottschall Rockshelter. The paintings were
photographed using ultraviolet light and color infrared film. Once clear photographic
images of the painting were obtained Mary Steinhauer made tracings of the individual
figures, and these tracing stand today as the primary source for interpretation of the
figures represented by the pictographs (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). There are six
“panels” or compositions of pictographs at the Gottschall Rockshelter with the most
famous of them being the “Red Horn” panel.

The Red Horn panel is a group of figures hypothesized by Salzer and Rajnovich
(2001) to represent the major characters in a section of the Red Horn Cycle as recorded
by Paul Radin from Sam Blowsnake and translated by Oliver Lamere (Radin 1948). It is
not the goal of this thesis to assess the interpretation of the Red Horn panel; therefore, the
interested reader is directed toward several publications on this topic including an on-line
debate recently held between Salzer, Hall, and Dieterly (2005).

The Red Horn panel is not only directly attributable to an oral tradition, but is
commonly cited as one of the only prehistoric rock art sites in North America where the
composition is hypothesized as being datable (Boszhardt 2003; Salzer and Rajnovich
2001). The dating of the painting is predicated on three converging lines of evidence. The
first is related to the assumption that the surface of the rock where the Red Horn panel
was painted was prepared or sanded. The results of the preparation of the rock surface
undoubtedly resulted in the removal of an unknown amount of sand grains from the St.
Peter’s sandstone formation. The sanding debris from this event was reportedly observed
during the excavation process of the area below the Red Horn panel (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001 :23) The sanding debris was observed in the H Zone from which there are
no dated carbon samples, but this zone is being reported as being stratigraphically
positioned between the G Zone (AD 785 - 935) and the I Zone (AD 765 — 945; Salzer
and Rajnovich 200124).

85

A second line of evidence used to date the Red Horn panel is predicated on the
results of cross-dating the present iconography. According to Salzer and Rajnovich
(2001:21-33) the iconography referred to relates to “ several [shared] traits with
Mississippian art to the south produced between AD 1000-1400", which include the
forked-eye motif and the Akron grid (Brown and Kelly in press; Phillips and Brown
1978; Salzer and Rajnovich 2001:31-32).

The reasoning behind this elaboration of the evidence used to make the
connection between the Red Horn panel and the chronological sequence at the Gottschall
Rockshelter is because the panel is often used to support the claims of ceremonial and
cultural continuity at the Gottschall Rockshelter (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001). The panel
is also frequently used as evidence to hypothesize about the nature of the behavior
associated with the site, including an interpretation that the viewing area relating to this
Red Horn panel is sacred space. It is important to acknowledge these hypotheses and
assumptions prior to assessing and interpreting the archaeological evidence for the human
behavior responsible for the observed archaeological record. It should be noted this thesis
assumes the above hypothesis to be correct, but acknowledges there is no evidence to
support or negate the possibility of rock art on the panel before the construction of the
Red Horn composition.

Excavation

Excavation at the site began in 1984 under the direction of Dr. Robert Salzer of
Beloit College. Subsequent to initial inspection of the site, a two-meter exploratory trench
was extended mid—way near the drip line of the rockshelter and then turned south,
towards the rear of the shelter (Figure A. 1). The exploratory two-meter wide trench
revealed a well—stratified, undisturbed sequence within the rockshelter (Figure A.2). Re-
evaluation of the excavation strategy, after completion of the two-meter trench, prompted
the adoption of 1m2 excavation units. These 1m units were excavated in 2cm levels by
stratum, with the requirement all items larger than a dime in size whether cultural or non-
cultural be left in situ. The artifacts and the top of each 2cm level were photographed and
mapped, and the artifacts assigned individual provenience information (Salzer and
Rajnovich 200029).

Sediments considered “suspect” or disturbed and the artifacts within them were
assigned to a category of “no vertical control” (NVC). Thus, securing that only artifacts
within clearly defined contexts would be assigned provenience information, consistent
with the adoption of Butzer’s (1982) contextual approach (Salzer and Rajnovich 200029).

Similar demands for secure context were utilized in collecting datable carbon
samples. All carbon collected for potential radiocarbon samples had to be associated with
hearths or surface floor burnings, and surrounded on a minimum of three sides by the
oxidized portion of an intact hearth or burning (Salzer: personal communication). These
procedures resulted in 24 radiocarbon assays that reveal a sequence of occupations at the
site from 1504 BC. :1: 80 to A.D. 1430 :t 85 uncalibrated calendar years.

86

Interior
Rockshelter
Wall

 

Scale
motors

Figure A. 1: Gottschall Site Map

 

Figure A.2: Profile wall
87

Sedimentological Research

It has been hypothesized by William Gartner (1993) that the zones labeled as
strata G, H, I, J, and K, originally thought to be aeolian soils (Salzer 1987a), may instead
be the result of human construction or fabrication. Consequently, these soils were termed
anthropogenic sediments, commonly abbreviated as anthroseds.

“They vary in color from a light gray to a ‘peach’ to ‘pink’ to ‘yellow' to ‘tan' to 'dark
gray’. They are powdery and feel rather ‘talcy.’ They are primarily composed of ash from
burned coniferous trees and grass. Significant quantities of burned and ground limestone
are also present. Crushed and ground (unburned) animal bone and shell are included in
lesser amounts. Minor additions of crystals of rutile, calcite, galena, and hornblende are
also noted (Gartner 1993). Of these ingredients, two are certainly exotic: the nearest
outcrop of limestone is about two miles away; the nearest source of clams is the
Wisconsin River which is about eight miles distant (Salzer and Rajnovich 2000:10)

There is evidence of a hearth, Feature 85, also referred to as an “earth oven,” at
the site that contained burned limestone slabs. Limestone is thought to be one of the main
components of anthroseds, and thus it has been inferred based on the presence of these
prepared limestone slabs, that the anthroseds were made on site (Salzer and Rajnovich
2000210).

Anthroseds, by definition, are an artifact; because humans constructed them they
are subject to human intention and are not necessarily deposited in accord with natural
processes. The placement of the anthrosed is consistent through time and space with the
largest concentrations located in the southeast portion of the rockshelter (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2000). The known span of anthrosed use at the rockshelter is from the Late
Archaic Durst Phase (1000-500 BC.) to Late Effigy Mound Phase (A.D. 1000-1100),
with the most intensive use of anthrosed between the Late Millville Phase (A.D. 350-500)
and the Eastman Phase (A.D. 750-1000; Salzer and Rajnovich 2000:11).

Ceremonial Continuity

The Gottschall Rockshelter is being interpreted as a pre-contact ritual location
possessing ceremonial continuity spanning the Late Archaic to the Late Woodland
periods (Gartner 1993; Salzer and Rajnovich 2000, 2001, 2004). The premise for this
conclusion relates to the presence of hypothesized anthropogenic sediment being
constructed and deposited at the site. The location of the deposition of the anthropogenic
sediment and the chemical signature of the sediment itself remains relatively consistent
throughout this time span (Gartner 1993).

The earliest observed deposit of anthropogenic sediment is observed within the O
and N zones. These strata are associated with Feature 85 the “earth oven”, and are Late
Archaic period deposits (780 — 450 BC). The anthropogenic sediment is reportedly used
as “caps” on surface or floor burnings cleaned of ash and charcoal within the O and N
Zones (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001, 2004). These burnings were constructed on a surface
where water had previously flowed, which is supported by the sedimentary structures of
the matrix below the hearths (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001, 2004). The use of
anthropogenic sediment as “caps” on hearths continues until the Middle Woodland
period.

88

The proposed ceremony involving anthropogenic sediment becomes more
elaborate in the Middle Woodland period or the beginning of the Millville Phase, as
witnessed through increased volumes of anthropogenic sediment deposited within the
same location in association with more intense burnings (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001).
The first “burned floor”, Feature 100, was “massive burning of the top of the L Zone (AD
210 - 410). It appears to have been rectangular, about 5 meters wide and orientated
approximately east—west.” (Salzer and Rajnovich 2001:11). Feature 100 was outlined by a
series of widely spaced posts defining the northern and eastern edges, and it is speculated
these posts represents the supports for an unknown structure within the rockshelter (Pizza
1995, Salzer and Rajnovich 2001212).

