NW)

 

LIBRARY
Michigan State
University

 

 

 

This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled

EMPTY PEDESTALS: CREATING A NATIONAL SCHOOL SYSTEM

PhD.

IN AND ERA OF GLOBALIZATION

presented by

Nils Joseph Kauffman

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

 

 

depve’e‘jn Educational Policy

 

Major Professor’s Signature
/ Awake" 3’1 3700?
. V .

Date

 

MSU is an Affinnatlve Action/Equal Opponunity Employer

 

..--.-.—-—.—.—.—.—.—.-.—.-a—-—-n-¢-—u-.—.—-—--—-—

 

PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record.
TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due.
MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested.

 

DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

5/08 K:/Prolecc&Pros/ClRC/DateDuo. indd

 

Empty Pedestals: Creating a National School System in an Era of Globalization
By

Nils Joseph Kauffman

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Educational Policy

2009

ABSTRACT

EMPTY PEDESTALS: CREATING A NATIONAL SCHOOL SYSTEM IN AN ERA
OF GLOBALIZATION

BY

Nils Joseph Kauffman

When the Republic of Moldova became independent after the fall of the
Soviet Union, it faced the challenge, for the first time, of creating its own school
system. A new Moldovan school system would replace the Soviet system that
had been in existence in Moldova since World War II. The new Moldovan school
system was to be democratic, independent, promote national values, teach in the
maternal language, afford a great deal of autonomy to teachers, allow for local
control, and teach children to be independent, creative citizens.

How Moldova proceeded to form a national education system in a
globalizing world is the topic of this dissertation. Influences on the new school
system came from many directions. School reform began with the dismantling of
the Soviet schools, structures, and ideology. Yet the Soviet influence on the new
curriculum is apparent. In addition, Moldovan scholars looked towards Romania
and other countries for ideas. With the help of the World Bank, Moldova
introduced a curriculum through a countrywide training program. Two issues
have complicated the development of a national school system. The severe
economic challenges facing Moldova have impeded implementation, and the

understanding of Moldovan nationality continues to be under debate.

 

While the Ministry of Education (MET) designed a national curriculum, the
Open Society Institute, sponsored by the Soros Foundation, introduced the Step
by Step (Pas cu Pas, PCP) preschool program modeled after the American Head
Start program. Despite economic difficulties, the program has since grown into a
nationwide elementary school model in use in about one-fifth of schools.

I use Primavara (a pseudonym) school as a case study of how a school
and its teachers adjusted to the changes. The school is semi-independent using
the PCP philosophy and relying on parents for a significant source of funding.
Teachers use this model because of the creativity allowed them and are
convinced it is better for children. Parents choose the model for an alternative to
the standard model they associate with the USSR.

Primavara is in many respects a national school. PCP may be
international in origin, but it is consistent with the goals included in national
policy. This is not surprising; much of the national policy took inspiration from
foreign school models. This is the fate of national school systems in an era of
globalization; their leaders look abroad for ideas, and set goals that most schools
struggle to implement.

This study provides a historical analysis of the development of the
Moldovan school system and a context for current events. This history relies on
analysis of MET documents from 1988 to 2008, interviews with scholars involved

with educational reform, and interviews with practicing and retired teachers.

Copyright by
Nils Joseph Kauffman
2009

Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
A Brief Geographical and Historical Overview of Moldova ................................ 2
Literature Review ............................................................................................... 5
The Study .......................................................................................................... 9
Organization of the Study ................................................................................ 16
CHAPTER TWO: UNIONS AND NATIONALISTS, A TEMPLATE FOR CHANGE
............................................................................................................................ 21
Tsarist Rule ..................................................................................................... 21
Independence and Union with Romania .......................................................... 25
The Formation of Soviet Schools ..................................................................... 26
Law of Education for the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic. ........................ 32
Rights and Obligations .................................................................................... 35
Soviet Schools ................................................................................................. 40
Soviet Curricular Documents ........................................................................... 42
Descriptions of Soviet Schools ........................................................................ 50
Perestroika Under Gorbachev ......................................................................... 54
Summary ......................................................................................................... 62
CHAPTER THREE: DISMANTLING, REBUILDING—NATIONALISM AND

INTERNATIONALISM IN TRANSITION .............................................................. 64

Developing a National Ideology of Education in the Context of Soviet and
Western Practices ........................................................................................... 66
The two faces of internationalism in Moldova: past and present .................. 74
The call for individualism in response to Soviet collectivism ........................ 77
Purging of Soviet symbols ........................................................................... 78
Replacing the Organizational and Regulatory Framework of the Soviet Era...79
Law of Education 1995 ................................................................................ 82
Emerging Language Policy as an Instrument of National Identity .................... 86
Eliminating, Modifying, and Building on Soviet Practice in the Curriculum ...... 89
Initial period of curriculum change ............................................................... 89
The importance of “Curriculum” in replacing “Programa” ............................. 95
The national curriculum .............................................................................. 100

The Romanian curriculum- combining national, Soviet, and non-Soviet
internationalisms ........................................................................................ 100
The new mathematics curriculum- an uncertain break from the past ......... 104

The Changing Role of Teachers and Students in Response to Old Practices

and New Ideas .............................................................................................. 105
International Support for Teachers to Learn the New Curricula and New
Practices ....................................................................................................... 110
Summary ....................................................................................................... 115
CHAPTER FOUR: DETERIORATING CONDITIONS OF EDUCATION: FROM
COMMUNISM TO CAPITALISM ....................................................................... 119
Economic Challenges .................................................................................... 120
Emigration: Parents and Teachers Leaving the Country ............................... 121
School Finance: Deteriorating Budgets ......................................................... 123
Teacher Shortage .......................................................................................... 127
Teacher Salaries: Living in Poverty ............................................................... 128
Student population: Declining Enrollment ...................................................... 130
Corruption: Supplementing the State ............................................................. 133
Deteriorating Conditions of Schools .............................................................. 137
Summary ....................................................................................................... 139
CHAPTER FIVE: ”STEP BY STEP”: AN INTERNATIONAL PROGRAM
PURSUING THE NATIONAL IDEAL ................................................................. 140
History of the Step by Step program in Moldova ........................................... 141
The Theoretical Foundations of PCP: Individualism and Teacher Autonomy 150
An eclectic theoretical basis ....................................................................... 151
The relationship between PCP and the MET ................................................. 155
Summary ....................................................................................................... 156
CHAPTER SIX: PRIMAVARA: A SCHOOL REACHING FOR THE NATIONAL
IDEAL ............................................................................................................... 158
Primavara School .......................................................................................... 158
Primavara Compared to Other Schools Following the National Curriculum ..164
Continuity in the Face of Change .................................................................. 168
Student writing in the context of earlier practice ......................................... 168
Mathematics in the context of earlier practice ............................................ 171
Nationalism: history and culture at odds with the current government ....... 173
Autonomy at the Classroom Level for Teachers and Students ...................... 174
Mesaj and studiu thematic ......................................................................... 175
For the love of learning: motivating students without grades ..................... 178
Discipline in the Context of More Student and Teacher Autonomy ................ 181
Building a Model School in a Deteriorating System ....................................... 186
A better way to teach: teachers choose PCP ............................................. 191
Financing Primavara: beyond state funding ............................................... 198
Summary ....................................................................................................... 200

CHAPTER SEVEN: PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT: LEARNING TO WORK
TOGETHER ...................................................................................................... 203

vi

National Policy of Local Control and Parental Involvement ........................... 204

Teaching Parental Involvement ..................................................................... 205
Parent conferences at Primavara .............................................................. 206
Parents in Primavara Classrooms: Under the Teacher’s Direction ............... 212
Keeping the State at a Distance .................................................................... 219
Choosing Primavara: an alternative to the state ........................................ 222
Summary ....................................................................................................... 226
CHAPTER EIGHT: THE NATIONAL SCHOOL: AN INTERSECTION OF
PROBLEMS, POLICIES, AND POLITICS ......................................................... 228
Decentralization ............................................................................................. 230
A Hybrid School System ................................................................................ 234
Teachers ....................................................................................................... 237
Parents .......................................................................................................... 238
Nationalizing a School System ...................................................................... 239
Further Study ................................................................................................. 242
APPENDIX A: CLASS SCHEDULES ................................................................ 243
APPENDIX B: EXCERPTS FROM THE CURRICULUM ................................... 246
APPENDIX C: DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS ...................................... 250
Data collection and analysis .......................................................................... 250
Limitations ..................................................................................................... 251
Interviews ...................................................................................................... 252
Documents .................................................................................................... 257
Observations ................................................................................................. 257
Analysis ......................................................................................................... 258
REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 260

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Number of schools, students and teachers in 1990-1991, Moldova ...... 31

Table 2: Educational attainment in Moldova 1989 .............................................. 32
Table 3: Comparison programa versus curriculum ............................................. 99
Table 4: State allocations for education ............................................................ 124

Table 5: Estimated supplementary payments by parents during one year ........ 125

Table 6: Disbursement of the budget of education in the Municipality of Chisinau

per year as of 1 August 2007 (thousands of ’9!) ........................................ 126
Table 7: General education teachers, years of experience ............................... 128
Table 8: Distribution of students by type of school ............................................ 131
Table 9: Teacher qualifications and experience ................................................ 187
Table 10: Schedule of lesson for the Step by Step program ............................. 243
Table 11: Schedule of classes for grades 1-4, Moldovan standard elementary

school ........................................................................................................ 244
Table 12: Schedule of classes for Soviet elementary classes ........................... 245
Table 13: Mathematics grade 3 ......................................................................... 246
Table 14: Grade 3 listening and speaking ......................................................... 248
Table 15: List of parents interviewed ................................................................ 256

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Net enrollment .................................................................................... 132

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

In the Soviet Union, images of Lenin were everywhere. Pictures, busts,
and statues of Lenin adorned the classrooms, entryways, and courtyards of
schools. Vladimir Ilych Lenin symbolized both the ideal student and the purpose
of schooling. Inside the schools, students heard motivational stories of Lenin’s
brilliance and his educational success. He also symbolized the ideal Soviet
citizen, the paternalistic founder caring for the masses. The curriculum, the youth
organizations, the pedagogy reinforced this goal.

Now, no longer the benevolent father, Lenin, according to some, became
a tyrant. After Moldova declared independence in 1991, the government ordered
local school officials to remove these symbols of the communist past. Left
standing in front of many schools are the empty pedestals, symbolic of the
ideology administratively removed from school curriculum. As Lenin’s statues fell
so did the school system, which has struggled to design and implement a new
philosophy and curriculum.

This is a study of school change, in a society that has undergone dramatic
societal change. This school change is not the typical American idea of school
change that may include the introduction of new textbooks, a new mathematics
program, or a new assessment. In Moldova, school change encompassed all of
this and the opportunity to reformulate a new educational philosophy and ideal.
The society changed; social structures changed; economic structures changed.

Just as the country has faced many problems and the complications of changing

a communist system to market capitalism, the school system has faced many

problems as well. This study is an investigation into what happens to schools in

such a society.

A Brief Geographical and Historical Overview of Moldova

The Republic of Moldova is a landlocked country located between
Romania and Ukraine and between the Nistru and Prut Rivers just northwest of
the Black Sea. The country, formerly a Soviet Republic, declared its sovereignty
on 26 July 1990 and then independence on 27 August 1991. The country was a
prime agricultural producer for the Soviet Union and still has a large agrarian
sector. About four million people live in this small country of 33,700 square
kilometers consisting of rolling steppe. Most of the population is Romanian
speaking. Other ethnic groups include Russian, Ukrainian, Gagauz, Bulgarian,
Polish, and Roma; together these groups constitute just over 20% of the
population.

The region has had a number of occupiers in its history. Most recently, the
Soviet Union annexed this region, called Besarabia, in the early part of WWII. In
the inter-war period, Romania ruled Besarabia. At the same time, the Russian
Soviet Federation of Socialist Republics created the Moldova Autonomous Soviet
Republic. This was on land carved out of Ukraine, with a high proportion of
Romanian speaking people. The intention was to create a justification for a Slavic

Moldova separate from Romania. The Soviets claimed that Moldovans were of

Slavic origin and created a Moldovan language. In fact the language was
Romanian written with the Cyrillic alphabet.1 In Moldovan there was also a strong
emphasis on idioms that were different from the Romanian spoken in Romania.
This was not a constant policy; the official alphabet changed several times
between Cyrillic and Latin. There were also military skirmishes along the border
between Romanian- and Soviet- controlled Moldova (King, 2000, p. 4).

What actually happened during this time of Romanian control is under
debate. Those supporting an independent Moldova argue that the Romanians did
little for the people in Besarabia, creating few schools and forcing people to
speak Romanian (Prokofiev, 1967). Those promoting a closer relationship with
Romania suggest that the Romanians did build a considerable number of schools
(Axentii, 2004), and that people were allowed to speak their maternal language in
public.

Just prior to union with Romania, Moldova had a brief period of autonomy
and independence. During this time, Moldovan teachers and school officials
called for the establishment of a national school system with instruction in
Romanian. This period came to an end when, on 24 January 1918,

representatives from Besarabia voted for union with Romania.

 

' When referring to Romanian written in Cyrillic, I will use the term Moldovan. When referring to
the language commonly spoken in Besarabia or written with the Latin alphabet, I will use the term
Romanian. The official language of present day Moldova is called Moldovan and is written with
Latin letters. However, there is a great deal of confusion. The Declaration of Independence refers

to Romanian. The Constitution only refers to the state language and the decree from 31 August
1989 declaring Moldovan the official language.

Before WWI Besarabia was part of Tsarist Russia. The Russians had
gained control of it from the Turks at the end of the Russian-Turk war at the
Peace of Bucharest in 1912 (Cibotaru, 1991 ). At this time Russia disbanded the
Orthodox Church affiliated with Bucharest and installed an archbishop affiliated
with the Moscow Patriarchy. Moldova now has a Metropolitan of Besarabia
affiliated with Bucharest and a Metropolitan of Chisinau (the capital city) and all of
Moldova affiliated with Moscow.

The region of Transnistrea, on the left bank of the Nistru River, which had
been the Moldovan Autonomous Soviet Republic between the wars, broke away
from the rest of the country in 1992; this conflict resulted in a short civil war. The
region still contains a contingent of Russian soldiers and claims to be
independent of the Republic, a claim that the Moldovan Parliament in Chisinau
contests but about which it can do little. A second region, called Gagauzia, also
attempted to form an independent country after the dissolution of the Soviet
Union but is now a semiautonomous zone within Moldova (King, 2000). This
region in southern Moldova is mostly populated by Gagauz who are Christians
speaking a Turkic derived language.

Since independence, Moldova has had numerous challenges. The
currency has been devalued twice. The GDP fell precipitously. There was a civil
war with the break away region of Transnistria. Moldova is the only former Soviet
Republic that elected an unreformed communist party. Despite these problems,

the country has had five relatively peaceful national elections.

Schools, too, have had their challenges. In general they are underfunded
and there is a shortage of teachers. However, reform efforts continue. There is a
new curriculum developed in independent Moldova. The country has received the
support of the World Bank in its school reform. The aim of this study is to analyze

how schools and teachers have struggled during this time.

Literature Review

The period of change in the former Soviet Bloc has been characterized as
transition and transformation. According to Mitter (2003). transition is the process
in a society undergoing profound social change, while transformation is change
associated with the volition of those in power or of the opposition. This
understanding of transition draws on modernization theory as described in
Rostow (1956). Rostow argues that economies progress towards liberal market
capitalism in a series of stages. In fact, Rostow even compared his stages of
economic development to Marx’s (Martinussen, 1997). Others do not adhere to
that interpretation of transition. Gans-Morse (2004) argues that the literature on
transition seldom contains a perspective consistent with modernization.
Carothers (Carothers, 2002) suggests that the term transition is too broad and
contains assumptions about the process and the characteristics of the countries
involved. Specifically, there is a presumption that these countries will progress
towards democracy, that this progression will unfold in a sequence of events, that
elections are of “determinative importance” (p. 7), that the history of the countries

Will not affect the outcomes, and that existing, functioning states are making the

transition. Despite the debate, transition does bring our attention to the origins of
the new or reconstituted countries of Eastern Europe and the challenges they
face.
Transition, mostly a political science field, is not a single unified field of

study. Some authors (Bunce, 1995; Roeder, 1999; Schmitter & Karl, 1994)
question the idea that the analysis of transition, based on the tradition developed
in Southern Europe and Latin America, would be appropriate to understand
Eastern Europe. This is due primarily to the different characteristics of the
countries involved. In Eastern Europe change came quickly and in
unconsolidated nation-states, and protests were against the Soviet state, not
against regimes in already established nations (Bunce, 2003). Finally, Latin
American countries, Bunce (1995) argues, went through a re-democratization,
because these countries had democratic forms previously. Indeed, O’Donnell et
al. (1986) analyzing transition in Southern Europe and Latin America, takes a
much more tentative view to transition noting that the countries are very unstable
and the idea of a inexorable “transition” to liberal democracy is unreliable.
Furthermore, it does not help us examine the process of change, it only attributes
an assumed understanding of events by placing them in a preconceived
framework.

In an interesting juxtaposition, Martin Carnoy and Joel Sarnoff (1990) used
the term ‘transition’ to describe a number of post-colonial countries moving from

Capitalism towards socialism. In these cases, it was not a process spurred by

social change but by specific policies of the state. This type of transition is
perhaps different in form but similar in process to the transition taking place in
Eastern Europe. There is still a change in ideology and economic relations that
the state, and population, must navigate. The authors attribute much of the
change in school policy in the respective countries to the actions of the state as it
attempted to consolidate its regime and ideology and to gain legitimacy. For
example, several of these countries promoted rural literacy campaigns. The
important point is that the state had a primary role in the changes that took place
in schools. The schools were not simply susceptible to the changes in the social
and economic systems.
According to at least one definition, Moldova has experienced an
educational transition. Cowen (2000, p. 84) defines educational transition as the
more or less simultaneous collapse and reconstruction of (i) state
apparatuses (ii) economic and social stratification systems and (iii) the
central value system, especially the political value system, to offer a new
definition of the future, occurring over a short span of time and the
deliberate incorporation of the education system, as an active agency and
as a message system, into this social transition. In the context of such a
social drama, the educational system itself is redefined, fully or partially.
The educational system is both changed by the broader transition and
(after rapid redefinition) contributes to the social transition.
This definition implies that schools are under the influence of both societal
changes and the decisions of political actors.
Lacking in this definition of transition is a description of what happens

during this process. There is no discussion of what must change in order to

accomplish this process. What pieces of the old system are kept? What pieces

are discarded? How do new ideas enter the school system? How are they
accepted? Cowen’s definition does not clarify this and oversimplifies the process.

In the case of the former Soviet Bloc (FSB), which had a strong school
system, perhaps the distinctive characteristic of a country in transition is its
origin, not some future form.2 Instead, the focus should be more appropriately
placed on the previous school structure. Namely, the FSB countries had
established, modern, mass educational systems. It is the past structures that will
determine the starting point of change and the perspective of many teachers,
parents, and administrators who attended those schools.

Educational change in Moldova involves an educational system in the
midst of a societal transition; this suggests a change of ideology and philosophy
and the relationship between society and school not just teaching methods and
content.3 In addition, Moldovan teachers have new freedom; the MET no longer
dictates lessons. Teachers’ status in society is changing. The content once
taught in schools has not simply changed but is now receives widespread
criticism. Describing how the Moldovan education system has changed will

provide one explanation of the term educational transition.

 

2 However, Moldova could be going through a period of ‘de-development’ (Meurs & Ranasinghe,
2003). Because of the poor economy many adults have emigrated seeking work and there is
relatively little funding available for maintenance of infrastructure. The loss of educated working
adults to work overseas and the deteriorating infrastructure reduces the capacity for Moldova.
When teachers leave, fewer teachers remain to work with students decreasing the capacity of the
education system. When the infrastructure declines, the physical resources needed to
manufacture or transport goods decreases capacity. Although Moldova is considered to be a
transition country, the process of de-development highlights the possibility that the challenges
may one day become more like a developing country.

Some may view reforms as threats to the moral order or dramatic changes in worldview
(Pearson, 2004; Rosen, 2001; Schoenfeld, 2004). However, at least in the U. 8., these reforms
do not coincide with sudden changes in a way of life such as the nationalization of private
property, or secession.

‘1 if. ‘
I
I'Ih

“fill!
‘

IV '0’

and--

.-
Io't OI

vii-c.

tn..-
-

IIU-

Dana:
U a

‘v-‘

Iii

V II
J.‘ ,,

:y‘n

'

 

7"

in

0.

'II

n}

The Study

The aim of the study is to describe and analyze the process of change in
Moldovan schools and how teachers act and react to that change. The original
conception of the study originated in a comparison of school change in a
developing country such as Afghanistan that has never had a functioning mass
education system, with school change in a transition country such as an
independent republic of the former USSR. The latter had, just prior to
independence, a working school system from preschool to post university
studies. Both countries face daunting challenges, but the nature of the challenges
would likely be different. It is to understand the unique challenges in a transition
country that l undertook this study.

My interest and work in Moldova extends over a decade. My first
experience in Moldova was as a Peace Corps Volunteer serving from 1996 to
1998. During this time I became familiar with the educational system. I taught
English and mathematics classes in schools and lyceums, assisted school
administrators in school improvement projects, and conducted in-service
workshops for teachers. I also became familiar with the country teaching for a
year in a Russian/Romanian mixed school in the north, and in a Russian school
in an ethnic Bulgarian village in the south. Over the course of two years I became
fluent, in the school context, in both Romanian and Russian.

The process of transition in Moldova has being going on for over 20 years.

To capture both the unfolding of events over this time period and the current

situation, I have used historical research to provide background for a qualitative
and ethnographic inquiry in schools.

I originally intended to focus on how teachers have acted and reacted to
the changes in school policy and changes in society and what they are doing in
the classroom. I posed the following questions.

a) How do teachers negotiate between the Soviet past (practices,

traditions, roles, organizational structures) and the current demands
(social change, reform practices, limited resources) on their work?

b) What factors influence how teachers enact the new national
curriculum?

I. How do teachers understand the new conceptions of teaching
and learning embedded in policy?

ii. How do teachers portray Soviet era practices and goals?

iii. How do teachers enact the new curriculum?

iv. How do social changes (change in funding, job market,
economy, politics, roles of individuals) influence teachers and
their work?

v. How do policy makers and parents understand reform and
Soviet era practices?

These questions suggest a great deal of work in the classroom. After pre-
dissertation work in the summer of 2005, I returned the following year in the fall
as a Fulbright Fellow to begin data collection. In the fall of 2006, I spent most of
my time in the village of Zaim; there is only one school in the village. I selected
Zaim to represent a typical, ethnic Moldovan village. In addition, a university
professor recommended I work there. I did not realize when I began my work in
Zaim that the school uses the Step by Step program. I interviewed five teachers

and the school director and assistant director. I also observed faculty meetings

and open lessons. In addition I interviewed school directors and teachers at three

10

nearby schools and participated in the professional development open lessons
scheduled by the regional authorities.

During the fall of 2006 I also worked in Chisinau. I visited school 70, which
has both PCP and regular classes. I observed third and fourth grade teachers
and interviewed both a PCP teacher and a teacher of the regular classes. I also
had extensive discussions with three administrators at the school. I visited
scoaIa/gradinita (school/kindergarten) Primavara and interviewed two senior
teachers, observed classes, and participated in a seminar for teachers learning
the program.

I left Moldova in December of 2006 to return home for the birth of my son.
The Department of Education granted me a deferment for my fellowship.

Reflection on this first phase of the research revealed several challenges
for further research. Teachers do not earn a living wage and are very busy. In
villages they have work at home; they milk cows or work in the garden. In the
cities they have second jobs or tutoring sessions. In some cases teachers have a
double teaching load to earn more money. This makes it difficult to schedule
interviews with teachers and difficult to build rapport with them.

Second, I needed a sharper focus to my research. After reviewing the data
I had collected in the fall of 2006, I concluded that a general survey of schools as
originally planned would not provide a sufficiently rich set of data to describe
education in Moldova. I decided to expand my research to include a greater

historical perspective and to focus on one explicit elementary school model. This

11

would allow an analysis of the policy field as well as investigate in more detail
how a single school and its teachers managed during the first 17 years of
Moldovan independence.

At this point I decided to focus my research on the Step by Step program
(PCP). I chose to study the PCP program for several reasons. The PCP program
was established by the Soros foundation and represents one case of educational
change in the country: adopting a foreign model. This model has become the
most widespread elementary school model in the country, other than the regular
national school. This is an elementary school model, which is also significant.
School reform in Moldova started from the elementary grades and there has
been longer time for change to take place at this level. Studying the PCP would
allow greater contrast with the “regular” classes taught at schools that did not use
the PCP. Finally, Primavara agreed to allow me to focus on their school.
Teachers at the school have assistant teachers, the parent association
subsidizes the teachers’ salaries, and, according to the parent association
contract, are prohibited from taking on students after school. This would allow me
more time to work with teachers and learn of their perspectives.

The PCP program represents a unique case in Moldova. It is a program
established by the Open Society Institute of Moldova, which receives funding
from the Soros foundation. The original trainers for the program were Americans.
PCP promotes active teaching methods, giving children some say in class

decisions, and the involvement of parents. In many respects it embodies reform

12

efforts dating back to perestroika. Furthermore, one of its goals is to influence the
school system of Moldova; it provides training to teachers across the country.
That being noted, Primavara does face many of the same challenges all schools
face: search for funds, collaboration with the parent community, national tests,
and working in a changing society.

In October of 2007, I returned to Moldova and stayed in the country until
the end of the school year on 31 May 2008. My focus at this time was on a single
school, Primavara, to study the PCP as a case of school reform. I observed every
teacher for at least one full day. I received free access to every classroom nearly
every time I asked. Most often I would simply knock on the door of the classroom
during a break or before lessons started and asked for permission to observe. I
was never turned down. The school often has visitors including foreign visitors
making my presence less intrusive. After lessons, I conducted semi-structured
interviews with teachers. The interviews had two parts. First I asked teachers
about the day, what they did, and why they did it. The second part was a more
wide-ranging interview about the phiIOSOphy of PCP, their personal reflections on
the school, and their experience teaching.

After visiting every classroom once, I continued my observations looking
for classes that met less often. Science and history classes met just once a
week. Again, my access to classes was unimpeded. Only once did a teacher
resist and said that I would not see anything new during the specific lesson I

requested. She consented when I suggested an alternate date. I looked for

13

special events such as the beginning and ending of a unit in studiu tematica, a
student guided activity. Teachers often stayed in the school after lessons
allowing time for more informal conversations. During this time, I routinely
discussed with teachers what I saw in the school, what I saw in other schools,
and often sat in on teacher meetings and informal discussions.

I also interviewed the school director, and had many informal
conversations with her. I interviewed the national director of Step by Step
Moldova as well.

There were many other events at the school, which I was able to observe.
On three occasions I participated in teacher observations with the director. This
involved both watching the teacher for one or more lessons and then observing
the discussions between the teacher and director later in the day. I observed a
series of open lessons in the early spring and attended the analysis of those
lessons. I observed parent meetings at the class level and the school level. I
observed faculty meetings. I observed student disciplinary proceedings.

Through the year, as teachers got to know me better, they became more
candid in our conversations, and I became bolder in my questions.

During the spring semester I interviewed 20 parents. I searched for
parents who were active as well as inactive in the school. Sometimes this took

considerable effort to arrange the meetings at my apartment, at various places of

work, or at the school

14

Even though I focused on a single school, I did continue to study other
aspects of the school system. The Primavara School is located in the Botanica
sector of the capital and has its own sector school administration. I attended two
meetings of school directors in the Botanica sector conducted by the
superintendent and interviewed him on two occasions.

For several days I shadowed the inspector of national elementary schools
for the Municipality of Chisinau. We visited a private school, one of the more
prestigious public schools, and a series of six lessons taught as part of the
competition for teacher of the year for the Municipality of Chisinau. I also
interviewed her and discussed what we saw as well as her perspective on school
reform in Moldova. This experience allows me to provide some contrast and
comparison to the regular national model.

I also received access to the Ministry of Education archives and searched
through Ministry documents from the late 1980’s to 2005. I collected numerous
documents that directed changes in the school system, documents that represent
the challenges of the Moldovan school system, and documents that show the
workings of the school system. I did not receive access to more recent archives,
but I did get copies of some of the more recent documents that the MET
published in quarterly pamphlets. I interviewed the director of preuniversity
education at the MET.

I worked in the library of the Pedagogical Museum in Chisinau. The former

director of the museum was also a vice-minister of education and was a student

15

during the period of union with Romania. I interviewed him and spoke with him
informally on several occasions. The library has only a small office-sized room for
its archives, but I found a number of textbooks, history books, and other
documents dating to Soviet times. With the help of the museum staff, I contacted
the “T eachers’ House” located in the Central Committee offices of the Communist
Party. This organization supports retired teachers, several of whom I interviewed
to gain a perspective on what took place in Soviet era classrooms. These retired
teachers generously gave me some of their old textbooks and teacher supplies.

I interviewed several professors at the pedagogical university “Ion
Creanga” and the Institute of Educational Sciences. These professors were

involved in the development of the new curriculum and in teacher training.

Organization of the Study

This dissertation is organized historically. As I worked in the schools I
realized that what I saw was the result of a long process of events. I could not
understand the current situation in Moldova without some reference to its
antecedents. Chapter 2 therefore begins with a brief history of education in
Moldova beginning with the Russian annexation of the territory in 1812. l highlight
the expansion of the school system through the nineteenth century, the efforts to
create a national school during a brief period of autonomy and independence
between 1917 and 1918, and two perspectives on the time of union with

Romania between the World Wars. An analysis of Soviet era laws governing

16

education follows. The chapter ends with a description of the period of glasnost
and perestroika, during which school reforms began.

Before establishing a new national school, Moldova first needed to
dismantle the Soviet system and then build something new. This was a deliberate
process undertaken by the Ministry of Education often following directives from
the government. I describe this process in chapter three using Ministry of
Education and Youth (MET)4 directives and position papers. This included the
removal of statues and images, youth organizations, and ideology. It continues
with the efforts to rebuild the system. I discuss the early calls for a national
school and how these ideas later became official policy. The influence of the
Soviet era remains clear, but other ideas based on the research of Moldovan
scholars and based on foreign schools systems also influenced their
development. The Romanian system plays an important role in this process due
to historical and linguistic ties between Moldova and Romania. By 1997 Moldova
had created its first indigenous school curriculum, an accomplishment that
exemplified school reform in Moldova. In contrast to what it replaced, the
curriculum included objectives, without specific material or methodology. This
gave teachers the flexibility and the responsibility of designing lessons.

In a project co-financed by the World Bank, the MET published new

textbooks, and teachers received training in the new educational practices. Just

 

4 The ministry of education of Moldova has changed its name numerous times since
independence. I do not try to track those changes in this dissertation. When referring to specific
documents that mention the name of the Ministry, I use the name of the time. Otherwise I will
refer to the ministry of education using the abbreviation MET for Miniserul Educatiei is Tineretului
(Ministry of Education and Youth). This is the name of the ministry at the time of the research.

17

as the curriculum defined a new relationship between teacher and content, the
MET proposed a new relationship between teacher and student. The teacher was
now to have a more open relationship with students and work with them to create
a class community.

Chapter four returns to a discussion of more pragmatic concerns. The
Moldovan economy suffered a precipitous decline after independence and
Moldovan society underwent dramatic and traumatic change. To understand
what is taking place in schools and in classrooms it is important to understand
the social and economic conditions of schools. Funding is low, teacher salaries
are low, money is available neither for teacher supplies nor for school
maintenance. Few young teachers are entering the profession; many teachers of
retirement age continue to teach to earn a salary. Schools are now more
dependent on parents for funding. While schools are supposed to involve parents
more directly in the school management, many working adults, including
teachers, have emigrated leaving children alone or with aunts, uncles, or
grandparents.

Chapter five changes the focus again to begin a case study of the Step by
Step program as it is implemented in a single school. This program is an
international program introduced by the Open Society Institute. In many ways,
the program promotes the ideas and practices associated with the national
school. Chapter five describes the policy, philosophy, and practices associated

with this program as well as a history of the PCP in Moldova.

18

Chapter six analyzes the operation of Primavara and its implementation of
the PCP with an emphasis on the unique characteristics of the school and how it
is combined with the national curriculum. Despite the argument that the school
fulfills the national curriculum, Primavara does teach something quite unique from
non-PCP schools. Teachers have a great deal of autonomy, parents are involved
in the management of the school, children have opportunities to guide their own
learning and voice their opinions. These characteristics distinguish the school
from others in the country yet are consistent with the goals of the national school.
Furthermore, the school is a training site conveying these ideas to other
teachers. This creates an alternate authority to the MET.

Chapter seven examines the role of parents and the relationship between
parents and teachers at Primavara. Involving parents in schools has been a
much discussed goal since perestroika. Drawing on interviews from parents I
Show how there is commonality between the parents and the teachers’ vision of
the skills children should learn. However, there is a great deal of tension as
parents try to get the school to support their priorities, and teachers try to
implement a vision of parent-teacher collaboration. One consequence of allowing
parents decision-making authority, is that they can use this authority to create
structures so they do not need to be active in the school.

Chapter eight concludes the study with a discussion of what transition has
been for Moldovan schools. I look at the problems, policies and politics that led to

this period of change in Moldova. I discuss the national, international, and

19

historical influences on the construction of the new school system. I argue that
Moldova has something of a hybrid school system. The development of the
system started with the introduction of the PCP in Moldova as a preschool
program. It has since entered the primary grades and provides professional
development for teachers across the country. Teachers and parents have turned
to the PCP as an alternative to the standard school. This international program

provides a unique environment for children and provides some legitimacy in a

school system that is trying to change.

20

CHAPTER TWO: UNIONS AND NATIONALISTS, A TEMPLATE

FOR CHANGE
Compatriots! Civic harmony is the only road to the future! No to nationalism and
separatism! CPSU on the 73rd Anniversary of October Revolution

For most of the past two centuries Russians controlled the land between
the Nistru and Prut Rivers called Besarbia. The mass education system began its
development under Russian direction, continued under Romanian governance,
and finally reached near universal status within the Soviet system. This was the
foundation and the tradition that Moldovans could either dismantle to build a
national system or on which they could build their own schools. In this chapter I
briefly describe the development of the school system in Moldova beginning with
the Russian annexation of Besarabia in 1812. I focus on the Soviet system and
its governing laws, their implementation, and on issues that arose during
perestroika. This will allow us to examine the continuity and discontinuity in the
development of an independent Moldovan education system, in policy, and, to a

lesser degree, in practice.

Tsarist Rule

Tsarist Russia gained control of Besarabia at the beginning of the 19th
century after a war with Turkey. To consolidate the new government and support
the new subjects, the tsarist government built elementary schools. In 1812, when
Russia gained control of Besarabia, Gavril Banulescu Bodoni became the

archbishop of Besarabia. He established the first public school in Besarabia in

21

1815, a seminary. Most of the first teachers and the first textbooks used in the
school were Russian.

Other schools came into existence soon after. Around 1820 several
representatives from Besarabia traveled to Saint Petersburg to study a
Lancasterine school, a method that became known as “reciprocal teaching.” The
first school using this method in Besarabia opened in 1824, in Chisinau, and was
sponsored by a service organization. Churches and monasteries formed small
schools without state intervention. Village schools also came into existence.
About these two latter types of schools little is known because they were not
under the supervision of the state. The upper class and the landowners
attempted on several occasions to establish elite schools for their children, finally
gaining permission in the 1820’s (Cibotaru, 1991).

Nicholae I, who reigned from 1825-1855, attempted to use schools to
strengthen the feudal society. School policy during his reign limited the expansion
of the school system, limited teaching to religion, and transformed schools into a
means of Russification. In 1835 the Ministry of Religion and Education took over
the supervision of the Lancasterine schools, which served few of the children of
peasants and workers. In 1836 the Ministry of State Property took over the
colonial schools (as many as 77 in number) created for the German and
Bulgarian ethnic groups. These groups had special privileges; they did not pay

taxes, and had some of the highest literacy rates.

22

After social unrest in Russia, the tsarist government disbanded the feudal
system in 1861. Soon after came land reform as well as educational reform. More
schools opened, governed by local councils, that were cpen to all children, at
least according to policy (Cibotaru, 1991).

To counter the authority of the local councils, the tsarist government in
1884 promoted church schools and offered them monetary support. From 1889-
1893 the church established 168 schools. Despite these efforts, in a census from
1897, Moldovans still had the lowest literacy rate among all the ethnic groups in
Besarabia. The Germans had the highest rate with over 60% literate. The
Moldovans were behind the Poles, Jews, Gagauz, Russians, Ukrainians,
Bulgarians, and Belorussians. Only 10.5% of Moldovan men and 1.7% of
Moldovan women were literate (Cibotaru, 1991).

According to Cibotaru (1991) the Russian authorities allowed the use of
Romanian in some churches and in some schools through the middle of the 19th
century. Beginning in the 1860’s such tolerance ended. Romanian was not
permitted in churches or schools, ecclesiastical books printed in Romanian were
burnt. Musat and Ardeleanu quote a Russian publicist who worked as a teacher
in Besarabia in describing the Moldovans’ situation.

The people of Besarabia, because of the forced Russification, is

transformed into a hoard of slaves mute and ignorant. This people is [sic]

prohibited from studying their maternal language in schools, it is prohibited
to pray to God in their parents’ tongue. Hundreds of thousand of deseatine

(hectares) of their land have been distributed to Russian, Bulgarian and

German colonists and [they have been] forced to abandon their country. In
a single year 855 peasant families were forced to leave for Siberia to

23

colonize it. The poor people left their grain fields because they could no
longer live in their country. (Cibotaru, 1991, p. 310)

With the growing pressure for equality and the 1905-1907 Russian
Revolution came a growing effort to build schools. In 1890 there were 195
working schools at the elementary level. In 1897 there were 587 schools of all
types. In 1906 there were 1007. The social changes also changed the quality of
education. Schools began teaching science, geography, music, and sport
(Cibotaru, 1991).

During this same time period, there was a growing nationalist movement
that resisted Russian dominance. This pro-Romanian nationalism received
inspiration from the formation of an independent Romania in 1878 (Cibotaru,
1991). In the 19008 a Society of Moldovan Culture called for a greater use of the
Romanian language and for other rights for Besarabians. Budak describes a
strike among seminarians in Chisinau that took place at this time that included
the following demands: “1) Introduce Romanian as an obligatory discipline for the
upper classes. 2) Offer divine services in Romanian. 3) Introduce the study of
Romanian history in educational institutions in Besarabia” (Cibotaru, 1991, p.
313). The year of this strike is not noted. Even after nearly one hundred years of

Russian rule, it is noteworthy that there was still a claim to be part of Greater

Romania.

24

Independence and Union with Romania

After the Russian Revolution of February 1917, nationalist groups in
Moldova intensified their efforts for an independent Moldova. In April 1917 a
congress of teachers was held to discuss the establishment of a national school
system. In general the new Moldovan school was to be democratic. Romanian
was to be the language of instruction with Russian becoming a course of study.
The national schools would also use the Latin alphabet to write Romanian. In the
end the delegates proposed the continued use of the Russian school program at
both the elementary and the liceum level. At the time Besarabia was still a
territory of Russia, and an alternate history course was not possible. Other ethnic
populations could have schools to teach in their maternal language. The new
schools were to be free of political influence (Cibotaru, 1991).5

On 24 January 1918 representatives at the Sfatul Tarii (national congress)
declared The Moldovan Democratic Republic independent of Russia. Two
months later on 27 March 1918 (old style calendar) the representatives voted for

Union with Romania (Cibotaru, 1991). Pro-Romanian Moldovans still celebrate

this day.

 

5 A history book tells more about the author and his time period than about the time period of the
book. According to a colleague of Cibotaru, he is a well respected scholar. However, this book
tells a great deal about Moldova and Moldovans in the 1990’s. This period, especially the Sfaful
Tarii, has become part of the folklore of the modern state of Moldova. There is a street named
Sfatul Tarii in Chisinau. Pro-Romanian nationalists celebrate the date of the first declaration of
independence every year. Adding to the lore, this book was published in 1991, and research
began a decade earlier. The author, according to the introduction, resisted efforts from the
Central Committee, the Institute of History of the Academy of Sciences, and the Committee of
State Security (aka KGB) to prevent its publication.

25

From 1918 to 1940, Romania controlled Besarabia and the school system.
From a Soviet perspective, the country was neglected and there was little
educational progress at the time. Furthermore, the various ethnic groups were
not allowed to study in their native language (Prokofiev, 1967). A doctoral thesis
published in 2004 in Moldova describes a very different situation. From 1920
through 1940 the number of schools, students, and teachers in Besarabia
increased significantly. In 1920 there were 1747 primary schools, 136,172
students, and 2746 teachers. By 1940 there were 2718 primary schools, 346,747
students, and 7582 teachers. Of these 1747 primary schools in existence in
1920, about 514 were for various ethnic groups including Ukrainian, Russian,
Bulgarian, German, Jewish, and Polish. Data for the entire period of union with
Romania is not provided, but in 1930, the author notes, there were over 58,000
students studying in these schools for the various ethnic groups (Axentii, 2004,
pp. 14-15). The author makes the following conclusion regarding the results of
Romanian rule, “The Besarabian school created a scholastic experience that was

long term and valued, and developed on the principles of social pedagogy and

humanism” (Axentii, 2004, p. 9).