There is an additional construction within the rockshelter that has its origins
during the L Zone (AD 210 — 410), which is the “revetment”. The revetment is a pile of
large rocks, bones and dirt. It is proposed to be a flood control mechanism (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001:13). The revetment also serves as an impoundment for the
anthropogenic sediment and continues to do so until the Late Woodland Stage — Eastman
Phase.

Regardless of the function of these posts, sheet flow eventually eroded the Feature
100 complex (burning covered with anthropogenic sediment). After the flooding event, a
second large scale intensive burning occurred referred to as Feature 94 (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001). Feature 94 was a fire constructed directly above the location of Feature
100. Feature 94 is associated with the K Zone (AD 425 -— 670) or the end of the Millville
Phase.

Shortly after the construction of the Feature 94 complex (burning covered with
anthropogenic sediment) Gartner recognizes a “significantly different [zone] from the
remainder of the anthroseds” (1993:33). Gartner posits the J zone (AD 725 — 900) as
beginning or being the result of sheet flow across the rockshelter, or raking activities
(Gartner 1993, personal communication). Regardless of the origins of the J Zone, it is in
some respects a cultural disconformity, in that it is positioned at the juncture between the
Middle Woodland Stage - Millville Phase and the Mature Late Woodland — Eastman
Phase. The J Zone is “easily distinguished from the I and K Zones by its dark brown
(10YR3/3) color and high sand content.” (Gartner 1993:33). It is easily distinguished
because the anthropogenic sediment became mixed with natural sediments creating a
“dirty” appearance and a “gritty” feel due to the presence or inclusion of sand grains or
larger particle sizes. The J Zone is also characterized by large sized, disoriented artifacts,
which further support the interpretation the zone is a combination of K Zone and L Zone
beginning mixed and redeposited.

The I Zone (AD 765 — 945) represents a time period during the Late Woodland
Stage — Eastman Phase when anthropogenic sediments were intermittently being
deposited throughout the rockshelter. There is a rectangular pattern of post molds of
unknown function situated in roughly the same location as the Millville Phase posts, but
they are smaller in size (Pizza 1995; Salzer and Rajnovich 2001).

It is during the period in which, the I Zone is being manufactured and deposited
that another structure is manufactured within the rockshelter. The structure manufactured
at this point is a pile of “pure” anthropogenic sediment or a pile of anthropogenic
sediment consisting of little to no sand grains. The pile is situated directly in front of the
hole in the southeast corner of the rockshelter and is an elongated mound of

89

anthropogenic sediment. This pile of pure anthropogenic sediment and the same
anthropogenic sediment is placed on the ramp and on the revetment. Salzer and
Rajnovich hypothesize that the makers, and eventually depositers, of the anthropogenic
sediment during the Late Woodland — Eastman Phase conceptually linked the revetment
and the ramp, because they envisioned these two structures as being one (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001). The resulting conclusion indicates the potential for the ramp and
revetment to be joined in the shape reminiscent of a bird. This hypothesis, too, has yet to
be confirmed and it only can be with confirmation relating to the other side of the mound
of anthropogenic sediment.

The G Zone (AD 795 — 935) dates to the same time period as the I Zone Late
Woodland — Eastman Phase based on the radiocarbon assays, but based upon stratigraphy
and unusual associated artifacts it can be situated more recently in time. The artifacts
associated with the G Zone include Aztalan Collared and early Oneota pottery. It is
thought the G Zone represents the by-products and admixture of the results of an intense
burning event of unknown origin with anthropogenic sediments, most probably I Zone
materials (Gartner 1993241).

The E Zone (AD 810 — 1130) marks the official end of the deposition of
anthropogenic sediments at the site. It is during the Terminal Late Woodland Stage —
Kekoskee Phase that the amount of anthropogenic sediment deposited on site decreases
dramatically. The discard of the carved and painted sandstone head in association with
feasting debris and anthropogenic sediment also occurs at this time (Salzer and Rajnovich
' 2001:41; Theler 1998, personal communication).

The D Zone (AD 1345 — 1840) is the most recent prehistoric deposit inside the
rockshelter and it contains no evidence of anthropogenic sediment construction or
deposition. There is evidence of human occupation inside the rockshelter, but it is
sporadic and less intensively utilized than in earlier time periods.

Ceremonial continuity is predicated on the continued manufacture and deposition
of the anthropogenic sediment in relation to the same ceremonial core (Salzer and
Rajnovich 2001). Salzer and Rajnovich (2001) propose the core of the ceremony to
involve the consecration of ground impacted by the erosion of high-energy sheet flow or
flooding events. It is assumed the ceremony has roots in the Late Archaic and then
becomes more elaborate through the presence of anthropogenic sediment capped
burnings, covered burned floors, ramps of pure sediment until it ceases in the Late
Woodland period. It is also proposed that the area demarcated by the anthropogenic
sediment represents the ceremonial area within the Rockshelter, resulting in general
avoidance of the area in relation to those areas where anthropogenic sediment does not
exist.

Recognizing Pattern in Preliminary Spatial Analysis

There have been numerous small-scale studies conducted relating to the spatial
analysis of artifacts recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter but all are relatively
limited in scope relative to the larger sets of information available. The following section
will discuss the history, basis and limitations of the known preliminary spatial analysis
reports.

Spatial Distribution A na/ysis (GIS approach)

90

Wagner (2004) completed a Masters Degree at the University of Northern Illinois
by conducting a preliminary spatial distribution analysis using GIS to investigate artifact
patterning of all artifacts indicated within the field notes and catalogues from the
inception of the project in 1984 to the mid 19905. It is a project completely reliant upon
field observations/notes, which is problematic for a number of reasons. One of the
shortcomings is predicated on the high volume of identification errors resulting from
reliance upon the identification of artifacts by inexperienced volunteers and interns.
Another inherent limitation relates to the field notes associated with the two two-meter
trench. These observations/notes rarely include piece-plotted artifacts, as the majority of
the artifactual material was bagged by arbitrary level or assigned to a particular feature.

This report is also limited to only those artifacts receiving piece plot coordinates,
which account for an unknown percentage of the total assemblage from the Gottschall
Rockshelter. These piece-plotted artifacts are the end result of the excavation of a 2cm
level, and represent at the least a size bias. The size bias is present because the excavator
is instructed to “put dime sized artifact or smaller into your level bag”, while the
remaining smaller artifact are often incorporated into the aggregated level sample. Thus
the field observations/notes do not contain any information relating to those artifacts
recovered in the flotation samples, NVC bags or Level bags. These artifacts are absent
from the analysis. Despite these limitations this thesis stands, at present, as being the only
spatial distribution analysis concurrently investigating the entire piece-plotted
assemblage.

Debitage Analysis

Haley and Shimer’s (2002) study on the preliminary distribution analysis of waste
flakes examined the distribution of mostly complete flakes from the lithic debitage
assemblage. The results of the study are skewed to the scale of investigating only the
distribution of complete or intact, unbroken flakes. The limitations of time were a critical
factor in the compilation of this study.

Despite the fact that this study focuses on only one aspect of the lithic debris, the
data appears to indicate differentiated space, especially during the period when the I Zone
was being deposited on the site (AD 765 — 945) (Haley and Shimer 2002).

Postmold and Scaffolds

Pizza’s (1995) study, as previously mentioned in this thesis, investigates the
distribution of the proposed post molds at the site. This report is much more narrowly
focused and uses the photographic record, maps and field notes as the data sources. The
one aspect potentially limiting to Pizza’s study is that the stratigraphic correlation chart
might be slightly different at present than it was when her 1995 report was written.

The excavations at the Gottschall Rockshelter approached the central location
under the Red Horn panel from two different directions. The southward progression of
excavation units along the east wall provided somewhat different observations than the
eastward progression of excavation units along the south wall. The true stratigraphic
correlation for the site was not completely reconciled until the excavation of SZlWlO and
W22W10, which didn’t occur until the late 19905 and early 2000s.

91

Anthropogenic Sediment

Gartner’s (1993) hallmark research project has provided a wealth of information
relating to the stratigraphic record at the Gottschall Rockshelter. This report stands alone
as the backbone of the stratigraphic-related interpretations from the site. The report
discusses both the natural and cultural activities responsible for the ultimate depositional
sequence at the rockshelter. It is also the most authoritative publication relating to the
chemical composition of the hypothesized anthropogenic sediment. More intensive study
of the chemical composition of the anthropogenic sediment has been proposed, but to
date it does not exist (Gartner, personal communication).

Gartner’s piece includes a discussion of the spatial distribution of the
anthropogenic sediment, but it is now somewhat out of date since the excavations have
continued beyond the scope of his study. It is likely the amount of excavated space at the
rockshelter has doubled since the original publication on the anthropogenic sediment was
conducted. Many new samples of anthropogenic sediment remained unanalyzed, which
can be used to test the hypothesis of geochemical continuity between the Terminal Late
Woodland Stage and the Late Archaic Stage anthropogenic sediment. The study is also
limited to the analysis of the anthropogenic sediment, which means there is little to no
discussion of the artifactual material or the C14 chronology.

Human Remains

There have been two recent studies conducted on the human remains from the
Gottschall Rockshelter. Petty (2002) provided the first preliminary investigation of the
identification and distribution of human remains from the site, while Sauer and Tichnell
(2006) have conducted a study augmenting the former.

The Petty (2002) study focused on identifying the remains, their treatment and
their spatial distribution. The Sauer and Tichnell (2006) study does much the same but
stands as the official report due to the fact that it is a published document and is more
exhaustive than the Petty (2002) study.

There were 349 bone specimens analyzed in this study and “the sample is
overwhelmingly cranial, about 95%” (Sauer and Tichnell 2006: 13). It was concluded
that there is no evidence to support a direct internment, rather it maybe these cranial
fragments were being broken somewhere else and carried to the site, because the
breakage patterns suggest human manipulation (Sauer and Tichnell 2006). The spatial
distribution of these human skeletal fragments provides compelling data supporting a
concentration of human remains toward the mouth of the rockshelter.

The distribution of these human skeletal remains does take into account the
vertical distribution. The spatial analysis present in the report is a horizontal analysis,
probably due to the fact the researchers were unaware of and lacked access to this type of
information. It is possible to reconstruct the vertical distribution of these human skeletal
fragments for comparative purposes within this thesis, but it will require more research
because the Sauer and Tichnell (2006) report does not associate the reported stratigraphic
information in the published inventory. It may well be useful to compile these maps,
because they will indicate if in fact there are changing distributional patterns relating to
the human remains at the Gottschall Rockshelter over time.

92

Summary

The synopses of these preliminary reports indicate the amount of research
undertaken to understand the patterning present at the Gottschall Rockshelter. These
studies at times go beyond the limitations of the excavation notes, and at other times rely
solely on this data. The purpose of the current spatial study is to go beyond the
confinements to which previous distributional studies adhered in order to assess, in a less
biased manner, the distributional pattern of the Gottschall assemblage. This thesis is
narrowly focused on the descriptive and spatial analyses of the lithic assemblage, but it is
hoped that through investigation of the entire lithic assemblage, including all piece
plotted, level, NVC and flotation sample related artifacts, that a greater understanding of
the potential differentiation of the interior space at the Gottschall Rockshelter can be
obtained.

93

APPENDIX B: STRATIGRAPHIC CORRELATION CHARRTS
Compiled by Grace Rajnovich and amended by Aaron Naumann

The purpose of this appendix is to document the means necessary to fully
understand the two stratigraphic correlation charts created for the Gottschall Rockshelter.
These two sections are separated based on the shift in excavation methodologies, with
one associated with the initial testing of the site through the two-meter test trench, and the
other with excavations post two meter trench.

Stratigraphic Correlations: two-meter test trench

The two-meter test trench constitutes the initial testing strategy designed to assess
the stratigraphic integrity of the site deposits. These tests involved the excavation of a
two-meter trench in the shape of an “L” (see Figure A. 1). The first part of a strategy was
designed to sample the sediments inside the rockshelter parallel to the mouth of the
rockshelter through the excavation of an east-to-west series of units (818W8, S18W10,
818W12, 818Wl4 and S18W16). The second step in this testing strategy was to extend a
series of units southward (822W16 and S24W16) to the back of the rockshelter from
818W16. These units were excavated in a leap-frog fashion to enable the resultant profile
walls of adjacent units to be studied to ensure unexcavated units be dug with greater
precision. The initial two-meter test trench units were excavated in 10 cm arbitrary levels
based on the natural stratigraphy and no artifacts were piece plotted. Also, detailed plan
view maps were only made when features were observed.

The correlations presented in this section are largely based on the excavation
notes of Mary Steinhauer, Dan Miller and William Gartner’s Master’s thesis (1993).
These excavation notes were cross referenced against Dr. Robert Salzer’s field notes and
the collective memory of other present during the excavations including Dr. William
Gartner and Dr. Grace Rajnovich. In addition, these conclusions were compared to the
results of later excavations of adjacent l-x-l m2.

In summary, the series of units along the “18 line” or northern most edge of the
excavations revealed a mixture of sediments resulting from alluvial processes at the
mouth of the rockshelter or birm indicated by the drip line in Figure 8.1 and the
sediments defining the southeastem portion of the rockshelter. The strata observed in
these units was often fragmentary and failed to cover the entire square; therefore, the
excavation conducted and these subsequent stratigraphic correlations represent the “best
guess” as to the true stratigraphic position of those materials excavated from these units.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table B.l: Stratigraphic Correlation for $18W16
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
B zone, level 1 B zone in southern half and D zone in northern half
B zone, level 2 D zone (and E zone?)
B zone, level 3 D zone
D zone I zone
E zone L zone

 

 

 

 

94

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table B.2: Stratigra hic Correlation for SlBWlZ
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
D zone, level 1 D zone
D zone, level 2 Bottom of D, E, and G zones
E zone, level 1 Lens of H zone
E zone, level 2 Lens of I zone
G zone G and J zone
I zone K zone
J zone L zone
K zone L zone
Table B.3: Stratigraphic Correlation for 822W16
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
D zone D and G zones
E zone, levels 1, 2, & 3 H and I zones
G zone J, K, L, M and N zones
Table B.4: Stratigraphic Correlation for SlBWlO
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
D zone D and E zones
DX zone Birm was mixed with D zone, No-Vertical-Control (NVC)
E zone Lenses of H and 1 zones with F ea. 32 (H zone fill)
G zone I zone
I zone Lenses of I and J zone
IX zone A discrete dumping — should be called a feature
K zone, level 1 I zone
K zone, levels 2 & 3 J zone
L zone Bottom of J zone and L zone
Table B.5: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZOWIG
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
D zone, level 1 D zone
D zone, level 2 G zone
E zone H zone?
G zone, level 1 I zone
G zone, level 2 J, L and M zones

 

 

 

 

 

Table B.6: Stratigraphic Correlation for 818Wl4

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
D zone, level 1 & 2 D zone
D zone, level 3 E zone
E, G, H, I, J & K zones H, I, J, and K zones

 

 

95

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table B.7: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZ4W16
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
D zone, level 1 “good” D zone (and E zone?)
D zone, level 2 H zone?
E zone I zone
G zone, level 1 I zone
G zone, level 2 J zone
G zone, level 3 K zone
H zone Mixed J and K zones
I, J, KX & K zones O zone
L 8: M zones T zone
N zone ?
O & P zones ?
Q zone ?
R zone ?
S zone ?
T zone ?
U zone ?
V zone ?