The Formation of Soviet Schools

In 1940 the Soviet Union took over Besarabia, lost it to the Romanians
allied with the Germans during the war, and then established its rule after World
War II. The initial developments in education consisted of building schools and

Implementing laws passed by the Supreme Soviet in Moscow (Prokofiev, 1967).

26

In the Soviet Union, the public general school was considered a central
institution in which to build the New Soviet Man and to perfect a communist
society. Lenin doubted that communism would develop on its own as Marx
predicted, through the failure of capitalism in an industrialized country, but
needed to be instilled by providing certain experiences for children. On the
centenary of the birth of Lenin, F. F. Korolev (1970), a professor in the Academy
of Pedagogical Sciences of the USSR described Lenin’s perspective on

education.

The individual's principal source of social experience is the actual process
of living. However, purpose-designed and specially organized forms and
techniques for the transmission and acquisition of social experience also
have an important part to play, and this is especially true of education.
Thus, schools and other educational establishments fulfill a vital social
function. General education acquaints the pupil with the basic principles of
science and art, lays the foundations of a scientific world-outlook, inculcates
the necessary moral traits and qualities, and imparts essential practical
know-how and skills. Education develops the mental faculties, arouses the
individual's social awareness and encourages independence and a creative
approach to intellectual and physical work. It was precisely in this broad
sense that Lenin understood educational questions. (p. 46)

Creating these experiences that would promote a communist world-view would
allow Lenin to build a communist society in an agrarian country. These
experiences included both cognitive activities to develop academic skills, and
affective activities to develop social consciousness.

The Soviet Union was to be a worker’s paradise, but everyone needed to
learn how to work. Children participated in party youth organizations such as the
Octobrists, Pioneers, and Komsomol starting from when they were 8 years old.

These groups were integral to the school system. They provided many socializing

27

experiences for children through classroom and after school activities.

Upbringing, or child rearing, took on a specific intention in Soviet schools.
"Upbringing [vospitanie] is a most important component of the social shaping of
the individual; it encompasses the purposeful, systematic, and organized
activities of the school, the family, Pioneer and Komsomol organizations, and
labor collectives in preparing the new man for life and labor in particular concrete-
historical conditions" (Monoszon, 1987, p. 10). Such activities included courses of
“instruction through work” that focused on crafts or agricultural work, collective
decision making and collective discipline (Bronfenbrenner & Condry, 1970), and
community service activities. The Soviet school, along with the youth
organizations, was committed to preparing children for life in a communist
society.

Anton Makarenko played an essential role in developing and implementing
the idea of the education in the collective. Makarenko worked with street children,
many of whom were orphaned during the Revolution of 1917. He applied his
ideas in juvenile colonies for these children. The entire structure of his colony
relied on collective arrangements of children who were collectively responsible
for the tasks assigned. Makarenko used competition among detachments to
motivate them. He was against the idea of a natural development of children and
strongly supported the use of education to create a communist mentality.
Makarenko eventually gained the support of the young Soviet regime (Gehring,

Bowers, & Wright, 2005; Tudge, 1991). The influence of these ideas of collective

28

education is clearly seen in the structure of the youth organizations in schools.
But it is at odds with the description of Soviet classes that contain very little
collective activity.

Early reports on education in the Soviet Union, during its first decade of
existence, were complimentary of the school system. Educational authorities
supposedly promoted the ideas of Dewey and Montessori and others (L. E.
Holmes, 1973; Tudge, 1991). This early period has been described as the
brightest era of Soviet education with a great deal of discussion, experimentation
and radical change. Dewey was further impressed with combination of “education
with social life” (Biesta & Miedema, 1996, p. 15). After visiting the Soviet Union
Dewey writes with praise about “the marvelous development of progressive
educational ideas and practice under the fostering care of the Bolshevist
government" (Biesta & Miedema, 1996, p. 14).

From a different perspective, the schooling was not progressive except to
serve the interests of the communist party. The political aspect of schooling,
calling for the development of the constructors of communism, has always been
a priority of Soviet schools. Holmes (1973) is critical of the claim that the Soviet
Union experimented with progressive schools in its early years. The complex
method and project method were popular during the first years of the Russian
Soviet Socialist Federation not because of the freedom they allowed to teachers,
but because textbooks could not keep up with the changing Bolshevik policy. By

ignoring traditional curriculum guides- tsarist era textbooks were prohibited-

29

teachers could discuss communism and Marxism in relation to any topic. The
young communist government was not concerned with the methodology, but with
the promotion of communist ideas. Quoting several Communist Party documents,
Holmes (1973) argues that the party was interested in inculcating youth in
communist ideology and writes, "Instruction must be permeated with the scientific
Marxist world view" (p. 351 ). Only after the government gained some stability,
and more teachers became members of the communist party did schools return
to more traditional methods with traditional classes and textbooks. This took
place around 1930 and corresponded with greater efforts to educate skilled
workers for the growing industries (Tudge, 1991).

The Soviet Union did create a mass education system with schools,
professional schools, colleges, and universities. In addition, these institutions
offered courses in the evenings and through correspondence. Table 1 includes

data regarding the number of schools, students, and teachers in Moldova at the

end of the Soviet Union.

30

Table 1: Number of schools, students and teachers in 1990-1991, Moldova

 

 

 

 

Schools, grades Students Teachers and
1-1 1, non administrators
vocational

1990-1991 1 635 732,400 53,900
Professional Students (day) Teachers (day
schools and and evening)
colleges

1990-1991 164 133,500 9,000

 

 

 

 

 

 

("Anuarul Statistic Al Republicii Moldova," 2002, p. 151). I have included day students only

considering that many of the students attending school in the evening would be working and not
of the typical student age.

In addition there were students in professional schools and colleges that
extended beyond the 11 year school program. During the 1990-1991 school year
for every 10,000 people of population there were 1703 students in schools, 145
students in professional schools, 143 students in colleges, and 126 in universities
("Anuarul Statistic AI Republicii Moldova," 2002, p. 152).

Nearly every one attended schools of some sort. As Table 2 indicates, there

was significantly lower academic attainment in rural areas compared to cities.

31

Table 2: Educational attainment in Moldova 1989

 

 

 

 

Per 1000 Number of University General school General school
persons in persons with complete incomplete (9
1989 university, years)

college or

general school

education

Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rura

I

Over the age 884 635 141 37 563 371 180 227
offifleen
All workers 950 817 176 52 649 518 125 247

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

("Anuarul Statistic Al Republicii Moldova," 1991. p. 103)

Law of Education for the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic.

Given the role of the communist party and the efforts to create a communist
society, it follows that the Soviet Law of Education focused predominately on
promoting the Communist Party and communism. Each republic of the Union had
its respective law, but they all closely resembled the Soviet law. The version I use
for comparison is from the Republic of Moldova, was written in Moldovan, and
dates from 1976. It was not revised even through the period of glasnost. The
communist rhetoric and ideology in the law, began in the preamble and extended
throughout the document with regular references to Marxist-Leninist philosophy
and the Moral Code of Constructors of Communism. These were, officially, the
guiding points of Soviet life.

“The great Socialist Revolution of October,” the law began,

has created the political, economic, and social conditions for the

32

 

()2
m

('5

-.T L)

'7)

(I.

.-.
\\-I

II.

Item
-

D' II

R...
-‘

vid-

.‘on

I“.

development of public education, science, and culture in our country.

In a short period of history in all spheres of spiritual life of Soviet
society, socialist ideology became established. Under the direction of the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union it was successfully resolved the task
of forming a new man- constructor of communism. For the first time in the
history of mankind a truly democratic system of education [invatamint]6 was
created. (Ministry of Justice of the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic,
1976,p.4)

This introduction continued with the statement that Moldova voluntarily joined the
USSR, and that the Communist Party has brought many wonderful possibilities,
in terms of cultural and intellectual growth, to Moldova and Moldovans.
The law called on teachers to educate children to defend the Soviet Union.
The Communist Party celebrated those who died in defense of the country in
World War II, called the Great Patriotic War for the Fatherland. The motto of the
Pioneers was “Always ready” and was a response to the command from the
leader, "Pioneer, be prepared to fight for the cause of the communist party!"
(Riordan, 1987) Some of the Soviet images in schools included pictures of youth,
complete with red scarves, with stories about their heroism and death in World
War II.
The Statute of the General School (Sovietul Ministrilor al RSS

Moldovenesti, 2007), which contained regulations pertaining specifically to
grades 1-11, included more details of school goals. Here there was a greater

focus on individual development, but within the confines of communist

uDbringing. The statute outlined the “principal tasks” of the school:

\

6 n

.TWO words in Romanian translate as education in English. Educatie and invatammt have
dlfl‘el‘ent nuances, even though they are used at times interchangeably. Educatie is more
conCerned with discipline and affective issues. Invatamint is more related to academic concerns.

33

-to give students a general education, which corresponds with the
contemporary demands of social and technical-scientific progress,
obtaining the acquisition by students of lasting knowledge of scientific
knowledge and the ability to study7 it independently;

-to form the younger generation in the Marxist-Leninist conception of the
world, to teach [educa] students a high sentiment of Soviet patriotism, love
of fatherland, for their people, for the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
and the will to defend the socialist Fatherland;

-to assure the harmonious and multilateral development of students, their
esthetic and physical education [educarea], strengthening of their health,
the just organization of instruction through work, to prepare students for

life, for consciously choosing a profession, for work and activities in the
public realm;

-The school combines instructive-educative [educatie] practices of the
communist construction, it puts into practice upbringing of students in the
spirit of the demands of the Moral code of constructors of communism.
(Sovietul Ministrilor al RSS Moldovenesti, 1970, pp. 5-6)
Except for the references to communism, these principles would be welcome in
most any modern, western school. There was even reference to life-long
learning, multilateral development, and civic obligation, physical education, and
art education. In this case the harmonious development of children refered to
harmonizing with a Marxist-Leninist world view. Furthermore, the emphasis
throughout the educational system, that was left unwritten, was the emphasis on
the collective, and the subordination of the individual to the collective
(Bronfenbrenner & Condry, 1970; Monoszohn & Szarka, 1970; Tudge, 1991).
The Moral Code of Builders of Communism layed out the morals and

ethics that the new Soviet man should display.

- Devotion to the cause of communism, love of the socialist Motherland
and of the socialist countries.

- Conscientious labor for the good of society: he who does not work,

 

 

7
The term in the law, written in Cyrillic, is Komnnekra, a word not found in modern Romanian

dictionaries. As happens several times in this text a Russian word is used but put into Romanian
form. I use a Russian interpretation of the word.

34

neither shall he eat.

- Concern on the part of everyone for the preservation and growth of
public property.

- High sense of public duty; intolerance of actions harmful to the public
interest.

0 Collectivism and comradely mutual assistance: one for all and all for
one.

- Humane relations and mutual respect between individuals: man is to
man a friend, a comrade, and a brother.

- Honesty and truthfulness, moral purity, unpretentiousness and
modesty in social and private life.

- Mutual respect in the family, concern for the upbringing of children.

- lrreconcilability towards injustice, parasitism, dishonesty, careerism,
and profiteering.

- Friendship and brotherhood among all peoples of the USSR,
intolerance of national and racial hatred.

- Intolerance towards the enemies of communism, peace, and freedom
ofnafions.

- Fraternal solidarity with the working people of all countries, and with
all peoples.

Again these are ideas, except those mentioning communism, that would be
welcome, for the most part, in other western schools. This would later create
difficulty for Moldova as it attempted to create on paper a modern, national
school system, consistent with global standards, but somehow different from the

Soviet system and unique to Moldova.

Rights and Obligations

The Soviet law gave the right to education to all citizens. The state
explicitly took on the obligation of establishing schools, polytechnics, colleges
and universities so that all may benefit from this right. The state also took on the
responsibility of maintaining a network of facilities for after school activities. Many

Of these were affiliated with the youth organizations.

35

9““!
ID‘ ’1‘
a 5. “A!

3‘13"
an: ‘9 ‘

nan
"I \
lviv'

I ulna,
4“ c-

1.1)
.
‘ P

Iq: -
.ul

(2
(I
(in

.‘1-“'

"lab. -

"‘25 q

v.i.

"1 Cl

.l

- jn.

An important point for Moldova and minority groups, all students were
granted the right to study in the language of their choice, as long as it was
spoken by one of the peoples of the USSR. Every student has “the liberty of
choosing the language of study—in the maternal language or in the language of
another people of the Union SSR” (Ministry of Justice of the Moldovan Soviet
Socialist Republic, 1976, p. 9). The language of another people typically referred
to Russian. Below and in the chapters that follow, I will discuss how school
officials implemented language policy in both the USSR and in independent
Moldova.

The Law of Education included rights and obligations for both teachers
and students with their families. Article 75 described the rights of parents; it
contains only three: 1) to send their children to school, 2) to discuss the issues of
instruction and education (educarea) at the school and 3) to vote for and be
voted for a position on the parent committee (Ministry of Justice of the Moldovan
Soviet Socialist Republic, 1976, p. 57).

Building a communist society took priority in the law and there was little
mention of the family and its dominant role in child rearing. "In the Union SSR,
education [invatamintj is a cause, truly, of the entire people [norod]8. The state,
the family, and public organizations assure through common effort the education
[educarea] and instruction of the young generation" (Ministry of Justice of the

Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic, 1976, p. 6).

\—

8
The term in the text is Hopon. This is a Russian word meaning people or populace. This is not a
R("Y'lanian word.

36

Parents also had obligations, which were listed in the law. The first of the
list of four obligations referred to ideas found in the Moral Code. “Parents or
guardians have the obligation to educate [educa] children in the spirit of high
communist morals, of the attitude of care for socialist property, to cultivate
customs of work and preparation for socially useful activities, to care for the
physical development and the strengthening of the health of their children”
(Ministry of Justice of the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic, 1976, p. 57). Also
included was the obligation to register the children for school, to support the child
at home in fulfilling his or her studies, and an admonition that upbringing in family
should “organically” be combined with upbringing at school (p. 57).

The rhetoric surrounding teaching, excluding the references to
communism, are difficult to critique: multilateral development, love of country and
one’s people, continued learning. The rights afforded appear to represent a
benevolent government. The question remains of how well these policy intentions
were realized in practice.

In 1984 the Communist Party Central Committee approved a number of
educational reforms. Russian language study was one issue addressed in the
“Basic Guidelines for the School Reform.” The text of the new policy included a
brief discussion of the teaching of Russian across the Union. With the intention of
maintaining continuity throughout the school system, schools should “improve
Conditions for the study, along with one’s native language, of the Russian

lElf‘lguage, which has been voluntarily adopted by the Soviet people as the means

37

it! ‘15!"

IDBH

:1i‘U

- AA.

.1
iUIVU‘

ha- I!"

I. .’
LV'UVI

7
M4,...
’ 1

a...

lpAnal

. \f-
' :vflr
Q

n .1
fl

L5}:

:3?!

V‘.

“a.
" J

V d U

‘-

'VI

h.

b

for communication between nationalities. Fluency in the Russian language
should become the norm for young people who are completing secondary
educational institutions” (CPSU Central Committee, 1984, p. 14). The rhetoric of
the document relegated national languages to an aside, as they were in the lives
of Soviet citizens, and set a high standard for Russian instruction and learning.

A number of teaches described the ovenlvhelming bias and privilege
afforded the Russian language. At school meetings for example, because of the
presence of a single Russian speaker, the entire meeting would take place in
Russian. There was also the unwritten rule that career advancement meant
learning Russian. The senior officials of the Moldovan Communist Party even
tended to marry Russian women. Not all of this Russification was imposed. With
the dominant role of Russia in the USSR, many parents voluntarily encouraged
their children to study Russian in order to gain advantage in the system in which
they lived (B. Holmes, Read, & Voskresenskaya, 1995).

According to the letter of the law, the family enjoyed reasonable rights.
The rhetoric included in the “Basic Guidelines for the School Reform” provides
more insight into how to implement the law (CPSU Central Committee, 1984). In
this document it is clear that family was of secondary importance. Section five the
“Guidelines” was entitled “THE SOCIAL AND FAMILY UPBRINGING OF
CHILDREN AND TEENAGERS” and began this way, “The Communist Party and

the Soviet state show constant concern for the development of the social

 

 

The italics indicate that the word or phrase was not included in the draft guidelines published
s""Veral months earlier and was added later.

38

‘pp '1" f

or! “

V
.10., , f
‘ I

h i '

“Hr-F"
In! .1

[IV

In 0‘:

nA.‘|

I
in. a

PM H

p Vida

73' '
WV ;

'4‘le I
WV 9-

Int
1'“ "-

‘J‘I

”’1!

' I"!

fi'a .‘
II E"

'1‘».
I

IIA

' J

 

upbringing of children and teenagers . . . and they provide all-round assistance
to families in upbringing” (p. 17). Only after four more paragraphs was there
reference to parents and families. “Matters should be organized in such a way
that the school becomes the center of active (organizer of) upbringing work with
pupils in the micro-borough. Parents, and the public and labor collectives-
production collectives, first of all—should be enlisted in this work” (p. 18). And
later, “Increasing the effectiveness of upbringing depends to a great extent on the
coordination of efforts of the family, the school, the public and labor collectives
and the uniformity of their demands on pupils” (p. 18). It is clear that the demands
on pupils come from the state and the school, not from the family.

This section also discussed the importance of moral upbringing,
extramural activities, and the need to include youth areas in new housing
projects.

Parent participation in school was minimal. Even the right to participate on
parent boards with the school was severely limited in its SCOpe. Parent
associations were confined to their respective schools; there was no republic or
union umbrella organization. They had no authority to raise money (Archer,

1979). At parent meetings there was often a lot of criticism of students and little
effort to build collaborative relationships. Several informants told me of the typical
procedure: the home room teacher stood in front of the gathered parents and

Went through the class roll and praised or criticized each student. Teachers even

39

read out the grades given to each student. Public shaming was commonplace in

the USSR and took place even in high-level speeches (Yeltsin, 1989).

Soviet Schools

Equality was emphasized throughout the Soviet school system. All children,
with few exceptions attended the ‘middle school’ (A primary school referred to
just the primary grades, 1-4. A middle school included a primary school and
upper grades to grade 11.) with an identical curriculum across the Union. This did
not ensure the equality of outcomes; there were no national tests to assess this,
but educational provision was putatively equal (Alexander, 2001 ). That being
said, one informant indicated that some schools were considered better than
others. He had attended a more prestigious school that, because of his parents’
reputation, was outside of his prescribed attendance area. In addition, in
Chisinau, the more spacious apartments for high ranking officials were
concentrated in the downtown area, resulting in a high concentration of their
children in a few schools. Rural schools, and those in central Asia fared less well.
In an interview, Gennedy lagodin, a minister of education of the USSR, refers to
a test to evaluate the skills of first year university students. Seventeen percent of
Moscow educated students, 19% of students from Leningrad, and 85% of the
students from central Asia failed the exam (Maximova & Prelovskaya, 1988).
Clearly, the outcomes of the educational system were not equal. In addition,
depending on the fortunes of the collective farm or factory that often supported

schools in their areas, some schools were able to offer more elaborate activities

40

(Grant, 1979).

This tsarist curriculum served as a model for the Soviet curriculum, which
came under the influence of the phil030pher Comenius (Alexander, 2001; B.
Holmes, et al., 1995). This was an encyclopedic curriculum and a student would
study a large number of different courses in the course of his or her schooling.
Even at the elementary level, no class, other than language arts, met each day.
Some classes met only for one lesson during the week. During the school day,
there were no elective classes.

Soviet pedagogy guided what took place in schools. Again showing the
influence of Comenius, pedagogy was described in terms of natural laws.

The principles of upbringing and their systematic implementation help the

educator to resolve successfully all the tasks involved in upbringing. These

principles are not man’s invention nor the fruit of his fantasies; they have an
objective basis in the regular connections and relations that arise in the
actual upbringing process. The principles of upbringing are formed on the
basis of the appropriate (corresponding) reflection of the objective laws of

upbringing. (Monoszon, 1987, p. 25)

Suddaby (1989) refers to lesson design in the USSR as the “correct
scientific approach.” Psychologists worked with teachers to discuss the details of
lessons, including the questions to be asked and the answers expected. The
teacher would then teach the lessons, the psychologists would make some

refinements, and then make a model lesson. This would become the

recommended lesson for use in all schools in the form of teacher guides. This

gives little latitude to the teacher to interact with students in personal or novel

Ways.

41

Whatever is written about harmonious and multi-lateral development, the
following quote makes it clear that child development was to take place within the
confines of a world-view prescribed by the Communist Party.

The shaping of the schoolchildren's worldview goes hand in hand with
their ideological-political upbringing [italics included in original]. The task of
this endeavor is to lead schoolchildren to assimilate the political ideology
of communism and the humane character and scientific validity of the
domestic and foreign policies of the CPSU and the Soviet state, to
stimulate the students' socio—political involvement and readiness to fight
for communist ideals. Communist morality incorporates the basic norms
common to humanity, which have been worked out by the masses of
people in the course of thousands of years in the struggle against social
Oppression and moral vices. Of especially vital importance in the moral
development of society is the revolutionary morality of the working class,
which forms the basis of communist morality. Common norms of morality
and elementary rules of human community living, interwoven into the
fabric of communist morality, acquire new social meaning. In the course of
the building of human communism and socialism, communist morality has
been enriched with new content, as reflected in the new edition of the
CPSU Program. (Monoszon, 1987, p. 22)

It is this idea of leading, or forcing, children to agree with the communist party
that has led many Moldovans to criticize the Soviet school system for being
inhuman and undemocratic. In fact, the Communist Party criticized the school

system during the period of perestroika.

Soviet Curricular Documents

If the USSR had a specific collection of goals for the educational system, it
also had a specific curriculum9 that teachers would use to achieve those goals.
There was a single curriculum for the entire Soviet Union with only minor

variations to allow for the study of national language and literature. For each

\—

9 a o o
The word curriculum takes on special meaning in independent Moldova, something I Will discuss
later.

42

subject at each grade level there was a detailed curriculum, or program, a
teacher’s guide as well as a textbook approved by the Ministry of Education in
Moscow. At the republic level, the ministries of education translated the texts into
the respective languages, and included some local literature and geography.

Looking at these teaching documents provides insight into how pervasive
the communist party influenced the school. A former vice-minister complained of
this influence when he told me, “One day a political officer came into my office
and said that we do not have enough communism in the program.” Given the
authority of the Communist Party, there was little he could do to respond except
listen to what the officer said. Irina Gantea noted the following about communist
party influence in schools, “[l]t was said, not without fear, in the 60’s that,
studying the History of the Communist Party from the grade four textbook, one
could easily pass admission in post-secondary education” (Gantea, 2007, p. 53).

The 1989 third grade programa for Romanian language study includes a
section entitled “Reading and the development of speech.” This topic had three
lessons per week. A list of topics includes:

The Pioneers (8 hours) Stories and poems about the life and activities of
the Pioneers in our time and in the first years after the foundation of the
Pioneer organization.

Fall (8 hours). Pictures of nature in the time of fall and the attitude of
people regarding nature in the works of writers, poems from the time of the
Great Socialist Revolution of October and in the soviet period.

The life of workers and peasants before the Great Socialist
Revolution of October, their struggle against the oppressors (7
hours). Stories, poems, skits about the hard life of working people in tzarist
times, and capitalist; about their struggle against the oppressors.

The Great Socialist Revolution of October (8 hours) Stories and poems
about the struggles of workers and peasants under the direction of the

43

Bolshevik party with V. l. Lenin in the lead in the time of the Great Socialist

Revolution of October, about the establishment of Soviet Power in

Moldova, about the defense of the victors of the Great October in the

years of the civil war. (Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al RSS

Moldovanesti, 1989, p. 19)
Each hour refers to a 45 minute lesson. The program continues through the
year’s lessons with the seasons mixed in with communist themes. Other parts of
the Romanian program did focus on grammar and punctuation, but the core texts
remained focused on Soviet ideology. Other subjects were not so full of ideology,
but Soviet achievements were always emphasized. “In practice, Soviet ideology
determined selection of all curriculum content. In the humanities each item of
knowledge had to be interpreted from the standpoint of Marxism-Leninism. Even
in the natural sciences political commitment from time to time influenced the
presentation of scientific material” (B. Holmes, et al., 1995, p. 173). A school
director mentioned that every lesson had to contain some reference to Lenin no
matter how obscure the reference. A Moldovan scholar, who worked for the
research center that became the Institute for the Sciences of Education, did
admit that mathematics and natural sciences, because of their importance to the
military, did have a privileged place at school and did not include the same
communist emphasis.

At the beginning of the mathematics section of the curriculum of 1989,

there is a discussion of the goals of the course. This included the encouragement

of learning generalized concepts and theory as well as general suggestions for

methods.

44

According special attention to the formation in students of careful and
long lasting calculating skills in many cases brought to automaticity, the
program proposes at the same time the generalization, accessible to
students, of material, of the understanding of general principles and laws,
which form the foundation of the mathematics data studied, the
discernment of connections that exist between the considered
phenomena. (Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al RSS Moldovanesti, 1989,
p. 82)
There is a great deal of rhetoric in the curriculum about connecting mathematics
to daily life, both as teaching strategy as well as in application. This begins with
encouraging teachers to connect elementary number concepts with the children’s
experience working with “sets of objects” (Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al RSS
Moldovanesti, 1989, p. 83). Later, students could make mathematics problems
that take “number material . . . from the surrounding reality” (Ministerul
lnvatamintului Public al RSS Moldovanesti, 1989, p. 89). Mathematics concepts
were to be connected to the “concrete, from life” to show that the concepts taught
in the lessons stem from “practical necessity” (Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al
RSS Moldovanesti, 1989, p. 92).
There are specific instructions regarding teaching and correct protocol. For
example, there is an explicit explanation of reading exercises. The expression

6+(6-2) should be read:

To the number six is added the difference of the numbers six and two.
(Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al RSS Moldovanesti, 1989, p. 84)

Later they should read

The sum of two terms: the first term is six, the second- the difference of
the numbers six and two. (Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al RSS
Moldovanesti, 1989, p.84)

45

To save time, the curriculum recommends that complete explanations for a
problem type be used only for a lesson or two. Specific approaches to problem
solving included, for example, the use of drawing or tables. After which, a shorter

reference to the method should be used with a return to the full explanation only

to explain mistakes.

A mathematics guide for teachers includes directions for each lesson like
the following. Based on this lesson and the commentary from the curriculum,
there was a strong emphasis on oral calculation, and students were expected to

explain the process of problem solving. The lesson included the corresponding

page number of the lesson in the textbook:

Writing exercises on the blackboard of the type: 20*4, 30*3, 106, the
teacher encourages students to read the first factors in the exercises and
to say how they resemble each other. (20, 30, 10 are numbers with two
digits, which end in zero.) “What does the zero indicate in each of these
numbers? (The number contains only tens and no ones.) This is the basis
for the method of multiplying and dividing numbers of this kind,” says the
teacher and encourages students to examine themselves the drawing in
the textbook and the notes below it, and explains the solution of each
exercise. (Moro, Bantova, Beltukova, & Vapniar, 1989, p. 75)

The lesson continues with more, specific guidelines:

The problems (numbers 3 and 5) are resolved under the direction of the
teacher (problems 3- oral, problem 5 to be analyzed in detail and written
on the blackboard and in notebooks). (Moro, Bantova, Beltukova, &
Vapniar, 1989, p. 75)

The lesson ends with the homework assignment including specific problems in

specific rows of the page.

46

As a basis of the mathematics curriculum, educating a child for
communism takes precedence. “The lessons of mathematics must use in the
goal of forming in children the elementary bases . . . of the preparation for work
and education [educatie] of the various valued characteristics and qualities of the
personality of the Soviet student” (Ministerul lnvatamintului Public al RSS
Moldovanesti, 1989, p. 92). There is no clarification of these ideas.

A guide for fourth grade science teachers includes similarly detailed

lesson plans:

Goal: the familiarization of students with the types of surface water, their
use and protection;

Materials: Poster “water in nature”, a map of Moldovan SSR and a
physical map of the Soviet Union.

Flow of lesson: Questioning [every lesson in this guide starts this
way.] The teacher listens and evaluates the students’ responses. In the
process of questioning there is a small review of the studied material
regarding mineral wealth. Continuing, the teacher asks students several
questions: Where do we find water in nature? What role does it play in our
life? Where do we need it? Read the poem in the textbook “spring” Using
the poster “Water in Nature” the teacher will explain to the students how a
spring is formed, why water from a spring is pure, how a stream can
transform into a large river, which carries to the sea or ocean, why people
dig wells, how cities are furnished with water. For a real example, you can
talk about the protections of springs and in general of water. Here relate
also about the negative causes of pollution of water in general and in
specific of your locality. The teacher will make an appeal to the students to
participate in the care maintenance of springs, to plant trees around them.

Read the text from the text book, at the end of the lesson 1 or two
students generalize the material covered in the lesson.

Homework. Read and tell of the lesson. On a map of Moldova show
the Nistru and Prut rivers, while on a map of the Soviet Union show a few
rivers, lakes, seas, oceans. Give answers to the questions and fulfill the
lessons for the textbook. (Morei, 1991, p. 99)

47

Only material that conformed to Soviet ideology was included for use in
Soviet schools. According to Paslaru (2003), “Not a single modification of the
content of the programs and the literature textbooks were allowed to be made
without the prior approval of the C[entral] C[ommittee] of the Communist Party”
(p. 61). The Communist Party carefully reviewed all school material. For
example, the Central Committee of the Communist Party excluded an entire sixth
grade literature textbook because a single story incorrectly referred to the
unification of Besarabia with Russia on 28 June 1940. The textbooks authors
wrote, “[Tjhe liberation of Besarabia from under the yoke of the Romanian
bourgeois occupiers and the unification with the fatherland-mama [patria-mama],
the Soviet Union” (pp. 61-62). Whereas the official party line was that in 1940
Besarabia was “reunited” with Russia. The first union took place in 1812 when
Paslaru claims Russia “annexed” Besarabia (Paslaru, 2003).

A teacher’s guide issued by the MET accompanied each text. This guide
outlined each lesson and provided goals (usually one content and one affective
goal), methods, and even questions to be asked and directions on how to work
with students. The mathematics guides contained specific pages and problem
sets corresponding to the mathematics textbook. Teachers were to use these
guides to create their own yearlong plans, which had to correspond to the
specifics in the guides. One teacher interviewed expressed exasperation at the
requirement to simply copy what was already written in the books. After each

lesson, teachers entered the topic of the lesson in the class register. Like the

48

yearlong plans, the director or the adjunct director inspected and approved them.
In addition, inspectors from the regional center could come to the school, observe
lessons, and inspect plans and registers. All teachers acknowledged the need to
follow the program and enter the topic in the register. There is some question as
to whether or not the topics in the register reflected what actually took place in
the lesson. Teachers could easily write the required topic in the register and do
something else. Without any formal assessments, the deception could go
undetected.

School inspections were a regular part of the school experience for
teachers and students. A Georgian teacher described the inspections this way:

Of course, my methodology was monitored! It was quite centralized. The

supervisor from the Methodological Institute would go to schools and see

what you were teaching and how you presented information to the
students. Inspectors came from the republic, the regions, and the city. The
inspection from the republic lasted two days. Parents were asked to bring
cake, juice, and wine for the teachers, other parents and the inspectors.

(Dundua, 2003, pp. 347-348)

This is similar to what teachers described taking place in Moldova.

One teacher recalled this anecdote from her primary school years about a
visiting observer, “I remember when someone was coming to observe in the
back, and I remember that for that lesson we practiced it about ten times.
Repeatedly we rehearsed, there was a winter poem, and you say the first verse,

and you say the second, [it was all organized] like that. Even now I remember the

scene of the lesson, because we practiced so that when the guest came it would

49

look very good.”10 This is the only event she remembers of her primary schooling
(Elvira).

With the strict guidelines provided and the regular inspections, the
activities taking place in classrooms were tightly controlled. However, it was
impossible to monitor all teachers all the time. Like teachers in most classrooms,

Soviet teachers spent most of their time unobserved behind closed doors.

Descriptions of Soviet Schools

Most parents and teachers describe Soviet schools as a very controlled
environment with limited freedom in ideas, methods, or action. Irina, who started
teaching in 1986 and now is a teacher and trainer for PCP, described her

experience this way:

When I studied at the university and when I started to work there was the
Soviet Union, because it still existed, there was a pattern, a standard, a
model. For example, everyone had to draw the apple like this, everyone
had to do it, the teacher showed them how. That is how they taught us and
that is what we did for many years, but now, if I was pushed to work that
way, I don’t know if I could . . . we, unfortunately, when we studied no one
taught us how to cooperate. We must stand nicely and wait in line until we
were asked, and children who had poorer results were neglected in
general, in the back row they sat . . . there were frames from which you did
not leave. In the case when you did not do something you were told, you
were considered a bad student, if you did not listen to the letter of what the
teacher said, or if you did not do it exactly how the teacher showed, you
were considered a bad student. If you tried to say that you had a different
opinion. ‘What does it mean you have a different opinion?’ How the
teacher said it, that is how it must be. If you tried to say “I don’t see it that
way,” or, “I don’t want to draw the mug [gestures to tea cup] red, I want to
draw it blue,” you were considered a bad student. (Irina)

 

'0 I conducted all interviews in Russian or Romanian. l have translated all of the interviews from
the original language into English. I have also translated the excerpts from all references not

written in English. I have kept the original language in the reference section with a translation of
the title.

50

Klugman (1986) confirms this emphasis on conformity when he notes, “Art is
copied from models, identically rendered, and must be realistically colored” (p.
69). This is symbolic of the expectation for adherence to a standard with
punishment for any deviance.

A colleague at Primavara described it this way:

The [Soviet] school did not prepare pe0ple who could manage in society,

in life. They prepared only robots who had a great deal of knowledge, but

in fact they are, if they found themselves in a complicated situation, it is
difficult for them to manage because school is one thing, life is another.

(Christina)

Repeatedly parents and teachers described how Soviet era teachers used
“chalk, the blackboard, the textbook, and that was all.” Students had to sit or
stand like “soldiers” and wait for directions or questions. Any responses had to be
directly from the textbook or from what the teacher said. There was always a
single correct answer. This may be the result of the strong influence of Jan
Comenius combined with the Soviet focus on central control. As Alexander
(2001) notes, there is a “clear resonance in Russian classrooms of principles first
enunciated in Comenius’s Didactica Magna 1638” (p. 310).

Time should be carefully divided, so that each day and each hour may

have its appointed task . . . all subjects should be taught by the same

methods . . . . Everything should be taught thoroughly, briefly, and pithily,

that the understanding may be, as it were, unlocked with one key . . . .

Every subject should be taught indefinitely graded steps, that the work of

one day may thus expand that of the previous day, and lead up to that of

the morrow. (From Comenius, Didactica Magna in (Alexander, 2001, p.
310)

51

In addition, the answers had to be in a specific form (B. Holmes, et al.,
1995). In mathematics for example, student had to follow a strict pattern of
stating the principal question(s), stating what information was needed, then
writing the resolution (Serafima). In many classes teachers expected children to
answer in complete sentences, often in a structure preconceived by the teacher.
The way it was implemented often interrupted students mid-thought or mid—
sentence to enforce the rule. At times teachers prompted students to the specific
words they should use. Some of these habits continued in independent Moldova.
In one case, a teacher I observed did not allow a student to complete a single
word but interrupted first by stating the beginning sound of her desired word, then
the first syllable until the student began his sentence with that word.

There were of course exceptions. Reflecting on the past always carries the
risk of being influenced by nostalgia, or simply pride. Nearly all of the parents and
teachers interviewed spent a significant amount of their time in Soviet schools.
Some teachers claimed that they taught differently than most, such as Lora, a
veteran teacher of over thirty years, who taught in a Step-by—Step program in

Chisinau.

[H]ey, I know how I taught in Soviet times, and I want to say that I, even
then, did things as I do now, only so that it was not seen. I, even then,
worked creatively and listened to children. But when observers came to
the lesson, I knew I had to follow certain rules and not to make any
transgressions. I, never, not even in Soviet times, limited myself to just
chalk and the black board. I did good things even then. (Ludmilla)

A difficulty in attempting to portray the Soviet school is the presence of

many after school activities. The Soviet Law of education included many camps,

52

young scientist houses, young tourist houses, houses of creation, and other
activities to engage youth after school hours and during the summer. Some of
these activities took place at school or under the direction of teachers. The
memory of some adults conflated the experiences of school and these other
activities. “One teacher . . . I understand now used the methods that we use
today: games, he had a lot of illustrative material, he knew how to reach the mind
of a child. . . [he taught] through games, excursions (if he was a geography
teacher) . . . he always had a good word for students.” In our discussion, Irina
continued to vary from discussing school lessons and then other activities.
Because the extracurricular activities were often associated with the school, it is
hard to discern which is which. Other teachers, who criticized school, also tell of
positive experiences in extra-curricular activities. Despite the critical rhetoric
about schools, there were other activities that provided more relaxed venues for
youth to associate with teachers or other youth leaders.

In Soviet schools, there were also experimental programs that promoted
more creativity. Serafima retired from teaching in 1985 after almost forty years of
teaching in Chisinau. She moved to Chisinau after World War II from Eastern
Russia. During her final working years she taught the Zankov program, written
by a professor at the Academy of Pedagogical Sciences in Moscow, a fact for
which she is very proud. Zankov was among the experimental scholars who
developed a demanding curriculum yet encouraged creativity on the part of the

teacher and individuality of the student. However, he did believe that the

53

student’s individuality could be fully realized only in the collective (Szekely, 1977).
Serafima described two moments on her teaching, based on written notes, that
portray teaching that is more active and creative than what most teachers
describe of this time period. One took place in Russian class:
Almost every day, the last five minutes, I would hold up a picture, maybe
from a story, and ask, “what can this be?” . . . [I did this] even in the first
grade. What did you do on your holiday? . . . At the end of the lesson I
asked who wants to read their assignment? They all wanted to. If
someone wrote poorly, I did not argue with them, I simply said that
tomorrow it would be better. . . Today you have made progress.
Or in mathematics class, she promoted creative problem solving and rewards
children for creative thinking. Referring to a boy who found a solution different
from that covered in class, “You get a five today [the highest grade]. ‘Why?’ the
other students asked. Because he found a new method and came to the correct
answer . . . . He thought for himself and did not wait for the class.” Serafima went
on to say that it was better to solve a single problem ten times than solve ten

problems the same way. This would be repeated as part of the creativity

promoted in the new Moldova.

Perestroika Under Gorbachev

Workers in public education! Carry out the school reform, arm the younger
generation with up-to-date knowledge, labor skills and ideological conviction!
CPSU slogan for 71St anniversary of the October Revolution

In 1985, after the death in quick succession of three General Secretaries
of the Communist Party, Gorbachev came to power in Moscow and soon began
the era of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). Gorbachev

wanted to change the way Soviets viewed the world: “The revolutionary changes

54

toward which restructuring is directed are impossible without a revolution in the
public consciousness, in people’s psychology and thinking” (Long, 1990, p. 410).
In an address to the Communist Party Plenum in February 1988, Gorbachev
assigned teachers a major role in perestroika and compared the challenge of
education in perestroika to the time after the Revolution of 1917. “After the
Revolution, Vladimir Ilych Lenin regarded the erection of a Soviet school as
urgent business for the party. . . . The teacher is a major protagonist of
perestroika. Should he support us with conviction, sense, and passion,
perestroika will gain many new sincere advocates and fighters, successors to the
revolutionary socialist cause” (Gorbachev, 1988, p. 1).

Gorbachev continued the Soviet, and global tradition of placing schools in
the center of societal reform. However, he was not clear about what should

change.

lmplicitly, however, he emphasized the need to prepare young people for

an economy which had still to be created; but, apart from mentioning the

need to combine education with productive work, he made no suggestion
about the role schools play in the creation of new ways of thinking or in the

development of a new psychology. (B. Holmes, et al., 1995, p. 22)

Notable in this time were the open debates among teachers,
administrators, and educational researchers and policy makers that took place in
the Soviet press (B. Holmes, et al., 1995). The promotion of change and the
general relaxing of state control allowed for formal and informal groups to discuss

methods and educational issues in public forums. Schools were to become more

open, more connected with society, and to involve families more closely (B.

55

Holmes, et al., 1995; Long, 1990). Furthermore, there was open questioning of
the role of the communist party in contemporary society. This is afar cry from the
party centered teaching that had taken place previously (Muckle, 1990).