 

 

 

Stratigraphic Correlations: one-meter excavation units

Post two-meter trench excavations were conducted under a revised methodology
largely based on the discovery of anthropogenic sediment (Gartner 1993). The 1m2 units
were excavated in 2 cm levels by stratum, with the requirement that all items cultural or
non-cultural be left in situ. Upon completion of the level, it was photographed, mapped
and each artifact was assigned individual provenience information and collected (Salzer
and Rajnovich 200029).

During the course of excavation, some errors were made in classifying each
individual 2 cm level. For example, the westerly units 822W18 and 822W19 exhibited
sediments that did not appear to correlate with adjacent units or those within the southeast
comer until excavations reached the “L zone”. Then, upon review of the excavations
determinations and revisions of the stratigraphic assignment of the upper zones was
secured. Other forms of error included misreading notes and profiles “user errors” and
still other arose as a result of features obscuring the stratigraphic continuation of zones
through multiple units. Therefore, these correlations are designed to correct the majority
of the problems for the purpose of analysis and interpretation of vertical distribution of
artifacts.

Correlations with a “?” indicate our “best guess” at the moment based on the
review of the excavation notes, director notes, and the collective knowledge and
experiences at the site of the senior research team directed by Dr. Robert Salzer and
consisting of Dr. Bill Gartner, Dr. Grace Rajnovich and the author. Those units not listed
in this series of tables such as Sl9W11 and S19W12 do not require a stratigraphic
correlation chart and the stratigraphic classifications initially assigned during excavation
stand.

96

 

Table B.8: Stratigraphic Correlation for S16W10

 

Original Zone

Stratigraphic Correlation

 

E zone, levels 15 -— 20

 

L zone

 

 

Table B.9: Stratigraphic Correlation for S20W9

 

Original Zone

Stratigraphic Correlation

 

IA zone

Fea.25

 

 

 

Table B.lO: Stratigraphic Correlation for S20Wll

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
IA zone F ea. 25
Table 3.11: Stratigraphic Correlation for 820W10
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
Artifacts #ed El/20 — E1/39 Fea. 25
IA zone Fea. 25
JA zone K zone
All N zones (N, NA, NB, NBA, etc.) 0 zone
E zone L zone

 

 

 

Table B.lZ: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZOWlZ

 

 

 

 

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
H zone, levels 1, 2, I zone (except artifacts H1/3 and H1/13 = H zone)
& 3

 

 

H zone, levels 4 — 15 J zone (except artifacts H4/3-5, H4/10, and H4/18 = I zone;

H5/10-11, H6/1, H6/8-13, H7/11 and H8710 = I zone)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table B.l3: Stragraphic Correlation for SZlWlO
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation

J and JA zones K zone

All N zones O zone

 

 

Table B.l4: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZlWll

 

Original Zone

Stratigraphic Correlation

 

J zone, level 8

 

K zone

 

 

Table B.lS: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZlWl3

 

 

 

 

 

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
H zone I zone
Feature 88 M zone

 

 

Table B.16: Stratigraphic Correlation for S22W1]

 

Original Zone

Stratigraphic Correlation

 

IBC zone

 

 

No-Vertical—Control (NVC)

 

97

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3.17: Stratigraphic Correlation for S22W19

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
EC, ED, EE zones H zone
EF zone I zone?
EG zone J zone?
EH zone K zone?
EI zone L zone?

 

 

 

Table B.l8: Stratigraphic Correlation for S20Wll

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
IA zone Fea. 25

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 3.19: Stratigraphic Correlation for SZZW18

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
G, GA, GAA, GBE, GC & GD zones E zone
GB, GBA, GBB, GBC & GBD zones H zone
GH, GI, & GJ J zone
GK & GJA zones K zone
Table B.20: Stratigraphic Correlation for S23Wl3
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
JB zone K zone
Table 3.21: Stratigraphic Correlation for S23W17
Original Zone Stratigraphic Correlation
H & 1 zones E zone

 

 

 

 

98

 

APPENDIX C: CHIPPED STONE

The purpose of this appendix is to present the full data set for the Chipped Stone
Artifact group that includes blades, choppers, cores, denticulates, diagnostic bifaces, non-
diagnostic bifaces and biface fragments, retouched debitage, preforms, scrapers, T—drills
and one uniface. These data are presented in the progression of the aforementioned
alphabetized sequence of artifact classes and the combined spreadsheet at the end of this
appendix includes the relevant metric data per individual case that is summarized in the
main text. The vacant cells within the spreadsheet represent data that were unobtainable
during the course of this research (Table C. 1).

Blades

Blades are specialized flakes removed from prepared cores. The formal definition
stipulates that the flake be twice the dimension of the width, often with parallel ridges
running longitudinally along the dorsal surface. These ridges are the result of prior flake
removal and there is generally some additional evidence from the grinding of the
platform or other preparations evident on the blade.

A total of 65 blades were recovered from the rockshelter. The majority of these
(n=59) are somewhat ambiguous as they possess the general blade morphology, but are
not classic examples of specific blade technology. Rather, these artifacts may likely
represent lithic debitage closely relating to blade morphology, but due to the paucity of
blades observed in the rockshelter these artifacts are being included. Despite these
ambiguous blades, there is one utilized complete classic Hopewell blade fashioned from
heat treated Burlington chert and five other Hopewell blade fragments constructed from
local raw materials (Figure C.1). It is likely these blades were imported to the site as no
formal blade cores or debitage indicative of this technology was observed within the
rockshelter assemblage.

 

Figure C.l: Hopewell blades from the Gottschall Rockshelter

99

Choppers

Choppers are cobbles that have been modified, usually bifacially, into a teardrop
shape by the removal of several flakes from one end. The opposite cortical, rounded end
is unmodified, providing a handgrip during utilization. A single chopping tool was
recovered from the site. It is a large piece of PDC chert that was likely a multidirectional
core that was later utilized as a chopper (Figure C.2).

 

Figure C.2: Large chopper ($22W12 JB 1)

Cores

Cores are blocks of raw material with obvious evidence of intentional
manipulation from such activities as platform preparation or flake scars. A total of 49
artifacts attributable to this category were recovered from the rockshelter, including three
types of cores (bifacial, multidirectional and unidirectional) and tested cobbles (n=49).

Bifacial cores exhibit flakes scars primarily on opposing sides, with an artificially
created edge between them (Figure 03). There was one core recovered from the
rockshelter.

100

 

Figure C.3: Bifacial core (S22W19 EHB 1/ 15)

Multidirectional cores possess random oriented flake scars (Figure C.4). There
were a total of 46 multidirectional or fragments of multidirectional cores recovered fiom
the site. These cores were nearly entirely fashioned from locally available raw materials
sources such as Prairie du Chien and Galena cherts. There were only two multidirectional
cores recovered from the site made of Burlington chert or exotic material.

 

Figure C.4: Multidireetional Core made from Burlington Chert (S23W13 IK 4)

101

Unidirectional cores exhibit flakes scars oriented in a similar direction and are
often associated with blade production (Figure C.5). There were two unidirectional cores
recovered from the rockshelter. One of these is a burned unidirectional core fragment
recovered from feature context, while the other is a complete core recovered from the K
zone.

 

’1 IOCMS.‘ l

Figure C.5: Unidirectionalcore (S23W13 F81)

 

 

Tested cobbles are blocks of raw material generally covered with a high
percentage of cortex that have had flakes removed (Figure C.6). It is assumed the limited
number of flake scars indicate an assessment of the prehistoric raw material’s suitability
as a core. The tested cobble therefore, represents a rejected block of raw material. There
were two tested local cobbles recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter.

 

L Io CMS.
Figure C.6: Tested cobble (SZZWIZ LAl/2)

102

Denticulates

This type of tool is formed when small flakes are removed along one lateral edge
of a piece, in order to form a working edge that is multiple-notched or serrated. It is
generally assumed these types of artifacts were fashioned for the shredding of vegetal
matter for the purpose of creating cords or rope (Salzer personal communication). There
were seven denticulates identified within the assemblage spanning from the Late Archaic
to the Late Woodland (Figure C.7).

 

‘ ‘ Io CMS.

Figure C.7: Denticulate (S18W8 T2)

.TH

Diagnostic Projectile Points

Early Archaic - Kirk Corner Notched

The Kirk Corner Notched point type exhibits a large triangular blade with a
straight or slightly rounded base and bifacially serrated blade edges (Coe 1964). The
blade edges are occasional beveled, but basal grinding is absent (Broyles 1971; Justice
1987:71). In addition, the shoulders are wide and exhibit barbs projecting downward
toward the base with deep comer notches. It is largely interpreted as a spear/knife point
(Higgins 1990; Nienow and Boszhardt 1997).

The temporal span often assigned to this type of point stretches from 7000 to 5000
BC. Several of these were found stratigraphically below Raddatz Side Notched points at
the Raddatz Rockshelter in Sauk County, Wisconsin. The presence of such diagnostic
chipped stone bifaces in the Driftless Region is interesting, because this point type is
primarily found in the eastern United States. Examples of this type are rare in Wisconsin
as well as areas west of the Mississippi River, though a number of other examples are
known in Buffalo and Trempealeau Counties (Nienow and Boszhardt 1997).

103

There was one fragmented Kirk Comer Notched point recovered during the
excavations of the Gottschall Rockshelter. The lone example was recovered by a group of
University of Wisconsin-Platteville undergraduate geology students. The group decided
to place a test excavation in the center of the rockshelter in an attempt to test the deposits.
The students luckily encountered a massive sandstone boulder rather quickly in the test
pit, which they mistakenly interpreted as the top of bedrock. The group recovered a few
artifacts, but decided to abandon additional excavations. Once Dr. Robert Salzer began
formal excavations at the site one of the former students residing in the area dropped by
to turn over the artifacts to the research project.

 

Figure C.8: Kirk Corner Notched.

ll/[iddle Archaic — Raddatz Side-Notched

The Raddatz Side-Notched type was first defined by Wittry (1959a and b) as
being a large side notched form with distinctive “U”-shaped notches and squared ears
with a straight base. Justice (1987:67-68) states that Raddatz bifaces were manufactured
from trianguloid preforms using percussion and pressure flaking. He also notes the blade
shape varies considerably due to breakage and resharpening. Blades vary from excurvate
to nearly straight in outline with notches placed perpendicular to the main axis of the
blade. Justice is explicit in reminding analysts the Raddatz form subsumes many different
regional varieties of large side notched points throughout the Eastern United States, an
argument supported on a regional basis (Stoltman 1997).

The Raddatz biface is attributed to the Middle Archaic by Justice (1987) based on
excavations at stratified rockshelters and open-air sites from Iowa to Kentucky, southern
Wisconsin and northern Illinois. The dates from these sites consistently fall with the time
period 6000 to 1200 BC, with well dated examples from Wisconsin reporting to date to
4000 to 1200 BC. (Boszhardt 1977, 1982; Stoltman 1997).

There were nine Raddatz bifaces recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter. Two
of these points were recovered from deposits associated with the Late Woodland, which
clearly indicates there is some factor contributing to their location out of sequence. Three

104

of the bifaces were recovered from deposits dating to the Archaic, while another three
were collected from disturbed areas. The final point was recovered from feature context.

 

Figure C.9: Raddatz Point

Late Archaic — Madison Side Notched

Although recent commentary on the veracity of this type has moved towards
including it in the Raddatz Side-Notched type (Stoltman 1997), many researchers are
reluctant to do so until additional analysis is conducted. The type was originally defined
by Baerreis (1953) on the basis of nine points recovered from the Airport Village site on
the north side of Madison. He described the point as being a side notched point with a
“U” shaped notch placed near the base of the point. The blade outline is convex and only
rarely straight sided while the edge frequently bears fine serration.

The point was initially associated with the Woodland Tradition (Baerreis
19532154), but Stoltman (1997) has assigned it to the Archaic Tradition based on his
research of previous excavated collections. Justice includes this biface type within the
same cluster, which indicates the two are basically morphological correlates. Wittry
(1958) was making similar remarks regarding these two point types during the
excavations of the Durst Rockshelter, where both point types were identified.

A total of three bifaces recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter are identified
as Madison Side Notched. These three bifaces are recovered from different stratigraphic
affiliations within the rockshelter. One of the points was recovered from the “IA” zone,
which was discovered later in the excavations to define a filled in erosional gulley. Thus,
the materials from this zone are interpreted as NVC artifacts. The other two were
recovered in situ with one associated with the Late Woodland and the other with the Late
Archaic.

105

 

ill-“RAD I92:-

Figure C.102 Madison Side Notched

Late Archaic — Durst Stemmed

The Durst type was defined by Wittry (1958, 1959b) on the basis of collections
from the Durst and Governor Dodge State Park Rockshelters. He describes these bifaces
as being produced by the removal of long shallow notches from the corners of a leaf-
shaped blank, resulting the production of a long slightly expanding stem. The shoulders
are rounded and represent a smooth transition between the blade edges and the stem.
Justice (1987: 127-130) includes Durst Stemmed bifaces within the Lamoka Cluster,
which reflects the statistically supported belief that Durst Stemmed points are the by
product of local populations interacting with more easterly groups (Stoltman 19972136-
137)

A total of 17 Durst points were recovered from the excavations of the Gottschall
Rockshelter. Durst points were recovered from every stratigraphic zone in the sequence,
but the majority was collected from those deposits temporally related to the Late Archaic.
There was even one Durst point directly associated with the oxidize portion of a Late
Archaic heart (F137).

  

lFRAO ‘.-.._,.~,

Figure C.11: Durst Stemmed Point Recovered from Feature 137

 

106

Late Archaic — Karnak Unstemmed

The Karnak unstemmed is a thick lanceloate form that is similar in length, width
and thickness to the Karnak stemmed variety (Cook 1980). The distinction between the
two is relates to several small morphological characteristics related to the haft element
such as basal ears, shoulders and a straightened stem (Justice 19872133). These points are
generally found in central and southern Illinois, central Indiana, Kentucky and southern
Ohio. There are morphological correlates in North Carolina and a separate correlate in
Michigan and southern Ontario (Justice 1987). Yet, there have been several Karnak
stemmed variety recovered from sites in eastern Iowa (Morrow 1984). The presence of
this specimen is the first of this type reported within the Wisconsin portion of the
Driftless Region.

 

I I0 CMS. 1

Figure C. 12: Karnak unstemmed

Transitional Archaic to Woodland — Turkey Tail

There are presently three subtypes and several varieties of this particular point
type (Justice 1987:173). These bifaces are diagnostic of the Late Archaic/Early
Woodland transitional period. They are directly associated with the Red Ochre complex
and are constructed from Indiana homstone or Wyandotte chert (Cole and Deuel 1937).
The majority of these bifaces are recovered from firnerary contexts in the Illinois Valley,
but these points have been observed fi'om the Mississippi River to the western side of the
Appalachians. The point type is dated to between 1500-500 BC. and is sometime tied
into the Adena culture (Schock and Dowell 1981; Justice 1987). It is often stated that
probably no other prehistoric chipped stone tool was as widely traded as the Turkey—tail
(Justice 1987:179).

There was one biface recovered during the excavations at the Gottschall
Rockshelter that was fashioned from Indiana Hornstone. The biface has been resharpened
to the point the blade is nearly conical. The biface is associated with Late Woodland
deposits, but given the fact it has been extensively resharpened it could represent a
curated artifact.

107

 

Figure C.13 — Reworked Turkey Tail

Early Woodland — Kramer

Kramer bifaces were first defined by Munson (1966, 1971) as being lanceolate
bladed with distinct long, straight stems exhibiting heavy lateral grinding. The blade
edges are typically straight to excurvate with a parallel-sided haft element (straight stem).
The shoulders are not barbed and rarely squared, but these points are often subject to
reworking (Justice 19872184). These points are nearly always constructed from heat
treated cherts (N ienow and Boszhardt 1997).