So-called “teacher innovators” played an important role in promoting and
disseminating new ideas of teaching and learning. These were working teachers
who experimented with new pedagogical methods in their classrooms and wrote
about them. Part of the stimulation of this experimentation was the introduction of
6 year old children to schools (previously, schooling began at 7 years of age), an
experiment that required new methods of teaching. The Teachers’ Gazette, a
publication of the teachers’ union, invited the teacher innovators to a conference
in Moscow to share ideas. The result was a series of manifestoes outlining their
ideas. They included, among others, not giving grades to children, allowing
children multiple chances to earn a satisfactory grade, and some free choice in
their educational pursuits. Suddaby (1989) dates these ideas to the work of
Leonid Zankov.

In Moscow, Gennadii lagodin was the minister of the State Committee for
Public Education during this time. He had been professor, dean and rector of the
Moscow D. I. Mendeleyev Chemical Engineering Institute. He was the USSR
Minister of Higher and Specialized Secondary education and served on the
CPSU Central Committee and the USSR Supreme Soviet. The committee he led
held authority over the other Soviet ministries of education. His promotion of new

ideas came with criticism of the status quo. According to lagodin, “Pedagogy has

56

abandoned the child.” Clarifying this idea in another commentary lagodin
continues, “The first order of business is to restructure the psychology of
pedagogues . . . so that they will renounce authoritarian methods of teaching and
upbringing and overcome disrespectful relations to students” (Long, 1990, p.
417).

According to Long (1990), lagodin and other educational leaders promoted
five points to improve education in USSR: 1) Teachers should be involved to a
larger extent in policy and pedagogy decisions. Teachers should have greater
authority to select methods appropriate to their students, selection of textbooks,
and the staffing of administration positions. 2) Teacher education centers should
teach teachers the skills necessary to earn the respect of their students, to work
more closely with parents and community, to make the school and the teaching
oriented towards the child and towards people. 3) All students should not take the
same coursework; at the secondary level students should be allowed to select
their own courses. They should have the right to select schools based on
academic or vocational interests. 4) Committees of teachers, students, parents,
other educational workers should be formed to provide some governance and
oversight of the school. 5) Instruction in national languages, cultures and
histories should be improved (Long, 1990, pp. 417-418). To a great extent,

Moldova would attempt to implement these ideas after gaining its independence.

57

Creating a more democratic school, one goal during this period, can mean

very different things. In a speech, lagodin indicates how far he was willing to take

the idea.

The school council must be the main body, a school council elected by the
teachers by secret ballot. Perhaps one-fourth of the council should be
elected this way and another one-fourth elected by the pupils, either from
the senior classes or starting at age 14. A certain number of parents and
representatives of enterprises and organizations closely connected with the
school should be delegated to the council. This council should be given the
rights and authority to remove the director or fire a teacher and also to
prevent the removal of the director or the firing of a teacher, as well as the
power to control the budget. (Yagodin, 1988)

Even the Communist Party issued statements and position papers
promoting school reform. A Party Plenum met in February 1988 and came up

with the following issues that needed addressing:

1. To confront the problems created by a uniform all-union centrally
planned and centrally directed bureaucratic system of education and face
up to the need for decentralization and diversity

2. To democratize the authoritarian system of state education by creating
public education councils, and boards of education and giving more power
to the Soviets.

3. To remove the fences between the Ministry of Higher Education, the
Ministry of Education, and the Committee for Vocational-Technical
Education by establishing a USSR State Committee for Public Education.
4. To drastically reorganize and grant autonomy to the USSR Academy of
Pedagogical Sciences (APS).

5 To explore the problems of the teaching of history and the social
sciences and the need for a commitment to the truth.

6. To accommodate multinational interests through bilingualism and
"parental choice."

7. To restore the prestige of vocational-technical education by stressing
the post-secondary stage.

8. To recover quality education by extending the number and types of in-
depth profiles in subject matter areas.

9. To meet the needs of students through greater diversity in curricula,
methods, school types, methods of finance, and administration.

10. To enhance the professional qualifications of teachers by radical

58

changes in teacher education.

11. To cancel all past administrative orders and to issue the barest

minimum in the future. (B. Holmes, et al., 1995, p. 36)

In an article published in 1990, Gennady lagodin clarified his perspectives
on a number of the issues facing Soviet schools. Some teachers interpreted the
new democracy as allowing students to choose for themselves whether or not
they would attend schools. There were also complaints about a new policy that
allowed students to pass to the next grade even if they had failed up to three
classes. lagodin argued that education officials must consider the interests of the
student as well as the interest of the society. It is not in the interest of society, he
argues, for many children to be on the streets, associating with criminals as he
suggests would happen. Nor would it be useful to retain children in the same
grade only to have them drop out and cause other problems for society. He
acknowledged that the curriculum was too large and notes that the ministry was
working on the problems. The goal was to revise the curriculum to make it more
accessible to students and to allow for a significant portion to be determined by
the republic governments. He also lamented the poor conditions in schools and
how unpleasant schools were for children. He encouraged teachers to take more
interest in children and try to understand their perspectives (lagodin, 1991).

Despite the changes in the school and political systems, Communist Party
officials did not give up on Marxist-Leninist principles. V. A. Nikitin, a director in
the ideological department of the Communist Party, affirmed his belief in the

continued relevance of communism while acknowledging the abuses of the past.

59

In my opinion, if communism is defined as movement along the path of
formation, as K. Marx expressed it, of "practical humanism" toward society
in which exploitation and oppression have been liquidated while the free
development of each member is the condition of development of all, then
communist upbringing is not in conflict with universal human values.
Provided that the theory and practice of upbringing are cleansed of
hyperideological [sic] and totalitarian trends, such an approach, I think is
very fruitful. One thing is clear, however: the previous system of what was

called communist upbringing needs to be radically renovated; a

fundamental scientific refinement of all aspects is needed. (Kut'ev &

Maliuk, 1991)

Similar criticism of the past was widespread in the Soviet Union at this time, but
the official did not elaborate on what new form communist upbringing should
have.

The Soviet Ministry of Education submitted a position paper for discussion
at an all-union conference on education In 1987 foreshadowing the rhetoric of
independent Moldova. "Restructuring is a radical change in attitudes toward
students. It is essential to recognize, not in words but in deeds, that the student is
not only the object but also the subject of pedagogical activity; harmonious
development on the basis of differentiated instruction and optimal combination of
individual and collective methods of instruction” (USSR Ministry of Education,
1989, p. 27). The sentiments were repeated in other articles written by senior
officials in the Central Committee (CPSU Central Committee, 1989) and by a
minister of education (Shcherbakov, 1989).

In December 1988, an All-Union Congress of Educators adopted a

resolution to guide educational reforms. This included six points. First, continuity,

the creation of a system of education that supports life-long learning. Second,

60

decentralization, the republics will make decisions regarding schools with only
guidelines coming from the USSR Committee on Public Education. Third,
democratization, school councils will govern the schools including a strong
involvement of students. Fourth, humanizaticn, “offering cultural enrichment to
youth while asserting the everlasting importance of spiritual values belonging to
all mankind.” Fifth, differentiation, treating each student as a unique learner.
Finally, integration, that is, integrating the many educational institutions into a
single coherent system (Malkova, 1991, pp. 383-384).

These ideas did not appear from nowhere. According to Gantea (2007)
there was scholarship in the USSR that supported these changes. As early as
1966 at an international psychology conference, there was a discussion of how
Soviet scholars ignored the research of the West.11 This prompted the study of
more progressive ideas in education through the 1970’s. Dissertation topics such
as The Formation of Written Language in Elementary Students, The
Development of Self-Consciousness and Creativity in Preschool and Primary
Aged Children, and The Formation in Primary Students of the Guide for Self-
lnstruction in the Process of Reading Lessons and others were common among
Moldovan scholars. These theses provided some scholarly basis to the proposed

reforms and provided the beginnings of a new interpretation of pedagogy.

\

ll
Interestingly, Gantea cites a Belgian researcher, G. De Landsheere, for this information.

61

Summary
Much of Moldovan educational history is a part of Russian and Soviet

history. Between 1812 and 1991, Moscow dictated educational policy except for
a brief independence and then union with Romania between the World Wars. It
was not Moldovans who created a mass education system for the country but
Russians and Romanians.

Nationalist feelings in Moldova seem to run deep. In 1917 and 1918
Moldovan nationalists made demands for greater autonomy, use of Romanian,
use of the Latin alphabet, and the study of Romanian history in schools. As we
shall see, these were the same demands made by Moldovan nationalists 70
years later.

But Moldova was a small and poor country. The Soviet Union helped build
its schools and created a system of education. The laws regulating schools in
Soviet Moldova would not be out of line with modern western schools. Schools
were to be consistent with the demands of the society, children should be given a
basis in education to support further learning, schooling should be harmonious
with society, and children should have opportunities for multi-lateral development.
All of this was in the context of a Soviet state that allowed for a single, Marxist-
Leninist world-view.

Descriptions of Soviet classrooms depict very regimented teaching styles
with teachers following strict lesson plans, and students remaining passive
recipients of knowledge. Teacher materials and policies promoted strict

adherence to the mandated curriculum. There were exceptions to this; several

62

teachers interviewed who retired in Soviet times speak of their methods and their
interaction with children in more friendly terms. But the criticism from both
government officials in the late 1980’s and from parents 20 years later, as we
shall see, seem to support these general descriptions.

The period of glasnost and perestroika created the opportunity for debates
to take place openly regarding the role of schools. The ideas raised at this time,
democratic governance of schools, greater individualization, choice of classes,
greater nationalist influence, and family involvement, constitute a true systemic

reform from philosophy to practices, and would provide the themes of reform in

Moldova going forward.

63

CHAPTER THREE: DISMANTLING, REBUILDING—NATIONALISM
AND INTERNATIONALISM IN TRANSITION

Chapter two describes the Soviet school system and the period of change
in the late 1980s. Part of this change involved the devolution of the school
system to the republic level and the creation of national schools. In June 1990
the Moldovan MET was reorganized and renamed by August 1991 Moldova
became an independent country and the Soviet Union with its communist
philosophy was the target of much criticism. Moldova faced the challenge, one
among many, of deciding what to do with its Soviet school system, a system
intended to inculcate in children Marxist-Leninist thought (Zverev, 1987).

In this chapter, I begin to discuss the beginnings of change in Moldova
and how Moldovan educational officials acted and reacted to address this issue.
This early phase starts with policies that dismantled the school system, focusing
on removing Soviet ideology and images from schools and changing the
conditions for teachers. Specifically, I analyze MET directives to show how the
MET attempted to gain authority and legitimacy for change by discrediting and
distancing itself from the past and promoting a new future.

In a school system that was founded to inculcate this ideology, there was
a large void to fill in its absence: an empty pedestal. The earliest calls for a new
school model promoted a “national” school. This began before Moldovan
independence and called for the use of the maternal language in instruction, the

leaching of local and national history, school autonomy, and student

64

individualism. As written in a MET document just after independence, “We have a
real chance to create a national school, which will educate [a educa] the
descendents of our people in truth and respect, into a prosperous country”
(annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991”, p. 7).

But in an institution that has undergone international influence for
centuries, defining a national school is no easy task. A national school is unique
from a state education system, which, in its simplest definition, is an education
system managed by the state. However, just as the victor writes history, the
government that controls schools can define a legal interpretation of a national
school system and define its structure and content.

Challenging this idea, in an era of globalization, were pressures from
outside of Moldova pushing the Moldovans to make their schools consistent with
international standards and trends. The characteristics of the Moldovan school,
described below, are not inconsistent with characteristics of other national school
systems. Secondly, opening Moldova’s economy to the global market devastated
Moldova’s economy and limited the funds available for school reform.

Several aspects of the process to create a national school are clear. One
was making it Moldovan with Moldovan content, usually referring to a history and
language of instruction. Second was an attempt to make the school system
different from the Soviet system it replaced. Third, the schools would be locally

controlled; a Moldovan Ministry on the national level, an involved parent

 

 

l2
To be consistent with the original documents, I write the dates of the documents beginning with
the day, then the month, and then the year.

65

community at the school level, and a capable, autonomous teacher in the
classroom able to adapt to the students. Finally, the national school would

educate students to think for themselves.

Developing a National Ideology of Education in the Context of
Soviet and Western Practices

Throughout the early 1990’s the MET worked to redefine Moldovan
schools and rejected attributes and content inherited from the Soviet era. An
order from 4 April 1991 explained the rational as well as guidelines for removing
Soviet ideology from schools. It begins with some criticism of the existing

practices. According to this order,

Institutions subordinated to the Ministry of Science and Education
[invatamint] are called through their essence to educate [a educa] the
young generation in the spirit of rights, truth, sincerity, purity of sentiment,
passion of one’s profession. These institutions also have the task to
contribute to the formation of, and aspiring towards, values. But belief in
notions of values and truth cannot be modeled on the position of a single
ideology promoted by a single party with a totalitarian command system.
Currently a whole series of parties and political formations, which have the

intention of the goal of creating a new man, have appeared. (Ordin 128,
04.04.1991)

This is an attempt to justify a new school system, as well as to characterize what
came before as less than pure or truthful.

There is an effort to create a new ideology of education, but in these early
stages, it is mostly concerned with removing Soviet ideology from school.

“Given the fact that our school for all times must form a personality

dezinteresata [not tied to a political ideology], capable to find one’s own

right path to uphold values. . . . in addition. . . schools have the mission to
defend the child from an avalanche of political ideas (from the left and

66

from the right) to help him determine and define himself independently in
society. (Ordin128, 4.4.1991)

With this as a rationale, the MET ordered the ‘de-politization,’ the ‘de-
ideolization,’ and the ‘de-partification’ of all schools, and

to exclude . . . from the content of the current textbooks texts with political
orientation . . . to prohibit the use of all material, intuitive or illustrative,
containing propaganda intended to form or crystallize in the minds of
children a unilateral vision of the surrounding world . . . to liquidate all

organizations of the party, comsomolist and Pioneer. (Ordin128,
4.4.1991)

A few days later a similar position paper outlined guidelines for all teacher
training institutions. This focused on removing ideology from teacher training.
“Taking into consideration the process of shifting from a single party to a
multiparty system based on law, taking into consideration that education
[invataminl] and upbringing [educatie] and social life was monopolized,
ideologized, and politicized. The Ministry of Science and Public Education insists
on fulfilling in all institutions of teacher preparation and training and other similar

centers the following actions:”

1. To exclude from the program of study all forms of professional
development, re-qualification, of teachers from all social-political
disciplines, and to remove the respective departments. [This ended
preparation of teachers in explicitly political fields]

2. To de-ideologize the content of all programs and to connect them as
much as possible to the interests of the listeners and the world level of
the field of activity.

3. Not to admit in institutions of professional development or in institutions
of pedagogical research, activities of all parties and social political
organizations. [This prohibited political activities from taking place in
schools including the work of the Communist Party and its youth
organizations] (Dispozitie 19, 27.08.90)

67

Considering that the school system was based on Communist Party ideology and
promoted the Party, removing the Party ideology removed a great deal of what
teachers did. For some teachers, those teaching politically charged fields or who
Worked with the youth organizations, their work was removed entirely and they

Were obligated to teach something else.

A projected law in 1991 continues its criticism of the communist school
sl’Stem in its unnatural attempt to “create a ‘scientific’ foundation for the so-called
soCialism.” The document criticizes the Soviet school system and creates a

ratio male for change.

The totalitarian regime had imposed on schools the formation of a “new
man,” politically indoctrinated, with a specific amount of knowledge (medie
generala). As a result, school no longer was involved with personality [of
the individual] but with the command from the state regarding graduates.
All of this led to the misrepresentation of the mission of schools of
education [educatie] and instruction, it introduced a rigid control on the
formation of the conscience of the child in development modeled after a
common general pattern. This was the goal of the communist educational
[educatie] system and of its components (political-ideological education
[educatie], internationalist, patriotic, atheist etc.) promoted through
intermediary organizations of octombrists, Pioneers, and comsomolists
through their daily activities under the aegis of the communist party.
(annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991, p. 1)

Th e. communist system had created an “ideological monster”, referring to the
St“ (lent, taught to repeat what was heard without applying one’s own judgment,
without will or initiative, and with a Marxist-Leninist belief. “[We] suffered the
belrrkruptcy of the social system based on dogmatism of communist ideology”
(annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991 , p 2). This document goes on to call for the

re moval of all accoutrements of the communist party.

68

The new school system is to be based on human values, democracy, and
personal respect. These ideas are included in the Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. “[The school system] promotes understanding, tolerance and
friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups and supports the actions
of the United Nations in maintaining peace” (annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991, p.
3). For teachers of children, the “rights of the child” would also provide guidance.
However, similar rhetoric, international brotherhood, peace, and understanding
Were also parts of the rhetoric of Soviet education as well as in the rhetoric of
Other school systems. Such statements reflect the optimism and the idealism, at
’east in the rhetoric, of the times.
The first formal calls for a national Moldovan school date to the
Conceptiea lnvatamintului mediu de cultura genera/a RSS Moldovaneasca or
00 h caption for General Education in the Moldovan SSR, first presented at an All-
U h i on teachers’ congress in Moscow in 1988 that involved teachers and
ed Ln cational scholars from the entire USSR (Paslaru, 2003). Moldova was not
3'0 he in this nationalization process; Lithuanian scholars also presented a plan
fo r a national education system (Godo, Juceviien, & Kodelja, 2004, pp. 5-6), and
a resolution of the congress called for greater freedom in educational matters at
the republic level (Malkova, 1991).
The Moldovan framework appeared in the periodical Invatamint Public
(“public Education”), a newspaper published by the MET in Moldova, in May

1 989 (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala moldoveneasca>>, 1989).

69

The Conception includes general goals, general structures, and primary tasks of
a school system. Although this was not an official document from the government
or MET, the authors of the Conception were all educational scholars and
Continue to be active in educational policy. They published the work anonymously
Under the name “Temporary Group for the Creations of the Moldovan School at
the Institute of Research of Pedagogical Sciences.” The published article
consisted of 14 columns of dense text on two full pages in large newspaper
format. There are no pictures and few subtitles. This was typical of Soviet
”GWSpaper layout. After revisions, the Moldovan Parliament adopted the
CoI"Ic.:eption in 1994. The Ministry has revised or rewritten the document two
times since then.
The first draft appeared while Moldova was still a part of the Soviet Union,
'aCki ng independence and sovereignty. It is a lengthy, wandering, and repetitive
essay about forming a Moldovan school within the Soviet Union. lmportantly, this
piece does not contain explicit criticism of the Soviet/communist ideology or
Do ' i cy but rather a criticism of the bureaucracy and forced internationalism
ass(Dciated with the USSR. As we saw in chapter two, this criticism was
co n sistent with the rhetoric coming from the Communist Party. It argues for a
refQrm using Marxist-Leninist philosophy. It is an argument coming from a
"‘i rWority, Moldovans, arguing for equal representation in a Russian dominated
SQVIGt system. It is coming from an institution, education, that has long been a

toOI for the Communist Party. And it reflects a desire to open up the school

70

System to a wider international community, namely Western Europe. According to
the one of the original authors, much inspiration for the document came from
“European education systems.”
In the opening paragraph, the Moldovan group argues that “each republic
Of the union has the right to elaborate its own conception of national13 education,
on the foundation of its national, spiritual, and material culture” (Grupul provizoriu
Cte creatie al ICSP <<Scoala moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 2). The authors justify
this in terms of Marxist-Leninist Philosophy and quote Lenin.
Marxist-Leninist philosophy affirms that abstract truth does not exist; truth
is concrete. That which is optimal in a given condition could be irrational in
another. Referring to this, V. I. Lenin writes, “To conceive of a general
recipe or a general rule . . . that is good for all cases is an absurdity. To be
able to orient yourself in each case separately, you need to know how to
judge with your own head. (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala
moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 2)
As the title indicates, the Conception is a call for a national school system.
It D roposes school system specific to the Republic of Moldova, a system based
on the national culture and the culture of other inhabitants of the country. Yet,
oth er than history, language of instruction, and local control, there is no
description of what constitutes a national system. It promoted a “choice of
In Stitutions of education [invatamint], and of the form and language of teaching”
fo r parents and students, but describes no options from which to choose. The

p"(bvision of school choice is one aspect of the principle of democracy applied to

SQhools. The Conception goes on to discuss a broad range of issues from the

\
‘3

l have translated natiun from Romanian as nation. This does not refer to the
political unit, but to a people and culture.

71

evaluation of students to the relationship between the Ministry of Science and
Enlightenment and the other government ministries.

The Conception does not define in detail what the schools would look like,
in fact it is very repetitive especially with the general terms, but draws general
Outlines about the principles and tasks of these schools, and the basis for the

Curriculum. The Conception calls for independence and the connection between
local culture and schools as core components of a Moldovan schools system.

The Independence of the republic in all spheres of education [invatamint
and educatie], the national culture and the mother language, truly the
first edifice of education [invatamint and educatie], constitute the three
fundamental pillars on which to base the modern national Soviet school. .
. The national character of education [invatamint] consists not only in the
right to teach the maternal language, history, literature, and geography of
the people, but also in the real possibility assured of acquiring of all
cultural, national values and of the familiarization of universal cultural
values. (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala
moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 2)

Afte r independence, the authors revised the Conception and summarized their

'd e as of a national school system.

1. sovereignty of schools and education [invatamint] in the R. Moldova”;
2. basing the education [invatamint] on the national culture;

3. the priority of the maternal language in education [invatamint] of all
levels. (Baltar, et al., 1992, pp. 7-8)

In addition there was the emphasis on the self-realization and free development
of Students and on democracy. The idea of a national school system based on

the national culture is still not clarified, and would not be except in very vague

terms.

‘\

ant a school system that is independent and a ministry of education that is treated as an equal
mong other ministries.

72

As in the Conception of 1988, the revised Conception of 1992 contained
few specifics regarding the characteristics of a Moldovan national school system.
With the exception of language and history, there is not an explanation of what
national values should be taught or how to convey the national spirit. But there is
a general call for more variety in schools and a change of emphasis for young
Students. Class time for younger students would be reduced to make more time
tor artistic and physical activities. Either group or individual study is appropriate.
In addition to a variety of types of schools, differentiation within the classroom is
IIt‘ll-50 rtant. There is a call for research to investigate how to teach mixed-ability
9 r 011 ps.
Despite the efforts of the Soviet Union, at independence, Moldova
Con Sidered itself underdeveloped compared to Western Europe. Developing a
nati on, its economy, and fostering a democratic society became goals of the new

SC h Qols.

The principal task of restructuring of education [invatamint] consists of its
transformation into a factor of the development of personality and society.
The formula 'from the development of education [invatamint] to the
development of personality and society' reflects the essence of
contemporary schools. (Baltar, et al., 1992, p. 11)

Th e formula noted in the above quote is something of a play on words. The point
'8 ‘2 hat the education system should work to develop individuals and should be an

'ntegral part of societal development. The educational system should not exist in

'30 I ation.15

 

1 s
Q ‘h the early 19903, the regime located East of the Nistru resisted the changes coming from
isinau. The MET accused them of “putting impediments in the study of the history of the

73

The two faces of internationalism in Moldova: past and present

The idea of internationalism takes on two unique ideas in the context of
Moldovan nationalism. First is internationalism in the context of the Soviet Union.
The development of an international socialist brotherhood was a goal for the
USSR. After independence, internationalism took on the goal of integrating into

Western Europe. In the former case nationalism was more a rhetorical priority in

a school system that imposed a Russian/Soviet culture. In the latter case,

nationalism was to take precedence.

In the Conception of 1988 (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala
m0 Idoveneasca», 1989), the authors argue that internationalism can develop
on Iy after the development of a national identity. “Every new generation of people
h ave the need of a serious education [educatie] of the national sentiments and
Cu lture, ON WHICH TO DEVELOP THE INTERNATIONAL” (p. 2, emphasis in
0 ri ginal). Later the authors note, “’The international culture is not a-national,’
VV rites V. l. Lenin. Because of this, the school is not only an exponent of
h ational/ethnic culture, but a strong regulating factor of relationships among
n Etionalities [ethnic groups], because of this, it contributes to the active
i"Iteraction of national cultures” (p. 2). This must be interpreted from the
perspective of the Moldovans under the control of Soviet Russia. Russian

‘anguage and the Soviet history were the primary focus of the school. In this

\

Romanians and the depoliticizing and demilitarizing schools" (Ordin 316, 10.09.91). The conflict
With this region escalated into a civil war in 1992. Russian troops came to the aid of the
separatists and are still present in the region. The armed conflict was short-lived and there has

been a stalemate since then. The region now calls itself the Transnistrian Moldovan Republic and
is not recognized by any other country.

74

respect, the Moldovan language and Moldovan culture were relegated to second
tier, as were the cultures of other minority groups in the USSR. Because students
would begin studying Russian and integrating into the Russian culture at school,
the school would have a strong influence regarding how different nationalities
would interact.
The authors attribute the failures of the Soviet school system, in Moldova
and other republics, to the lack of this national education foundation, a failure of

implementing Lenin’s ideas on education.

Today we can no longer hide the fact that school in Moldova does not fulfill
the proper level of its function. The principal cause is made of the fact that
the Leninist principles of national Soviet school construction were not
translated into life. As an example of this situation the school of SSR
Moldova has not become a national public organism of the state with the
capacity to self-develop and self-integrate in all spheres of life, capable of
perpetuating the spiritual culture of the people through the soul and mind
of its disciples. (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala

moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 2)

E\Ien in the revision in 1992, the authors vacillate between nationalism and
ir“ternationalism and find no solid grounding. There still is the idea that an
international awareness begins with a national culture, "Education [invatamint] is
th 6 general human form of activity through which the individual gains and
C1evelops the national culture, and through it a universal culture" (Baltar, et al.,

1 992, p. 5). There is also a desire to be included in an international community of

education. The new system should “respect . . . international standards as the

basis of the synchronizing the content of education [invatamint] with that of the

World" (Baltar, et al., 1992, p. 16). At the same time, internationalism is cited as

75

one of the sources of the problems for Soviet schools in Moldova. "The over-
appreciation of international factors to the detriment of national factor has led to
the ignoring of social-economic, national-cultural, and pedagogic conditions of
school activities, it did not contribute to the formation of a lasting culture of
interethnic relations" (Baltar, et al., 1992, pp. 5-6). In effect, the authors are
searching for a more benevolent internationalism than what existed in Soviet
times, one that allows the Moldovan culture and Moldovan nationalism to prosper
(Paslaru, 2003).

In relationship with other countries, independent Moldova is in a very
different position than it was as a Soviet Republic. Marxist theory considered
communism the teleological end of societal development suggesting that other
countries would follow the lead of the USSR. The Moldovans renounced this
perspective and worked to adapt to international standards outside of the Former
Soviet Bloc. This sentiment is included in all of the early versions of the
Conception. The Conception of 1994, passed by the Moldovan parliament,
includes Moldova in the international scene looking to “[harmonize] . . . with
international forums concerning human rights, children’s rights, freedom of
education, [and] with modern education theories” (Parlamentul Republicii

Moldova, 1994).
The documents described above were frameworks and ideas for the new
Moldovan school. The next step was writing laws and policies to implement these

ideas and transform the schools. But these early conceptions were inspired by

76

 

 

foreign ideas, even the idea of national schools was an international
phenomenon in the late USSR. Foreign ideas will continue to play a large role in

the development of the Moldovan education system.

The call for individualism in response to Soviet collectivism

In the rhetoric of the new national school, there was a great deal of
emphasis on the individual as opposed to the collective of the Soviet era. By the
time a student leaves school he should be able to “define himself (to be
conscious of his own capacities) to find himself in the world (possessing diverse
and sufficiently precise means of communication), to be able to exist
autonomously, to be open to change (those transformations to take place around
him)” (annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991, p. 4). The projected law drew on putative
changes in European education from the 1980’s and suggested an international
perspective to the new school system.

In a vein similar to the rhetoric coming from Moscow in the late 1980’s
there was an emphasis in Moldovan documents on the individual and his or her

personal development.

To realize the new objectives of education it follows that any action should
keep in mind the individual characteristics of the children, to begin from
the children’s universe and the environment from which they come, and of
concrete life events and situations. . . . It is important to train students in
different after-school activities to expand their horizons, to satisfy their own
interests, to increase their responsibilities regarding their studies. . . .
These activities, oriented towards a preparation for actions (the capacity to
predict, the capacity to observe, analyze, and synthesize, the capacity to
decide and to act, to foresee the development of activities) must be a
permanent objective in the formation of the personality of students.)
(annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991, p 6)

77

 

In the Conceptions there were also high expectations for students as
individuals, rather, what the schools are to do for students.

In all schools of Moldova there are to be created the necessary conditions
for the free development of the individual students, of the preparation of
the young generation for the full participation in the creation of spiritual and
material values, in conformity with the national and regional particularities.
(Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala moldoveneasca>>, 1989,

p- 2)

Purging of Soviet symbols

In addition to the changes in philosophy, physical changes took place as
well, but these took place after Moldova declared independence on 27 August
1991. Just days after independence the MET ordered:

all educational institutions in the Republic will assure by 16
September 1991 :

Remove and store all sculptures, busts, bas—reliefs etc. that hold to
communist ideology and propagate a pseudo-history of our people;

To change the names of educational institutions that reflect
communist ideology . . . and adapt them to the autochthonous historical-
cultural traditions;

Removal from use of pieces that hold to the old symbols, of visual-
illustrative propaganda materials . . . with communist ideological
characteristics and replace them with The Symbol of the State of the
Republic of Moldova, with illustrative material meant to educate respect
and love for nation and its history, the feeling of national respect, to
promote general humanitarian values. (Ordin 312, 5.09.1991)

The order mandates schools to review permanent decorations and museum
displays and to change them to reflect “the aspirations of the people toward
soVereignty and independence.” The same was to be done regarding library

cc”lections.

78

Many Soviet schools in large cities simply had number designations. This
changed with the change of schools into lyceums that took the names of authors
and scholars, or other national heroes. Stefan Cel Mare who ruled over Moldova
in the 15th Century and fought the Turks became a popular name for schools.
Moldovan authors such as Ion Creanga, Mihai Eminescu, Alexander Mateevich
also became popular names of schools in cities and in villages. The premier
university of Moldova had the name, the State University, V. l. Lenin Decorated
With The Order Of The Red Flag Of Work. Now it is simply called Universitatea
de Stat, Moldova. The pedagogical university in Chisinau was named after
Lenin’s wife, Krupskaya. Now it is named after Ion Creanga.

The MET order removing images of the USSR carried out a parliamentary
decision calling for the removal of Soviet symbols from public spaces. The latter
decision referred to monuments that “propagated a pseudohistory of the people”
or with “attributes of the communist ideology.” This included changing names of
streets, institutions, businesses, and other public spaces. This was to take place

by 5 September of the same year (Parlamentul Republicii Moldova, 1991).

Replacing the Organizational and Regulatory Framework of the
Soviet Era

On 23 June of 1990 Moldova declared its sovereignty. This was not a
de(:Iaration of independence, but a claim that Moldova would govern itself rather

than subjugate itself to the Supreme Soviet in Moscow (Raic, 2002). In the

79

 

government declaration, the government stated that all laws and decrees issued
by the Soviet Union would apply in the Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic only
after approval by the Supreme Soviet of Moldova (Law 194, 26 July 1990).

The declaration of sovereignty actually took place after the reorganization
of the MET. In fact, Ordin 2 from 15 June 1990, dissolved the Soviet era Ministry
of Public Education of Moldova. On 27 June 1990 the MET issued another order
without a number designation as other orders have. It states in the introduction
that the earlier order to reorganize the MET was premature.

Consistent with the declaration of sovereignty, the MET formed a
commission in October 1990 to “review all decisions and other normative acts of
state organizations of the USSR and of MSSR in the area of education by 23
June 1990.” The commission included representatives from the various sections
of the MET overseeing different parts of the school system including preschools,
professional schools, universities, and orphanages. The commission was to
create “a list of legal acts of the union and the republic that, after their ratification
by the Supreme Soviet of the MSSR of the laws of the USSR, will assure the
optimal functioning of the Ministry of Science and Education [invatamint] of the
MSSR.” No complete report of this committee’s work has been preserved in the

arChives; however, written in many ministry orders in the early 1990’s are
ahnulments of Soviet era rules of similar content. The Moldovan government was

e"Etger to take control of their school system, and the language suggests that the

80

 

authorities considered those laws coming from the USSR were not in the best
interests of Moldova (Ordin 57: 17 October 1990).

In September 1991, the MET circulated a new education bill to all schools
of the Republic. This document was called a projected law (legea proiecta), but
could not be considered a bill for serious consideration. It was late 1994 when the
MET set up a committee to write the new law, and only in 1995 did parliament
pass a comprehensive law of education. The projected law rejected the Soviet
school system, referred to how “the sovereignty and independence of the
Republic of Moldova opens new and broad possibilities for a rebirth of national
education [invatamint],” and called for a ‘restructuring’ of the school system along
broad and idealistic lines. The authors of the law created very high standards for
this new school system, “the formation of an independent, free and creative
personality with high civic and moral qualities” (annex to Ordin 344, 25.09.1991).

The constitution of Moldova, passed in 1994, mentions a number of
educational issues that are elaborated in the Law of Education enacted the
subsequent year. Article 35 refers to education. Notable in the constitution are
several rights that attempt to accommodate the various language and cultural
QrOUps found in the country. Each student has the right to choose his language of

instruction at all levels of schooling. However, the official language"; will also be

talllght in all schools. It permits children to attend private schools. All are free to

\
I

6
't is common to refer to a state language or Iimba de stat instead of using the name Moldovan
and Romanian. Sometimes, instead of naming the language, there is a reference to the original

document of 31 August 1989 that declared Moldovan written in the Latin alphabet the official
IT'Quage.

81

study religion, but the state will provide only a lay education. Parents have the
right to choose an “appropriate educational experience” for their children
("Constitutia Republicii Moldova," 1994). This final point gives parents some
school choice. The liberal language policy and the authority granted to parents
are similar to policies promoted in the Conceptions.
In many respects, these rights only acknowledged what had already taken
place. There were private schools in existence, and schools did teach in the

various languages found in the country.

Law of Education 1995

In the fall of 1994 the MET formed a committee to write a law of education.
In December of 1994 Parliament formally approved the Conception of Education.
”1 1 995 the Moldova Parliament passed a law of education encompassing
preschool to university level. The Constitution and the Conception from 1994
Se I’Ved as the foundation and framework for the law. The law is similar in form
and content to other laws in countries with centralized ministries of education.
F0 reign laws of education served as models for the Moldovan law.
A dean from the State Pedagogical University, Ion Creanga served on the
committee that drafted the conception and was involved in drafting the Law of
EChlcation. He described the international influence this way
The Conception was edited first, and based on the Conception, the law of
education was elaborated. Obviously, first, the laws of education in
different countries, different systems of education were studied, especially

Occidental education, in particular from France and Latinophone
Francophone, and in particular Romania and the United States of

82

America.
The Moldovan committee selected aspects and components of foreign systems
to use in Moldova. This was done, according to the dean, so that “[w]e became
closer to European and international standards, in particular American education,
so that we could be able to go in other countries, so to speak, to have some
mobility.”
A number of ideas introduced in the first Conceptions found a place in the
Law of Education. However, many remnants of Soviet laws can be found,
especially in the tasks and principles of the school system.
Article five of the Moldovan law contains objectives of the school system.

(1) The primary educational [educational] objective of schools lies in the
free harmonious development of the human and the formation of a creative
personality that is able to adapt to the conditions of change in life;

(2) Education includes:

a) development of the personality of the child, of his spiritual and physical
capacities and aptitudes to the level of his maximum potential;

b) cultivation of respect for the rights and liberties of man, regardless of
ethnic belonging, social origin or attitude towards religion - principles
recorded in the United Nations Charter;

c) preparation of children to assume the responsibilities of life in a free
society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, equality of sexes
and friendship among all peoples, and ethnic, national, and religious
groups;

d) cultivation of the feeling of the necessity of work for the one’s one good
and for that of society, of respect for those who produce material and
Spiritual goods;

e) education [educarea] of respect towards parents, towards ones’ identity,
language and cultural values of the people, as well as towards the national
values of the country in which he lives, of the country from which he
originates, and of civilizations different than one’s own;

f) cultivation of the feeling of responsibility towards the environment, the
formation of an ecological conscience;

83

g) to assure the physical multilateral preparation with the applying to one’s
profession for studious youth, the formation of the feeling of necessity to

practice physical culture and sport in the course of the whole life;

(3) Students will be educated [educati] in the spirit of fundamental civic
obligations, sanctioned in the Constitution of the Republic of Moldova,
among which are the devotion to country, the consolidation of the Moldovan
State, and the conscientious fulfillment of obligations. (Parlamentul

Republicii Moldova, 1995)

Here we see terms and sentiments that appear in Soviet documents
repeated. Harmonious and multilateral development appear in both laws.
Respect for those who work, an emphasis on physical education, and patriotism
also appear in both documents. Even peace and tolerance are found in Soviet
era documents. These terms also occur in many other texts not originating in the
U SSR. This emphasizes the point of the difficulty of creating in text educational
policy that describes a unique school system. In addition, the meaning of these
Words will take on different meaning than in Soviet times. The underlying
philosophy of Moldova is no longer the Marxist-Leninist phiIOSOphy even if the

communists are in power. But interpretations of these ideas are in contention in

M 0 ldova.
Ensuring the right and equal access to education is essential focusing on

the |anguage of instruction. Article 6 assures “the right of citizens to education
[educatie] and instruction in the maternal language. . . through the creation of the

heCessary numbers of educational institutions, classes, or groups and the

Corlditions for their operation.” To accommodate this, Article 8 gives citizens the

nth to choose the language of instruction at all levels of education. “The state

84

assures, . . . the right to choose the language of education [educarea] and

instruction all levels and stages of education [invataminfj.” The state language is

a required subject in all schools (Parlamentul Republicii Moldova, 1995).

In addition to the right to choose the language of instruction, the Moldovan

law provides many more rights for parents than were included in the Soviet Law:

1.

2.

To choose for children the educational institution and the language
of instruction;

To request respect of the rights and freedoms of children in
schools;

To know the progress and content of the educational process and
to know the results of the evaluations of students;

To instruct the child in the family, assuring the possibility of
obtaining the studies corresponding to a certain level of education
[invatamint];

To be elected as a part of an administrative or consultative organ of
the educational institution. (Parlamentul Republicii Moldova, 1995)

The obligations for parents include:

1.

2.

To assure the placement of the child in some form of obligatory
education (public or private) or to instruct the child in the family;

To assure the education [educatie] of the child in the family and to
create adequate conditions for studies, development of aptitudes,
extracurricular and self directed activities. (Parlamentul Republicii
Moldova, 1995)

'f parents do not contribute to their children’s education, they are legally

reigbonsible. Except for the right to choose the school for one’s child, these rights

do r10t differ significantly from the Soviet laws.

Teachers as well have new rights granting them more autonomy in the

Q‘ assroom. Article 55 of the Law of Education describes the rights of teachers

and professors. In regards to teaching and learning, they have the right “to

c"Noose the programs of study for and methods of teaching, from the textbooks

85

and materials approved by the Ministry of Education and Youth, which they
consider adequate to achieve the state educational standards.” This has been
interpreted to give a great deal of latitude to teachers. During classroom
observations, I saw many teachers use materials not approved by the MET. This
point is significant because it gives teachers the right to vary their teaching from

the teaching of their colleagues (Parlamentul Republicii Moldova, 1995).

The list of obligations for teachers, included in Article 56, is significantly
longer but contains mostly vague guidelines open to interpretation. Teachers are
“to respect in their activities ethical norms, to cultivate through their own example,
th e moral principles of right, equity, humanism, generosity, hard work, patriotism,
and other virtues.” They are to teach, cultivate respect for parents and the nation
And, to keep propaganda out of the school, teachers are obligated “not to make
Chauvinistic, nationalist, political, religious, militaristic propaganda, this being

incompatible with the pedagogical activities” (Parlamentul Republicii Moldova,
1 995).

EI"I‘1erging Language Policy as an Instrument of National Identity
Despite the rhetoric coming from Moscow during the late 1980’s, a former
Vice minister of education, who retired in 1988, told me, “nothing really changed
in Moldova. There is a big difference between talk and change in the classroom.”
According to him, change did not start in earnest until June of 1990 when the

QOvernment declared sovereignty and reorganized the Ministry of Public

86

Education (invatamint) and renamed it Ministry of Science and Education
(invataminf).
Teachers, however, tell a different story. According to those interviewed,
work began to change for them in the fall of 1989. On 31 August of that year
hundreds of thousands of Moldovans congregated in the central square of
Chisinau demanding the use of the Latin alphabet. In post WWll Moldova, the
Cyrillic alphabet had been used to write Romanian and this language was called
M o Idovan. A decree written the same day announced the use of the Latin

al phabet to be official in the territory of Moldova. Ironically, the decree was

written in Cyrillic. Mircea Snegur, president of the Supreme Soviet of Moldova,

Si gned the decree. He would later become the first elected president of the

R epublic of Moldova.
This created problems for teachers who began the school year the

f0. 'Owing day. All of their texts were written in Cyrillic, with the exception of
fo r eign languages. Many teachers were not accustomed to writing with Latin
latte rs. Pamphlets outlining the changes in orthography came into print, and
ed uCational newspapers printed pages of an Abecedar, a phonetic/letter based
a(:tiVity book used in first grade to teach reading. Despite the changes, the
rograma Scolara, the curriculum, from 1989, written in Cyrillic, was already
published and was a continuation of previous educational policy. Especially in the

reading content, the primary grade curriculum focused on the Soviet military and

QOrnmunist Party history.