Justice (19872184) and Munson suggest an Early Woodland cultural affiliation
dating to roughly BC. 500 and associated this point style with Marion Thick pottery and
Red Ochre ceremonialism. It is thought this point type is directly associated with the
Indian Isle Phase of the Drifiless Region of Wisconsin (Stoltman 1990).

There were four Kramer points recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter. Three
of the four points are associated with disturbed contexts while the only Kramer point
found in situ is directly associated with the Early Woodland deposits, and appears to have
been refashioned into a drill.

 

Figure C. 14: Kramer Point Reworked into a Drill

108

Early Woodland — Dickson Contracting Stemmed (Broad Bladed)

The Dickson Broad Bladed type is also known as Dickson Contracting Stemmed
(Winters 1963). This type exhibits distinct, wide trianguloid blades as a primary
characteristic often with straight blade edges (Justice 19872190; Montet-White 1968:64-
65; Perino 1968218). It is similar to the Gary Contracting Stemmed type, in that, the
widest point occurs at the shoulder and the hafi element is a contracting stem with a
rounded or square base. It is estimated this bifacial form dates to 500-300 BC.

The one example of a Dickson Broad Bladed projectile was recovered from a
feature with origins associated with the Late Woodland. The pit was capped by a deer
scapula and the point was flat lying on the bottom of this pit.

 

,IFRAO team

Figure C.15: Dickson Broad Bladed Biface

Early Woodland — Liverpool Stemmed

There is a great deal of confusion relating to this type, Liverpool Stemmed,
because of its similarities with types such as Cresap and Robbins (Murphy 1975). These
other two types, Cresap and Robbins are found further to the east and affiliated with the
Adena culture of the Early Woodland period (Dragoo 19632110). These types are
separate on the basis of spatial distribution and raw material despite the fact they co—exist
temporally. The confusion is further complicated by the introduction of the Liverpool
Stemmed variety to identify the Illinois Adena influenced point type because the type or
its relation to the other is not clearly articulated.

Despite these short comings, it can be said this type is represented by broad-
bladed, straight stemmed forms. The blade edges are excurvate with maximum blade with
occurring at or slightly above the shoulder. The shoulders are pronounced and well
defined that vary from straight and horizontal to the main blade axis to sloping downward
and forming wide barbs. These types of points are often associated with Marion Thick
pottery, which is a grit-tempered Early Woodland pottery type commonly found in the
region.

109

 

Figure C.16: Liverpool stemmed projectile

Early Woodland - Waubesa

Perino (1971298) described Waubesa points as being long, narrow to medium-
wide dart points with contracting stems. The blade is typically triangular with convex
edges. The shoulders are the widest point and are rarely barbed. The stems may
occasionally be smoothed, but never exhibit extensive grinding. These points are similar
in style to Adena points that are found both to the south and east of Wisconsin. Waubesa
points are found in direct association with Prairie ware ceramics and are therefore,
referred to as a diagnostic artifact of the Prairie phase (Stoltman 1990). Thus, these points
date to approximately 100 BC. to A.D. 100.

There were two Waubesa points recovered at the Gottschall Rockshelter. The
complete point is associated with disturbed context, while the fragment is attributed to
Late Archaic/Early Woodland deposits and is a basal fragment.

 

Figure C.17: Waubesa Point

110

Middle Woodland — Snyders

Snyders points are broad bladed, corner notched points (Bell 1958; Scully 1951).
This point type is diagnostic of the Middle Woodland period and appears with the rise of
Hopewell ceremonialism (Fortier et al. 19832395). This type was eventually replaced by
such points as the Steuben Expanding Stemmed type (Justice 1987:203). The points
occur throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys and stretch as far south as
Oklahoma and are often associated with the dates of A.D. 200-400, but in the Driftless
Region of Wisconsin it is probably slightly later in time (Seeman 1977).

The one point recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter attributable to the
Snyders type is the by product of refit analysis. One piece from feature context (Feature
77) rejoins with a fragment of the tool from disturbed context. The piece is burned
making the identification of the raw material difficult.

 

 

 

Figure C.18: Snyders Point

Middle Woodland — Steuben Expanding Stemmed

The Steuben point type was initially defined by Montet-White (1968:78-79) to
describe a series of projectile points from the Steuben Village site in Illinois (Justice
1987; Morse 1963). Morrow (1984242) describes Steuben points as medium-sized with a
broad, expanding stem. Blades are triangular and the stems are as wide as, or nearly as
wide as the shoulders. Stems make up one-third to on-fourth of the overall length of the
point. Steuben points are associated with the Millville phase, which is chronologically
positioned in the latter half of the Middle Woodland stage. Therefore, Steuben points date
to A.D. 200—500 in southwestern Wisconsin (Stoltman 1990).

A total of 11 Steuben points were recovered during the excavations of the
Gottschall Rockshelter. Five of the eleven points were recovered from disturbed context
while all but one of the remaining point types is associated with the Early Late Woodland
deposits. The out of place point was recovered from earlier deposits.

lll

    

IFFIAO tear
Figure C. 192 Steuben Expanding Stemmed Point

Middle Woodland — Lowe Flared Base

The Lowe Flared Base projectile point type is a distinctive expanding stemmed
form that exhibits a trianguloid blade with straight to excurvate edges and a markedly
flaring, straight-edged stem (Winters 1963; 1967:90-92; Justice 19872212). These types
of points often have flattened faces with bifacial beveling. The flake scars are short and
narrow, produced from detachments on a steep angle. These points are associated with
the Middle Woodland and appear to be a dominant type during the height of Hopewell
ceremonial activities, circa A.D. 200-500. These points are affiliated with the Illinois
Valley, but none have thus far been reported in Wisconsin (Justice 1987).

There are two projectiles from the Gottschall Rockshelter that are similar in style
to the Steuben Expanding Stemmed but yet are fashioned from exotic materials and have
basal structures reminiscent of the Lowe Flared Base type.

 

 

Figure C.20 — Lowe Flared Base Projectile

112

Late Woodland — Honey Creek Corner Notched

The projectile type Honey Creek Comer Notched appears to represent the first
true arrowheads in this region. This type was proposed after work at the Rehbein
Mounds, Richland County and comparison with unclarified points from several other
sites (Mead 1979). The Honey Creek name was derived from the creek which flows near
the Durst Rockshelter for the site from which the first types of these points were
recovered (Wittry 1959). A point associated with a linear mound burial on Picnic Point in
Madison is probably within the range of this type (Nienow and Boszhardt 1997). These
points have also been recently recovered from excavations near the confluence of the
Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers (Theler and Boszhardt, personal communication 2002).

These particular points have small diagonal notches. The blades are straight or
slightly convex, with straight to slightly convex bases that may be flared. Since the
notches are small, they are often broken.

There are five bifaces recovered from the Gottschall Rockshelter excavations that
appear to fit this set of criteria well. All five of these bifaces were recovered from the
early strata associated with the Late Woodland. The majority of these are broken, but
because the haft elements are present the identification can be made.

 

Figure C.21 — Honey Creek Corner Notched Projectile

Late Woodland — Okoboji

These projectiles are relatively slender forms with coarse serrations and
expanding haft elements that often are not geometrically uniform (Justice 19872223;
Brown 1968, 1976; Morrow 1984). The blade are triangular, the shoulders well defined
and over half of the specimens are distinctly barbed (Justice 1987:223). These types of
points are common throughout the Caddoan Mississippian south in and around Spiro
Oklahoma. These projectiles date roughly to A.D. 1000 and have been found on
Mississippian sites such as Cahokia in association with Alba points (Titterington
1938221; Justice 1987:224).

There are four projectiles from the Gottschall Rockshelter that are nearly identical
in style but come from different parts of the Rockshelter. Each of these points is broken
in some fashion with one point exhibiting a stepped impact fracture. These points are
made from varying materials, but all at one point were distinctly barbed.\

113

 

Figure C.22 — Okoboji Projectile Point

Late Woodland — Cahokia Side Notched

There are four basic types of Cahokia points: double notched, triple notched,
multiple notched and serrated. These points are small to medium thin, well-made points
with either straight or triangular converging sides. These points exhibit numerous patterns
of notching but characteristically have a pair of deep sided notches some distance above
base. Notches are perpendicular to the sides rather then parallel to the base. Cahokia
double notched are the most common Cahokia type found in the Upper Mississippi
Valley, but none of those points were recovered during these excavations.

There were seven Cahokia projectile points recovered from the Gottschall
Rockshelter. Two of these projectiles appear to have been made by the same individual as
they appear to be nearly identical to each other. These two points are also the two with
the greatest degree of similarity to the classic Cahokia style. The remaining five
specimens indicate a definite Mississippian influence, but may be local imitations of such
points rather than true Cahokia points.

 

Figure C.23: Cahokia Side Notched Point
114

Late Woodland — Madison Triangular Points

Madison Triangular points are small, thin, unnotched triangular points with
straight to convex blade edges (Morrow 1984:80). The bases on these points vary from
concave to convex and they tend to be less than half as wide as they are long. This style
of project was employed as the preferred style of projectile until the arrival of European
metals.

As to be expected, the majority of the diagnostic projectiles recovered from the
Gottschall Rockshelter were Madison Triangular points. A total of 82 small triangular
points have been recovered and identified from this site.

    

IFFIAO ‘9???
Figure C.24: Madison Triangular Projectile

Late Woodland — Nodena Elliptical

The Nodena type refers to an elliptical or willow-leaf shaped form of projectile
that appears to be bi-pointed or even tear-drop shaped with a rounded base (Justice
19872230). These points ofien exhibit refined pressure flaking used to finish and
resharpen them and they are commonly serrated. These points are generally affiliated
with the late Mississippian and proto-historic periods and have been recovered from a
number of sites ranging from southern Wisconsin south along the Mississippi River
trench to Alabama and Florida (Justice 19872232).

It was first thought this chipped stone artifact maybe an unknown type of in-lay
(Salzer personal communication), but the results of this analysis classify it as a projectile
point (Figure C.27). This type of point is previously unknown to the author in the
Driftless Region but is reported at being present in three different assemblages from
Oneota Orr sites in Iowa (Anderson 1981; Straffin 1971; and McKusick 1973).

115

 

Figure C252 Nodena Elliptical Projectile

Late Woodland — Side-Notched Triangular

This category is a type of catch-all category being used to describe an undefined
Driftless Region localized side-notched projectile variety. There is a constant debate
concerning the classification of such points and terms such as “Grant Side-Notched”
and/or “Prairie du Sac Side-Notched” have been proposed (Christensen 19992202), but no
formal type name has been proposed in print. The lack of commitment to assigning a type
to this style of side-notched point is likely due to the great range of variability that been
assumed under this colloquially term Late Woodland — Side-Notched Triangular.

In general, these projectiles are small triangular shaped arrow points that have
been notched one quarter of the way up the blade. The blade edges tend to be straight to
convex and the basal shape is typically straight or concave. These types of points are
often recovered from sites with Terminal Woodland or Middle Mississippian
components.

There were nine Side-Notched Triangular Points recovered from the Gottschall
Rockshelter. These points are all constructed from locally available raw materials with
four composed of Galena chert and five of Prairie du Chien (PDC) chert. Only three of
the nine points were untreated with two of these being from PDC chert and one of Galena
chert (Figure C.28).

 

Figure C.262 Side-Notched Triangular projectile point (S21W9 KJAl)

116

Drills

A long, tapered, bifacially flaked bit resulting in a diamond-shaped cross—section
is the distinguishing characteristic for this tool. During the Archaic period, the distal
ends of projectile points were often reworked to produce this form. Drills from later
periods often were fashioned from flakes. There were two drills recovered from the site
that had been resharpened many times due to the fact they were shaped like a “T”. These
types of commonly referred to as T-drills, which is the term used in this thesis. The two
drills made from PDC chert were recovered from the site; one was complete and the other
was a fragment (Figure C.29).

    

Iohms '
Figure C.272 Two T-drills
Non-diagnostic Bifaces

Late Woodland - Flake Points

There were two projectile points recovered from the site that are retouched flakes
fashioned in unidentifiable projectiles. These two points are from stratigraphic contexts
associated with the Late Woodland period and have metric attributed similar to other Late
Woodland types (Figure C.30). Therefore, these two points are assumed to be from the
Late Woodland period, despite the fact they are non-diagnostic.

 

’ Io CMS.

Figure C.28: Late Woodland flake point

117

Retouched Debitage

Utilized flakes are those which exhibit discontinuous retouch or very abrupt
retouch of a thin edge, which likely reflects use wear, rather than intentional
modification. Utilized flakes often functioned as expedient tools. A total of 39 retouched
or utilized pieces of debitage were identified during this study (Figure C.31).

 

Figure C.29: Retouched debitage or an expedient tool (SZlW9 Feature 94)

Scrapers

Scrapers are unifacially chipped stone tools that may have been used either for
hideworking or woodworking purposes. This particular study did not differentiate
between the type of scraper (e.g., end scraper or side scraper), rather it identified a class
of chipped stone tools on the basis of the step (90 degree) angle of the single flaked face
to the other non—worked face (Figure C30).

 

Figure C.30: Scraper (SZZWll I 3)
118

Uniface - unidentified

Unifaces are those tools which exhibit flake scars on one face only. These types
of chipped stone tools are commonly identifiable to more specific types such as
denticulates or scrapers. There was one uniface recovered from the Gottschall
Rockshelter that is fashioned fi'om a rarely occurring raw material. It is constructed from
a hard dolomite. The artifact was recovered from feature context (Figure C.31). This
piece does not fit into any specific type easily and it is a chipped stone enigma.

 

I ‘ Io CMS. 1

Figure C.3 l: Unidentifiable uniface (S22W11 KGA 2)

The following table describes each individual artifact and has highlighted those used in
the spatial analysis (see Appendix F).

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141

APPENDIX D: DEBITAGE

Debitage

Debitage refers to the debris resulting from lithic reduction practices lacking
secondary retouch; it usually takes the form of a flake, which must exhibit a platform and
a bulb of percussion. If the artifact lacks any of these distinguishing characteristics then it
is categorized as shatter, which refers to artifacts that may or may not be the direct result
of human behavior. The analysis that was conducted for this thesis was not particularly
focused on classifying the individual flake for the purpose of identifying differing lithic
reduction technologies or chipped stone trajectories. Rather, the focus was on identifying
the general class of flake for the ultimate end of investigating the spatial distribution of
general artifact classes.

Thus, the debitage was classified in accordance with a slightly altered
classification scheme predicated on the commonly utilized Sullivan and Rozen (1985)
method of classification. The major difference between the two systems is that this study
aggregates the categories of broken and fragment into one called broken. Thus, only three
categories were used in this study: complete, broken and shatter.

A total of 2,807 pieces of unmodified debitage was analyzed during this study
(Table D. l). The full results of the observations made on a case by case basis are
presented here in table form and provide the classification, spatial data (unit, feature,
stratigraphic unit, level, artifact number, stratigraphic correlation) raw material, heat
treatment, and metrics (length, width, thickness and weight). Those cells that are blank
were done so purposely, because that data was unavailable for that specific artifact. The
highlighted artifacts indicate those used in the spatial analysis (see Appendix F).

Complete ,

The category of complete flake is defined in accordance with the Sullivan and
Rozen (1985) classification. In that they consist of those flakes that retain a single ventral
surface, a point of applied force, intact lateral margins, and a distal end reflecting a
feathered, hinge or stepped terminus (Crabtree 1972). There were a total of 949 complete
flakes identified during this study.

Broken '

The category of broken flake is an aggregation of the Sullivan and Rozen (1985)
categories broken and fragment. These flakes may or may not retain a point of applied
force, will possess a single identifiable ventral surface, lack one or both lateral margins,
may or may not retain a discernable termination point similar to the complete category. A
total of 445 pieces of unmodified debitage was classified as broken during this study.