87

In May 1990 another demonstration took place called the Podul de Flori,
Bridge of Flowers. For the first time since World War II, the border between
Romania and Moldova was open; thousands of Romanians and Moldovans freely
crossed the border, the Prut River, between their respective countries. This event
did not have a direct impact on the education system, but while the border was
open, many Moldovans, including teachers, visited the neighboring country. In
so me cases, a teacher told me, “Moldovans went to Romania with clothes or

other items, which they sold to earn money to buy books.” Teachers brought

th ese books to school.

Early official policy of the MET included the use of Romanian texts in
schools; the first minister of education, Nicholae Matcas17 promoted the use of
Romanian texts and the Romanian curriculum for Moldovan schools. Eventually,
R Omanians would send used textbooks to Moldova; many of these included the
Si 9 natures of the students who had used them. Teachers also collected funds
from students and purchased textbooks in Romania.18 This was one way
te achers attempted to change their teaching before the MET published new texts.

After independence, in contrast to the liberal language policy proposed in
1 S88, Moldovan/Romanian culture would be dominant in the new school system.

U “(fer the guise of wanting all youth to be able to participate in the social and

 

l7
l\tlatcas now resides in Romania. Romania has a controversial policy of allowing Moldovans
manian crrzens lpl 9 can ocumen a err parensor ran parens we in esara Ia
R0 ' 't' h' 'tthy d tth tth' t g d t l' d' B b‘

‘ 8'4 ring its union with Romania.
This may have solved the problem of the alphabet, but it did not solve the problem of ideology

be early textbooks imported from Romania included the socialist ideology. Moldovan teachers
s'f‘nply ripped out the picture of Ceaucescu.

88

economic activity in the country, all students should learn about Moldovan history

and culture.

Attaining this objective will contribute the active familiarization of students
of other nationalities with the language, history, and culture of Romanians
in the geographic space in which the children and youth of other
nationalities live. (Baltar, et al., 1992, pp. 9-10)

In another essay, also written by scholars at research institutes, the
authors criticize the current status of schooling, specifically language teaching,
and propose several solutions. Regarding language instruction, the authors
argue that the Soviet-era language courses focused too much on linguistic
aspects such as grammar and phonetics, and gave short shrift to the
development of expression and language as a perspective on the world. The
primary purpose of language is not a medium of communication, according to
these scholars, but “an instrument for the spirit” ("Cursurile Integrate Prevazute

Pentru Ciclul Primar," 1992, p. 3). This idea is also found in the revised

curriculum of 1998.

Eliminating, Modifying, and Building on Soviet Practice in the
Curriculum

Initial period of curriculum change

The early Conceptions of education emphasized the autonomy of the
school system and schools, the focus on the individual, the teaching of the
Moldovan culture, and the use of the maternal language. These ideas were
implemented into law with the passing of the Law of Education in 1995. Taking a

step closer to schools, the MET revised the curriculum. With all of the criticism of

89

the Soviet school system, one of the priorities for the new ministry was to create
a new curriculum. The new Moldovan schools would be a national school, would
be democratic, would be free of ideology, and would loose its rigid structure of
content, and be self governed. All of these ideas would guide the development of
the new curriculum. However, the first attempt at creating a new curriculum was
very much a continuation of Soviet practices. But it differed from previous
curricula in the content of the ideology, now Romanian, and it removed the
content requirements mandating the use of specific materials in class.

Maria Harea, who worked with the MET in the early 19908 and is now the
chair of the elementary teacher education program at the State Pedagogical
University, Ion Creanga, coordinated the efforts to revise the curriculum during
the first years of independence. According to an editor of the new curriculum, the
first curriculum, called programa, was simply the Soviet program without the
communist ideology. It was ‘depoliticized’ as l was told.19

Printed on the cover of the curriculum are the words, “Valid in the
transition period.” It would be 6 years before the MET published a new
curriculum.

Reading the programa published in 1992, communist ideology was indeed
absent, but there were many remnants from the Soviet-era. The language

program was based on a Soviet era program from the early 1980’s. “The content

 

'9 In Moldova there is the idea that historical research is to be scientific. In interviews with
teachers, there did not appear any acknowledgement of contradiction to call the Soviet history
politicized and the History of the Romanians. the current history textbook, depoliticized. However,
Soviet era historians claimed that their work was also scientific (Anderson, 2006).

90

of the study of the maternal language in the primary classes remain, basically,
the one elaborated in the experiment about starting schooling when children are
6 years old (the years 1981-1986)” (Harea, 1992, p. 6). The benefit of this Soviet-
era experimental model was in the fact that “the emphasis [was] placed on
speaking and communication activities” (Harea, 1992, p. 5., emphasis in
original). In addition this model segmented the content in ways that took into
consideration the characteristics of the developing child. These two ideas,
applying what was learned and allowing the characteristics of children to
influence teaching, would become more prominent in the later curriculum.

The goals of the program included both affective as well as academic
goals typical of the Soviet model but include a definite nationalist influence. For
example, “To form an attitude towards the literary language of Romanian as a
national value” (Harea, 1992, p. 5). Despite the emphasis on Romanian, there
were no recommendations for texts by Romanian or Moldovan authors. This
absence is puzzling because teachers would have little knowledge of these
authors because they had not studied them or taught them in Soviet schools.

The moral-civic education class in the 1992 curriculum was new in its title,
but its content did not substantially different from content that would have been
covered in Soviet school. The language arts classes and the “instruction through
work” would include these topics. Or, children would discuss them in the various
youth activities. The goal of the classes was to contribute to the formation of

productive, healthy citizens. Among the objectives were “to understand the idea

91

and significance of norms and values which guide life and human activity in
community,” “to wish to follow the models discerned . . . in literature, science, and
national and universal culture,” “to show attitude of rejection and disapproval
towards incidents of insincere behavior, intolerance, lack of respect for those
around us, laziness, disorder, and lack of discipline” (Harea, 1992, p. 87). This
class was not to be graded with a number but through the comments of the
teacher and the student.

The new history course in the 1992 curriculum, in one respect, represents
the greatest departure form the Soviet curriculum. Students would now study
Romanian and Moldovan history. History would be an independent course in all
four of the elementary grades. The textbook was called Daciada named after the
Daci, the people who battled against the Romans 2500 years ago in what is now
Romania. The Romanian language, a Romance language, reflects the Daci
influence.

The texts included Moldovan20 heroes, but Romanian heroes as well. In
the collection of stories, Vlad Tepes (Vlad the Impaler), whom Americans know
as Dracula of Bram Stocker’s book, was a hero. This ruler of Romania, and
founder of the present day capital of Romania, impaled enemies and criminals on
posts. In the second grade text, there was even a picture of one unfortunate
victim. According to the authors of the Daciada, Vlad the Impaler brought order to

the country by meting out such severe punishments, such as impaling, for

 

20 I refer to Moldova of medieval times that was roughly twice the size present day Republic of
Moldova and included parts of present day Romania and Ukraine.

92

crimes. One story tells of Vlad Tepes leaving a gold goblet near a spring after
drinking from it. Many passers-by drank from the goblet, which could be found by
the spring long after the ruler’s death (Dabija & Silvestru, 1993, pp. 36-37). The
authors, by their own admission, were not concerned with the veracity of the
stories (Harea, 1992). Instead, they attempted to instill national pride in their
students. lmportantly, Vlad Tepes did not reside in the historical territory of
Moldova, part of which is in Romania today, but in Walachia and Transylvania.
The stories and goals of this new history course represented a return to
the several practices of Soviet times (Janmaat & Piattoeva, 2007). The course of
study was in the form of a Soviet style programa. The goal of the course was to
inculcate specific values. Loyalty had shifted from the Soviet fatherland to
Moldova. “To have a national conscience means to fight ceaselessly for the
sacred ideas of the people from which you were born” (Harea, 1992, p. 4). This
was similar to the slogan of the Pioneers noted in chapter two. The lessons are
written in typical Soviet style with each lesson assigned a certain topic. The
textbook crosses the line between fact and fiction, something the authors admit.
With the goal of forming a national conscience, the author wanted to convey
stories to “ignite a ‘patriotic attitude’” (Harea, 1992, p. 4). Only in fourth grade did
the course take on the characteristics of the academic discipline of history.
Along with the new subject, there was a new standard for teaching and
motivating children allowing for their free development. At the end of the history

curriculum the authors urged teachers to be sensitive to the students’ interests

93

and not to force the study of history. “Teaching should be as interesting as
possible for the students, without forcing, without pushing them to memorize, at
any price, numerous dates, names, and information. The history of the nation
[neam-people not citizenship] should be studied voluntarily with fondness and
natural interest, not forced through processes and methods capable of igniting
fear and repulsion for this subject” (Harea, 1992, p. 10). Like the moral-civic
class, during the “transition” students would not receive number grades in history.

The goal of this early curriculum, or programa, was to remove communist
ideology from the curriculum and provide teachers some guidance in their work.
In the case of the language arts section, the Moldovans rejected the most recent
language programa and chose an earlier version. It is no surprise that it relied
heavily on the curricula of the past. A great deal of western research indicates
that schools change slowly if at all (Cuban, 1984; McLaughlin, 1990a, 1990b;
Tyack & Cuban, 1995). As we saw in chapter 2, this is a repetition of what
happened in 1917. The addition of the course of history shows how the Soviet
approach to history continued in form but differs in content.

Later versions of the history curriculum provide little explanation regarding
the history class. There is a brief discussion of the need to write textbooks that
tell stories and describe some of the sources and how they are used. There is no
mention of instilling specific values, but students should “[d]emonstrate the
awareness of belonging to national and general-human communities” (Ministerul

Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998, p. 129). This is a significant

94

contrast with what took place in Soviet times and even with the Daciada that was

used in the early 1990’s.

The importance of “Curriculum” in replacing “Programa”

The replacement of the programa with a curriculum was purportedly one of
the most significant changes in the Moldovan educational system. The Soviet
programa included, as we saw in chapter two, a number of topics that the teacher
would discuss. Textbooks included specific material for the teacher to teach. In
contrast, the new Moldovan curriculum mandated only objectives and general
content considerations; the teacher chooses how to achieve them and what
content to use to teach them. Teachers use content to mean two different ideas.
Content can mean the specific stories and mathematics problems children are to
read and solve; this is the meaning of content in the Soviet era programa. Or,
content can mean the types of stories or mathematics problems to be read and
solved, such as fables and legends, or speed and distance problems; this is the
meaning of content in the new curriculum (see Appendix B).

Symbolically, the move to a curriculum was very important. An official
guide for the implementation of the new curriculum used during the introduction
of the curriculum to teachers indicates the significance of the new curriculum in
no uncertain terms.

The curriculum reform is the central component, and, at the same
time, guarantees the success of the global reform of national education.
The reform itself suggests the definitive break of our education

[invatamint] from the uniform and rigid model of the passed period. (Gutu,
1999,p.5)

95

Curriculum is a new word in the Moldovan vocabulary. In a book on the
implementation of the new curriculum in 2007, the first chapter begins with a
description of the word’s origin, its definition and its declensions (Paslaru, 2007).
The broad definition comes from a UNESCO document, which defines curriculum
as all educational (educativ) activities in school working towards a goal (There is
no specific UNESCO document cited.). Describing the difficulties associated with
the school reforms, a municipal inspector said it was difficult “even to pronounce
the word curriculum, we wrote it on the chalk board and pronounced it syllable by
syllable.”

In 1992, Moldovan scholars started designing a new curriculum. In 1993
piloting of the curriculum began in schools. In 1997, the Ministry of Education
approved it, and with the help of the World Bank starting in 1998, it was
published, disseminated and the MET began publishing accompanying
textbooks. Despite the fact that one of the primary goals of the curriculum reform
was flexibility, the curriculum document is quite lengthy. As a form of comparison,
the curriculum from 1989 was a small book of 216 pages. The curriculum in 1992
included 148 pages (this contained no Russian Language section), while the
1998 book contained 474 pages. Part of the increase is due to the explanation,
described below, of the new content and approach to teaching that is included for
each subject area. The curriculum of 1998 included additional subjects not

included in previous curricula such as dance, and history. And each subject

96

includes a long table with objectives to be attained along with content and
method recommendations.

Creating a curriculum was the major project and success of the reform. As
noted above, some content and methods were recommended. lmportantly, the
content is not specific material but only general suggestions for students to study
(see Appendix B). A municipal inspector described it this way:

The programa was the subject21 for each individual discipline. There were

not given any objectives, just some goals, some end results. The teacher

took the program, the foundation, and on this base made the long term
plans that began with the beginning of school and included daily lesson

[topics]. . . the basis of the curriculum are objectives. The teacher has the

right to use any textbook, to achieve the objective, and content to fulfill the

curriculum . . . This is an essential distinction between a program and a

curriculum. That is, firstly, in the curriculum are reference objectives of a

discipline but in the program there was a given content.

The Soviet programa was based on content; teachers had to teach that content.
The new curriculum allowed teachers to teach to objectives using their own
methods and materials.

Having a curriculum, according to scholars, made the Moldovan school
system modern and child-centered. Writing in a book on the design and
implementation of the new curriculum in Moldova, Gantea (2007) emphasized the

importance of having a ‘curriculum’ as a base for a school system. According to

Gantea, a scholar who helped write the elementary language arts curriculum,

 

2' The term subject here relates to a comment she made at another time and one I heard from
other teachers, and I read in documents dating from perestroika. Namely, “the student is the
subject" of the lesson. The point here is that the content in the programa, and covering that

content, is of primary importance, teacher decision making and consideration of the interests and
abilities of the students are not important.

97

curriculum is the same as a “programa centered on children, accenting the
education centered on the process of learning, and not on the material [content]"
(p. 67). This idea Gantea attributes to John Dewey and his book The Child and
the Curriculum. According to Mihai Stanciu, “[T]he philosopoher [John Dewey]
made a truly Copernican discovery in the educational field: the curriculum is
centered on the child, that way he becomes the sun around which gravitates the
pedagogical structure”22 (Gantea, 2007).

Vlad Paslaru, a scholar from the Institutul de Stiinte ale Educatiei and co-
author of the first Conception and who has also been closely involved with the
writing of the new curriculum, shares this perspective.

The presence of the phenomenon ‘curriculum’ in education [invatamint] of

the Republic of Moldova represents a definitive sign of the integration of

this in modernity, thus, curriculum corresponds best with the principle of
liberty, the integral principle of the formative-productive education

[invatamint] that today governs the systems of education in most of the

countries of the world. (Paslaru, 2002, p. 20)

With all due respect to the author, this is a limited interpretation of the term
curriculum. It is possible to write a curriculum that does not promote individual
liberty. The principle of liberty refers to the idea that all individuals are unique and
education contributes to the development of “each individual, group, or national
community” (Paslaru, 2002, p. 20) and the school is allowed to reflect the
individual interests as well as a national character. Compared to a programa

such as what the Soviet Union imposed on Moldova, a curriculum based on

objectives and free of specific content does allow a great deal of freedom. On a

 

22 This misstates Dewey's text, which calls for a more balanced view emphasizing the
characteristics of children and the importance of a curriculum (Dewey, 1956).

98

superficial level, Paslaru is accurate in his characterization of curriculum; if a
curriculum contains only objectives and general content, it is possible to teach to
those objectives using any material and any methods consistent with those
objectives. As new methods and materials are developed, the ’curriculum’ would
allow teachers to use those methods and materials. In addition, a flexible
curriculum allows the teacher to adapt the teaching to his or her group of
students.

The difference between a program and a curriculum is operationalized in a
guide for the introduction of the new curriculum to teachers. A table in the
introductory section contrasts the “traditional” program with the new curriculum. l

reproduce it here in part.

Table 3: Comparison programa versus curriculum

 

 

Programa Curriculum

Learning takes place in a linear progression The process of learning is seen as a spiral that
through mastery of information and always extends having content, depth,
capacity and breadth

 

The teacher is the sole source of information The teacher facilitates and guides students in
learning

 

Methods of teaching conceived as correct and The teacher expects children to pose questions
incorrect types of responses or and stimulates their thought through
reproductive questions productive questions

 

Evaluation is based on memorized information Evaluation is based on capacity

 

 

 

 

(Gutu, 1999. pp. 14-16)

The rhetoric in the table continues the critique of Soviet education, but the new

curriculum has more specific descriptions of what child centered might mean and

99

how a teacher is to interact with his or her students. This operationalization
perhaps represents some of the confusion of the difference between a programa
and a curriculum; this table does not define what the concepts are, but describe
how the programa was implemented in Soviet times and how the curriculum was

to be implemented in Moldova.23

The national curriculum

Changes are evident from the very first pages of the new curriculum
published in its entirety in 1998. The guiding principles included “the renunciation
of sets of academic prescriptions and rules,” and “the reduction of
‘encyclopedism’” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998, p.
7). On the positive side, the principles included a communicative-functional study
of language, an emphasis on intrinsic motivation on the part of students, and “the
improvement of educational [invatamint] methods through experiments of
alternative methods” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998,

p. 7).

The Romanian curriculum- combining national, Soviet, and non-Soviet
internationalisms

The Romanian Language curriculum is first in the book of the new national

curriculum in 1998. It is called Romanian despite the name of the official

 

33 The distinction, in theory, between programa and curriculum is not as clear as some scholars
and teachers in Moldova portray. The language arts program dating to Soviet times that forms the
base of the program in 1993 and the curriculum in 1998, as we will see, did include objectives.
The Unesco definition cited by Paslaru (Paslaru, 2007) includes any school activity, which could
include a very rigid and controlled course of study.

100

language of the country being Moldovan. Setting an international tone and
showing the western influence on the new curriculum, Dewey, Chomsky, Piaget,
and Claparede are mentioned and at least one Romanian scholar. A footnote
indicates that the ‘paradigm’ for the study of Romanian is ‘coordinated with the
model elaborated in Romania” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii
Moldova, 1998, p. 9). Although the research sources are eclectic and
international, the curriculum promotes the ideas of nationalism, autonomy, and
individualization.

Next the authors describe what this means for teaching. “All of these
processes support language as an instrument both of thought and social
relationships” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998, p. 8).
Some rather abstract notions are attributed to language, “It [Romanian] is the
highest instrument to assure individual liberty” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al
Republicii Moldova, 1998, p. 8).

Despite the rhetoric of change, this language arts curriculum, like the one
in 1993, refers to a Soviet era curriculum. This curriculum dates from the 1970’s
when the primary grades consisted of only grades 1-3. This is similar to the
reference in the programa of 1993 that mentions a similar curriculum dating to
the1980’s when children were allowed to start school at age 6. The lead author
for both sections, in 1992 and 1997, is Irina Gantea, a well-known scholar from
Soviet times. Her name is on many textbooks and teachers’ guides dating from

the 1980s and 19903.

101

Despite this being a new Moldovan curriculum, and despite the rhetoric
surrounding the benefits of a new curriculum for Moldovan schools, the language
program relies on Soviet, Moldovan, and international research. Soviet
researchers created the scientific basis for this reform of the 1970’s. Gantea
(2007) also suggested that the curriculum of 1998 applied “conceptual ideas of
research conducted in the 1980’s in the Republic of Moldova” (p. 95) In addition,
reiterating what was implied in the list of international scholars in the 1998
curriculum, “world wide psycho-pedagogic research served as a base [for the
curriculum], which was accepted and adapted in the experiment from 1993-1997”
(p. 95).

Despite the overwhelming criticism of Soviet schools, the authors do
mention the positive aspects of the Soviet language arts curriculum from the
1970s. The program has an applied perspective that engaged children in written
and oral communication. The development of speech was the core element. It
listed objectives, or knowledge and skills to be attained by the end of the program
of study. There was a set of materials prepared for the teacher to use, beyond a
simple textbook (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998).

The curriculum asks and answers the rhetorical question as to why a new
program is needed. Point one refers to the use of Romanian and the
“deideologization” of the curriculum. Second is the need to replace a system that
is “informative-reproductive” with a system that is “formative, with a open and

flexible content” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998, p.

102

9). Part of the answer involves criticism of the Soviet version. The Soviet
programa from the 1970’s divided the program into isolated components of
reading, writing, and speech, the same material was for all students with no
differentiation, and performance tasks were very vague. Third, a revised
curriculum uses the practical achievements in the field of integrated language
learning, combining reading, writing, speaking, and listening, as part of a
cohesive plan of study (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova,
1998).

The introduction of the language arts section included a description of a
new paradigm and theory of language study. Language study is a transmitter of
cultural and national values and skills that are used for social interaction.24 In
general, the language describes a more active class with emphasis on the use of
language for communication with less emphasis on grammar and theoretical
aspects of linguistics. This is a continuation of a policy began in the 1993
programa. Finally there are 30 pages of reference objectives, content, and
activities that a teacher could use to teach this material. lmportantly, the content
is not about stories and texts, but about areas of language that the student
should know. For example, writing sentences, the letter combinations, how to

write dialogue (see Appendix B).

 

2‘ The language arts curriculum must be viewed from the perspective of a Moldovan that lived
under Soviet rule and the dominance of the Russian Language. Many ethnic Moldovans lament
the fact that in villages across the country, Moldovans do not speak correct Romanian, they
speak a combination of Romanian and Russian. Moldovans were not taught Romanian for

communication. Many resent that so many members of minority ethnic groups do not learn
Romanian.

103

The new mathematics curriculum- an uncertain break from the past

The origin and inspiration of the mathematics curriculum continues the
international influence on Moldovan educational documents. A lead author of the
mathematics curriculum described how she worked with her colleagues to design
a new curriculum.

When we opened [to the rest of the world due to relaxation of Soviet

control] we saw the world first through the Romanians. The Romanians

had more possibilities than we did. For a month I was in lasi and

Bucharest, and I read what the world was doing. In Bucharest I worked at

the institute, we put German literature on the table, American. Some knew

German better, some knew English better, or Russian. And we saw what

was happening everywhere, and we made ours [curriculum].

When asked what would be Moldovan when so much of the curriculum came
from other countries, she replied, “[Tjhe methods can be different, but the results
that we attain should be similar.” This will provide a contrast with what a Step by
Step teacher said in response to a similar question, “The methods are
international, but the content is Moldovan.”

The mathematics section starts out by mentioning that the law of
education reflects the socio-economic changes in Moldova. Following this is
criticism of the Soviet era mathematics program that left students with isolated
skills and pieces of information. The new curriculum, however, is based on
“modern conceptions . . . it has deep roots in cognitive science (computers,
psychology, philosophy, linguistic, anthropology etc.) and maintains the good

traditions of autochthonous education” (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al

Republicii Moldova, 1998). These good traditions are left unstated.

104

This section includes a great deal of criticism of “usual” methods and
approaches to the study of mathematics and suggests something new. The
curriculum is described as a contrast to Soviet era curriculum, but it is not that
different from what came before. We are comparing here two documents, not
practices. Teaching should be constructivist, not simply repeating ideas from the
textbook. It should be formative rather than informative. Teaching should be
centered on the concept. The general objectives in the curriculum contain points
about different aspects of mathematics, logic, problem solving, measurement,
communication of mathematical ideas, and affective aspects related to
mathematics (Ministerul Educatiei si Stiintei al Republicii Moldova, 1998). This
again is a contrast with what putatively took place in Soviet classrooms; teachers
taught algorithms and children did not learn to apply the knowledge, but only to
complete the taught procedures. Mathematics should be taught conceptually
instead. This distinction may be true in practice. However, teaching conceptually
was an idea noted in the Soviet era programa described in chapter 2. This
section also had numerous pages of objectives and suggestions for activities

(see Appendix B).

The Changing Role of Teachers and Students in Response to
Old Practices and New Ideas

Associated with the national school was a new role for teachers and
students. Teachers received greater autonomy, and students were to develop

individual identities. This required a new relationship between teacher and

105

student. Conceptual and legal documents of the early and mid 1990’s only
vaguely described what this would mean. This changed with the implementation
of the new curriculum beginning in 1998.

The Conception of 1988 created high expectations for teachers, distinct

from those of the past

In the pedagogic process there must take place a living dialogue on the
basis of parity, between teacher and student. The dialogue must not be
regulated or forced, rather it appears on the basis of free interaction
between teacher and student. (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP
<<Scoala moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 3)
This implies a very different relationship between student and teacher, a point
that is emphasized, but not clarified, in the following statement:
...consideration that the student is both subject and object of the
pedagogical process. (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala
moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 3)
This phrase, student as subject, came up during perestroika and would become
popular as teachers try to define the new student-teacher relationship.
The high expectations continue.
The teacher is a thinker, promoter of democracy, justice, culture,
intelligence, and charity. (Grupul provizoriu de creatie al ICSP <<Scoala
moldoveneasca>>, 1989, p. 3)
Similarly high expectations for teachers existed in Soviet times, and teacher had
a central role in educating constructors of communism. Gorbachev called on

them to play a central role in perestroika, and now again, they have a primary

role in promoting democracy and a new national culture. One thing that does not

106

change in this period is the high demands placed on teachers. However, there is
no tradition for this new role.

Before developing new practices to promote these ideas, the MET issued
orders to dismantle Soviet era structures that supported teachers. In September
1990 the Ministry closed the cabinete metodice throughout the country. These
were educational resource libraries located in many regions and provided some
professional development support for teachers. According to the MET archivist,
the MET did away with many things of value simply because of their association
with the communist regime. Furthermore, at the time, there were no other
materials besides Soviet to fill these libraries. Some of these have since been
reopened. To replace this loss of support, the order obligated regional
superintendents to hire “the most qualified teachers” as inspectors who would
also have the added obligation of teacher support (Ordin 37: 21.09.1990).

In October of 1991 the MET ordered schools “to remove the position of
Pioneer instructor from state educational institutions. . . . Organization of children
and youth will be formed on a voluntary basis outside of educational institutions
depending on interests and hobbies.” The former Pioneer teachers were now to
teach choir and other aesthetic programs (Ordin 319, 10.09.91 ). This order,
continuing the critique of Soviet organizations, implied that the participation with
the Pioneer was not voluntary, and suggested a new standard for organizations

working with children. Nothing has replaced these organizations on a large scale.

107

There have been little league baseball programs, Boy Scouts, and others. These

have had mixed success.

Making a break from past practices the MET proposed a system of
qualification with didactic grades, graduri didactice, based on the expertise of the
teacher. These were indications of the level of expertise attained by teachers.
Teachers with higher grades would get a supplement to their salary; grad
superior, 1, and 2, get a 100%, 50%, and 25% bonus respectively based on their
base salary.25 The MET, along with trade unions, were allowed three months to
create regulations regarding teacher evaluation (Ordin 29: 4.02.1991). Trade
unions in Moldova are very weak and have not taken a significant role in

reforming schools.

When the MET finally published new standards, they called for a dramatic

change in the work of teachers.

- The capacity to set objectives specific to the lessons and activities which
[the teacher] teaches in the context of the chapter [of book] and of the
discipline taught and to draw up the whole lesson in concord with the set
goals. [in the Soviet system, each lesson was outlined in official books,
with an affective and content goal specified]

- Creating lesson with prudent and efficient combination of varied teaching
activities, review, testing, independent individual work and in group,
directed activity etc.,

- Ability to use active methods, designed to stimulate effective participation
in the assimilation of knowledge and the formation of abilities (creating
situation-problems, activities in groups, laboratory work, applied activities
etc.) and that promotes the intellectual and spiritual development of the
students;

- The capacity to use various and adequate forms of work with gifted
students, to support and stimulate students who do not manage to work in
the same rhythm as others. (Ordin 188, 11.05.1992)

 

25 These bonuses were later reduced to 50%, 40%, and 30% respectively.

108

This is much different than the specific lesson plans teachers were to follow in
Soviet time and calls for much more creativity and capability on the part of
classroom teachers to guide an active classroom. Furthermore, as we shall see,
these characteristics are consistent with the philosophy of the PCP program that
would be introduced four years later.

Compared with a programa, the curriculum does allow a great deal of
flexibility to the teacher, as we will see in the next section. The programa did not
allow for the teacher to make significant deviations from the prescribed methods
and content. What a teacher learned about his or her students could not be
officially applied in the classroom.

Common among most teachers interviewed was the idea that the
curriculum gave them more freedom in their teaching.

Compared to the past, we have more freedom in the choice of material.

That is, if there is a text in a textbook that I do not like, I can replace it with

another. It is important to accomplish the objectives, but the content I can

choose for myself. Even today’s activity with homonyms [referring to an
activity during which students drew pictures of different homonyms], It is
written in the curriculum, it is in the textbook, there are only some so-so
exercises, but I know that this will not help, I think I did something that is
better. (Irina)
According to an assistant director of an elite private school, even teachers
teaching the same grade level could use different textbooks, different material.
This was something, according to the assistant direction, that his teachers had
difficulty accepting.

This idea of freedom for teachers was another modern feature of the

curriculum. For some it might have made teaching better, or even easier. But for

109

many it became more complicated and involved more work. According a school
director from Ciocana, a suburb of Chisinau, a curriculum with objectives makes
the work for teachers much more difficult. “Now teachers need to create their own
lessons using logic and their own thinking.” According to this same director, “In
Soviet times there were strict plans for the lessons, explicit, sometimes verbatim,
plans for the teacher. Professors were obligated to follow the plans and students
learned things by memory that they did not understand.”

As the quotation above by Irina indicates, teachers do not rely solely on
MET approved material for their teaching. In classroom observations, I
repeatedly saw teachers use materials that were not approved by the MET. Also,
the curriculum has changed and, according to teachers, the textbooks do not
correspond with the curriculum, requiring them to be creative in their use of

teaching materials.

International Support for Teachers to Learn the New Curricula
and New Practices

From 1998 through 2004 the World Bank loaned Moldova nearly 17 million
dollars for the modernization of the Moldovan school system. The main
objectives of the project were to improve the quality of mandatory education
“through improved curricula, new textbooks, in-service teacher training and a
modern assessment system” (Moarcas, 2005, p. 2). In this section I will discuss
the professional development provided for teachers and how materials used for

the training framed the implementation of the new curriculum.

110

From 1998-2003, the World Bank project sponsored professional
development seminars to introduce the new curriculum to teachers. During
interviews, I asked teachers about opportunities for professional development.
None of the teachers interviewed for this research mentioned the World Bank
project except two who were trainers for the project. The teacher training
sponsored by the World Bank was a countrywide program using a cascade
model where central trainers trained regional trainers who in turn trained local
trainers who worked with teachers. The program offered a two-week initial course
and a one week follow-up course. According to the World Bank report, 35,000
teachers participated in the initial training and 47,000 teachers participated in the
follow-up session. Obviously, not all of the participants in the second session
participated in the first (Moarcas, 2005). Other than these in-service workshops,
teachers would study the curriculum in the professional development seminars
that teachers are entitled to every five years. Despite this enormous effort, there
were few results from the perspective of Moldovan teachers; as far as I could tell,
they do not readily recall the event. In addition, the lack of follow-up, the lack of
funding, and the departure of many teachers to other fields of work would
certainly limit its effect.

The World Bank sponsored project attempted to put into practice the
rhetoric of the Conception, the Constitution, and the Law of Education. The
project’s publications gave teachers general directions on how to design lessons,

to make the class child-centered, and to develop the personality and creativity of

111

children. The documents and activities used make it clear, as the policy papers
indicate, that there is an expectation that teachers change their relationship with
their students and with the content.

One teacher who worked as a trainer gave me her materials.26 These
include two of three pamphlets entitled The Development and the Implementation
of the Primary Curriculum (Dezvoltarea si Implementarea Curriclulum-ului
lnvatamintului Primar). l was not able to find the guide for mathematics. These
pamphlets do not include material the teacher could use in the classroom. They
are only abstract and general suggestions about what the teacher may do in the
classroom. The MET and the Institutul de Stiinte Pedagocie si Psihologice and
the Institutul National de Perfectionare a Cadre/or Didactic published the
materials. The former is an educational research institute, the latter is a
professional development institute. They have since merged and become the
Institutul de Stiinte ale Educatiei.

The guides included a general description and explanation of the national
curriculum and general points regarding lesson design and evaluation. In
addition, there was a similar discussion around the various primary level
disciplines. The authors of the subject area chapters of these guides are authors
who also worked on the curriculum of 1998.

The final section of the first pamphlet contains lists of characteristics at

each of the ages of typical primary grade students. These include physical

 

26 I asked at both the World Bank and the MET for more information and documentation on the
project; other than an Aide Memoire from 2001, nothing was forthcoming.

112

development, social development, and cognitive development. The sources of
these lists are two books authored and published for the Step by Step program
(Gutu, 1999).

In addition to these pamphlets, I received a number of worksheets and
workshop plans for a few sessions of the training. Most of these focus on general
pedagogical and classroom management considerations. These provide insight
into an official version of lesson planning, evaluation, and classroom and
behavior management.

One worksheet promotes complex methods of assessment and learning.
The portfolio is “a method of evaluating a student’s scholastic performance . . . [It
is] a flexible, complex, integrated instrument of evaluation. . . a viable alternative
to the traditional methods of evaluation.” Another suggestion goes over
“investigation” as a classroom activity. This is an activity that a teacher might use
when there is “a situation/problem that does not have a simple solution.” These
two approaches to learning and evaluation would create a much more complex
environment and call for far more resources than the methods used previously.

Another page includes a flow chart entitled “Improvement of learning”. This
includes the advice that to improve learning “you must change the interpretation.
You must change the way of understanding of the event, both how you see the
event and how the student sees it. To do this you must stop the process. You
must STOP, LOOK, LISTEN, THINK, TALK, THINK, TALK, and then CHANGE.”

This implies a very different relationship between student and teacher. A great

113

deal of consideration and discussion in the class should go into a lesson;
students become interested partners in the lesson and their perspectives are
essential. This implies that a source of motivation is no longer the grades or the
societal pressure to conform, but the intrinsic motivation that comes from mutual
respect.

The worksheets cover the topic of classroom and behavior management;
importantly, they suggest that teachers listen to and discuss problems with the
students. One gives advice for managing a lesson: Give feedback to students,
listen to what they say and respect their suggestions. Keep the level of activity
appropriate level to avoid boredom as well as too much information. Even
cheating is addressed: give students the option of working with peers, discuss
the problem of cheating, and supervise students while they work. Another
worksheet suggests addressing behavior problems as a class; the teacher and
students together create a list of negative behavior and possible consequences.
Teachers receive some guidance about dealing with poor behavior through
escalating intervention: ignore, stand close to student, orally admonish student,
move student to desk at front of class, create make-up time to replace time lost in
class, discuss with parents, create a contract, have student supervise other
students in hallway “supervising behavior in the hall will make student proud of

fulfilling tasks similar to those of adults.”

114

Lesson design worksheets have material similar to that found in the

pamphlets, discussed above, published by the MET as well as these indicators of

a “well-thought lesson plan”:

Defines the instructional objectives in an operational form, in observable
and testable performance;

Defines objectives that can be attained in the time provided;

Defines operational objectives of the content;

Permits the differentiation of instruction in terms of preparation and rhythm
of those taught;

Defines the work tasks to fulfill each objective;

ls reasonable;

ls revised into a clear form that permits the continuation of the unit in
which each objective can be transformed into a measurable result;
Offers the possibility to reduce to concise writing without harming the
thinking process.

What is notable about this list is that teachers are the ones who need to create

the lesson plan. Consistent with the notion of a flexible curriculum, teachers are

to teach according to the interests and abilities of their students.

Summary

As I noted in the previous chapter, the discussion of substantial change in

education began during the period of perestroika. This led to changes in the

Moldovan school system prior to the dissolution of the USSR. What started as a

restructuring of a school system turned into something else along the way.

Prompted by the glasnost, and then emboldened by declarations of sovereignty

and independence, the school reform turned into a radical attempt to promote a

115

national school. For the first time, Moldova had the opportunity to create its own
Moldovan school system.

The first calls for a national school system in Moldova, reflective of a
Union wide movement, came in 1988. A number of educational scholars
authored a Conceptia, or framework, for a Moldovan school. They revised this in
1992 after independence, and Parliament later revised and adopted it in 1994.
These documents laid the foundation for the Law of Education and the new
school system. Primarily they called for the teaching of national values,
something that was never clearly defined. They also called for the use of the
Romanian in instruction, teacher autonomy, local control, and the development of
capable, independent students. Many of these ideas, or inspiration for these
ideas came from other countries. These are both a reaction to the Soviet system
and a continuation of the rhetoric of perestroika.

The process of reform began with a discussion of the role of schools in
Soviet society and continued in Moldova with a renunciation of the Soviet school
system. The new school system, in many ways, formed as a reaction to what
came before. This of course is at the level of policy. As teachers and scholars
developed a new curriculum, as they wrote textbooks and trained the country’s
teachers, more complex and difficult aspects of educational change come to the
fore.

The intention of the reforms was to change the role of schools in society,

and at times the documents refer to societal changes to justify educational

116

changes. Based on the documents, the schools were to change from places
where children Ieamed communist ideology, and learned to repeat it at
appropriate times, to places where they learned to think independently. The new
policies placed new tasks on teachers who were to set their own educational
objectives for their students, to interact with their students in new ways, and now
had ways to increase their salary. In addition, schools received some modicum of
autonomy as the MET removed content without providing replacements. Much of
the new rhetoric and policies contrasted with the practices of the communist
schools.

From the beginning of this process, the attempt to nationalize the Soviet
schools of Moldova was an international process. Moldova was not alone among
the Soviet Republics in designating an official language other than Russian.
Moldova was not alone in attempting to nationalize its schools. Furthermore, the
Conception of 1994, the Law of Education, and the curriculum all were developed
after systematically looking at similar documents from other countries.

Ties with Romania and the legacy of the Soviet Union strongly influenced
school reform. Romania held a special place in the hearts and minds of many
Moldovans. There was discussion of Union with Romania in the 19903. The
emphasis on language and the inclusion of Romanian heroes in the new
Moldovan history textbooks, and the importation of textbooks published in

Romania indicates this hope. Furthermore, despite criticism of nearly all things

117

Soviet, the MET relied on a Soviet era language arts program modified to fit the
context of modern Moldova.

Implementing the new ideas in the schools and classrooms proved
challenging. The reforms called for a substantially different approach to teaching
and learning where teachers accommodated their students and students took an
active role in their learning. The MET, with the help of the World Bank, did
provide some training for teachers. But teachers did not readily recall this training
as significant. Finally, social and economic conditions would impede the school

reform, something I discuss in the next chapter.

118

CHAPTER FOUR: DETERIORATING CONDITIONS OF
EDUCATION: FROM COMMUNISM TO CAPITALISM

In the previous chapters l have outlined how the MET attempted to change
the Soviet era school system into a national Moldovan school system. This
started with the dismantling of Soviet images and structures, such as youth
organizations, and the removal of Soviet ideology from the school curriculum. In
the attempt to create the national school system, the MET and the government
wrote frameworks called conceptions, laws and statutes to guide school activity.
These focused broad policy and only vaguely or indirectly influenced the teaching
and learning in the classroom. It was not until 1998 that a new curriculum was
published and introduced to teacher through a series of nationwide seminars.

While officials and scholars developed these documents, Moldova was
undergoing an economic transformation that the school curriculum was meant to
reflect in theory it not in reality. Namely, the economy transformed from a
command/communist system to a market, capitalist system. Moldova was
impoverished in the process of this transformation. These economic conditions
and limitations would prevent, or at least severely limit, the successful

implementation of the curriculum and significantly change the financing structure

of schools.

119

Economic Challenges

Economic problems continued the process of dismantling the Soviet, now
Moldovan, schools that policy started. This has had an effect on the material
state of school buildings as well as the process of teaching and learning taking
place in classrooms. This suggests Moldova has gone through a period of “de-
development” during which the physical as well as human capacity for productive
work has decreased (Meurs & Ranasinghe, 2003).

Moldova had the misfortune of suffering the greatest economic decline of
any of the former Soviet Republics. The gross domestic product fell by nearly
two-thirds following independence (Orlova & Ronnas, 1999; World Bank, 2005).
Moldova, in Soviet times, had primarily an agrarian economy that was highly
dependent on price supports, an open market to the rest of the USSR, and
energy subsidies to function. With the independence, Moldova lost these
economic supports and the economy shrank precipitously. What manufacturing
was in the Soviet republic was located in Transnistria, which became, de facto,
independent in 1992 and does not share its revenues with the rest of the
republic.

In 1991 the Moldovan Ieu became the national currency. Citizens were
given 1 Ieu for every 1000 Soviet rubles. In effect, the savings that could have
purchased a car in Soviet times became sufficient to buy a few loaves of bread.

Some people made money during this time with the devaluation; they borrowed

120

thousands of Soviet rubles before the devaluing, and then paid off the loan with a
few lei (plural of Ieu) after devaluation (Pastuh-Cubolteanu, 2007).

By 1998 all of the collective farms were privatized. The land was divided
and given to current and retired collective farm workers according to the amount
of time they had worked on the collective farm. An elderly retiree who had worked
a lifetime in the collective might receive several hectares, a newcomer might
receive a few hundred square meters. By coincidence, the end of the collective
farms corresponded with the Russian financial crisis of 1998. The Moldovan Ieu
was again devalued from about 4 lei to the US Dollar to about 12 lei to the US
dollar. The combination of these two events corresponded with the beginning of a

very large emigration of Moldovans looking for work.

Emigration: Parents and Teachers Leaving the Country

Official estimates of the number of Moldovans living outside of Moldova
are about 360,000 citizens (Barbarosie, Gremalschi, Jigau, 8 Vladicescu, 2008).
The population of Moldova is about 4.5 million. An official from the International
Organization of Migration estimated that the number of emigrants could be as
high as one million (Nyanenkova, 2005). The discrepancy is due, in part, to the
large numbers of Moldovans who leave the country illegally. Based on
government statistics 4% of children have both parents and 11% of children have
one parent working abroad (Barbarosie, et al., 2008). In a Unicef study, the
figures are 9% and 28% respectively (Info-Prim N90, 2006). These figures vary

greatly and usually include an explanation of the uncertainty involved in the

121

estimates. At the school level, statistics also vary significantly. One school visited
for this research on the outskirts of Chisinau reported that 25% of students at the
school do not live with either parent and an additional 20% live with a single
parent.

The situation has created a plethora of anecdotes resulting from the
situation. In a private school a director told of a child whose mother was abroad
and whose father committed suicide. The mother could not return because she
was abroad illegally. In the village of Zaim, on a nearly daily basis, children told of
parents who were leaving, coming, or with whom they spoke on the telephone
the night before. At scoala Primavara, a grandmother copied her child’s agenda
and sent it to the child’s mother in Italy, who called and discussed it with the
teacher. In a newspaper political cartoon, a teacher is shown reprimanding a
student who is listening to music with headphones and slouching at his desk. The
teacher threatens to visit his parents, and asks for the boy’s address. The boy
responds, "Go ahead, Sir, Piazzo Santa Chiara, Milano, Italy” ("Constatari," 2005,
p. 1).

Another result of the foreign workers is the large amount of money coming
into the country. Remittances make up over a third of the GDP of Moldova,
36.2% in 2005 (Ratha & Xu, 2008). While this contributes to the wealth of the
country, its effects are uneven. One school director pointed out the inflation
caused by this influx of money. Teachers then deal with the children left behind;

they pay inflated prices, but are left in Moldova earning very little money (Dogaru,

122

2005). Teachers who ask for money from students, as bribes or to sell grades,
expect more money from students whose parents are working abroad than from

those with parents in the country (Kauffman, 2008).

School Finance: Deteriorating Budgets

The public schools have not fared much better than the country’s
economy. Without a strong tax base, there are few funds for schools. According
to a report from the Institute for Public Policy in Chisinau (Gimet, 2005), schools
receive only about 40% of the funds needed for operations and maintenance.
This is enough to cover teacher salaries, heating and lighting but little more.
Depending on the financial situation of the village, the local mayor may provide
supplementary funds to the school. Many schools have resorted to soliciting
support from parents to subsidize the school budget through cash contributions
or in-kind gifts of material or labor.27

Schools are short of funding even though the amount of money a school
receives for each student has doubled in recent years. In 2002 a school received
827.4 MDL (1,596 in 2008 real lei or 151 USD in 2008 currency) for each student
and 1767.137 MDL in 2007 (167 USD 2008) (lvanu, 2007). After inflation, this is
only a 10% increase. In terms of educational outlays compared to GDP, the
percentage of the budget allocated to education has decreased by more than half

since 1997 from 10.4% to 4.5% in 2005 (Barbarosie, et al., 2008). Two factors

 

27 l have heard that parents routinely maintained and decorated the classrooms of their respective
students during Soviet times. This practice seems to have extended to include parental support of
operations and in places building maintenance.

123

contribute to this increase in allocations and decrease in percentage of the GDP:
student enrollment has declined significantly, and the rate of inflation has varied
between 10 and 15% since 2003-2007 and 9% in 2008 (Department of State,

2009).

Table 4: State allocations for education

 

 

 

 

1990’ 1995* 2000+ 2005’ 2008’
Lei in 575,800,000 718,700,000 2,696,900,000 1,580,768,200
current (356,261,707) (165,684,242) (363,518,950) (139,890,991)
prices
Percent 19.3 24.2 16.8 19.4
of budget
Percent 10.4 (1997) 5.4 6.8
of GDP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sums in brackets are equivalents in 2008 US dollars. *("Anuarul Statistic AI Republicii Moldova,"
1996), * (Biroul National de Statistica al Republica Moldova, 2006), * (Parlamentul Republicii
Moldova, 2007)

The lack of funding has created a condition of “decentralization by default”
(Meurs & Ranasinghe, 2003) in which the MET does not have funds to support
and monitor the schools in its charge and individual schools must find their own
sources of support. For example, many teachers and administrators attend
professional development classes sponsored by the Open Society Institute, and
write grants to IREX and other international aid agencies. In Chisinau, where the
population is generally better off, parents contribute hundreds of lei each month
to maintain the schools. In rural areas, where the population is much poorer, 20-

30 lei (23 USD) is a common monthly contribution.

124

Not all funds collected are official. The Institute of Public Policy in Chisinau
conducted a study to estimate the amount of informal payments to schools. The
report concluded that these informal payments amount to approximately 50% of
the state allocated funds. Some of the payments are obvious corruption such as
payments for grades. Because of the lack of accounting and transparency, even

plausible payments such as those for repairs may be skimmed or diverted

(Kauffman, 2008).

Table 5: Estimated supplementary payments by parents during one year

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Categories of Payment MDL, mil. USD 2008
millions
Individual lessons 92.5 8.8
Supplementary group lessons 26.0 2.5
Gifts for teachers 25.0 2,4
Payments to parent committee (NGO) 20.0 1.9
Repairs in classroom and school 14.6 1.4
School events 13.0 1 .2
Exams 6.0 0.57
Heat (technical service / repairs) 5.5 0.52
Fee for a good note 3.7 0.35
Security in school 1.7 0.16
Preparing school documents 1.5 0.14

 

 

 

 

(Institutul de Politici Publice, 2007)

In a study by lvanu (2007), in the Municipality of Chisinau, schools are
funded at about 70% of what is needed by the MET. This is based on the MET
formula for determining what is needed, which, according to lvanu, does not

include many capital repairs. In effect, the amount needed reported here falls far

125

short of what is needed in the school. This sum is subsidized by city funds, but

still constitutes only 80-90% of what is needed.

Table 6: Disbursement of the budget of education in the Municipality of
Chisinau per year as of 1 August 2007 (thousands of lei)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Status 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Needed 3102632 3762634 423281 .96 471 249.2 629369]
(54,435,000) (57,056,700) (57,054,800) (57,745,800) (67,591 ,100)

Approved 2007542 2083788 2683203 2982083 4667234
(35,981 ,500) (33,007,300) (37,981 ,400) (36,737,900) (51,213,800)

Percentage 66.1 57.85 66.57 63.62 75.77

Percentage 45.93 52.76 56.2 54.02 48.1 8

for salaries

Disbursed 2575299 2900524 3239558 433431 .3 3413078"
(46,149,900) (45,976,300) (45,660,900) (53,241 ,600) (38,344,400)

Percent of 84.78 80.58 80.03 92.2 56.73"

needed

 

(lvanu, 2007). * Indicates funding for first nine months. Numbers in parentheses are 2008 USD.
Calculations of USD sums based on data from the National Bank of Moldova and the National

Bureau of Statistics in Moldova.

The difference between the sums approved by the government and disbursed

sums reflects the contributions from the municipal government. For example in

2006, 298,208,300 MDL was allocated in the federal budget. The Municipality of

Chisinau added an additional 135,223,000 MDL from its budget.

Parent associations have attempted to make up for the lack of funds.

According to statute, a maximum of 50% of the money collected may be used to

supplement school salaries. The rest must be used for capital repairs,

operations, and many schools have used some of the money to provide meals for

children. The policies of the different schools and parent associations differ.

126

 

Typically there is an entrance fee or a capital investment fee from between 1000
to 2000 MDL (88-176 USD 2008), in addition there is a monthly fee from 150-450
MDL (13-40 USD 2008). These figures are for more selective schools in
Chisinau. At less selective schools and in rural areas, contributions of 20 MDL
(1.75 USD 2008) per family per month are at times difficult to collect. The poorer
families are not expected to contribute anything.

In addition to parent contributions, various aid organizations have provided
grants to schools. The World Bank has sponsored repairs and renovations to

schools throughout the country. NGO’s have also done as much.

Teacher Shortage

The most pressing issue regarding the teacher corps is the shortage of
teachers and the preponderance of teachers who are reaching or have reached
the age of retirement. The National Bureau of Statistics estimates that 61% of
working teachers started teaching before independence, that is, they have more
than 18 years of teaching experience ("Activitatea lnstitutiilor De Invatamint",
2007). One survey found that circa 40% of teachers finished university or college
20 to 30 years ago, the percentage being much higher in rural areas. Only about
27% have taught less than 13 years. According to a director of the Institute for
the Science of Education, 50% of teachers have left the profession. No official
statistics are available describing this phenomenon. Although this number is
unclear, it does reflect that many teachers have left, and this is reflected in a

chronic shortage of teachers.

127

Table 7: General education teachers, years of experience

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Disagragated by experience: Number Percent of total
- up to three years 3442 8,39%
- from three to eight years 3687 8,99%
- from eight to thirteen years 3968 9,68%
- from thirteen to 18 years 5809 14,17%
- more than eighteen years 24099 58,77%

 

 

(Coroi, Gremalschi, Vicol, & Cara, 2005, p. 7)

This is counterintuitive because of the low teacher-student ratios
throughout most of the country. However, the salaries of teachers are so low, that
it is extremely difficult for teachers to relocate from rural areas to cities, where
teacher-student ratios are much higher. In addition, the village school is, for many
villages, the single remaining community organization. The collective farms and
factories have, for the most part, closed. Closing the school is a political issue

with substantial consequences for villages.

Teacher Salaries: Living in Poverty

With the change to a market economy, an idea noted in many orders in
the MET, the MET ordered changes in teacher remuneration. Order 29 dated 31
January 1991 calls for an increase in the salaries of teachers. “With the intention
of improving the material condition of teachers, of intensifying their social
protection in conditions of shifting to a market economy, of improving the system
of remuneration for work.” This order increased the base salary of teachers; in

addition it allowed for competition and a hierarchy. The Ordin continued the

128

practice of awarding bonuses to teachers in more challenging positions such as
boarding schools, talented and gifted classes, and foreign language classes.

In addition, this order assigned ownership of houses or apartments to
teachers “who have worked in the public educational system in the republic for at
least 25 years.” Other teachers received parcels of land and materials to
construct a house (Ordin 29: 4.02.1991, p 6).

Many times since independence, the MET has increased teacher salaries,
but with the high rates of inflation, the increases are negligible. The average
monthly salary in the field of education during the year 2007 was 1351 MDL. The
average for all workers in the country 2063 MDL per month ("Activitatea
lnstitutiilor De Invatamint", 2007)

Teacher compensation is based on several factors. First is the level of
education; those graduating from university earn slightly more than those who
graduated from col/egium. Next, the salary schedule takes into consideration the
years in the profession, every few years teachers are given an increase based on
seniority. Next is the level of qualification. At independence, Moldova
implemented graduri didactice, didactic grades. Teachers begin work without a
grade and after specified periods of time may progress to grade two, grade one,
and superior. Promotion is based on an increasingly complex evaluation.
Teachers earn a 30% over the base pay for grade two, 40% over the base pay

for grade one, and 50% over the base pay for superior. Teachers can earn

129

additional money if they work in a residential facility or in special education. They
earn an extra 10 lei a month for grading papers.

Given the fact that teacher salaries are below the poverty line, teachers
are in a difficult position. They cannot live on their salaries. Of the single teachers
at Primavara, all reported getting help from family; one lives with a sister who
pays most of the bills, another brings back bags of food from her parents’ home
after every visit, or in one case, the teacher took on students in breach of school
policy. Many of the married teachers have husbands with better paying jobs. As
one such teacher told me, “A family with two teachers is a luxury we cannot
afford” (Tatiana). One teacher had a second job. In rural areas teachers arrive at
the school with the students and return home with students. They have gardens
to tend, cows to milk and poultry to feed. In the fall of 2008 during the first week
of school, teachers were protesting in front of parliament. Their goal was to
improve salaries by 600 MDL beginning on 1 September, and by an additional
900 MDL in January. By July 2009 they hope to have a salary for teachers equal

to the minimum consumer basket of necessities (INFOTAG, 2008).

Student population: Declining Enrollment

As the table below indicates, there is a decline in enrollment in all types of
schools except lyceums and the vocational schools. This is due to the fact that

the population of children is decreasing and to the fact that many schools have

become lyceums.

130

Table 8: Distribution of students by type of school

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

School year 2001/2002 2005/2007
School type
- 19500 12300
Primary school
- 146500 113900
Gymnasrum
138000 257500
Lyceums
General schools 301700 103300
Vocational schools 229% 23.656
Professional Schools 15207 30.223

 

 

 

 

 

("Anuarul Statistic Al Republicii Moldova," 2007, pp. 155,160 , 162)

As of the 2006-2007 school year, about one-third of students attended
schools in urban settings and two-thirds attended schools in rural settings
(Niculcea, undated).

With parents allowed to seek entrance for their children at any school, a
significant number of students do not attend their local school. No data has been
published regarding this phenomenon. A village school near a regional center
may lose primary and secondary students to the lyceums in the regional center.
Some children from villages and regional centers may live with relatives in larger
cities or in the capital to attend school. There is some competition among schools
in Chisinau for students. With the declining student population, discussed below,
and this redistribution of students, there is concern about what will happen to the
village schools. Without the collective farms, there are not many employment

options for the young.

131

The school population is decreasing in Moldova and the truancy rate is
increasing. Interestingly, the decrease in children is greater in urban areas since
2000. There is a 24% decrease in urban areas compared to a 20% decline in
rural areas. This may be due to the fact that it is more difficult to move to
Chisinau because of the costs and many parents leave their children with

grandparents who live in rural areas.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1 00°/o
95% --93,5% 92,47. 92.7% 92,4%
F . 91 .096
900/0 87,896-
Wu
8570 _ _ 87,0%— 86,870 87,9°/0—— 87,5°/o—— 36,870—
800/0 fi # T

2000—2001 2001—2002 2002—2003 2003—2004 2004-2005 2005—2006

+ primary “5" gymnasial

(Barbarosie, et al., 2008, p. 17)

Figure 1: Net enrollment

The declining enrollment has left a great deal of extra capacity in schools.
The total capacity of schools in Moldova is approximately 730,198 places. With
only 491,500 students, only about 63% of the capacity is used. In some regions
the percentage of excess capacity is more than 50%. Estimates call for a further
nationwide decline of 46% of the number of students in classes 1-9, making the
situation more acute (Niculcea, undated, p. 3). The distribution of students

creates a low average teacher to student ratio. In the school year 2006-2007

132

there were 13 students to the teacher. This is a reduction from 15 students per
teacher in 2001-2002. There is an order from the ministry dictating how to
combine classes, at the primary level, grades one and three and grades two and
four (Barbarosie, et al., 2008, p. 15). This situation created some urgency in the
calls for consolidating the school system. This would reduce the cost of teacher
salaries as well as maintenance for schools. This would also mean closing some

schools in villages, a politically and socially difficult endeavor.

Corruption: Supplementing the State

It is hard to discuss schooling in Moldova without mentioning corruption. In
casual conversation, bitterness is expressed towards teachers in general
because of the bribery. A spokesman from the anti-corruption combating division
told me that education is the most corrupt of the state enterprises with 56 proven
infractions in 2007.28 Even TV commercials raised the subject and pointed out
the potential problems. For example, one commercial posed the question,
“Imagine having a doctor who paid for his grades instead of studying?” This has
become something of a joke in political cartoons and for those sympathetic to
teachers who point to the police or the customs agents who are notorious for
their bribe taking, or of the higher officials who abscond with thousands and

millions of euros. The issue has challenged a long-standing tradition; in the

\

23 . . . . . . .
This IS seen as something of a joke; police and customs agents are notorious for their

Corruption. Police and customs agents have better connections in the government and are

protected, according to the word on the street. Teachers are seen as a scapegoat.

133

municipality of Chisinau, teachers are no longer allowed to accept gifts of any
kind.

Corruption is widespread throughout the country. Transparency
International in Moldova conducted a survey into the number of businessmen and
heads of households who gave bribes. Approximately 39% of heads of
households and 53% of businessmen said they gave bribes. Heads of
households mentioned that they paid bribes to attain visas (80.7%), to the police
(51.2%), to customs agents (57.2%), in hospitals (42.5%), and in schools
(36.3%) ("Membrii Gospodariilor Casnice Si Oamenii De Afaceri Dau Anual Mite
De Milioane De Lei in Diverse lnstitutii De Stat," 2008).

There is some basis to the criticism of teachers. Corruption takes many
forms. Some report their teachers stating in class that money is required for high
grades. Some comes in more deceptive ways; the teacher gives a student low
grades until the parents enroll him or her in after school lessons, for a fee. Some
is quite hidden and comes in the form of gifts for teachers. Some come through
the administration; one young teacher reported getting a phone call at two in the
morning from her school director asking for help drafting a student essay for the
day’s exam. Others are for the good of the school; teachers or administrators
collect money to repair or paint a room or hallway. There is little accountability for
these funds and many say that the money is not used as intended (Kauffman,

2008).

134

they a
shout

Pal II

Mun]
COIN
since
lnste.
Any I
all Ill]
mino

who

SChoc
disad‘,
palms
Were lc

53mm.

The MOE admits the problem. The director of evaluation went so far as to
announce in an interview, “This year the Baccalaureate exams will not be for sale
in the market!” Regardless of the protection of the exams, students report that
they are asked to pay hundreds of MDL to take the baccalaureate exam, which
should be free or with a small fee for writing implements and paper. Those that
pay may also get help from teachers during the exam (Kauffman, 2008).

In an attempt to remedy the situation, the school administration of
Municipality of Chisinau set up a hotline for anonymous callers to report cases of
corruption. The number of calls has decreased substantially in the two years
since it was set up, but there is no record of disciplinary action taken as a result.
Instead, the authorities visit the school reported and discuss issues of corruption.
Any further investigation would be up to the center for combating corruption. Of
all the parents and teachers with whom I spoke, only two considered corruption a
minor issue, fabricated, as one elementary teacher noted, by ministry officials
“who have too much time and not anything else to do” (Christina).

In a study by the Institute for Public Policy in 2007 of informal payments to
schools, one question asked whether students of poor families were at a
disadvantage because their parents are not able to make supplementary
payments to the school. Seventeen percent of directors and 11% of teachers
were totally in agreement or in agreement with this statement. Fifty percent of

parents responded the same way (Institutul de Politici Publice, 2007).

135

 

 

Co
tractors
elected I
part In ll
central
assign
IBSOUIC
school
She cc
school
teache
receivi
ooed

Schoo

Euo;
35W
08dui
CONS]
the DI
leach

L“
~Uf Op.

Corruption in schools is not limited to the teachers taking bribes and
directors skimming funds. In 2001 there were large protests against the newly
elected communist regime. One school director interviewed for this research took
part in the protests. At the time of the protests she was an assistant director at a
central lyceum. Positions in schools in central Chisinau are considered plum
assignments because those schools attract students and families with greater
resources and interest in education. According to her, she was transferred to a
school on the outskirts of Chisinau because of her involvement in the protests.
She considers this a punishment because of all of the problems at her new
school. Other protesters who were teachers lost their jobs. Some of these
teachers sued to get their jobs back, but, according to the school director, judges
received phone calls (from whom is not known), admitted to being pressured, and
sided against the teachers. At least one of these teachers now works at a private
school, and an assistant director confirmed the story.

Promoteu, a private school, was also involved in litigation that reached the
European Court of Human Rights. A number of people donated funds to the
school at its founding. According to an assistant director, these donations were
deducted from the donors’ taxes. Some of these donors, a decade later,
considered the donations an investment and wanted to sell the school and take
the profits. According to records downloaded from the Court’s website, the case
reached the court of appeals in Moldova and the school lost the case. The

European Court of Human Rights reversed the decision noting that one of the

136

judges on

expelled.

requeste
Moldova
would re
addition
hatter c
the yea
the dire
refriger;
several
cost-9t
be an i

has a;

judges on the Court of Appeals had had a son at the school. The son had been
expelled, and the father had promised revenge.

In the village of Zaim, a representative from a local cooperative farm
requested the help of students to harvest plums and apples in the fall of 2006. In
Moldova this is not an uncommon occurrence. In return for the work, students
would receive minimal wages plus prizes for those who harvested the most. In
addition, the school would get a new refrigerator and a cash payment. This
matter came before the parents in a school-wide meeting held at the beginning of
the year. The parents approved the arrangement. After the harvest, according to
the director, the collective farm only gave the school partial cash payment and no
refrigerator. According to an assistant director, something similar happened
several years before. Students did receive their compensation. There was no
cost-effective action the school could take to enforce the contract. The fraud may
be an isolated incident, but bringing students to work in the fields is not. The MET

has approved taking student from classes to harvest (Sanduta, 2008).

Deteriorating Conditions of Schools

The physical condition of schools leaves a lot to be desired. In a report
from the MET cartography division, 60% of schools are over 30 years old. Over
40% need some sort of capital repair (Barbarosie, et al., 2008). In the rural
schools I visited for this research there was often some part of the building that
had leaking roofs. In classrooms and gymnasiums, the wooden floors were either

uneven, or warped, and some patched with sheet metal. Windows were often

137

doodle ;
helped
during "

dadloc

00a]

the c

h

but It

double paned, but with thin inexpensive glass in wooden frames that were
warped and ill-fitting. These were stuffed with wool or cotton matting and taped
during the winter. Doors often lacked proper doorknobs and were locked with
padlocks. These too were ill fitting and pieces of rubber were tacked on many
doors to create the friction to hold them closed. Most furniture was in similar
condition. Desks and chairs were often painted multiple times, usually with a
glossy pale blue paint.

Schools lack many basic amenities. In the two largest cities, almost all
schools have running water and are connected to a sewer system; in other areas,
rural and small cities, only 61 % of schools have such plumbing. These schools
have outhouses for both teachers and students. Whether of wood or concrete,
they are little more than holes in floors built over pits. Similarly, only 10% have
running hot water, and 72% have a modern heating system (Barbarosie, et al.,
2008). Regardless of the status of the furnace or source of heat, with the
increase in fuel costs, many schools visited during this research did not have
funds to heat the schools adequately on a regular basis. Heat was not used until
as late in the fall as possible and ended when the coal ran out, or as early as
possible in the spring. In some places, watchmen were hired to guard the piles of
coal on school grounds. The government is installing natural gas lines throughout
the country. Many schools have installed natural gas furnaces, some through the
help of World Bank funded projects; this has ameliorated the situation somewhat,

but with increasing costs of gas, heat is still a problem. Most schools are built

138

from st
state ti
Even I

were (

since
physi
tune
unde
Man]
eligi':
Howl
since

Molt

from stone and are extremely difficult to keep warm. Ventilation was in a worse
state than heating; most schools have no ventilation system other than windows.
Even when schools had light fixtures and a steady electricity source, light fixtures

were often broken and using electricity was discouraged to save money.

Summary If“

1""-1 -

Moldova has experienced de-development (Meurs & Ranasinghe, 2003)
since independence. De—development reflects a decrease in the human and
physical capital of the system. In this chapter I have tried to describe briefly the
current state of schools in Moldova. The buildings need repairs, the teachers are
underpaid, and the schools, because of the facilities, are often uncomfortable.
Many teachers have left the profession. Support for teachers is minimal. They are
eligible for professional development paid for by MET only once every five years.
However well-provisioned the schools were in Soviet time, they have suffered
since independence. In addition to the challenge of reforming the curriculum, the

Moldovan educational system must also rebuild its schools and teacher corps.

139

CHAPTER FIVE: ”STEP BY STEP”: AN INTERNATIONAL
PROGRAM PURSUING THE NATIONAL IDEAL

So far I have discussed the evolution of the Moldovan national school at
the level of national policy. This began with scholarly statements, continued with
the dismantling of the Soviet system, and then the ideas of the national school
were put into law. These ideas included the emphasis on local control, on the
teaching of the country’s history, on Moldovan/Romanian culture, and the
development of independent, creative individuals. In Moldova, the MET does not
have a monopoly on implementing these ideas in Moldovan schools. That is, the
state is not the only developer of a school model that meets the goals of the
national school: teacher autonomy, community involvement and control, and
individualization. Nongovernmental organizations have had an important role to
play.

One of these organizations is The Open Society Institute of Moldova,
which has sponsored the “Step by Step” program, that began as a preschool
program and spawned elementary and middle school programs. This program
became known as “Step by Step” (PCP) and it promotes a set of practices that,
according to its staff, are unique from those found in a standard national school.
However, in the chapter that follows I argue that the philosophy and practices of
the PCP are consistent, regardless of its origins, with the idea of a national
school. In fact, in the areas where PCP claims to be different than the typical
state school are those areas that were strongly promoted as part of the national

school: autonomy, local control, and individualization.

140

 

philosop

Moldova

‘ovnde
Start pr
The ex
and Be
231. o
Chlidr.
books

with

In this chapter I provide a brief overview of the program’s history and
philosophy. I show how its origin is international, similar to many ideas in other
Moldovan documents, and reflects a popular appeal. In the following two
chapters I discuss the teachers and their work in PCP and finally the perspective

of the parents on this program.

History of the Step by Step program in Moldova

The Open Society Institute of Moldova, sponsored by the Soros
Foundation, sponsored a preschool program modeled after the American Head
Start program. In MET documents, the program was at first called “Head Start.”
The experimental program was piloted in schools in two large cities, Chisinau
and Balti; a regional center, Orhei; and a single village beginning in 1994 (Hot.
231, 02.08.94). The original technical support of the program came from
Children’s Resources International, an American organization that wrote several
books about teaching and the developmental characteristics of children and
conducted seminars for participating teachers in Moldova.

The program had a single goal, “T 0 support the process of
democratization of the education systems” of the former Soviet Bloc (Cincilei,
2001, p. 4). Step by Step would accomplish this by introducing alternative
teaching methods that supposedly correspond to the age of the child. These
include active learning, the development in children of critical thinking skills,

communication, and problem solving tasks. Accomplishing these tasks would be

141

realize

Clothe

expar

attenr

set 01

but If

stanr

meet

the

realized with true collaboration with the family (translated and paraphrased,
Cincilei, 2001).

Similar programs started in 1994 in thirteen other FSB countries. In 1999
the various country organizations collaborated to form the International Step by
Step Association (ISSA). The association now includes associations in over 20
countries. Moldovan representatives actively participate in the organization and
attend various conferences in Europe. The scope of work of the organization has
expanded. During the year of this research, the school director of Primavara
attended conferences with other national Step by Step organizations to create a
set of standards for Step by Step schools. This coalition of schools is voluntary,
but the director of Primavara has decided to evaluate her school using the
standards developed by ISSA. In addition, ISSA offers certification of teachers
meeting their standards; several teachers at Primavara have earned them.

In spite of these international origins, the program is not unconnected to
the national policy changes discussed in previous chapters. The MET evaluated
the preschool program in an undated report and concluded that the program is
not an ‘alternative’ program because it conforms to the contents and standards
designed by the government. Despite this or perhaps because of this, in 1996,
the MET approved an expansion of the program into the primary grades
beginning in the first grade (Ordin 288, 16.08.96). According to the national
director of PCP, the expansion was in part due to the request of parents and local

education officials.

142

0]] I9]

progr

Soro

Aso

leve

train

ther

Aco

uni.

incl

This MET decision encouraged the expansion of the program and called
on regional authorities to support those schools wishing to implement the
program. Some of the first schools received the benefit of sponsorship from the
Soros foundation. However, from the beginning of the program’s entry into the
primary grades there were ‘volunteer’ schools that adopted the program without
the support from Soros. The program has since expanded into a middle school. P?

As of the time of this research, the program has not reached the high school

 

level. However, the Open Society Institute of Moldova has operated an in-service
training program called Pro-Didactica for secondary school teachers. In addition
there is a university component teaching teacher candidates about PCP.
According to PCP directors, this coursework has not been successful because
university officials do not support it.

On the original list of schools participating in the primary grades expansion
included some of the more prestigious lyceums in Chisinau. None of these
schools currently use the PCP. According to an assistant director of PCP, they
were not willing to make the commitment, in teacher training or in class
schedules, to adopt the program. The teachers in these schools may have
received PCP training, but the schools have not adopted the program.

In the late 1990’s the World Bank sponsored the Moldovan Social
Investment Fund (FISM), which in turn sponsored the PCP and supported its
expansion. This fund provides matching funds for community projects provided

that the community contributes at least 15% of the project budget with money or

143

 

in-kind donations. The Social Investment Fund also encouraged schools that won
grants through the office to try the PCP. Some schools applied for grants
specifically with the hope of gaining funds for PCP training, others asked for
funds for capital repairs and decided to try PCP. F ISM helped schools with

capital expenditures related to the program’s pedagogy such as purchasing

 

 

I
tables, chairs, and other classroom material.

After initially supporting the program, the government has become more i

'4

critical of it. According to the director of PCP and the director of preuniversity '1

education at the MET, the MET no longer extends its unqualified support to the
program. According to the law of education, parents have a choice as to what
kind of school they want for children, and PCP has the right to provide a choice.
However, according to the director of preuniversity education at the MET, PCP is
not seen as a program for widespread implementation in Moldova. In addition,
previously the MET accepted the training provided by PCP for teacher promotion.
This recognition is under review. According to the PCP national director, the
MET, since the election of the communist government in 2001, has not been
receptive to NGOs working with schools.

Hundreds of schools from across the country adopted the PCP program.
In some schools perhaps a single teacher has attempted to adopt the PCP
methods. In others, the entire elementary cycle has changed. As of 2007, 359
schools use the PCP methodology. This is roughly a fifth of the total number of

schools in Moldova. These figures are only approximate. The PCP directors

144

complain of teachers who then leave the teaching profession to work in other
fields or in other countries after receiving extensive training in PCP. In addition
there are teachers who receive training, teach in a school using PCP, then move
to a school that does not use the program. Regardless of the official figures, PCP
has a significant presence in Moldovan schools

Four centers, two in Chisinau (one of these is the site of my research), one
in the north of the country, and one in the south, offer courses for interested
teachers. Teachers in schools adopting the program attend the courses at no
charge. PCP is beginning to offer courses for a fee to those teachers looking only
for professional development credit. The complete cycle of training consists of
four years of professional development for primary grade teachers. In total,
teachers have nearly 30 days of training consisting of week-long seminars in the
summer and a number of two day seminars through the school year. Topics for
seminars include the promotion of creativity, multiple intelligences, observation
and evaluation, learning styles, two lessons unique to PCP, and a number of
teaching methods. Occasionally, PCP trainers visit implementing schools to
support the teachers.

Gantea (2007) published the results of a survey of teachers conducted by
the Institute for Educational Sciences. The survey contained three sections in
which teachers evaluated their teaching style, their communication style, and
their values. Teachers at two schools in Chisinau and 50 other teachers from

rural areas who were taking part in in-service classes at the Institute of

145

 

Educ
of PE
he s
does
schr
lhar

ado

Educational Sciences participated. The first two sections included a comparison
of PCP trained teachers and the general education teachers. The methodology of
the survey has not been reprinted in any detail. I am not certain of the types of
questions, or how they were analyzed. However, Irina Gantea, a well-known
scholar, concludes that PCP teachers are more democratic and less authoritarian
than general school teachers. She writes, “Teachers from the PCP program have
adopted behavior and actions that are much more favorable to the development
of personality of the child and his education [educatia]” (Gantea, 2007, p. 108).
Regardless of the methodology, this veteran Moldovan scholar essentially
concludes that the PCP teachers are doing a better job, than non-PCP teachers,
implementing democratic principles in education, something promoted in the Law

of Education and the Conception of 1994 (Parlamentul Republicii Moldova, 1994,

1995).

What PCP looks like in Moldovan schools

Walking into a PCP classroom, the difference is immediately obvious.
Students do not stand when an adult enters, as they do at most schools.
Students sit around tables, or in some cases, at desks that are placed to form
groups of four or six students. In most classes, double desks, for two students
each, are arranged in columns and rows. There is usually some sort of easel with
a carpet and benches where the children meet to discuss the morning message
(mesaj), or other topics through the day. Typically, students do not leave their

seats except to answer questions or work at the chalkboard. In PCP schools with

146

 

more resources, there are bookshelves full of children’s books and teacher
resources. In poorer schools, there may be just a handful of books other than the
textbooks. Children’s work is posted on the walls, something rarely seen in non-
PCP schools. In non-PCP schools teachers often stand at the front of the class
and lecture. During a PCP lesson, the teacher walks through the room working

with the class as a whole, with small groups, or with individuals.

0- “In

The primary program has as its origins the preschool program. A typical

 

PCP preschool classroom contains a number of centers with two teachers 9-,
assisting students as they rotate through the centers. This was the model used
by teachers who taught the PCP at the primary level during its first years of
implementation, except they had but one teacher. Teachers told me that they
worked extremely hard to design activities to allow children to work semi-
independently as they rotated through the centers during the course of the day.
This model did not last more than two years.

According to teachers, trainers from America observed the classrooms
and indicated that this was not how they intended the primary grades to be.
Teachers could use centers, but the entire day would not consist of students
moving from center to center. In addition to it being very difficult for the teacher,
the PCP director also noted that the MET would not have accepted such a
model. The director implied this would be too radical a change for the MET. The
PCP national director noted that there was also a pedagogical rationale for

change.

147

This was used in classes, making rotations, something which we later

renounced because it was something that offered little choice for children.

[They worked] in one center or another, there was little consideration of

the rhythm of each child to finish the work. [For each rotation] he needed

to complete the task assigned by the teacher, to make a presentation, and
so on. There was something mechanical in this rotation, something
artificial and we felt it. . . . This put the emphasis on the product made by
the child inside a unit of time, and this was not very good. A teaching
method is not viewed as a value in itself, if so, we loose the principle at the
basis of the program.
Students and teachers were more focused on maintaining the schedule than
exploring the material and content of the center. Current practice in the primary
grades now uses a combination of whole class teaching as well as group and
individual instruction. According to one teacher, centers have become resource
areas where children can access materials and resources needed for their work
(Christina). A combination of influences changed this practice. It seems that the
international consultants discouraged its use, and the PCP staff felt that it was
inadequate as well. Centers are not common in non-PCP schools.

The class schedule approved by the MET differs significantly from the
standard schedule used in non-PCP schools. It was not until 2002 that PCP in
the primary grades received an official schedule approved by the MET; until that
time they worked on their own.29 The PCP schedule includes two classes not
found in other schedules. One is called Activitate de invatamint in grup, Group

study activity. This is often simply called mesaj (message) because it almost

always contains an interactive note from the teacher, which the students

 

2" This comment and the previous comment regarding the use of the unapproved model of PCP
reflects the decreased power of the MET during the time period.

148

complete. The mesaj may include puzzles, word play or games as well as
mathematics problems or other academically related topics. There are always
opportunities for children to complete sentences or problems, make comments,
or correct errors. Usually there is a chance for children to sign up to share
something, akin to show and tell in the U. S. Sometimes children write the mesaj
or lead its discussion.

Teachers have a great deal of flexibility during this class that meets every
day, usually the first lesson of the day. They may choose themes that relate to
subjects covered in other lessons, to review previously taught topics, or its theme
may relate to other aspects of the class. In addition teachers may discuss current
events. According to the class framework from the MET, teachers do have an
obligation to discuss the topics found in the class Educatie morala spirituala
(Moral and spiritual education), a class that is not included in the schedule for
PCP schools.

The second class unique to PCP schools is called activitatea tematica
(thematic activity) and is now called studiu tematica (thematic study). The ‘study’
in the first word makes the activity sound more academic. This class meets for
three lessons a week. For this class, children are allowed to select a topic to
study. Most simply, the teacher solicits suggestions from students and then there
is a vote, with run-offs as needed, to decide on a single topic for study. Some
teachers have a more elaborate selection process that includes having students

justify the importance of their suggestions and the availability of an adequate

149

supply of information. Children write small books, give reports, and presentations
to share what they have learned. In schools with few resources it is very difficult
for teachers to prepare for this class because of the wide range of topics.

The rest of the class time is dedicated to the standard national curriculum
with some modifications. In the elementary grades for example, students typically
have seven lessons of Romanian each week. The PCP schedule allows for only
five lessons per week. All classes are to follow the same PCP philosophy.
Despite the significant differences that may appear between PCP classes and
others, program implementers insist in documents and interviews, that the
teachers at PCP schools teach and fulfill the national curriculum. Fulfilling the
national curriculum is required by law; however, nearly every teacher said the
curriculum is overloaded and extremely difficult to fulfill. Regardless, every
teacher claimed to fulfill the national curriculum. It is nearly impossible to
evaluate this, and the national tests are of no help. In fourth grade there are only
two one-hour tests, one in Romanian and one in mathematics. These do not to

assess the entire curriculum.

The Theoretical Foundations of PCP: Individualism and Teacher
Autonomy

Three aspects of schooling form the core of the PCP. This first is a focus
on the child. PCP claims to use methods that are more appropriate for the
physical, cognitive, social, and emotional needs of children. Children have

opportunities to express their feelings and ideas. They have the opportunity to

150

work individually or in groups and participate in active learning through games
and discovery. Second concerns the teacher. Teachers allow for the individual
development of a child and to take into consideration the developmental
characteristics of children whom they teach; this gives teachers substantial
freedom and authority in classroom management and lesson design. The teacher
allows children some say in determining what and how they study. And the
teacher works with parents to support the student. Third is the partnership with
families and the community. In the literature from the PCP, this partnership
focuses on educational aspects. Parents are welcome to come to observe the
classrooms and work with children regarding any expertise or experience they

may have (Cincilei, 2001; Cincilei 8 Focsa-Seminov, 2001).

An eclectic theoretical basis

The program has an eclectic theoretical base. It claims numerous
psychologists and pedagogues as theoretical contributors. Among them are Jean
Piaget, Erik Erickson, Lev Vigotski, John Dewey, Carl Rogers, Ovide Decroly,
and Howard Gardner. From each, the program has taken specific ideas regarding
teaching and child development. The brief descriptions come from the cited text,
which describes a few of the scholars’ ideas that have influenced the PCP
program.

PCP claims to put the curriculum in a more coherent sequence to help
children understand the concepts more completely. This is based on the theories

of Piaget and Vygotsky. Jean Piaget constructed the idea of cognitive

151

development through stages, but acknowledged that the rate at which children
pass through these stages is unique for each child. Children develop mental
structures or schema, which influence the assimilation of new information.
Learning is a tension between adaptation and assimilation as the child changes
his schema to understand new information (translated and praphrased, Cincilei 8
Focsa-Seminov, 2001). Lev Vigotski studied learning and the zone of proximal
development. In addition he theorized that children learn in social contexts and
the information is learned depending on its relevance and complexity (translated
and paraphrased, Cincilei 8 Focsa-Seminov, 2001). The Soviet-era curriculum,
according to critics, consisted of a list of information to be learned that were often
disconnected from each other.

PCP claims that the school should be integrated with society. This is
based on the ideas of Erikson and Dewey. Erik Erikson researched a child’s
learning and integration into the surrounding society. A person passes through
eight stages of self-awareness and social integration. Children learn cumulatively
as they pass through the stages (translated and paraphrased, Cincilei 8 Focsa-
Seminov, 2001). In manuals published for the PCP, there are long lists of
developmental characteristics of children at different ages. John Dewey
suggested that “education is a development in, through, and for experience.”
Learning comes through reorganizing the experience in ways we understand.
Experience is important for learning and students should not be limited to the

classroom (translated and paraphrased, Cincilei 8 Focsa-Seminov, 2001). These

152

 

are ideas that Dewey praised in the earlier years of the Soviet Union, but are now
seen as something very different than what was found in Soviet schools. PCP
emphasizes parent involvement in the classroom and well as making connection
between the children’s lives and the content to be learned. Soviet manuals made
the same claims, but few now suggest that this actually took place.

Soviet-era schools were said to be very teacher centered. PCP has tried
to change this to allow children some voice in their learning. Carl Rogers
suggested that learning cannot be directive; a teacher can only guide the process
of Ieaming. Learning should be significant, personal, and self directed.
“Democracy presupposes that education [invatamint] must help children become
individuals capable of initiative and who are able to assume responsibility . . . and
can adapt when the situations change” (translated and paraphrased, Cincilei 8
Focsa-Seminov, 2001, p. 37). As noted above, during the studiu thematic,
children are given the opportunity to guide, to a certain degree, their own
learning.