Shatter

The category of shatter used in this study supplants the terminology of debris used
by Sullivan and Rozen (1985). This category is also seen in other studies as being
referred to as block flakes or angular waste, regardless this category refers to the
unmodified debitage that have neither a point of applied force nor a single interior
surface. A total of 1,413 pieces of unmodified debitage was classified during this study.

142

 

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246

APPENDIX E: GROUNDSTONE AND MISCELLANEOUS ROCKS

In addition to the chipped stone artifacts and debitage present within the
Gottschall Rockshelter lithic assemblage there were ground stone artifacts and
miscellaneous rocks or manuports recovered during the excavations. This appendix
presents a brief discussion of each artifact class and concludes with a table presenting a
summary of the standard types of observations collected for such artifacts that includes:
classification, spatial data (unit, feature, original stratigraphic assignment, level, artifact
#, stratigraphic correlation), metric attributes (length, width, thickness and weight),
treatment (burned, heat treated or untreated) and the presence of wear (hard or soft). In
addition, there was a cell reserved for any additional comments.

Groundstone

This artifact class includes those specimens that have been modified by grinding,
pecking, or battering. There were 19 ground stone artifacts identified within the
Gottschall lithic assemblage that includes a bow], geometric shapes, a 3%: grooved axe and
unidentifiable fragments.

Geometric shapes

There five ground stone geometric shapes identified within the lithic assemblage:
cone, triangle. circle, trapezoid and an oval (Figures E. 1, E2 and E.3). These artifacts
remain a complete mystery, except for the fact they were ground into the shapes they '
retain. F our of these artifacts are associated with Late Woodland deposits, while the
remaining is non-provenienced. Four of these are fashioned from dolomite, while the
other is from PDC chert.

 

Figure E.l: Groundstone oval and circle.

247

 

Figure E2: Groundstone cone and triangle.

 

Figure E3: Groundstone trapezoid.

Grooved Axe

These artifacts are identified with woodworking activities, but the one broken
specimen recovered from the rockshelter appears to have been used for smashing hard
objects. The proximal end of the axe is battered in a style similar to a hammerstone. The
axe is composed of two pieces that refit and is associated with the Late Woodland
deposits (Figure 13.4).

248

looms

 

Figure E.4: 3%: grooved axe

Bowl

There was one piece of limestone recovered from the site that has been fashioned
into a small bowl. The exact function of this particular artifact is unknown but given its
shape and size it maybe associated with the production of pigments at the site. The
limestone has been heat treated (Figure E.5).

 

Figure E.5: Limestone bowl

Fragments

There were 12 groundstone fragments recovered during the excavations that were
unidentifiable to specific artifacts forms. There were three fragments that refit together
potentially indicating a second but smaller grooved axe (Figure E.6). In addition, the
majority of the other fragments are from some burned groundstone dolomite object(s). It
is likely there are more of these fragments presently misidentified as limestone or
sandstone with the larger Gottschall assemblage. A further review of those types of

249

artifacts may provide additional fragments that will provide the data necessary to refit
these items.

 

Figure E.6: Ground stone artifacts

Manuport

Included in this artifact class are those nodules or cobbles that are not a natural
part of the site context, but that have not been altered by human activity. There is only
one rock that adequately fits into this category and that is a piece of gabbro (Figure E.7).
It is a baseball sized piece of gabbro that was recovered from Late Woodland context and
may be associated with pottery making activities at the site (Salzer, personal
communication).

 

Figure B.7: Piece of gabbro

Limestone Tablet

There was one flattened groundstone artifact recovered from the site that has been
ground into a rectangular shape with incising on both sides. The incising is in the form of
parallel striations and it is unclear what these striations indicate or if they are even meant
to be stylistic (Figure E.8). Regardless, the uniqueness of this particular artifact
associated with the Late Woodland deposits warranted the separate treatment of it from
the other groundstone artifacts.

 

Figure B.8: Limestone tablet.

Hammerstone

A hammerstone is a hard nodule of lithic material used for the direct fracturing of
the tool stone during lithic reduction. These artifacts exhibit battering on one or more
ends, which are assumed to be the result from utilization during the lithic reduction
process. A total of five hammerstones have been recovered from the rockshelter and all
but one are associated with the Late Woodland deposits (Figure E9).

251

 

 

Figure B.9: Example of a hammerstone.
Sandstone Artifacts
Abraders
These specimens are usually limestone or sandstone fragments that exhibit
longitudinal, V—shaped grooves resulting fi'om use as a polishing, smoothing, and/or
sharpening stone employed in the production of bone or lithic tools. There were a total of
four abraders within the Gottschall Rockshelter lithic assemblage (Figure E. 10).

 

Figure E.10: Example of a sandstone abrader.

252

Gorget

These pieces manifest as ground, smoothed and polished stones, often of an
exotic, nonlocal material, which exhibit one or two drilled perforations. They were
presumably worn or utilized as decorative ornaments. It is not common for sandstone to
be utilized as material for manufacturing gorgets, but this particular piece of sandstone
has some integrity likely due to elevated iron content.

 

IO CMS.

Figure E.11: Sandstone gorget.
Sphere
There is one piece of sandstone similar in raw material quality to that the
sandstone gorget is fashioned from that is perfectly spherical. The function of this object
is unclear due to the fact it is both unique and non-provenienced (Figure E.12).

 

Figure E.12: Sandstone sphere.

253

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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256

APPENDIX F: SPATIAL ANALYSIS SAMPLES

The purpose of this appendix is to present the full case by case summary of the
samples used in the spatial analysis section of this thesis (see Chapter 5). These samples
are composed of the diagnostic chipped stone projectiles and unmodified debitage with
assigned provenience. These two artifact classes were selected because they have the
greatest frequencies within the lithic assemblage, and represent two different positions
along the continuum of chipped stone manufacture.

The samples used in this spatial analysis are unlike any previously undertaken
research projects because this study incorporates all of the presently know piece-plotted
and level data excavated from the site. Previous samples and studies have used different
spatial analytical techniques, but all of these studies have inherent limitations and
potentially misrepresent the actual spatial relationships within the data (see Appendix A).
As a result of this unique arrangement, this study represents the only holistic independent
test of the hypothesized differentiation of sacred versus secular space within the
rockshelter. The full sample used can be identified by looking for the individual cases
highlighted in Table A.l and CI.

The remained of this appendix presents graphical summaries of the spatial
distribution of both the diagnostic bifaces and unmodified debitage per aggregated
chronological unit.

257

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277

APPENDIX G: MASTER FEATURE LIST

Compiled by Robert Salzer and amended by Aaron Naumann

The table presented in this appendix represents the comprehensive summary list
of all the features thus far observed at the Gottschall Rockshelter.

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Bibliography

Anderson, Duane C.
1981 Eastern Iowa Prehistory. Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.

Arzigian, Constance
1987 The Emergence of Horticultural Economies in Southwestern Wisconsin.
In Emergent Horticultural Economies of the Eastern Woodlands, edited by
William F. Keegan, pp. 217-242. Occasional Paper No. 7. Center for
Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

1993 Analysis of Prehistoric Subsistence Strategies: A Case Stuab/ from
Southwestern Wisconsin. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of
Anthropology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.

Baerreis, David A.
1953 The Blackhawk Village Site, Dane County (DaS), Wisconsin. The
Wisconsin Archeologist 215-20.

Baker, Richard G., Louis J. Maher, Craig A. Chumbley and Kent L. VanZant
1991 Patterns of Holocene Environmental Change in the Midwestern United
States. Quaternary Research 37:379-389.

Barrett, Samuel A.
1933 Ancient Aztalan. Bulletin XIII. Public Museum of the City of
Milwaukee, Milwaukee,Wisconsin.

Beaubien, Paul L.
1953 Cultural Variation within Two Woodland Mound Groups of Northeastern
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