In contrast to what took place in Soviet schools, PCP attempts to create a
child friendly school. Ovide Decroly thought that children must be viewed in their
natural and social environment. Children should have opportunities to feel, think,
work, and express themselves. Topics of study should be more holistic, not
broken into disciplines, but objects of study to be investigated through various
perspectives (translated and paraphrased, Cincilei 8 Focsa-Seminov, 2001, pp.

37-38). By placing students into groups, PCP teachers attempt to create a more

153

soda
certa
desc

5pr

dete
leac

para

done
such

men

sent
to CI
expi
lives

that

social environment in which students can work, and teachers do encourage, to a
certain degree, their students to express their ideas, at least orally. In
descriptions of the PCP, and during interviews, teachers promote a holistic
approach to learning. I seldom saw this take place in the classes I observed.

Howard Gardner proposed that each person has different ways that
determine how he assimilates information and expresses it. Any uniform style of
teaching would be insufficient to reach all the varieties of children (translated and
paraphrased, Cincilei 8 Focsa-Seminov, 2001, pp. 3839). Regarding this theory,
the Soviet school system, combined with the after school programs, might have
done an exemplary job in introducing children to various aspects of intelligence
such as music, dancing, writing, ecology. But, because of economic problems,
many of these activities no longer receive funding.

In literature describing the program and in interviews the influence of these
scholars is clear. The program, according to teachers and administrators, strives
to create a school in which children can develop at their own pace, that is
experiential, that involves parents and the community, and that is relevant to the
lives and interests of children. How Primavara teachers put these ideas into
practice is the topic of the next chapter.

Numerous times I heard the phrase “child-centered” at the school. I also
heard and saw a number of definitions of this term including: “The child is
responsible for his learning,” “The child guides instruction,” “the child is active,”

“The child and the teacher bring information.” The PCP national director accepted

154

 

all of these interpretations, but considered it impossible to define the term

absolutely. According to the national PCP director:

Each teacher individually must find the balance [between what the child
wants and what the teacher must teach], to feel it. There are not any
specific recipes, in choosing a theory ready for every situation, sometimes
the selected material must be abandoned, but everything depends on how
to combine this with what the child already knows, so it not too challenging E
and children give up. '

This is the challenge for any teacher, and the director has doubts about the ability

 

of many teachers to meet this challenge. -'

For all children, yes [it is a good program]. If we talk of all teachers, . . . we
indirectly say that not all teachers are sufficiently creative, sufficiently
reflective, sufficiently responsible, . . . because a dedicated teacher by
definition is a creative person, willing to continue to learn, if he does not
have these qualities, then surely, it is easier for him to have a predefined
program, then he is not a good teacher. Then when we pose the question
if the program is suitable for all creative, responsible teachers, I would say
yes. But we refer to those who are left after the huge departure of good
teachers, I cannot say yes. It is difficult to effect a change, you cannot
force them to move forward, and that means we cannot move forward.

The relationship between PCP and the MET

PCP variation from the standard curriculum has caused some tension with
the MET. Earlier, in 1997 the MET had encouraged the expansion of PCP and
directed regional officials to support its expansion. But in the fall of 2006 the
director30 of preuniversity education, when asked if more schools should adopt

PCP told me, “No, the state program, I consider is a good one, at least it is more

 

30 This official also said that teachers’ salaries are adequate, and that the differing amounts of
money that schools could collect from their respective communities would not result in differing
educational opportunities.

155

transparent for the whole country and for parents, Step by Step is good, but there
are many questions for us currently. . . The lack of student evaluation [referring to
the lack of number grades] at the end of the elementary level. And there are
others.” In an interview in the spring of 2008, the director continued her critique of
the program. Despite having a presence in nearly one-fifth of the schools in the
country the director, when asked if the program had influenced education in
Moldova, responded, “I do not think so, categorically I do not think so.” She
continued with her opinion that the program had many problems, again referring
to the lack of numerical grades. In addition she mentioned that program lacked
continuity, despite advancing into the gymnasium level. Finally she said that PCP
“will never be a very widespread program in Moldova.”

In another interview with the national director of PCP, the director
mentioned that the relationship between PCP and the MET had been better in
the early years of the program. The deterioration of that relationship she dates to
the election of the communist government. For example, the professional
development classes that the PCP offers had been valid for in-service credit to
renew a teaching license. At the time of data collection, however, that status was

under reconsideration.

Summary

The presence of the PCP in Moldova does create an alternative to the
MET and other official educational authorities. The PCP articulates a philosophy

and a set of practices that contrasts with what takes place in most schools in

156

Moldova, but in a way that is consistent with the ideas found in many MET
documents. The philosophy of the PCP is based on some of the same scholars
whose names are mentioned in the national curriculum of 1998. It emphasizes
the development of the individual, it involves the parents and the wider

community, and it is connected with other schools in other countries.

 

I

The PCP is an eclectic program containing educational ideas discussed
around the world. It is an international program that is both connected to schools -
in other countries yet it also fulfills the national curriculum. It is child-centered; it are,

claims to take into consideration the cognitive and physical development of the
child in the lesson and activity design. It teaches children to think for themselves
and promotes the individual. For teachers it is a way to connect with other
schools and an international education community. Through its long-term
professional development, the PCP provides a great deal of support, in terms of
methodology, to teachers. All of this makes it an attractive program for teachers

and parents.

157

CHAPTER SIX: PRIMAVARA: A SCHOOL REACHING FOR THE
NATIONAL IDEAL

In chapter three I described the laws and the policies that promoted a
national Moldovan school. In chapter four I discussed the daunting financial and
societal problems challenging schools. Despite vague policies and financial
problems, schools continue to operate. In chapter five I described the philosophy
of PCP. In PCP schools, it is up to teachers and school directors to put word into
action and fulfill both national policy and the PCP philosophy. As I will show in
this chapter, the teachers at Primavara attempted to do this and in the process

created a unique school in Moldova.

Primavara School
ScoaIa-gradinita Prima vara “Pas cu Pas” Centru Educational Didactic is

located in Botanica, a sector of Chisinau named for the botanic gardens located
there. Surrounding the campus are three and five story apartment buildings. They
are typical Soviet-era apartment buildings with inconsistent repairs that make
them look bedraggled. In one long building, retail stores occupy the ground floor.
The store fronts face the street and away from the school, only the service
entrances are visible. A heating main covered with insulation and plaster runs
above ground along one side of the school grounds just outside the fence. Many
trees and bushes grow on the school grounds. Gardens with flowers and bushes
surround the school with a few benches along asphalt paths circling the school
and leading to various entrances. On the north side there is a small play area

with a field and two undersized soccer goals, a few benches, and a small brick

158

.3 ’.'I ~"‘~‘

castle. Nowhere is there grass except in remote corners; the area is muddy and
unused during rain. The area reserved for the kindergarten classes has age-
appropriate play equipment. On the south side of the school, not often used by
children, there is the furnace outhouse, an abandoned car, and uncut grass
among the trees. A fence encircles the campus.

The school is made of limestone blocks; mortar is visible because the
walls are unfinished, a common state for Moldovan schools. On the second floor,
on the sides of the building are mosaics of characters from children’s stories.
Some of them are complete; others are not. Ivy grows extensively covering a few
walls of the building.

When the school opened in 1999 the building needed a great deal of
repairs. According to the director, the roof leaked, windows were drafty, and
doors were missing. Over the nine year life of the school the school has received
many improvements. There are new windows, new flooring, new furniture, roof
repairs, doors, and teaching supplies. This has been accomplished primarily from
parent funds. In addition, many parents contribute to the school on an ad hoc
basis; some of this is in-kind contribution. This may include furniture, teaching
materials, or a transmitter for the school radio broadcasts.

Walking through the school for the first time is a challenging experience.
The main entryway is built around an old window. It is a new addition to the
building, new since the opening of the school. Often a couple of students stand at

the door greeting people as they enter or exit. These students are from the class

159

 

that has serviciu, service, and are to monitor their colleagues as well as greet
visitors. From the entryway one can progress straight and descend a few uneven
stairs, past a couple of classrooms, and then into one of the two story pods.
Taking a left from the entryway one goes down a dark narrow hallway,
similar in width to what one would find in a private residence, and quite crowded
when classes are passing, and past three administrative offices on the right. On

the left is the kitchen and the dining area, called a polyvalent room where 5

 

activities such as Christmas skits take place in addition to the daily use as a to
cafeteria. Past the offices and the polyvalent room is a hall to the left and one
straight ahead. This area is filled with plants and is well lighted due to the large
picture windows lining the halls. A student recently broke one of the windows; the
glass is not tempered and is fragile. Going straight, one passes the music room,
containing a piano and small risers for students, and the sale sportiva, a long
classroom with faux wood flooring; two elephant ropes hang from the 8 foot
ceiling, and netting protects the new windows. Continuing along the hallway one
enters another pod with classrooms upstairs, and a conference room and science
classroom downstairs. Science classes do not often meet in this room, but there
are some science materials such as burners in this room. After school groups
meet here.

Going left at the polyvalent hall brings one down another hallway with plants
and glass on both sides. On the left one looks into the polyvalent room; looking

right one see a small garden with two wading pools that have been filled in with

160

dirt and planted with flowers. Past the polyvalent hall one can go straight down a
ramp or down some stairs. The ramp is for a handicapped student, recently
installed. This pod contains the kindergarten rooms with dormitories for naptime
and classrooms. Before the ramp, taking a left, one goes down another dark hall.
This is especially dark after the sunset; it is not possible to see doors without the
lights, which are often off. On the right are offices for the nurse and the
accountant. There is sometimes a crowd here of parents waiting to pay the
monthly tuition. On the left is a short hall into the kitchen that also contains newly
renovated bathrooms for boys and girls. Continuing, one climbs three steps,
uneven and quite high for an elementary school. From there one can go upstairs
to the library, computer room and a classroom, or downstairs to a couple of
classrooms.

Because of the orientation of the building and the pods, some classrooms
have a great deal of sunlight requiring the teacher to cover the windows with
paper, while others get very little light and they stay somewhat cooler. In all
classrooms there are three windows along two sides of the room. Some classes
are quite cramped for the 25 students. Smaller classrooms are only 8 meters on
a side. Other classrooms are 8 meters by 10 meters. Many classrooms have
bathrooms, often shared with another class. Children bring towels for hand
washing and there are hooks on which to hang them.

Plants are plentiful in the school. They line the hallways that are lined with

windows. Between two and three dozen of them fill each classroom except the

161

 

classrooms for music and physical education and the smaller rooms. There is a
small flowerbed below one of the stairways in one of the pods. Even in the
classrooms, some of the pots are as big as five and ten gallons.

The classrooms appear haphazard in their construction. The floors are
sometimes carpeted, with carpet simply rolled out over wood or a vinyl covering.
Other classrooms have faux stone or wood vinyl flooring. In places there are
holes in the vinyl, seeming to indicate a hole in whatever flooring is underneath.
The floors and the walls are seldom true, even or level. In some rooms, vinyl
framed windows have replaced the wood framed windows. In other rooms, old
double, wood framed windows are still present. In the latter case, the edges of
the windows are taped in the winter to prevent drafts. The MET issues an order
to do so every year.

Heat seems to be plentiful once the boiler is lit, even in classrooms on the
north side. Primavara has a private gas fired boiler, something advertised in its
brochure, that keeps the school comfortable. At times teachers open their
windows to cool off the rooms. Before the boiler is lit, it can get quite cold.
Officially, heat is not turned on until there are three successive days with highs of
8 degrees Celsius or lower. Most schools and apartments do not have
autonomous furnaces and are dependent on centralized agencies to turn on and
off heat and to set the temperature. Often this is not respected, because it gets
very cold in the stone schools, and there is likely some political pressure to start

heating schools and apartments. There are small grates in walls indicating the

162

 

exhaust vent. In some classes these vents are covered with wallpaper.
Regardless, the classrooms become very stuffy very quickly with 25 students in
each.

All the rooms have tables at which the students sit and work. Each room
has a covor (rug) around which the class periodically meets through the day.
Every room has an easel near the covor on which the mesaj (morning message)

is hung. Almost all classes have benches around the covor. Most do not have I

 

enough benches for all of the students to sit, in that case, students bring chairs to
the covor. The tables are often trapezoidal in shape, and two are placed together
to form a hexagon. Sometimes there is a small round table or a square table for a
few students.

Teachers often have small round or square tables at which they work. Only
one has a desk. They often have a bookshelf next to the table with books and
other teaching materials.

Every room has the names of academic disciplines written on the walls in
some fashion, one has them embroidered. Children’s work is hung on the walls
around the names of the disciplines.

In each room there is also a chalkboard. All the chalkboards have been
replaced since Soviet times, something that is not always the case in other
schools. There is also a small library with children’s books, and some resources
such as dictionaries and encyclopedias. Some class libraries contain several

hundred books.

163

By American standards the school looks shabby. The unfinished stonework,
the uneven floors and stairs, the dark hallways, and the lights askew give the
feeling that the building was not quite finished. Compared to other schools in
Moldova, Primavara is very nice.

The school is open from 8:00 in the morning to 6:00 in the evening.
Lessons begin officially at 8:30 and children have five or six lessons a day (45
minute lessons with breaks of 10-15 minutes between each). Many children often
come to school before 8:00 to socialize and work on the mesaj (discussed
below). After school, students have the option of participating in a study hall and
various after school activities called cercuri, circles. These include classes or
clubs focusing on English, music, chess, dance, newspaper, and rhetoric.

Primavara Compared to Other Schools Following the National
Curriculum

In the contract of the parent association, and as stated by numerous
teachers and directors of PCP, PCP teachers teach the same national curriculum
as all other schools in the country. However, if curriculum includes all the
methods of teaching and educational activities that contribute to the development
of a student (Paslaru, 2007), then Primavara provides something more, or at
least different, than the national curriculum. Even the lesson schedule of PCP,
approved by the MET, provides for a variety of activities that would not be
included in the national curriculum. To say that PCP teaches the same curriculum

as the standard national curriculum is inaccurate.

164

 

T" -.I

'1!" 1

 

PCP differs, from other schools, precisely in the implementation of ideas
that educational policy promoted as part of a national school, namely teacher
autonomy, parent involvement, individualization, and the development of a
unique person able to express himself or herself. One teacher put it this way

I say [a student in PCP] will do the same things that children in other
schools do, but will do something more. They will learn to work in groups,
to work in pairs. They will try to choose a theme of study through which
they will develop, which will expand their skills and knowledge, in addition,
[they] will learn to make a decision and argue to support the idea.

(Tatiana)

According to the teachers, these students at the end of elementary school should
have a different set of skills compared to children attending other schools.
Repeatedly teachers at Primavara and at other schools told me that the children
at PCP schools learn to express themselves and become more capable to adapt
or resolve problems, parents and the municipal inspector also noted that children

at PCP develop communication and reasoning skills not developed at other

schools.

The municipal inspector of elementary schools described PCP and
compared the program to that found in other schools:

I look at the competitions, at the exams, [students at PCP] have
more skills, [they can] do something with information. . . Other lyceums are
focused more on information. It is more superficial, for those who work
more with information, traditionally, it is easier to solve the tasks that are
proposed for the competitions, the evaluations, the exams, the final
evaluations that are proposed by the ministry, because those are the
expectations of the ministry and they work in that style. They consider it
better, those from other lyceums. Recently some teachers from Step by
Step have worked more with information and they have taken a few places
[in competitions].

165

 

 

The Step by Step program is very good, because children feel free,
there is more democracy in the class, freedom to choose a book for which
there is a need. They have a library in the class; that is good. The child at
any time may refer to the textbook, dictionary. There is a better connection
with parents, at home they always have to search, they have searching
tasks, something to do and bring to school. Children at other schools have
more problems, exercises to do, to read literature.
Schools that do perform well in the competitions and tests are proud of the
accomplishment. They use such recognition to legitimize their work. In interviews
with directors and teachers of other schools, they often pointed out the
performance of their students in academic competions.

The superintendent of the sector praised the Primavara and its students.
He compared a discussion he saw in second grade at Primavara with what he
saw at the ninth grade at other schools. He was aware that Primavara does not
have many students in the municipal competitions and blames it on the old
system of evlauation based on assessing the amount of information memorized,
”This does not denigrate their preparation; change the method of evaluation then
they would take first place, many places, and the others would take fewer.”
Without changing the system of evaluation, he is not optimistic about change in
schools,”The system of evaluation dictates the need for change, because in the
old system they [the other schools] get results, tell me, what is the point in
changing?” PCP has made those changes.

Other complications make the implementation or fulfillment of the national

curriculum difficult. Despite the revision and “decongestion” of the curriculum in

2005, which removed some of the objectives to be taught, with one exception,

166

 

-. 2‘59“).
"is... -.J‘

 

 

every teacher told me that the curriculum is too large for the time allowed. For
PCP teachers this problem was compounded because of the class schedule.
Compared to the standard curriculum, PCP students have fewer language
classes. A typical elementary student would have seven or eight lessons of
Romanian each week, the PCP student have only five. Instead, PCP students
have five lessons of mesaj and three lessons of studiu tematica each week. The

PCP student also have more lessons per week, ranging from 23 to 26 depending

 

on the grade level compared to 20-23 lessons in the standard curriculum. Only r;
one PCP teacher suggested that she takes shortcuts to get through the
curriculum. Admitting to shorting the national curriculum would be akin to
admitting to not doing their job. Several said they use the mesaj lessons to make
up the needed time. Occasionally teachers would forego the mesaj and use the
lesson to teach another academic topic. One justification for this was the
upcoming national exams in the spring; another was the need for a more
extended length of time to study a topic.

The differences between the practices of PCP and the practices in other
schools, as told by the inspector, superintendent, teachers, and directors, make
the PCP more consistent with the goals of national school. The mesaj allows the
teacher some autonomy and promotes a positive relationship between student
and teacher. The studiu thematic affords students some possibility to guide their

own learning. The more active methods give children a chance to socialize in

167

 

class. r

promo

SIUdE

was r
the
sch:
to S
ang
hor

VQI

class, collaborate with peers, and express their ideas. All of these are goals

promoted at the national level.

Continuity in the Face of Change
Student writing in the context of earlier practice
PCP teaching was not entirely innovative; that is, not everything they did

was new. The theme of fall was prevalent in the school during the fall of 2007.
What is striking is the similarity among the classes. In fact I saw it in several
schools at multiple elementary grade levels. The content of these lessons dates
to Soviet times. In 1984 a mother wrote a letter to a Soviet periodical; she was
angry that her son had to compose a memorized composition. That is, the child’s
homework was to write a composition, but his teachers had told him what to write
verbatim. She lived in Moscow and the letter includes the composition.

The golden autumn has come. The leaves on the trees have turned

yellow. It's rainy. It has gotten colder. People and animals are

preparing for winter. (Vanina, 1984)
In Primavara in the fall of 2007, I read and heard very similar ideas in discussions
about autumn and the ‘signs of fall.’ In a fourth grade class there is mention of
the golden fall, which is a common phrase in Moldova. The students then
mentioned leaves turning color and falling, “animals gather provisions for winter,”
“there is sadness and joy because birds have left and it is pleasing because I
know that spring will come.” “It is sad because leaves fall and animals prepare for
what is coming.” In a third grade class I heard similar ideas. The teacher asks,

“how do you feel when the birds leave” and a student responds, “Sad, but with

168

 

 

hope because they return in the spring.” Various parts of this script appeared in
other classes through the fall. Whether this is part of the cultural norms, it is clear
that there is not a promotion of creative responses to this theme.

Fall was pervasive. Even in a seminar for PCP, one of my interviewees
expressed frustration that so many teachers from around the country felt that
they needed to start the mesaj with something about the fall. In nearly every
school I visited there were displays made from natural materials: fruits,
vegetables, seeds, grass, grains. Students participated in competitions and made
heads from squash or eggplant, a little house from grass and sticks, an image of
a bird or a tree with seeds. To a lesser degree the repetition occurred around
Christmas, but not at other times of the year.

Regardless of the topic, writing was not a large component of the
curriculum. Some of the writing, written by hand, that students brought to class as
part of their homework was often copied from other sources. Teachers explained
that it was often selected from other sources, or copied outright. Teachers
accepted this. They also acknowledged that it would be better for students to
write their own material or write in their own words, but they did not expect this of
their students. To add some intellectual activity to the exercise, one teacher said
that the students had to justify why they chose the texts they did.

In the fourth grade portfolios, there were very few samples of writing. They
did write, but it was usually restricted to the 45 minute time period and usually

short. For the national tests in Romanian, with a duration of only 60 minutes,

169

 

 

there is not very much time to construct an extensive composition. In the 2006
test, the most extensive writing task called for the students to write “four
sentences about your friend.” This was somewhat related to the text on which the
test was based. A typical writing sample is similar to this one from a fourth grade
science class with the assignment of “About what does the large oak talk with the
small grass?”:

They discuss the most useful medicinal plant, chamomile.

-What do you think, is the chamomile near your blades useful?

-Certainly it is, from the flower one prepares tea which is good for colds.
-And the nettle?

-The nettle is a very useful plant, it you kick with your foot, you will have

hives, but in exchange your cold passes. Some children don’t know
this, said the oak

-That’s too bad, If he knew how useful it is, he would not be afraid of this

medicinal plant.
Several students worked on this in a group setting. This assignment was not very
different than other writing topics in other classes such as “create a legend about
a smile,” or “create a dialogue between two leaves.” Another class of fourth grade
students was to write about their places of birth. For most this was the city of
Chisinau. Of the four children who read their compositions in front of the class,
none of them mentioned a personal experience about living in Chisinau. There
were some empty comments such there are “many institutions” and many roads
that are not “voluminous.”

Students do write more for their studiu tematic, but that suffers from the

same copying issue mentioned above. Homework can be more expressive of the

170

 

 

 

individual. But writing homework assignments are still very short with just 6-8

sentences.

Mathematics in the context of earlier practice

Other activities I saw at Primavara date from Soviet times. As part of the
mesa] the teacher often asked the students to analyze the date. Typical
responses included whether the number was odd or even, prime or composite,
mentioning its factors, mentioning the digit in the ones column or the tens
column, the preceding and succeeding number. Teachers created arithmetic
problems from the two digits of the date. I found similar activities in mathematics
teacher guides in Soviet times.

Furthermore, in mathematics classes in addition to emphasis on oral
calculation, there is a habit of reading mathematics expressions in different ways
and having children calculate the values. For example, the expression (5+2)-
(2+1) might be read “five plus two minus the sum 2 plus one” or it could be read
“the difference between the sums 5 and 2 and 2 and one.” Some of these
activities became quite elaborate with extensive use of the genitive case.

I saw a variety of mathematics activities through the school. In several
classes I saw children use blocks of unifix cubes to represent numbers and
relationships. There was a strong emphasis on learning algorithms and cue
words that indicate the necessary operations. In a fourth grade class a teacher
begins:

Teacher: I am thinking of a number. If I increase it by 2,002 I get 12,002.

171

 

 

Student: 10,000

Teacher: How do you know?

Student: We find the unknown terms through subtraction.

This response was acceptable to the teacher. Another teacher was going over
word problems and the cue words such as “’by how much’ means addition or
subtraction, ‘by how many times’ indicates multiplication or division.” There is a
tendency to rely on algorithms and cues in nearly every class.

There were a couple of exceptions to this as well. A first grade class was
measuring the volume of their backpacks using non-standard measures. The
measured the dimensions using unifix cubes, and then measured the volumes by
the number of notebooks they could hold. Another teacher mentioned studying
bees across the curriculum, writing about them, reading about them, and
discussing the geometry of the comb. She complained that the curriculum does
not allow the flexibility to do this very often.

The school director made it clear that it did not matter when the ideas
appeared, but how they were used. “They talk of traditional and nontraditional
methods,” the director says, “traditional methods can be transformed into
nontraditional. What matters is the child and finding a method that fits him or her.”

Despite the use of practices that might have been used in Soviet times,
the context of these practices has changed dramatically. In the analysis of
numbers, for example, those numbers would have a different meaning when the

students are gathered in a circle reading the mesaj that a colleague wrote

compared to numbers out of the textbook. This type of familiarity and

172

socialization would not have happened in Soviet times according to teachers
interviewed. If the writing classes and the mathematics classes reveal the
shortcomings in achieving the national goals they also may reveal strong cultural
traits such as the significance of fall in a very rural country and the emphasis on

oral language over written language.

Nationalism: history and culture at odds with the current government

Despite the emphasis on history and national values in the early stages of
school reform, children do not study history very much at the elementary level.
Only fourth grade students have history class, which meets only once a week.
The text was History of the Romanians and focused on Romania from its earliest
to its more recent history. History teachers in general followed the curriculum
using the textbook.

A new “integrated history” textbook was released at the spring of 2008.
The communist government had published a new series of textbooks using an
approach called integrated history. This started as an attempt, supported by the
European Union, to place the history of Moldova in the context of modern
Europe. The communist government used the opportunity to rewrite textbooks
that portrayed its Soviet past in more positive light. Teachers at Primavara
criticized the fourth grade book for its lack of substance and in general poor
quality. Because of the autonomy granted to teachers, they were not obligated to
use the new text. Teachers in poorer schools may not have this option; with

limited funds there may not be money to purchase other materials.

173

 

 

 

Despite the minimal time given to history in the school, there were many

opportunities to discuss Moldovan culture. Each class had a Christmas skit
based on Romanian tradition. The Romanian language course included many
Moldovan/Romanian authors. During mesaj, described below, teachers
discussed topics such as the national and city holidays. The teachers’ choir
participated in competitions in Romanian and hosted a Romanian choir in
Chisinau. Students had participated in an exchange with Romanian students as
well-

Although the nationality is still debated in Moldova, at Primavara, there
was a definite pro-Romanian perspective. There was no public advocacy for
Union with Romania, but the faculty promoted Romanian traditions. Importantly,
the school did not celebrate some of the Slavic holidays that the government and
other schools celebrated. It is a relatively simple matter to allow minority groups,
Such as Bulgarians and Gagauzians, to celebrate their traditions and holidays.
BUt there is no consensus about the origins of Moldovan culture. With Moldova’s
hiSto rical, linguistic, and familial ties with Romania, countered by Soviet efforts to

diStance Moldova from Romania, the debate about nationality will likely continue.

Autonomy at the Classroom Level for Teachers and Students

Even though the PCP policy is to fulfill the national curriculum, the
e"(IJeriences of children at the school are different from other schools. There are

dlfierent expectations for students and for teachers at the school. In the next

174

 

section, I show the experiences of teachers and children in two of the classes

unique to PCP.

Mesa] and studiu thematic

The mesaj lesson begins the day in every class. It is formally called Group
Learning Activity but is referred to as ‘mesaj (message) because of its primary
activity. It is a 45 minute lesson like others and is named after the message to the
class that students read. This is an interactive text, sometimes authored by
students. It may include a variety of activities and usually has some interactive
CO m ponent: sign up to share, proofreading, or completing a puzzle. Children
Often work on the mesaj before the first bell. Teachers have a great deal of
latitude in the content of these lessons; there is no written curriculum. Teachers
decide what to teach based on their individual evaluation of the class.

A young teacher, reflecting on a mesaj lesson just before ‘City Day’

described her mesaj design this way:

Ala: The goal of the mesaj was, mainly, to remember information about
our city, because in two days it will be the city holiday and I wanted mostly
to recall some information. What are the symbols? the history? We also
learned of the country’s symbols [and] of the symbols of the city. Also,

there are objectives that are always part of the mesaj: to form sentences
correctly, and to express the child’s idea.

Researcher: Where are the goals, where are they written?

Ala: I write the goals myself.

Researcher: And the other teachers?

Ala: The other teachers, each teacher formulates specific goals for the
mesaj. It depends on the theme of the mesaj. . . For example, yesterday I

175

focused more on mathematics. I had a game, mathematics exercises.

When I see that the children lack, or do not understand something, or do
not understand well, we review using the mesaj.

The mesaj also at times involved affective goals. A second grade teacher,
Tatiana, started the. day with a chair in the middle of the carpet and asked

chi Id ren to sit in the chair and tell why they smiled. Children enthusiastically
dashed for the chair, trying to get there before others and very quickly stated their
reasons, often without smiling. Reasons included: a mother’s birthday, completed
homework, a father or mother coming home. When asked about how she chose
this theme, she mentioned walking down the road thinking of her problems (her
father died during the school year) and a person smiled at her making her feel
better. Having noticed that the students returned from the fall vacation a little sad,
She decided to discuss smiling and how students could encourage others. In
addition to this affective exercise, students did proofread during this time, made
Corrections, and pointed out diphthongs.

Tatiana then divided the class into four groups, using a strategy suggested
by the students, and gave each group one of the following tasks: 1) Why do
pE’OFJIe smile? create a list. 2) Write a story about a smile, illustrate the text. 3)
Start a list of strategies to raise the mood of a sad person. 4) Answer the
cIL‘li‘S-tion: “What would happen if the smile did not exist?” Each group completed

the assigned tasks and shared their results.
The studiu tematic lesson is not as varied as the mesaj; it generally

CODtains an academic focus in process if not in topic. The class proposes topics

176

 

and then votes to select a single topic for study. A couple of teachers were
becoming more adventurous and allowing two or three topics for study by
different students or groups of students simultaneously. In younger grades,
children often choose to study animals, in older grades they have studied topics
su ch as ancient Egypt, modes of transport, professions, and dinosaurs. Students
also choose how to present what they have learned as well. Very popular
recently were small booklets and posters.
The teachers justify the activity by arguing that the studiu tematic does
meet the objectives of the national curriculum.
You see, we have something specific to the program, that is, the thematic
unit, which we study only in the program. When we study cars, we fulfill
many curricular objectives, from Romanian, and from science, and from
mathematics, and from art, and from computers; it is an integrated study.
[The curriculum] does not list cars, . . . We must know specific drawing
techniques, we must know to use new words. Through the medium of a
unit that interests [the students] we improve other [skills]. (Ramona)
But the very fact that students can choose the topic of study creates a very
U n ique dynamic in the classroom. School, for these children, is not only about
Studying topics from a list generated by the MET, rather, the children are involved
in What is learned as well as how it is learned.
Studiu tematic was the most obvious expression of democracy in the
Class room. Teachers, at least in their rhetoric, actively promoted democracy and
Student expression. This was a common theme when I asked teachers why PCP

IS a good program for Moldova. Students had the opportunity to define, not just

influence, a part of the educational process. They suggested topics, justified the

177

 

suggestions, and voted on them. A more elaborate process took place in a third
grade class that had complained about the fairness. This involved listing topics
on an easel then, with the list facing away form the students, each student went
behind the easel to place a vote for the desired topic.

Several teachers had the students justify what they chose for the unit’s
theme. This was part of a second idea that nearly all teachers mention; students
learn to justify and present arguments in support of their opinions. I saw this take
place in a fourth grade class. The teacher had three criteria for choosing a topic.
1 ) Why this topic is necessary? 2) What are the conditions of the unit? and 3)
How will we proceed? During my observation, students chose plants as a topic.
They thought it necessary so that in case they were injured in the forest they
Cou Id treat themselves using medicinal plants. This unit also took place in the
SD ring, and it is important to learn how to plant a garden. The end result would be
the knowledge they would gain about plants. For three, they suggested that they
COU Id visit the botanical gardens, create a terrarium, they could plant a garden.
The teacher suggested that ‘plants’ was too general and children suggested
narrower topics such as medicinal plants, house plants, and garden plants. This
pro] ect did go forward, and the students, like all other classes, had a small plot

"ear the school in which they cultivated various plants.

For the love of learning: motivating students without grades

Children at PCP do not receive grades. The emphasis, according to PCP,

Should be on the natural curiosity of the student, not the attainment of grades.

178

 

This is not a new idea in the former Soviet Union. In the movement of Pedagogy
of Cooperation dating from perestroika, teachers proposed not using grades at
the elementary level. In the curriculum from 1992, both the moral-civil education
course and the history course were to be ungraded. According to the director of
PC P, MET at one point discussed the idea of foregoing grades at the elementary
Ieve l.

Although the teachers at Primavara do not give out grades, there Is some
confusion as to what replaces them. The prohibition of number grades was to
avoid comparison among students, to avoid the connotations carried by the
nu mbers, to promote intrinsic motivation, and to focus on what the child has
learned and can do instead of on the evaluation. In some cases students
received words in their agendas such as “excellent,” “good job,”’ or for younger
students a symbol. None of the teachers could explain how excellent is any
different than giving a ten or how a “bine”is different than an eight or nine. One
YOUng teacher could not tell me why the PCP program does not allow number
grad es. More experienced teachers knew the philosophy and sometimes wrote
Observations about student behavior and performance in class. They wrote what
the Student did, recited a poem from memory or solved math problems correctly.

The key is to write an observation not an evaluation. This is an important topic

and a half-day of training was dedicated to it during a PCP teacher in-service

sel'hinar.

179

 

 

At times, at the end of a lesson, students would eagerly bring their
agendas to the teacher for notation. This is not different than what I saw in other
schools not using PCP. Even after the classmates gave an oral evaluation of a
student’s performance, some students still wanted the written evaluation from the
teacher. These were students who spent their entire elementary tenure in this

school, it was not learned behavior from different schools.

The school did have an inspection of the students’ agendas. An assistant
director looked through them and wrote a two page report about what she found.
Some teachers received public admonishment for writing only negative
comments in the agendas. A music teacher continued to use number grades.
Comments such as “you made a big effort” and “I am glad for your success this
week” received praise. While negative commentary was criticized, there were no
Comments in the letter about writing observations instead of evaluations (nota
i“formative in urma verificarii agendelor elevilor, 16 nov. 2007, Olevschi).

Although keeping elementary classes grade-free is not part of the national
POlicy, there is an underlying theme that teachers should find ways to motivate
Students without them. In the curriculum of 1993, the history courses and moral-
CIVIC education classes were not to be graded. In the papers used during the
W0 l’ Id Bank project there is the implicit expectation that teachers find ways of

motivating students other than coercion. The value of this practice is accepted

Wldely, but only implemented at PCP schools.

180

 

 

Discipline in the Context of More Student and Teacher
Autonomy

In every school, it is a challenge to manage the attention and movement of
hundreds of children. In Primavara, the philosophy of the school creates unique
ch allenges for the faculty. First, the school does not give grades and allows
children a say in the activities. In theory, this would keep students interested for
th e love of learning, but challenges teachers to find other ways of motivating
students. Second, by claiming to adapt to the needs of the children, the faculty
suggests that the students will be content in their studies and not have the need
to misbehave. “From the moment that the program is oriented to the needs of
children, the behavior management is produced naturally and efficiently. The
need to discipline the group of children disappears, since the spirit of self
discipline is formed” (Cincilei 8 Focsa-Seminov, 2001, p. 55). There is some
precedent for this attitude in the former Soviet Union.31 One of the keys to Anton
Makarenko’s success was the environment in which he worked with delinquent
Children (Gehring, et al., 2005; Monoszon, 1987). When children at Primavara did
miSbehave, the school’s philosophy or its implementation was in doubt.
When discipline was a problem, teachers often blamed parents. This did
not come out in formal interviews, but usually during casual conversations after
the teachers got to know me. Ramona told of the likely conditions of some of her

Stleents who have parents and grandparents waiting on them. One grandparent

 

 

3t
One village teacher in a PCP school I interviewed laughed at the communist idea that there

W0uld be stores but no money in a communist society. Yet she used the PCP that had a similar
Philosophy regarding grades.

181

 

made lunch, one parent helped with clothes, another drove him to school and the
child did not have to take any responsibility. Christina complained in general
about the children of the city. She had only worked in the school since 2005.
According to her, urban children were more superficial, more interested in
money, compared to village children. A teacher assistant blamed the difficulties
sh e was having with students on their home life. As I will show in the next
ch apter, teachers, during parent meetings, often tried to teach parents parenting
skills.

Nonetheless, discipline in the school is not a major issue. The school is a
choice school with a high bar for entrance, and most of the students are well-
behaved, most of the time. This changed somewhat in the spring of the research
Year during which there were a number of complaints among teachers regarding
Student behavior. This is not inconsistent with discipline issues at many schools
in the spring. However, the nature of the school, with tables instead of individual
C'eSks, with a great deal of student participation and active students, makes
mahagement a challenge.

Schoolwide, the assistant director for discipline (educatie) promoted
aCtIVities to improve children’s behavior. One was a reward program for which a
MCIDonalds flag would be given to classes who were best behaved. At the end of

the year, the classes with the most flags would receive a reward. Another was a
d"splay on the bulletin board showing pictures of acceptable and unacceptable

behavior. This included pictures of children running, pushing, as well as picture of

182

 

more positive behavior such as students walking in an orderly line. This idea
came from a school in Latvia, which a teacher had visited during the school year.
In addition there were signs up in the hallways encouraging positive behavior.

The threat of parent involvement was a regular occurrence in the
classroom. This may have been more common among the younger teachers, but
occurred regularly among the more experienced teachers as well.
Communication with parents took place primarily through the students’ agendas.
These were booklets all students had that included the schedule of classes,
homework, and notes from the teachers. Parents were to sign them on a regular
basis. A teacher’s request to “bring me your agenda” is a threat. When directed
towards the whole class or to a group the teacher often told students to “put your
agendas on the desk” or “bring the agendas to the front.” Most of the time
behavior would change after this threat, or after a teacher actually wrote a note to
parents in the agendas of a misbehaving student. It often caused students to stop
what they were doing and focus on their school work. Students ignored this threat
when they thought the teacher would not go through with the threat, and at times
the students got away with it. This was not consistent with the philosophy of the
school, which promotes intrinsic motivation and self-discipline. An assistant
director agreed that the threat to write in agendas is not consistent with the
school philosophy, and is a fear tactic used by some teachers.

Other discipline measures were few. There was the constant reminder of

students to focus on their work that is common in all elementary classrooms. In

183

 

 

addressing discipline issues, teachers often discussed the Rights of the Child.
For example, if a classmate is interfering with a fellow student, he or she is
interfering with his right to an education and should stop. One class set up a
class pact which was derived from children’s rights such as the right to express
oneself, the right to live in safety (violated when one is hit). These were glued into
the students’ agendas and shared with parents. When children violated the rules,
the teacher referred them to the pact. Another teacher took notes regarding the
behavior of the students; the threatening signal was when she picked up a
notepad and started writing. Those students who misbehaved in class received
extra homework. This caused some of her third grade students to cry. “In the end
I do not know who gains more,” this teacher said, “those who have extra work or
those who do not. It could be reversed. It is an attempt to be more conscientious
about their behavior. There is an effect, because we do not give grades, do not
grade behavior, this is one way to do it” (Ramona). The teacher admits that the
practice is a punishment and a replacement for grades. In other schools,
teachers use grades to manipulate behavior.

Discipline problems did increase in the spring, or at least the teachers
discussion of them and frustration with them did. Some students wrote a vulgar
word in one of the bathrooms. In a reversal of history, they wrote a Russian word
using Latin letters. Students were disrespectful. Two students were suspended

after hitting classmates on several occasions. The director had meetings with

184

 

 

parents regarding the hitting. Two other students traded classes in an attempt to
create a new environment for them.

I observed one of these meetings with parents and children. In this case,
the child had been suspended or expelled from two other schools. The director
accepted the boy into the school knowing this. This was a point of pride that the
school agreed to work with the boy, but also frustration because the boy was still
causing problems. The school director encouraged the parents to observe the
boy in the class, so he knows he is “the center of attention of the parents.” She
told parents not to hit the child. After the parents left, she did have kind words to
say to the boy, reminding him of the good things he has done. To me alone she
said, “It would be easiest to tell the parents to take the boy to a different school,
then he might end up on the streets, on drugs.”

PCP has set very lofty goals regarding discipline and student motivation.
At times teacher have used less idealistic means to manage their students, some
of these inconsistent with PCP. However, the director repeatedly used and
encouraged teachers to use more positive approaches to discipline. In school
meetings, she would try to reason with the children and persuade them rather
than use punishment. Importantly, the staff has not given up. The director has

admitted children with various special needs in a system that has few services for

such children.

185

 

 

 

Building a Model School in a Deteriorating System

Primavara was established as a scoala/gradinita (school/kindergarten)
with an additional room designated for use as a training center for teachers
wanting to learn about the PCP. This form of school, combining a school and a
kindergarten is a recent form for Moldova that allows continuity from preschool to
school. It includes only preschool, kindergarten, and primary level classes.
Typically in Moldova, kindergartens are not included as part of a school, and
there are few exclusively primary schools.

There is a single director of the school and three part-time assistant
directors. One assistant director is in charge of education (educatie) or discipline
and is responsible for organizing and monitoring the afterschool activities. Her
activities include posting signs around the school with various aphorisms
encouraging children to be friendly, and study. She also gives out awards to
classes that are well-behaved. She is also president of the parent association
even though she has no children at the school. According to her, she was
' nominated so the association would have someone at the school on a regular
basis to resolve any issues that arose. Two other assistant directors, who are
also fulltime teachers, have responsibilities regarding instruction. For example,
one works with assistant teachers and monitors their work. The other works with
teachers applying for a promotion in didactic grade. Both have other

responsibilities related to instructional leadership.

186

In the primary grades, the school has 14 teachers and 342 students.

During the 2007-2008 school year the teachers’ teaching experience ranged from

1 year to 36 years. Three teachers had less than five years of experience. Two

teachers had more than 30 years. Six teachers had recently passed an

International Step by Step Association certification process. This would not

increase the salary from the state, but may increase the salary from the parent

association; these subsidies are based in part on qualification and contribution to

the school. Two teachers left teaching for several years and worked in other

areas. Of these two, one worked in a factory, missed children, and returned to

the classroom. The second worked in England for several years.

Table 9: Teacher qualifications and experience

Name Didactic grade

Ludmilla
Svetlana
Liuba

Christina
Violeta
Ramona
Lora
Jana
Irina

Ala
Tatiana

Elvira
director

All names are pseudonyms

Years experience International
certification

3

1 2

36

18

21

1 9

1 8

1

23

3

16

1 8

7 three break

 

The faculty of Primavara is unique in several ways. Nationwide, only 8

percent of teachers have three or fewer years of teaching experience. Primavara

187

 

 

has three out of the fourteen in this category. One had taught for three years as
an assistant teacher in the school, a second for a semester and then moved to
classroom teacher, the third had teaching experience at a different school. All
three of the novice teachers applied for didactic grades in the spring. The didactic
grades of the teachers are high as well. Nationwide, only one percent of teachers
have the superior didactic grade.

The number of teachers with grade one is so high that the MET recently
denied the promotion of a recent applicant. The teacher, Ramona, appealed the
decision against her promotion. Ramona asked for an explanation as to why her
application was denied, and the ministry official responsible was not able to give
an explanation. After several months of arguing, the MET official revealed that
she felt that there were too many grade one teachers at the school. This was not
judged an acceptable reason, and the MET conferred promotion.

Not unusual for schools in Chisinau, the school has teachers from other
parts of the country. In rural schools, most teachers grew up in the village where
they work or married someone who did. At Primavara the director recruited most
of the teachers on the staff. These include several teachers with a great deal of
experience as trainers for the program. In this respect, the faculty does not reflect
the faculties of many other schools. However, the other prestigious schools in the
capital would be able to recruit teachers in a similar manner. All of the teachers in
the school are female; most teachers in Moldova are, a problem acknowledged

by an MET official.

188

 

 

Many of the teachers working at the school are also trainers for the Step
by Step program. This is something of a laboratory school, where PCP is
implemented, combined with a model school, where many come to see how PCP
works. The laboratory school concept is new in Moldova. Only in 2007/2008 did
the MET designate a laboratory school for the Institute for Educational Sciences.

For each of the fourteen classes, with two exceptions, there is a teacher
assistant (assistant didactic). The MET documents describing the format of the
PCP class includes the implication that a teacher and teacher assistant work
together in the classroom, similar to the preschool model. This has changed, and
at Primavara the teacher assistants work with children in the after-school
program. This is a form of professional development. In general, the classroom
teachers come from the teacher assistant pool. Not all students participate in
after-school activities, and in two classes there are not enough children to justify
a teaching assistant; children from these class who wish to stay join other
classes at the same grade level.

Assistants are required to teach a lesson called ora educative that
includes various affective topics such as reading stories and discussing the
positive and negative characteristics of the characters. Often this does not
happen because children come and go to and from circles, and the assistants
are under some pressure to have children finish their homework during this time.
An assistant director supervises the teacher assistants and monitors the

schedule of ora educativa of each assistant. She is aware that not all of the

189

 

.11”

 

assistants teach the classes that are planned and entered into the class register.
To pass inspection, and justify the teacher assistant salaries, the records are
required.

Primavara accepts children for first grade at 6 or 7 years of age. According
to the director, age is only one factor in admissions. The admissions process
involves a short academic test and an interview. The test consists of drawing and

reading and writing if the child can. The director discusses with the parent the !

 

maturity of the child, and how he or she interacts with children as well as with
adults. Through the first part of the year, the teacher monitors the health of the
child. If the child seems to be sick frequently, they discuss the matter and
consider dis-enrolling the child. This did not take place during my research
The children come from families who, for the most part, value education
and are middle class by Moldovan standards. Children from all sectors of the city
attend the school. For some parents, this means a 45 minute drive across the
city each way. But they are not part of the elite that attend the more prestigious
schools. According to the municipal school inspector,
To ‘Gheorghe Asachi’32 go good children [well prepared for school], from
good families, but to ‘Step by Step’ [referring to Primavara] go a variety of
children. ‘Gheorghe Asachi,’ ‘Mircea Eliade,’ only children who are close to
those at ‘Promoteu.’ Lyceums of the elite . . . They are prepared for
school, they come to school and already know how to read, many know
how to write, to calculate, they know computers. But to ‘Step by Step’ I

would not say they all are prepared, only those who attend the
kindergarten ‘Step by Step’ [are well prepared for first grade].

 

 

3’3 Gheorghe Asachi and Mircea Eliade are two of the first public schools converted to lyceums

and are located in central Chisinau. Promoteu is a private school, the first in the country, and is
widely considered the best school in the country.

190

 

Although the students are not as well prepared as students at the prestigious
lyceums, they are much better off than rural schools and some of the other
schools in Chisinau. The superintendent similarly described the students

attending Primavara.

A better way to teach: teachers choose PCP

Before discussing why teachers teach the PCP, it is important to consider
why teachers teach at all. If 25% of the adult population is abroad and up to 50%
of teachers have left the profession, teachers who remain in their positions are
unusual. In interviews teachers often described a relationship with a teacher as
the reason for entering the profession. The prima invatoara, the first teacher,
whom children have as a teacher for four years often leaves a big impression.
This was the case with many teachers and served as motivation to enter the
profession. Notably, several teachers who began their career in Soviet times
mentioned that parents or relatives attempted to dissuade them from the choice
because of the difficulty of working with so many children. Several teachers were
married to teachers who left the profession to find higher paying work. The
younger teachers are dependent on subsidies from family to survive. One older
teacher worked as a teacher assistant after school in addition to her regular
teacher obligations. A physical education teacher worked a second job in a small
business. Teachers at Primavara are dedicated teachers who somehow made it

work to stay in the profession.

191

 

R fi-‘fll'. a

‘ ‘ . ‘l: t.
n 6 v
l I

 

Two themes are evident in the interviews regarding the teachers’
decisions to work with PCP. First there was some initial contact with the program
prior to working with the program, for some this was personal contact such as
through a family member. Second, many teachers expressed a personal
characteristic or motivation that prompted them to try something new. It was a
step towards a teaching style with which they felt more comfortable.

The novice teachers seem to have fallen into their positions. All three had
some contact, through practica, with PCP. Two had worked at Primavara, one
with a PCP school in Balti. When they finished their degree programs, they
applied to Primavara and were hired. For these teachers, there was not a big
transition to enter into the PCP. They did admit that the PCP was different from
what they had experienced in schools.

The young teachers were able to articulate their understandings of the
program and reasons for the choice in different degrees. One such teacher was
not able to articulate the program very well. Two of the three teachers were able
to articulate the uniqueness of the PCP and expressed the desire to use PCP
methods wherever they taught. As one told me, “I say with pride that the program
[PCP] is good for children. . . I cannot imagine going to a traditional school, I
started my career as a teacher in the PCP program and if I went to a different
school, I would do the same things” (Ludmilla). For Ala, PCP was something
totally new for her. She had seen nothing like group work or pair work until she

got to the university. lmportantly, these teachers were supported as they

192

 

.
h‘- f * ‘I\ o'
I

 

 

attempted to teach according to the PCP since they started teaching it during
practica.

There are two teachers who have over 25 years of experience. In the case
of Ludmilla, she claims that her teaching has changed very little. She had been
recruited at the school without previous experience with PCP. During an interview
with the inspector, Ludmilla’s name arose. One of her students placed in a fourth
grade olympiad. Hers was the only student from the school to place. The
inspector was not surprised because she felt that Ludmilla did not implement
PCP very well. The other veteran teacher was one of the first teachers who
adopted the PCP in the village of Mereni outside of Chisinau. She said she joined
PCP when her school started the program in 1996. Mereni was also the location
of one of the first PCP kindergartens in 1994.

The other nine teachers have a more complicated background. Most of
these teachers had contact with PCP before they adopted the program. One had
children in the kindergarten program and then adopted the program when it
expanded to the elementary school. One heard about the preschool program in
her village and went to a seminar about it. Another had a mother who was a
director of a kindergarten who adopted the program. Six of the teachers worked
in or near the first schools that adopted the programs in Balti, a large city in the
north, or Mereni, a town outside of Chisinau and had a school that piloted the

program.

193

 

,a:

 

 

There were advantages to adopting the program for these teachers. Many
of them work or have worked as trainers for the PCP. Compensation for trainers
is not high, currently about 150 lei per day, but this is significant for an occupation
that earns on average 1080 lei per month. Teachers who work for Primavara also
receive a salary from the parent association. This amounted to a sum about
equal to the state salary. This decreases the temptation of corruption and
impropriety that often arises as teachers try to make ends meet. They also had
some perquisites such as travel to various training venues. Many had traveled to
Romania, and other cities in Europe for various conferences. During the
research, the director traveled once to Bratislava and once to Istanbul, and a
teacher traveled to Lithuania.

The financial benefit of adopting PCP is significant, but probably is not the
sole motivation for teachers. One teacher assistant told me that by taking on
tutoring students, she would be able to earn more as a teacher in a different
school where tutoring was allowed than she could at Primavara with the salary
supplements. Even the municipal inspector said that the city administration is
having difficulties hiring a director of elementary professional development
because teachers could make more money with the tutoring than they could in
the administrative position. According to the director, some teachers do not want
to come to Primavara because they would lose all of the gifts and tutoring

supplements they find in other schools.

194

 

L-‘J
Iv -
b

 

Several teachers articulated a more personal reason for adopting PCP.
This involved a reaction to what took place in schools in Soviet times, as well an

attraction of the PCP.

Ramona expressed the push and the pull as something personal. She
started teaching only after independence, but spent nearly all of her student life in
“Soviet” schools. Her first job was in a ‘traditional’ school (using the standard

national curriculum) and found her ideas not well received.

Ramona: I worked only two years in a traditional class, but even there in
the traditional class I used many elements from Step by Step not knowing
of Step by Step, intuitively. For example, we had in science something
connected to plants and I brought into the class, we cultivated different
seeds, we put them at the window to grow onions. We experimented,
observed, measured, all that stuff. The director, who was there, was very
displeased of what we did. “That was not in the program, that was not part
of the school expectations,” he said. I was disappointed a little. I worked
for children so they would like to learn a lot, but that was not what the
school expected. When I moved to Step by Step it was a joy for me,
because I found what I was looking for.

Researcher: . . . Where did you get the idea to cultivate plants?

Ramona: Probably that comes from the creativity of each person, that is,
[PCP] permits each teacher to proceed as he sees it.

Researcher: Did you have a teacher who cultivated plants?
Ramona: No, I think it come from somewhere intuitive, creativity. That is
how it was at the moment, even if they are the some methods, which we
study at the seminar, techniques, we use them very differently. Not like
how we are told, but we try modalities, variations, of all kinds to see which
is most appropriate, that is, we experiment.

According to this account, Ramona found in the PCP an opportunity to express

her intuition, something stifled at her previous school. Notably, this type of hands-

on activity is something the municipal inspector promoted. Although Ramona

195

- ,i-.....‘,,-r

 

 

claimed the creativity as her own, she did have a mother who directed a
kindergarten using the program and admitted to talking with her about PCP
before she adopted the program.

For other teachers in this middle group, a little older than Ramona, there
was a noted reaction to what came before and to their experience as students

and teachers. Tatiana expresses this sentiment.

I am from the beginning of the Step by Step program, that is I was among
the twenty teachers who started the activity Step by Step. It was not clear to
me what I needed, at the beginning, to do, but I felt that a change in
education was necessary. I felt that inside . . . simply the way children were
educated before, for me was rigid, very rigid . . . Probably l was conscious
that at school many things are formed. I, from my timidity, suffered for the
fact that I did not vary from the word of the teacher and that left an
impression. I being now, at the age, I reached the age of majority, l was
afraid to make decisions, to say my opinions, so they would not be
analyzed, or to say, punished by others. . . . that is, I am very sensitive to
the issue. . . . The fact that I entered into the Step by Step program is not a
show or a holiday, but I figured to change myself, in the first place, to be
natural.

Similar to Ramona, Tatiana sees the PCP as a chance to express herself.
However, this is a reaction to both her experience in Soviet schools, and to the
environment in what she calls ‘traditional’ schools of which she is very critical.
This is similar to some of the rhetoric included in the early calls for a national
school that could be interpreted as a reaction to what happened in Soviet
schools.

Tatiana went on to say that her son was in the kindergarten using PCP and
the kindergarten director recommended that she adopt the program when it

expanded to the elementary grades. That being said, she did acknowledge that it

196

 

"I

I 5“. k... _
:4. D
‘q—‘v. - in

 

 

took time to change and it was not easy. Both Ramona and Tatiana had
introductions to the PCP and recommendation before they started implementing
the program themselves.

The sense of a need to change came from a number of teachers. Some
complained about the rigidity of the Soviet times. For those who joined the PCP
early, there was a sense of excitement, of doing something new. Other teachers
from other schools mention the excitement of change that took over the country
in the early to mid 1990’s. One teacher at Primavara took a very pragmatic view
and said that she realized, after attending a seminar, that she could teach more
and better with the methods promoted by PCP.

Ramona and Tatiana bring up the idea of freedom to teach the way one
sees fit. This is something that even the first PCP teachers expressed.
“[Teachers] were very thankful for the faith that was offered them through this
program. Teachers were no long corseted by directions coming from on high”
(Cioranica, 2004, p. 1). From the very beginning of the program in Moldova,
teachers were very pleased with the freedom they had to teach as they saw fit
and took the responsibility very seriously (Cioranica, 2004). This sentiment is
consistent with the criticism of Soviet school for forcing teachers, and students, to
conform to a standard. It is also one reaction to the new freedom and flexibility
allowed to teachers. In the early conceptions and the law of education, teachers
were to use their new flexibility to evaluate their students and to provide

individualized instruction.

197

 

 

 

Despite the early excitement, several of these teachers expressed fatigue.
It is a demanding program; many parents take advantage of what the program
and the school has to offer. They do not feel that the MET is supportive. They are
tired of working so hard for so little compensation. Teachers passed around a
table during the spring of 2008 telling the story of an ant that worked diligently but
had a bureaucratic boss that demanded numerous forms and reports from the
ant detailing the ant’s work. In the end, the ant hardly had time to do his work
because of the paperwork. This, I was told, was how the teachers felt regarding

their work.

Financing Prima vara: beyond state funding

The school is well supplied for a Moldovan public school. Most of the
improvements have come from the work and donations of the parents. Parents
have contributed and continue to contribute a substantial amount to the school.-
Primavara, like all schools, has a parent organization with the following goal:

Providing a quality education consistent with the age and individual needs

of the child, which assures a free and harmonious development, contribute

to the formation of a creative personality within the framework of a true
partnership with the family, based on respect of its values.
This statement entails financial support for school maintenance and repairs, for
subsidies to teacher salaries, and teaching supplies. In contrast to the Soviet-era

relationship with the family, this contract obligates the faculty to respect the

values of the family.

198

 

The parent association is a non-governmental organization (NGO)
dedicated to supporting the school. All parents pay 1800 (159 USD) let to enter
the organization upon enrolling their child in the school. Parents pay
approximately 450 (40 USD) lei per month for tuition, lunch, and after school
activities. The monthly fee is about 70% of this amount during the summer. The
total state allocation for the school amounts to 1,917,601 MDL (169,699 USD) for
the 2007-2008 school year; for the 2007 calendar year, the parent organization
collected 986,830 MDL (87,330 USD) (sums provided by the school accountant).

Of the parents interviewed for this research, most said this was a
significant sum, and a few had difficulty paying it. For others, the sum was quite
modest. Roughly one-third of the school budget comes from the parent
association. This is similar to the proportion of school funds that come from
informal payments families make to schools as estimated by the IPP (Institutul de
Politici Publice, 2007).

For comparison, a private school charged 600 Euros on enrollment and
then 60 euros (90 USD 2008) a month per student for twelve months a year in
tuition. A rural school I visited had difficulty collecting 20 (1.75 USD) lei per
student per month

Collecting and raising money is a constant issue at the school. An
assistant director commented that the superintendent for the sector of Botanica
denied requests for support from the school because the school was relatively

well off already. However, the school choir, consisting of teachers only, traveled

199

 

 

to Romania in the fall of 2007 and in the spring hosted a Romanian choir in
Chisinau. Money for the travel came through the superintendent. When asked
about this, he did not want to talk of specifics. He only held out his hand, palm
upwards implying that he had asked for the money from some sponsors.

The school collects fees monthly, and outside of most classrooms at the
middle of the month appear lists of families who have not paid the monthly fees.
Part of these funds goes to subsidize teacher salaries; the law limits salary
subsidies to 50% of the funds collected. The rest is used to sponsor various
activities, and for maintenance of the school. Money is also used for classroom

projects. Parents pay extra for children to stay at the school after the lessons and

work on homework with the assistant.

Summary

Though it is unique, Primavara is in many ways conforms to the idea of a
national school. The school and its teachers have undergone a process of
development similar to the process reflected in MET and scholarly documents.
Just as the ideas in the curriculum and Conceptions received inspiration from
foreign systems, the PCP is based on a foreign program. Both the legal
documents and the PCP, however, took those ideas and let them evolve in the
Moldovan context. Teachers were critical of the other schools, whether those of
the Soviet era or the other schools that have not adopted more active teaching

methods. They reacted against these other schools in choosing the PCP. These

200

 

 

teachers also looked outside of Moldova for a solution or at least for ideas to use
just as MET officials did.

Teachers did try to fulfill the PCP phil030phy. This came out most clearly
in the lessons for which they had the most flexibility. Children did have the
opportunity to voice their opinions, at least orally, in both the mesaj and studiu
thematic. In these classes especially, children were allowed a great deal of
authority. These were unique to PCP, but they were consistent with the ideas
found in MET documents. Teachers developed special, collaborative
relationships with their students. Finally, PCP allowed teachers more autonomy
in their own work, to use their skills to evaluate their students and to design
lessons tailored to their students.

It would be unfair to point to instances in which the teachers did not fulfill
the PCP philosophy as general criticism of the program. In general, though,
students had little opportunity or expectation to express themselves in writing.
This may be a continuation of the emphasis on oral expression that was common
in the Soviet System (Cummings, 1999). Importantly, teachers used at least
some Soviet era methods in the contexts of the PCP classroom.

The faculty is dedicated to support all students. In accepting students
expelled from other schools, or children with special needs, the teachers were
taking on responsibilities that other schools typically do not. In addition, teachers

have the added task of convincing parents and others that the methods they use

are to the benefit of children.

201

:J

. 1"“: a:

_. '4'— I"

 

 

For several reasons, the success of Primavara is not likely to be replicated
at other schools. The success of the school is dependent on a very dedicated
faculty and group of parents. The former contribute a great deal of time to
developing the PCP at their school, and the latter contribute monetarily and, as
we will see in the next chapter, with a great deal of time. In addition, the practices
used in PCP do not prepare students for the various academic competitions nor
are they yet considered the norm in Moldovan schools. The combination of these
to exceptional groups, teachers and parents, would be difficult to duplicate in any
public school.

Primavara has turned out to be a national school even though it is at odds
with the current communist government. It teaches in the national language and
Moldovan or Romanian history. In terms of practices, the teachers are very
consistent with national ideas as written in legal documents. Teachers exercise
autonomy and develop activities specific to their classes. They use methods and
activities to develop the unique qualities of students and help them learn to
express their ideas. These are all ideas consistent with the official ideal of the
national school. Finally, they readily collaborate with the parents and the wider

community, a topic of the next chapter.

202

 

new?

 

 

CHAPTER SEVEN: PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT: LEARNING TO
WORK TOGETHER

In the Soviet era, parents were minimally involved in schools. The state
defined educational practices and content and parents had minimal influence.
Parent involvement has been a part of educational reform in Moldova since the
period perestroika. Involvement of parents and local community was intended to
make schools more democratic and reflect the local concerns of those involved in
schools. Parent involvement is a priority for PCP schools and is one of the
standards ISSA promotes.

Although one of the goals of schools is to make them more democratic,
Primavara is not a full democracy. Parent involvement is limited to areas outside
pedagogical concerns. In addition, tension between the school employees and
parents exist as each group tries to influence the other to fulfill their expectations
of what school and family should be. This is a delicate balance because of the
amount of money parents pay to the school, and the school’s dependency on
those funds. In this chapter I discuss the interaction between school officials and
parents and show how parents react against the state and try to create, or at
least choose, a school that is consistent with their interests. These interests,
however, are not always the same as the interests of the PCP proponents, nor of

the state.

203

 

National Policy of Local Control and Parental Involvement

Regulations guiding school management note that parents should be
involved through parent committees and should have representation on the
school council. The regulations are vague regarding the details. Parents have the
right to participate and vote regarding some aspects of school level policy along
with the teachers’ council. The teachers’ council is made up of all of the teachers
of the school and makes decisions regarding the instructive-educative (educativ)
process. For example, the council will discuss the promotion or retention of
students, and all teachers have a vote regardless of the class or grade level of
the student. Parents did not participate in these meetings that I observed at
Primavara. It is up to the director to invite parents to meetings of the council
when appropriate (Ministerulu Educatiei si Tineretului, 2007a, p. 17).

According to national policy, in each class the teacher is to form a class
level parent council; the president of which is a representative for the school level
parent council. There are similar tasks for both councils, to help with attendance,
to support the teacher and school with extra-curricular activities, to solicit funds,
to contribute to the procurement of school materials. The school level council is
also to suggest disciplines for study in areas in which the school has a choice, to
support the school in annual festivals, and to be involved in the “improvement of
the equality of life and of the students’ activities” (Ministerului Educatiei si
Tineretului, 2007a). This regulation makes it clear that parents have little

influence on the national curriculum. But in other areas, such as methods of

204

I; t'u‘n “him
_I . , a

 

 

teaching, selection of textbooks, and discipline, parents are not precluded from
influencing the decisions.

In general, parents are to play a much greater role in schools than what
took place in Soviet schools. This was to be the case with their own children as
well as with the school overall. This goal is consistently found in the early drafts

of the Conceptions as well as in the Law of Education. This is not very different

._ ‘f-zJ':
J . n ' .I
. ‘3. '5‘

than what was found in Soviet era laws, but in PCP schools, this was to be a

 

deliberate policy and practice.

iii—I ".
1 .
a.

Teaching Parental Involvement

In the case of Primavara the relationship between parents and teachers as
well as with the school in general is a complicated one. The school has the
governmental obligation to teach the national curriculum, but many parents enroll
their children in the school because it offers something different than most
schools in Moldova. This forces parents to face the prospect that their children
will probably attend a more ‘traditional’ middle or high school. They in turn bring
some pressure on the school to conform to traditional standards. Several
teachers and the school director mentioned this issue in interviews. This is a

decreasing concern and has been resolved for many since a number of

 

promotions of students have been successful in middle school.
While PCP offers something different, new for Moldovan schools, and
parents want this, there is also a continued effort on the part of the school to

inform parents and teach them how to be active in their child’s education. At

205

times this enters into the area of child rearing and discipline. At the same time the
school depends on parents to financially support the school and must in some

ways conform to the expectations of parents.

Parent conferences at Prima vara

Twice a year teachers have meetings with all the parents in the class.
Typically these took place in late fall and early spring. Teachers and one
interviewed parent complained about the low attendance on the part of parents.
The meetings I observed had between one half and two-thirds of the students
represented. In Soviet times, several informants told me, school directors or
teachers would stand in front of the gathered parents and criticize by name the
children who were misbehaving. Soviet era school directors also would write
letters to the place of employment of the parents of misbehaving students and
the respective supervisors would admonish the parents of misbehaving students
in front of their coworkers. These practices continue but is becoming more rare.

Nothing so humiliating took place in Primavara. However, I did see one
teacher have a 30 minute monologue in front of the gathered parents discussing
the many discipline problems she was having in class. Parents were silent
throughout this talk; at the end, one parent stood and spoke in support of the
teachen

The main part of these meetings was devoted to some issues of child
rearing and parent-child interaction. Many of the parents I interviewed thought

these discussions productive. They did not feel put upon, but welcomed the

206

 

 

opportunity to discuss the issues. “[Parents] play very interesting games. We
deduce how we should behave. It is a method of deduction” (Fanta). Parents
were not told what to do, but simply discussed the issues.

A first grade teacher discussed responsibility with the parents of her
students with the idea of encouraging parents to expect more responsibility from
their children. One parent discussed this in our interview. She laughed at how
little parents expect of their children. “The only responsibilities that the parents
were able to mention were connected to homework. Other than that, nothing. By
the time a child reaches that age, he should have some responsibilities. . . In that
regard, there is work to be done” (Vicol).

Another teacher provided tips on working with one’s children at the parent
meeting. This included a worksheet, written for teachers but with tips such as,
“Learn how to listen and to hear,” and “Create in the family a nice atmosphere.”
Another worksheet suggested ways to reward and punish children, “a physical
punishment or shouting, most often, confirms the inability to find a good solution,”
and “promote positive behavior, needed habits will be formed quicker than with
excessive sanctions.”

Despite the above anecdotes, teachers at the school told me repeatedly in
interviews that they have a close relationship with parents, and that parents are a
great help to the school and in the classroom. A veteran teacher said this about

her relationship with parents:

Lora: My parents are very receptive. For example, with their help with
repaired the class, made the cupboards where the children undress [ie.

207

 

 

take off their jackets]. . . . they did, every year, the general cleaning in the
fall, and in the springs, in the winter vacation. They helped to paint the
fence around the school. They always help, if we go on a field trip, one or
two parents come, . . . they are shoulder to shoulder with us.

Researcher: how do they work at lessons?

Lora: At lessons, when they come they are involved, at lessons and at
home they show care, to help, to encourage. . . If problems appear we
meet and discuss, find optimal measures to help the child succeed.

This is the teacher who had grandparents sit and observe an entire open lesson

dedicated to parent involvement (discussed below).

 

A young teacher had this to say about her work with parents:

We collaborate very much with parents because in first grade parents come
in the morning and in the evening to pick up their children. Every time they
come they have questions and expect answers. Questions of every type:
‘What else do you need?’ ‘I would like,’ for example, ‘to help you with
something, but with what could I help?’ Only today, this morning, a father
came in, he had not come often, usually the mother came and today he
came and asked “Miss Ludmilla, with what can I help you?” . . . they do not
always want to discuss with me, only when there is the need. The rest of the
time they come and say what could they do. In first grade, we speak to
parents very often . . . This is very good, because they as parents
understand the best [their children] and when we have questions, together it
is much easier to solve whatever problem or find an answer to any question.
(Ludmilla)

The offers to help are mostly about material needs and working together to solve
discipline problems. Interestingly, one of the parents, reflecting an attitude

expressed by many, said that teachers are the experts, “I have one child, the

teacher has 32, she is a specialist” (Junca).

 

These responses to interview questions were typical in that they claimed a

close relationship with parents but with a focus on material help and solving

208

discipline problems. When discussing teaching and learning, teacher and parents
mentioned most often that parents help with homework and discipline, and that

parents come into the class as experts talking of a hobby or their profession.

A school level parent-teacher meeting at Primavara: involved to stay uninvolved

In spite of the efforts highlighted above, there were points of tension in the
relationship between parents and the faculty. This tension came to the fore
during a proposed schedule change in the late spring of 2008. The school has a
wide variety of activities taking place after school into the evening including a
study hall during which students worked on homework with teacher assistants.
Through the year several teachers said that they thought that they were taking
over some of the responsibilities of parents, and that parents should take their
children home after lessons. However, many parents work full time jobs or two
jobs to make ends meet and depend on the after school supervision for their
children. When the school decided to change the end time of the study hall to
3:00 pm and the various extracurricular activities at 4:00, there was something of
a “revolt” according to an assistant director.

The director called a meeting to discuss school finances but also to
address the concerns of parents regarding the after school sessions. The
eighteen parents present were quiet during the first part of the meeting, and
several faculty members carefully orchestrated the transition to the discussion of

the after school program.

209

 

 

First spoke a teacher with a soft voice that could pull at one’s emotions.
She told a story of a boy who goes to his father and asks how much he is paid.
The father brusquely tells him to go away. Realizing the severity in his voice, the
next time the son approaches, the father asks what he wants. Again the boy asks
how much the father is paid. This time the father responds, “five dollars.” The boy
asks for three dollars. “Why do you need three dollars?” the father asks.
“Because I already have two and I want to spend an hour with you.”

A more pragmatic teacher speaks next and comments on some of the
problems she sees with the after-school activities. She complains of the parents
who bring their children at 8:00 am and pick them up at 6:00 pm. And of the
parent who comes to pick up a child, asks if the homework is completed, and
then waits in the hall while the child completes the homework with the teacher
assistant.

The director speaks next, again citing reasons why the extended school
day is not very good. She mentions chronic illness, increased morbidity, and the
fact that relatively few students stay past 4:00 pm. She calls the school a “second
home,” notes that the school is “child centered,” but suggests children should be
outside, with family, with friends. Before finishing she acknowledges that for
some families, this is impossible.

Finally parents are allowed to speak, and they do so vociferously. “We
come from the other end of the city,” or “We both work,” and “We chose this

school because of the after-school program.” “We can add something,” suggests

210

 

 

a parent implying that they pay more money in support of the after-school
program. These last two comments conflict with the faculty’s hopes of having
parents more involved with the school and in the children’s lives. Another parent
thanks the faculty, “we thank you for the security and the extraordinary
responsibility taken by the school.”

The school director does acknowledge that it is better “to have children in

the school than watching television or on the streets.” She finally tells the I

'3 “.14"

 

parents, “find a solution.” One parent suggests that only one group of students at
each grade level stays late. This is the solution finally adopted.

Despite the obvious difference of opinion between the faculty and this
group of parents, the director makes a number of unifying statements about
working together, parents nod in agreement, and the meeting breaks into small
group discussions as pe0ple prepare to leave.

This issue and its process towards resolution indicate how schools have
become more democratic in their governance. Parents were able to force a
meeting on the topic, the faculty did what it could to persuade parents, but they
could not dictate the rules. In the end they reached a compromise. There was
only one other instance I saw when parents tried to influence the teaching
process. In one class several parents complained about the lack of grades. The
teacher and other parents emphasized the value of not giving grades to children.
It is important to point out that in other respects at no time during the year did I

observe teachers and parents debate the core educational tasks of teachers

211

{'31 I. I}?

 

The questioning and commenting in the parent meeting about the after
school program is a stark contrast from the meeting at the beginning of the year.
During that meeting, the teachers and directors spoke and informed the parents
of the goals for the school. No questions were asked except about the food
served at school.

This is a clear example of parent involvement in the school, but it is an
example of parents getting involved so that they would not have to be involved
further. In a similar way, the parent association chose a president who does not
have children at the school. They were not taking greater responsibility for their
children’s education, but perhaps less. This may have been due to constraints
due to work, and may not reflect the sentiments of the parents. But their strong
appeal to keep the school open until 6:00 pm would allow them to do other things

while teachers and teacher assistants watched their children.

Parents in Primavara Classrooms: Under the Teacher’s
Direction

Considering the rhetoric of family partnerships, parents participated little in
the teaching and learning at school. Every parent interviewed did claim to work
with children on homework, but teachers still complained that many parents did
not sign the agendas, and, according to teachers, many students did not
complete their homework. Parents were present in the school. They observed
classes, helped with special activities, and at times worked with students. But the

role granted to parents in the teaching and learning process was limited.

212

 

 

During the spring of 2008 the school held a series of open lessons. Open
lessons date back to the Soviet era. Similar series of open lessons take place in
all schools as part of the professional development. These usually involve a
demonstration lesson with observers present, sometime high level school
officials, sometimes just colleagues. After the lesson, observers would discuss
the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson. Often the focus of an open lesson is
a teaching methodology. In contrast, at Primavara, the focus for this series was
on parent involvement in a class not offered at non-PCP schools. The series was
called, “The implication of parents in the lesson of studiu tematic.” These open
lessons were to showcase how different teachers worked with parents during the
studiu tematic and to serve as a point of discussion for improving how teachers
work with parents.

The first lesson was in a second grade class and eleven teachers and
teacher assistants observed with an observation guide provided by an assistant
director. The theme of the unit, previously selected by the students, was mice.
The teacher had asked several parents or grandparents to participate. A
grandfather was there and when he had a chance to talk he pulled a mouse trap
out of his pocket and sprang it with a stuffed mouse. Other teachers found this
morbid and inappropriate. In groups children discussed their homework, creating
a mouse with household materials, writing a story about a mouse, researching
about mice. The teacher made a point of asking who helped the children

complete the homework. They all mentioned parents or grandparents. Another

213

parent of a student in the class was the school nurse. At the teacher’s prompt,
she told the class about how mice are used in medical experiments and are very
useful. Another parent helps hang the homework on the wall. This is the extent of
parent participation. When they were not working on the tasks noted about, the
parents sat quietly in the classroom.

In a private discussion with the teacher after the lesson, she told me that
she wanted the parents to present two distinct perspectives on mice. She also
said she implicated parents by assigning homework that children could complete
with the help of parents. One assistant director accepted this approach as a
reasonable manner to involve parents, a second assistant director did not. A
fellow teacher told me that she involved parents in homework “all of the time”
(Magdalena). When I mentioned this model of parent involvement to the city
inspector, she dismissed the notion entirely, “This is not parent involvement.” For
her, parent involvement took place in the school.

In a second open lesson in a fourth grade class, two grandparents were
present. They sat through the entire lesson saying nothing to the class. At the
end of the lesson they both were given a chance to make a comment. They both
praised what they saw.

As the above lessons indicate, the teachers are still uncertain how to
involve parents in the classroom, or are reluctant to do so. Improving this

collaboration was a goal of the open lesson series. A third lesson demonstrated

214

I Fig...

that at least one teacher at Primavara attempted to involve parents more actively
in lessons.

A third open lesson in a third grade class had parents working more
actively with students. This class studied a unit on professions. A parent of a
student in the class who works for Radio Free Europe was present to discuss
journalism. The father had been a university professor and later told me that he
did not want to interact with the students, but the teacher pushed him to do so.
He told a little about his profession. He asked the class, “What is better a Harry
Potter book or a Harry Potter movie?” He received a few responses but appeared
uncomfortable. He asks a few other questions about literature, solicits a few
responses, and assigns a brief writing task. He then sits on the side of the
classroom for the remainder of the lesson, and the teacher takes over instruction.

This same teacher did have other parents attend her lessons as part of
the studiu tematic, and they were more participatory. A newspaper editor, a
grandfather of a student, and reporter for an independent newspaper engaged in
interviews and heated discussions with the students. A woman who painted
fingernails, a popular fad in Moldova, also presented to the class and had
students paint fake nails. The teacher acknowledged that lessons with these
parents were more successful.

Only once did I see a parent work with children in a small group as a
teacher assistant. This was during the fall of 2006 when I attended the school as

part of a seminar for teachers implementing PCP. The parent was helping

215

 

 

several students draw a poster for a studiu tematic activity. When the students
were not working as she expected, she took the marker from them and started
drawing herself. Teachers mention that this type of participation is promoted, but
I saw little evidence of it, and parents seemed reluctant to do it.

This type of participation by parents is consistent with their comments in
interviews. I asked each parent if and how he or she worked in the class. They all
responded that they did, but most of the work was not with children.

Galusca: The idea of this school is that parents should collaborate with the

school, to actively participate. Furniture, that is at the entrance, where

children undress, was a parent project. Cosmetic repairs, which we make

at the beginning of the year, we did this also. The bulletin board is also
ours.

Researcher: Did you participate in the educational process?

Galusca: I do not usually see parents participate, it is not prohibited, if
someone wants, he can choose a topic and teach.

This was a typical response, they could influence things, but the influence was
predominantly with material provisions. When I specifically asked about working
with children and the educational process, parents said no they could not or did
not. Some did participate; as I mentioned above, parents taught classes about
their professions, or their hobbies, at the request of teachers. The reason given
for non-participation was often work obligations, or the fact that it is the teachers’
responsibility and parents are not pedagogues. “No, I do not get involved [with
teaching]. If I have a good idea, I will tell it to [the teacher], but I am not a

pedagogue, I am a mama” (Maria). This was a nearly unanimous sentiment

among parents.

216

Another parent was more articulate in his response about how parents

might influence the school.

Miron: I think as parents, if there is unity among them, a number of them
together, and if there is a deviation from normal, parents together should
be able to influence [the school]. I understand that signing a contract I
began to take part, I was made a member of the association ‘Step by
Step,’ while when you enter the association, I think that each has the right
to say something. If his proposal is constructive, it has the right to be
heard.

Researcher: Have you participated in lessons?

 

Miron: No, during the lesson I have not been involved. My wife has
observed several lessons. She has followed along only; she was not
involved, that is, the teacher should do the work and not be disturbed by
anyone.”
If there is a large number of parents who push for a change, or attempt to stop a
change, they can indeed have an influence. Part of this influence comes from the
financial arrangements of the school. Except for the issue of the after school
activities, I saw no evidence of this.

According to the director of pre-university education at the MET, parents
have a great deal of influence including the power to dismiss teachers. As she
mentioned, “If the whole class of 30 [sets of parents] are not in agreement with
how the teacher teaches, [they can have the teacher removed] it seldom
happens, but it happens.”

From another perspective, the influence stems from the role of democracy
in the school. All voices are heard, and discussion ensues to find a reasonable

solution. Teachers at the school make significant efforts to involve parents in

certain activities.

217

 

The comments of the parents and the behavior of the teachers during the
open lessons indicate a limit to parent involvement. Inside the classroom,
teachers dominate and determine what takes place. Parents rarely participate in
the teaching and learning. When they do present to a class, it is as an expert
discussing a hobby or a profession. Regarding the typical school subjects,
parents were less willing to get involved in the classroom. Concerning the

management of the school, such as the after-school activities, parents can, and

 

at times do, have a very influential role in the school.

There is mention that parents cannot participate at school because of their
work. There are two sides to this. According to the director, ”Because of the low
salaries, some parents have to work in one, two or even three places.” However,
teachers told me that some parents who work are too busy because they
prioritize work to the detriment of children and their education. There are very
wealthy families at the school. One teacher mentioned that one of her student’s
parents were bank managers, who send children to school with their driver.

In informal discussions after the first round of interviews, teachers
mentioned more critical comments about parents. There was an underlying
current of criticism of parents and how they reared their children. Part of this

came up in the parent meetings when teachers felt compelled to provide mini-

 

seminars on parenting skills. In casual comments there were complaints that
parents do not expect very much of their children and do not want to take

responsibility for their learning. We saw that at the parent meeting when the after-

218

school program was under discussion. Even the director when I briefly told her of
the positive comments parents have made about the school, responded, “Many
want PCP, but they do not want to involve themselves in it."

From both the teachers’ side and from the parents’ side, the support from
parents was not about academics, except in terms of the parents’ own children.
The parents accept the program when they come to the school. After that, it

seems that parents have little influence over how teachers teach. That being

said, three sets of parents requested that their children be moved to a different
class because of the poor discipline in a class. I do not know if this was the fault
of the teacher or if this was due to a difficult group of students, but the director

did honor the requests.

Keeping the State at a Distance

According to the Moldovan Constitution, education is to be free. In the case
of Primavara, the parent association contributed about one-third of the annual
budget in cash, and there were additional in-kind contributions. The parents I
interviewed simply accepted that the state would not pay for schooling. Most of
the parents wanted something different than what was at the usual schools and
were resigned to pay for it.

One father related an anecdote about a man going to the doctor. When the
patient protested about the charge, the doctor responded, “Platiti degeaba,
lacuiesc degeaba.” This is a play on the word degeaba that can mean both

“nothing” and “for no purpose.” We can translate the phrase as, “you get what

219

 

you pay for.” He accepted that the state would not pay for schools and that if he

wanted something from schools, he would have to pay for it.
Another father was more articulate in expressing his wish that the state

contribute more, but, given the current government, is glad to be somewhat

independentoffi.

lulian: I will begin by saying that for a while now, the state does not interest
me. I think it is better if I give money for repairs and I do not have anything
to do with the state. That is better. On the other hand, as a person who ,3
pays taxes, who takes part in the civil society, however anemic it is, I think ..
that the state should contribute more, after all, I pay taxes. I do not know,

and I cannot say specifically, but I think it is better this way. You have

nothing to do with it, and watch for your own needs.

 

Researcher: But the state says you must study this, and this . . .
lulian: Yes, you see, [the state] gets involved with the curriculum. You
cannot escape it entirely. Even if you invest in your school it comes and tells
you how to teach history or other [classes]. Anyhow, the influence of the
state is felt at the level of textbook writing and so on [through the system],
because our state is a little different from that the of American state.
Probably you have noticed this issue. . . . Here, the state only demands, but
in practice does not give you anything.
This father wanted a school near his home, a school with a western style of
instruction, and a school that teaches English. He was willing to pay for it and
was willing to accept some level of state intervention. Like most parents he was
aware that teachers have very low salaries; without supplementing these salaries
he was likely to lose or lack good teachers for his son.
All of the parents acknowledged that the state should pay, but they

accepted that it the state “cannot or does not want” (Sylva) to pay for schools.

They also accept the fact that they have to pay for it. “We come to a school, for

220

 

example, we need money to enter, I cannot say that we do not want to give
money, if we want to enter, we give it” (Galusca). Regarding having to pay for
schools despite the state’s promises, one father said, “It is normal, we are used
to it already. ...Sometimes you can [afford to pay extra], it is worth it to pay
money to be comfortable” (Victor).

This complacency or acceptance may be a continuation of the corruption
rampant in the Soviet system. To be comfortable, to get better food, to get better
service, people paid bribes and performed favors for friends and contacts. There
is a consequence to the lack of state funding and people do what is needed to
get by, namely corruption. A mother, a university professor, said this about the
situation.

When the state does not contribute, each person has to find [funds] in his
own pocket, corruption is the result, unfortunately. We feel dirty, because
the teachers are compelled to accept any kind of baksheesh [porcarii] you
feel put down upon in front of the students, but this you do to be able to live,
to exist. It is disastrous what happens, because in this way, education
[invatamint] is transformed into commerce, which is not normal. (Fanta)

Another parent agreed with the issue of corruption, agreed that the state should
pay more for education, but was glad to pay to avoid the corruption found in other

schools

The money is administered legally; it is paid with a receipt, with an
accountant, for expenses that exist. In other schools I have to pay, but I pay
without the accountant, without receipt, I pay direct into the pocket [of
someone], I don’t like this. They ask for money without embarrassment,

there is no restraint. You may have to pay one time a month or maybe more
often. (Filat)

At least for these parents at Primavara, they felt the money was above board and

221

 

 

 

that they got something in return for what they paid. They got a special program
that they felt was fitting to their children. They got a warm school. They got the

after-school program to watch their children. And they avoided the corruption

often found in other schools.

Choosing Primavara: an alternative to the state

Parents chose the school for a number of reasons, mostly because they
wanted something unique for their children and often they knew someone with
children at the school. One parent had a boy who suffered trauma at birth and
had a brain tumor. Another father had a child who was language delayed. A
mother wanted her precocious girl to start school at age six, and no other schools
would accept her at that age. A father complained that in other schools children
have parents abroad, his child was disciplined and did not want him to be in a
class with “low expectations" (Miron). A mother was concerned about her shy
child and wanted a more tolerant school. A father liked the idea of a western style
school and needed a school near his home. Except for this last comment,
parents looked for some special treatment for their children, whether this was
remedial help, more advanced work, or greater patience. And they felt that the
teaching and the philosophy of PCP would provide this.

There was discussion by many parents noting that the type of instruction at
Primavara was different. Several of them attributed this difference to its foreign
nature. One father heard the following about the school, “It is a school in which

they teach according to an occidental model, in which the child is not intimidated

222

a [ ...__ ‘.'-. u .
d
..I

 

from the beginning by grades, that is, he is somehow motivated to be more
active, to dialogue with the teacher, there was talk of an interactive system of
education [invatamint]” (lulian). Another parent contrasts PCP to the typical
Moldovan school; “I am not pleased with our national educational system. . .
Step by Step works according to a different system, a little different, with children
they are not so stressed, not overwhelmed with useless things, it works more
with the development of their personality” (Fanta). Another told me, “I went to
some state [schools],” and did not like them (Dana). Even when parents did not
suggest that PCP was a foreign type of school, they did indicate that the school
was unique, “I did not want bring her to an ordinary school after attending a
[PCP] kindergarten” (Vicol). Another parent mentioned how things have changed
so much in society but “the attitudes remain the same;” the PCP school with a
program from the United States would be different (Miron). Whether parents
attributed PCP to foreign countries or not, there was a belief that PCP was
different than the typical Moldovan school.

Throughout these conversations there was frequent criticism of the typical
schools in the country. Often parents compared present-day schools to the
schools they had attended, and they wanted something different for their own
children. “Here there is group work to develop social skills and to work with
others. But in Soviet times it was otherwise. There was a middle level, if
someone was higher he was cut, if he was lower, he was lifted” (Midoni). He then

compared Soviet schools, and soviet society in general, to the bed of Procrustes.

223

 

Another parent liked the more relaxed atmosphere in the schools and said that
Primavara was better “than one of the old style where I studied,” referring to other
schools in Moldova (Filat).

On the cynical side, a few teachers said that the parents choose the school
because they hear good things and because the school feeds children and has a
long after-school program. This was certainly a factor for some. For other
parents, some convincing is required. First grade teachers note that many
parents visit the school frequently during the first months of first grade, but that
this interest or surveillance decreases significantly over time as parents begin to
trust the teachers. This may also represent the anxiety of young parents sending
their children to school for the first time.

For many new parents some convincing is needed to get them to accept the
school and its teaching methods. A strategy teachers use to introduce parents to
the program and to change the parents’ perspectives is to focus parent attention
on the child, not on the teacher. Teachers give visiting parents an observation
form. Regardless of the reason for the parent’s visit, the form has a single table
for observation regarding the child and a second table for “Suggestions for
improvement for the child.” There is no place for comments on the teacher.
Teachers suggest that after watching the activities of the child, instead of
focusing on the teacher, parents become convinced that the program is good.

Another approach to convincing parents begins with the question “What do

you want for your child ?” The typical choice is either a great deal of information or

224

 

 

for the child to be capable or resourceful (descurcaret, resourceful, or as a verb a
se descurca, to manage). “They want capable students, but in fact when they
come to the school they want children who know a great deal, but after a
discussion with me they say, “Yes, we want smart children, but we want them to
manage very well in life” (Christina). This teacher even admitted that parents do
not necessarily understand the PCP methods. According to teachers at
Primavara, many parents in Moldova continue to adhere to the Soviet model of
schooling in which students are given a great deal of information with little
opportunity to apply it. The question remains as to whether the capabilities taught
at PCP prepare the child for life in Moldova outside of school.

There seemed to be the most consistency between what the teachers
wanted to provide and what the parents wanted in terms of the characteristics of
the students. The faculty worked to develop in children the ability to think for
themselves, to be able to communicate freely, to be able to argue a position, and
to be descurcaret, resourceful. Parents, in general wanted the same things for
their children, and they were able to see those skills develop in their children. In
response to the question, “What do you want for your children from the school?”
parents made these statements.

Knowledge that one should have according to the age, to be resourceful

[descurcaret], not to be afraid of people, to be descurcaret means to be

able to communicate with people, not to be afraid of people. (Natalie)

I want my child to leave here prepared to continue [to the next level]. I
think that children leave here as multilaterally, formed personalities. (Vicol)

225

Principally I want my child to be a person [om]33. (Midoni)
What interests me is that he has this knowledge [appropriate to age], to be
an egoist in the positive sense of the word, to understand that to succeed
in life one has to put forth the efforts . . . to have a degree of
communicability . . . to be open minded. (Iulian)

Interestingly, these parents want some of the same goals that came up during

the era of perestroika and were promoted as a Moldovan national school.

Summary

Parents have chosen Primavara because they feel the school is different.
The school implements western teaching practices. It individualizes instruction. It
avoids the corruption rampant in the school system. These ideas are all ideas
associated with the national school. Parents contribute substantial resources to
the school to make this possible. They are also very open to teaching methods
that are different than those that they experienced. These unusual characteristics
of the Primavara school community limit the possibility to reproduce the school’s
success in other locations.

Parent involvement in the classroom is stifled for several reasons. For
some, work schedules do not allow them to be present at the school. For others,
there seems to be a reluctance to get involved in the activities of the class,
except when the parent is talking as an expert. Teachers in general agree with
this; they refer to parents primarily for material support and discipline problems.

To a lesser degree there is mention of discussing with parents the characteristics

 

33 The term cm in Romanian literally means human or person. In this context it is most similar to

the term “man” in Rudyard Kipling’s poem “If”, “you’ll be a Man my son!” The word om does not
connote a specific gender.

226

 

 

of the child so teachers can work with him or her more effectively. Teachers at
Primavara claim that this is significantly more parent involvement than what
would be found at other schools.

Parent involvement in the school is important according to school
regulations and the philosophy of the PCP. Parents are supposed to have voting
rights on the school council, but there are no clear guidelines regarding the

issues in which parents should be involved. Many do attend meetings at the

 

classroom level and at the school level. There are some parents who use their
authority to create conditions that allow them to be more passive. However
messy and difficult this involvement is, the school is involved with its local
community.

Parents seem to accept that the state plays a diminished role in the school.
They pay a third of the budget of the school and are glad to have an alternative to
the typical state school. In return, they get something special for their children,

and something different from their own experiences.

227

 

CHAPTER EIGHT: THE NATIONAL SCHOOL: AN INTERSECTION
OF PROBLEMS, POLICIES, AND POLITICS

I began this dissertation with the metaphor of empty pedestals. These
pedestals once held images of Lenin, the father of the Soviet Union, providing a
symbol for schools. Without that symbol, schools lost direction. What were they
to teach it not the Marxist-Leninist world view and the party-approved curriculum?
This would form one end of the transition. My goal was not to study the new form
of schools, but to examine how teachers, administrators, and policy makers have
adjusted to social change in Moldova. This would entail an examination of how
actors at various levels attempted to change the existing system, and what they
sought to replace it.

The loss of communism as a guiding force for Moldova resulted in three
significant losses for schools. The first was the loss of content; much of the
content children studied was explicitly communist, or from a Marxist-Leninist
perspective. Second, the schools lost an educational ideal that was expressed in
the Moral Code and the rules for the youth organizations; the communist content
studied in schools reinforced these ideas. Third, the methods used to teach were
rigid, teacher-centered, and did not allow for individualization. The solution to
these problems would be a national school system, a system that Moldovans
would define and govern.

It is important to note what the Moldovan school system inherited and
attempted to keep. At independence, the country had a network of schools that

served nearly all students from first grade to university. There were established

228

 

 

 

teacher preparation programs. Moldova had scholars who had completed
doctoral degrees in education. And Moldova had a population that was
accustomed to attending school. The challenge would be to change this system
into a system with new goals, with new materials, and new practices.

Instead of trying to define beginnings and endings of transition, it is useful
to consider Kingdon’s (2003) classic analysis of policy change. In this model
three policy streams come together, problems, policies, and politics. In this
process of change in Moldova, policies probably came first. Gantea (2007) points
to the opening of Soviet scholars towards western research in the 1960’s, and
then Moldovan scholars continued this research in their own studies. The
opening of the USSR to the west during the period of perestroika contributed to
this process. Another policy stream involved the pursuit of nationalism through
language and history. This too was a movement that involved much of the USSR.

The problems too arose long before perestroika. Through the late 19805
as the school system extended and the economy stagnated there was more and
more dissatisfaction with the school system (B. Holmes, et al., 1995). This
paralleled general unrest in society. Gorbachev attempted to resolve these
issues with the policies of perestroika and glasnost. This did not work out as
planned, and the events in the political stream culminated with sovereignty and
independence, giving Moldova and the other republics responsibility for their
school systems and their fates. Independence gave policy makers in Moldova the

political opportunity and the rationale to create a new school system.

229

083

'erpjow ui lield 19 are steedse eseqt to "v '(986L

‘169113 '3 uuigow) Atinbeui paseeroug uetjo si SGIOHOd qons jo unset aql 'ite/Mue
slooqos eqt jonuoo AIIBGJ touueo 1! 199] out 6uipiq 9|]LIM ‘6unoe JO] Aoewmbej
euros sugefi 13w out ‘wets/fs jooqos out Buizijeituaoep liq 19m stsefifins

esp! Slut '(t766l ‘umnd *9 ‘Avsunuseee ‘uoreiddocil ..iineiep liq vortezuenueoep.
s! uoitezijenueoep jo toadse [BOIUAO eJouJ v '(666I ‘J9||l‘l-_-] '9 B|OJBAIH f986L

£955] ‘6ueq3) saomos [990] LUOJ] buiwoo spun; eseeroui o; pue ‘seelloldiue
[001499 to Atijiqetunoooe esearour ot ‘speau [990] 01|OOL|OS 8U110|l9101 Anunwwoo
joouos out buimoue ‘tuawefieuew jooqos to [onuoo stow stueied Bug/\jfi

liq sloouos out aAOJdLui 01 pepduuene uatjo s! 9|ooqos jo |OJ1UOO |BOO'|

uonezgjenueoaa

'txatuoo meu e ui UO]1R|OA8 pue uonetueuiajduii

lieu; q6noru; erpjow o; seep! jeuouewetui eseu; bundepe semowui

9691s piiqt v 'swets/fs jooqos ufiieJOj to uogtetgdsui sq; 1411M pue eouanjjui aui
Jepun seM ‘wetsAs |OOL|OS jeuoueu 9 J0] sues Apes out Bugpnjoui ‘stoedse eseut
to "e to uoiteeio eqi 'ebets puooas e s! qut :seogtoerd pue ‘stxa; ‘ull'llrlO].l.an
‘segogjod M9u utiM epeoap txeu 91411er pom; eq oi slooqos JO] pIOA 9619] 9 14%|
teql 'ABOjoepi taut utjM peteijjjje suoitezwefiio pue saintomts out to lluetu pue
A50|OepI13IAOS perweJ 13w uerpjow at]; 'wetszfs tag/tog out to fiuutuewsip
eqt euueo ISJH mats/(s joouos uerpjow e doreAep 01 efiueqo jo seBets

salon q6n01u1 lueM erpjow ‘Muoutne pue Mijiqgsuodser Meu eqt LuIM

I88

pooqos

911110 9611seid 9111 1111M pes9919u1 191.11 S991 pu9 ‘uoueoolei .IO ‘uog19uodsu9i1

101 ABd 01 peq s1u919d 'su99ui p9q OLjM esou1o1kjuo uedo 318M pu9 eouenjjug

p91riuu p9u 9910119 ]OOL]OS 99 gene SUJJO]8.I 19q1o 'SJo199dsu1 s1] pu9 13w 911101

DSJBMSUB pu9 tunjnoumo |9uor19u 9111 o1919qp9 01 p91961|qo 919M slooqos 9seq1

1o "9 mg °p9u9do sloouos 919Aud puv 'dOd 6u19q 9uo ‘9A1/uns 119ng 10 0M1

‘slepow |OOL|OS M9u M919 M0119 pgp law 9111 '96u9qo1ou pjp law we ‘A1uou1n9

19u01691 ‘jooqos 10 liqoreiagu jaAaj-jn 911 _1_ '96u9uo 911111 pamoue law 9111 ‘uuo;91

|OOL|OS 101911sep 9111 we Awouo1n9 M9u 9111 911dsac1 'UJI'I|nOI.I.ll'lO s11 pue ejoouos
s11 10 [onuoo p9u196 9Aop|ow ‘uoi19211911u999p 10 9691s 191119111 q1jM

°u10p991110 199p 19916 9 911911 9Aop|ow

A9p1ueseid ui S|ooqos1nq ‘p919966ns ugpofiel 19111 1U10d 9111 01 p9nu11uoo

19A9u 9691s pucoes sgql 'suogsroep 1001199 U] 6u119djoju9d s1u9pn1s pu9

s1u919d q11M [onuoo 19901 10 uog1ou 9q1paonp011u1 pu9 9)]!01sejed 1o poued 9111 u!

escre uog19211911u999p1o 99p! 911 _1_ 'Sjoouos19901 01 law mp 111011 [(1110111n9 awos

p911919u9119691s puooes eqi 'l66l u! 99u9pu9d9pu1 10 uog1919199p 9111 mm

p919|dwoo $9M pue A1u61919/tos1o uog1919199p pue 13w 911110 uog1921uefiioei

eIll Ill!M 066l IO eunr U! 9911913 SILLI. 'UOIIBOHPEI DUB GOUGIOS IO MISIUIIN

uenomow 9111 o11u9u1u91q61|ua pu9 99u91931o Ansgugw 191/tog 9q1wous1oouos

911110 A1uou1n9 1o 191su9119q1seM 9691s 191119111 ‘HSSD 911111111111 6u1u913 'S9691s

0M1u1 999|d >joo1u191slis |OOL|OS uerpjow 9u11o uog1921|911u999p 9111

888

111199 9111p91se101d s1u919d u911M ‘BJBABLUIJd 19 9091d x001 S111 J. '919d191u9d
o1p99u1ou op s1u919d 19111 Item 9 uons u1 joouos 911199u9n11u1 o1 [(1110111n9
31118811100 |OOL|OS 911199uen11u1 o1li1uoq1n9 91111111/(11 '1u91u969u9u1 1001199

U! 1U9LU9A|OAUI 1u919d 9691noou9 pue M0119 prp 919A9u1ud 'sfiuueaw jgounoo 9111
o1s1u919d 911mg 01 u911M 9u1uue19p 011019911p 1001199 91110111 $911991 91n191s 911 .L
'IIOUROO |OOL|OS 9111 up 9101 9 A91d o1s1u919d smone 91n191s joouos 911 J. 's1u919d
o1 A1uot11n9 M9u p91u916 9911 w91sAs |OOL|OS 911110 uoneznenueoep 911 _1_
'xooq1x91p19pu91s 91111u01119111p19111su91d M9u 6u1d019/19p ui011s19119991
p91u9A91d 911911 ‘su9p196 119111 u! Suppom 10 ‘p901 )]JOM p9S991ou1 U9 ‘s1u9pn1s
919Aud uo 6u1>191 ifq p9sn99 ‘s1u1911suoo 9w11'119991l191111911M u! 9010119
9 9191199919/116 pjnom 19111 $1911919u1 eseqomd o1spun1 M91 p911 91001199 JOOd 911 .l.
'uue1-1Jous pu9 p911u111 $9M 6u1u191119111u1 119111 'uiop9911M9u 11911110 9691u9Ap9
9x91 01319q9991101li11un110ddo 9111 p9p9du11 911911 sefiueueqo 10 Jequinu V
199119 6u11sej 911111 p911 u011u9/1191u1 w191-11011s $1111 ‘119199991 Aw uo peseq
‘1ng 'xueg pqu 911110 99u91sgsse 1919u9u11 9111 1111M 919119991o1aseu190np011u1
pjp pue ‘spoq191u 6u1119991u1 96u9119 9A1su91x9 910w 91011101d p1p law 911 J. '91n1
S1111 p99101u9 £19191 13w 91111nq ‘s1911919u1 pue sxooq p9A01dd9 13w A|UO esn o1
919M 9191199911911119pisuoo 9M u911M1U91Jodu11un s199dd9 ebueuo 9111 _1_ 'suossaj
6u1u6199p 111 ijqusuodsei pue lfuquxeu 910w ueA16 919M 99119991 'u19pou1
pu9 u191sa~1100119s 91119)191u 01919111119111 99111111199 w001s9919 101su0115966ns
pu9 ‘sau119p1n61u91uoo 1919U96 ‘S9A11oalqo p9u191uoo wnjnouino mm 911]

'wnjnoruno 91o uog19910 9111S9M1011uoo ouqnder $111110 1|DSBJ u191u 9111

983

911911 sloouos S9S9o 911103 u1 1001103 9111uo Aeuow 9111pu9ds pu9 s19qu19111 111011
3991139110019111so-3N $9 suog19130sse1u919d dn1es 911911 sloouos1sow 'slooqos
101110ddns 191:1U9u11 x993 o1s1u919d sefi91nooue 91n191s 1001103 911 _1_

'p991dseng

s! uog1dn1103 91911399110 s1u9pn1s 101seo1n0391 M91 919 91911 J. 'fiuqumo

pu9 plan 919 91001103 'suogsse101d 91111191 9A911 S1911399_L 'p91911ns 911911 s1oouos

‘11ns91 9 sv '19/191 A119Aod 9111M019q News 9 su199 19110991 Buguugfiaq 9 ‘u0111pp9

u1 'spun1p9p99u 1o o/¢,o;1noq9 9A19091 sloouos 131/11 9111/(q dn 19s su11ou

19u11u1u1 Aq ueAa 'BAOp|O|N u! p9pun1-19pun A11911u91sqns 919 31001103 'seoueu11
looqos 1111M $199p 1011uoo 19001 10 19119u1 1911u9nbesuoo 91ou1 110nm v

my 10 Aqdosouqd pu9 A5059p9d

9111110ddns 01 9010110 9 5u1)|9u1 919 A9111 ‘100110s 9111 Bugsoouo Aq ‘19A9M0H

'suompuoo 19001 01111d9p9 0119p10 ug 6u1110991 9111 p90u9n|1u1 911911 s1u919d

1911190u9p1/19 911111 91 91911 _|_ 110199391 Aw 6u11np1ooqos 911119 sew111o 19qu1nu 9

9091d xoo1s111_1_ 's1U9pn1s 911101Aqq011 1o uogssa101d 11911110 exods s1U919d U911~1

SEM $111101 uog1d90x9 uv 'os op o1p9111|9nb1ou 919M A9u1191111191s1u919d pu9

39910 911110 99111111109 Auep 9111 u! 919d101119d o1s1u919d 9691noou91ou pgp A11n091
911 .I. 109119 911111 p911 S9111u9u19/110Au1 1u919d ‘A6069p9d 10 9919 9111 111

'S9u1001no 93011101dn p991 19111suog1911069u

911110 sewoomo 9111 101p91d o1 91q1ssod1u1 s1 11 f90u9u19/106 og19100u19p1o 119d

Assam 9111s! 911111ng 90119100939 1u919d 91111o1u9p1391d 9111S9 99/(oldu19 1oo110s

pu9 1u919d-uou 9 p910/\ pu9 11911 Apn1s 100110s-19119 9111u1011s1u9pn1s1o 19ssgu131p

1783

911110 90u91d9009 9111 we 'BAODIOW u! u191sAs u0119onp9 91g1u9 9111 pu9 s100uos
31011uoo A119u1u10u 151w 9111116n01111 ‘9191s 911 .L '(999 'd)“A119:>1111od u191sAs
19u0119onp9 9111 p921u961o 8911 9191s 911119111 119/111 9111 pu9 9191s 911101/(1u921113
s1u0119u 911110 dgusuog19|91 1901111od 9111/(Q p9u119p [(196191 31 su191sAs |9u01190np9
u! 909|d 9x91 $96u9110 A9~1 9111 ‘u01190np91019u119p pu91911ddns 9111s! 9191s

911 .L. ‘S9111M 9H '1101192119q01610 p0119d $1111 U1 9u1109p uo 31 91913 911110 90u9n11u1
911119111 19011d9>1s s! (9003))10u193 'u1n1n0111no |9u0119u 9111M01|o11snu1 pu9 13w
911110 u011ogps11n1911119pun 919 ‘s100110s 9191s-uou 1o ‘919A11d u9A3 'sloouos 9111
s109dsu1 pu9 ‘sxooq1x91seA01dd9 ‘umlnoguno 911139A01dd9 ‘sloo110s 1o 91ns010
9111pu9 6u1u9do 911199Ao1dd91| "13w 9111s1/(1110111n9 1911u90 91119Aop|ow1o 9393
9111 u1 'A111o111n9 1911u90 9111 115n011111911111snu1 suogsgoep 119 A1199u 919111111 u191sAs

9 S9 u191sAs loouos p9211911u99 911139q11osep (6161) 19110111 1919619w

masks Ioouos 1111101511 v

1001103 911119 S9111un110dd019u01190np9 90u911u9 Anueomufigs
o119p1o u! 6u119911 u9/19 pu9 ‘919110991 ‘91911919u1 5u1110991 ‘SJ91ndu100 ‘sxooq
sp19~1019u05 911911 ‘919A9u111d 1o 9S90 9111u1 ‘spun1 9sa111 71111991 u1 spans

10 Mllenb 91111991191ou saop BugoU9u11 1o 901nos 3111119111 peougAuoo s! u01190np9
A11S19A1un91d1o 1010911p law 911 _1_ 's1U919d 9A1110ddns uons1n01111~1 s100uos
u91116u1u1991 019A10npuoo 910w 119nm suompuoo 911911 ||!M ‘loouos 91110191116 01
A9uou1 1111M s1u919d ‘s1u919d 1o uoddns 1913u9u11 9111 9A911 1911191001103 'Mgnbeug
10 199p 19915 9 u11|nS91 $90p $1111 ‘s18966ns (9951) uugaow sv 'su191601d

sd103 90995 10 ‘owsn ‘xuea pqu 116n01111s109!o1d 1911d9o 1016u1pun1puno1

988

'19u0119u191u1 s1
19111p19pu91s 1u919111p 9 uo 919 89KB 119111 'segouefie 9191s sn0119/1 Aq p91osuods
1u9u1d019/19p |9uogsse101d pu9119 Au911M9:1 '39p915 01109p1p uerplow
o1u1 suo119 119111 5u1|9uu9110 1o p991su1 uog19og111193 VSSI 195 01 p9>110~1 919/1911111d
19 S191109911o 19qu1nu v '1u9u1d019/19p 19uogsse101d s11 9p1n5 o1vss| 9111
u1011sp19pu91s o1p9119191 A11no919111 ‘919A911111d 19 110199S911o 199A 91116u11nc1
'u011921u961o dOd 19u0119u 9111 u5n011111d93x9 9Aop|ow U! fiugpu91s 19101110 ou
S911 OON $111 _1_ 'VSSI 9111 u! s99111u1u100 snog19/1 9111 uo S9A1191u9se1d91 u9Aop|ow
919 919111 '9Aop10w u! dOd p9A01dd9 13w 911119119 $19911 19191193 p9u11o159~1
19111 u011921u961o |9u0119u191u1 u9 ‘(VSSD u0119190ssv d91s Aq d91s 19u0119u191u1
9111 u101193u9p1n61o 199p 19916 9 391119391 dOd ‘A11U9110du11 910w
'su0119011qnd .I.EI|N 19101110 p9191u9
u9/19 911911 seep! 99911110 911109 'S19110991 01990111199 1u9111d019/19p |9uogsse1o1d
sapgAOJd pu9 $1911919u1 u1001sselo p911911qnd $91111 'A11unoo 9111u1 99u9n|1u1
p991dsep1~1 1111M u011921u951o u9 o1u1 u~1016 eougs S911 dOd 9111 ‘ssa1p19693
'9ou9n11u1 191u919d S1111 p91u9p u01190np9 A11s19/11un91d 1o 1010911p 911 _|_ 'u191601d
911110 uogsuedxa 9111101 6u1>1S9 s1u919d 1o 90u9n11u1 9111019np 119d U! |OOL|OS
9|pp1u1 pue $9p915 A19u111d o1u1 p9Aou1 S911 dOd 9111uog1d90u1 s11 eougs '1011uoo
9u10s p911s1nbu1|91 9911 9191s 9111 ‘u191601d dOd 911110 9seo 9111u119)\
'1uasuoo SJUGLUUJSAOG

9111 1111M Aluo 999|d sex91 )luea p|1oM 9111/(q p90u9u11-oo s109[01d sn0119/1

983

'A11un00 9111s30109 S99p1 s11 6u11911s
s1 dOd 9111/(11u911n01nq ‘911193 9111 op A9u1 $0111|0d pu9 ‘de 10 u01191U9u191d1111
911111u111 A9u1 $011u0u003 'A11un00 9111530109 31001103 101110ddns pu9
6u1u19119p1/101d 01 senu11u00 dOd ‘19A9M0H 'os 0p 01 p9p99u $19110991p911119nb
111116111 911111n1091 013100110s Au9u1 10191q1ss0d 11 s1 JON '110991S19110991919A9u111d
19A9| 911119 110991 01 p9p99u $901nOS91 pu9 ‘6u1u1911 ‘9u1119111 9p1A01d 01890u9u11
9111911911 10u 0p ‘39919191n1 u1 11119109039 ‘s10011031s0u1 ‘u191601d 91110191911p9
01 w19|0 pU9 SBSp1de 911110 91110s 9sn s100u0s AU9u1 116n01111v '111191 199u 9111
u1 919011d91 p|n00 $100110s 19111019111 19p01u 910u S1919A11111d 19 dOd 911 .L
'M1un00 9111ss0109 31911099101399p1 99911139110991de ‘910u1191111n;1
's100u0s dad-uou 19111019 u0119191d191u1 s11 u91111u919111p 911nb S1919/19u111d
191116n91 u1n1n0111n0 9111 ‘u1n1n0111n0 10 u0119191d191u11ep9010 9 111 '6u1u1991
11911110 u0110911p 91119p1n6 pu9 S99p1 119111 sse1dx9 01 S9111un110dd0 Auew
u9/11fi 919 A9111 '1u919111p s1 s19110991119111 1111M pu91ue1u00 911111111111 911911 119111
d111su0119191 911 .L '1U919111p 90 ‘su19es 11 ‘111M s111>1s 6u1)1u1111pu9 u011901unu1u100 9111
1nq ‘1911u11s 90 A9u1 100110s 111011 U196 A9u1 A9111 96p91~10u>1 911 J. '19s 111xs1u919111p
9 9A911 A19>11| 111M dOd 919 u91p11110 ‘9u19s 91119q 01919 $1906 191n0111n0 9111
116n0111 u9/13 1001103 191n691919 pun0190 p1n0M u9L11u91p11110 101 s90u9119dx9
1019s 1u919111p 9 9919910 1001103 9 10 u01s1/11u919111p 9111 ‘1u9pu91u119dns 101093

9111pU9 ‘10109dsu1 100110s19d101unw 9111 ‘s1U919d “919110991 01 601p1000v

 

 

£88

u1 390u9119dxe UMO 11911101 u0110991 9 $9 s1111~191A 3119110991 19191199 'S99p1
119u1A10d9 01111111119910 9111 u19111 p9~10119 dOd '91q9110111100 1991A9u119111A9M 9 u1
11099101u10p9911 6u1>199$ A11U9u1u10p91d S1111 pm 11911 _1_ '6u11109911191110190U9p1n5
10191911M9s19 >1001 01 S9M u0110991 11911 .L 'de 91119sn 19111990111 6u1p19691
90u9p1A9 911911 1 ‘p9u191u91 911911 011M 99011110 5u11109919111 6u1p19693
'110ddns
101111111191 u0 puedap 10 su9p196 119111u1>110~1 ‘u01190np9 10 9p1s1n0 s00! ‘s101n1
‘sp901 6u1110991911x9 u0 91191919110991 ‘>110M 911x9 s1 asuodS91 p11111v 'S9111u191
119111pU9 s1u9pn1s u1011spun110 6u1110110s 115n011119u100u11191111u9u191ddns
0191q9 919 91911099 _1_ 'M1un00 9111 u1 u0 5u106 u011dn1100 191110 911110 9u10s
01 p919du100 fined 31 11 116n011119 s100110$ u1 p991dsep1~1 s1 u011dn1103 'u011dn1100
s1 19Msu9 pu009s 9111 'u191001d 6u1nu11u00 9 $1 31111 1911119966ns s01L1d91601119p
19110991 pue 90u9p1/19 1910p090v '%09 S1 1191 911911 0111111 $1911099110 190umu
911110 919w11se 900 ‘91d09d 001111u1 9u0 39 116111 S9 un1 s1u9161u1910 $919u111sa
')|JOM 911110 A11n01111p p9S9910u1 pu9 $911919s M01 911110 9sn909q 1911191 1nq
‘Audosouud 19u01190np9 u1 95u9110 911110 9sn909q 1191 [1911119111 p913966ns 9u0
0N 'u01ssa101d 9111911991 A911119q1s119msu9 p991dsep1M1sou1 911 _1_ 'u011n10/191

19100s 10 S90u91su1n0110 9111u110991 pu9109 919110991 M011 pu11011n0199 1

s19110991

'u011sanb u1 s1A1110111n9 pu9 Aw0u01n9 $1111de 1u916 01s9nu11u00 13w
911110u 10 191119111111 13w 91111019A010d9 91111n01111~1 u191s/(s 1001103 9111191u9

01 S99p1 M9u 101 M0119 seop 11 1nq ‘u191sAs 1001109 1911919d 9100 s1 dOd

888

su11910 911d99c1 '1001109 9111 U1 5U1U1991 pu9 6U11109919111U1 99A199u191119A10/1U110u
0p 91U919d ‘91199p pu9 U01991U1p9 UMO 119111/(g 9990010 016059p9d 911190U9n11u1
01 p911110u 9A911 p9M91/1191U1 1 s1u919d 911199n909q U191190m 91 90U9n11U1

110nu1 MOH '90U9n11U1 911111 111911 911911 A9111 ‘1001109 911119 9991n0019u11019111
6U1p19691 ‘19A9M0H “1001109 911110 1U9U1959U9U1 1919U95 9111 pU9 s1u91601d 1001109
-19119 5U1p19691 90U9n11u1 911109 9A911 0p 919A9u111d 19 s1U919d '91001109 01/19U0U1
10 9111ns 95191 91nq111U00 A11un00 9111990109 s1U9190 £1001109 9111 01A9u0u1 10 sums
96191 91nq111U00 919A9u111d 19 91U919d '1001109 9111101119U9q 91110191 9111199990
Auew U1 '999001d 6U1)19U1 U019109p 9111U1A1110111n9 9U109 pU9 9101 A1019d101119d

9 s1u9190 6U1M0119 0119100U19p 90 01919 91001103 'p9U01s1AU9 9d9111ad

A0110d 9111191111001109 p9p1n6 [(119001 9nb1un 01 p91 ‘19A9M011 ‘10U 991111 '9p19

1910U9U119111 U0 A1119U111d ‘91119U9q AU9U1 UM0119 9911 1U9U19A10AU1 1U919d

91u919d

'19p0U1 19u01190np9 19u0119u191u1 U910 99n 119111 pU9 U91p11L10
101u9u1d019/19p 911101 U011nq111u00 119111 6U110U :10 11101111 119111/(111m! U90 dOd 9111
‘91991 U0 116111 9100s 10U 0p 011M s1u9pn1s 1111M 91001109 U1 919110991 10:1 'p11110 9111
101U9U1d019/19p 9111 U0 s1 sn001 9111 'sp91d1uA10 01w9p909 9111 we 91991 19u0119u

91119219911du1910U 990p dOd 911 _1_ 'A09U1111591 10 110s 91U09 19110991911191U915
0919 dOd 91116U1sn '9u191601d 990111 5U1110ddns 91911919U1 9A119U19119 99 119/111
99 su191501d 6U1L109919A119U19119 6u111u111 10 9910110d 911 pu9 151w 911110 11191011110

6U1A119pun U9 0919 91 919111 '9A119U19119 U9 p919110 dOd 19111pun01pU9 91001109

683

91919111 ‘U19199M A11901U ‘999p1 10 90U9109009 A191un10/1 9 s1 91911119111 91191190
19u11019111 '919p10q 911 01 9nb1un 11191919 1001109 9 919910 01 U0119U 9 10111n01111p
8! 1! 12111 1sefifins (8661 ‘qu910) 8181106111101111100 pue (QABGL ‘BLBGL ‘1109

13 2911u1911) 919110911191n11n3 p110M mm 01109111 U01192119q019 'U1919/(s 1001109
19u0119U 9 U110101 p91dU19119 pU9 11191919 1001109 p919U1U10p U91ssna ‘191/103

9111p9109191 9A0p10w ‘U0119z119qo16 Aq p9211910919110 p0119d 9 6u11nc1

U191sfis 1001103 9 6U1z119U0119N

p10A9 10uu90 11911119111 5U11119u109 91 911111016U1A9d '19U0110U19

10 ‘9A111U600 ‘190191111d 191119111111 U91p11110 119111101011109d9 5U11119U1091U9M

0p 91U919d 9111101901111 'U91p11110 11911110190U9119dxe 9A11190d 910U1 9 99p1/101d

pU9 ‘A11un00 9111 U1 91001109 1901d/11 910U1 191110 1110111U919111p 91 ‘90U9119dx9 UMO

11911110 91001109 1110111U919111p s1 ‘U1911101 6U1p10009 ‘19111 1001109 9 U1 919d101119d

01 p19d 9A9U pU9 91001109 96U9110 01 A1111q9 911 u0 dn U9A16 911911 A911 _1_ '91001109

10 90U9U19A06 s11 pU9 9191s 9111 U0 dn U9A15 A11911U9999 911911 A9111 '90U91d9009
pU9 9U0119109dx9 M0| 10 9U0 91 91919 9111019pn11119 1s1U919d 9111

'suonefiuqo 119111

11U111 0190U9n11U1 pU91U9U19A10/1U111911199n pU9 U01s1/1 91111 p9191991 911911 91U919d

9u103 'U01191oq91100100U09-A111U9110 U0191A 119111p910U101d pU9 6U11991 p11110

1noq9 91U919d 1111M >1191A1191n691 919110991 '919A9U111c1 19 U019U91 911109 p919910
9911 law 9111 pU9 dOd 10 1906 9 ‘91U919d 101u91U9A10/1U1 1919915 9111

'U100199910 9111 U1 U91p11110 1111M >110M

01 p911119nb 199110U 0p 91U919d ‘>110M9U1011 119111 U0 U91p11110 119111 1111M )|JOM 01

0178

‘U0111pp9 U1 '911d1119 11918an 911110 96p9 9111 U0 U01691 9111110 A111u9p1 19u0119U AU9
9919d91p 011dU19119 91919q119p 9 99M 919111 ‘91n1 UE1SSI’IH 911110 110nU1 6U11nc1 '91n1
U91UBLUOH 10 99p909p 0M1 pu9 90U9pU9d9pU1 10 p0119d 19110 9 1011d90x9 9A0p10w
p9u19/106 HSSfl/B!SSDH 9911n1U90 0M1 10:1 '0p 01 p1911 90 p1n0~119111 ‘9A0p10w
10:1 'U0119U 910 U0111U119p 9111 9911m991d U1919A9 1001109 19u0119U 9 6U1U119c1
'A0110d 19u0119U 9111
10 91905 911110 AU9U1 1111M 1U91s19U00 919 U191601d 9111110 91906 911 J. 11913 p991.1
U90119U1v U0 p999q ‘11191501d 0913 A0 d91s 9111p90np011U19/10p10w 10 91n1119U1
11191003 U900 9111 '91001109 116n01111/1111U9p1 19u0119U 91110191nq111U0019111910109
9191s MUO 10U 9111 ‘UM0119 911911 1 9v 1001109 19u0119u 9111 U1 11099101 U19119u0119U
9 10 6U1U119p 91115U119011du100 ‘919q9p 19pun 919 91q919993 10 969n6u91 pU9
141019111 911110 9109099 Auew '959n5U91 pU9 111019111 U0U1U100 9 10 5U1110991 116n01111
A1U19U1 99U100 91111 '(14 'd) “91U9pU9119 11911110 U011911U919111p 191n11n0 pU9 19011110d
‘19U0119U 91110191nq111U00,, 01 pesn 91191119u0 99 1001109 19u0119u 911199U119p
(9003) 919011192 'UJBISKS IOOUOS IBUOHBU B GUMGP 0111n0111191! SGXBUJ 9N1.
'(66Gl ‘95U1U1U1n3 :oooz ‘U9M03) 91U919A9
1001109 990111 pU91s19pun 011U910111n910u 91 919p1oq 19u0119U U0 p999q su1919/(9
100110910 919A19U9 9111191111911U9n11U1 09 91 UU9U10U911d 911111911119965n9 U9A9
9191110 '19U01190np9 1019011110d ‘p99u 9111 U0 6U1pU9d9p 9091d 5U1)191 6U1pU91 pU9
5U1M011oq1U919U00 9 91 9191111911119956ns (17003 ‘19u1911)1-19U191s toooa ‘U9M09)
919101109 191110 '99111un00 U19199M-U0U 01999p1 U19199M 19UU9110 9U011921U9610

p19 19u0119U191U1 1911119956n9 919110911110111U03 '91001109 9U119p 01 p99n

H73

9111U011U9u1 U9110 A9111 919101109 1111M 9U0119919/1U00 U| '199d191/109 911110 9961199/1

911110 AU9U1 p90un0U91 9A911 A9111 116n011119 ‘191/103 95U1111119 p90Uh0U91 10U

A1U191190 911911 A9111 9111919119 1001109 19u0119U 191110 U1 [(1019111 6U01 9 9911 99011091d

19016069p9d 10 6U1M0110q 19u0119U191U1 ‘p199 6U19q 1911 .L '9A0p10w U1 p91qU19999

919M [191111911110919111 U9111910u1 99U99 AU9 U1 “UBAOMOW” 919 11911119111

A99 01 p1911 91 11 ‘990U9103 19u01190np3 10 91n1119U1 911110 A11919A1un 19015069p9d
911119 919101109 10 law 9111 U101191U9U1n00p 9191919 6U1>1001 ma

'9A0p10w 101U9U11119p

101!}9U9q 91110191 U1919As 19u01190np9 U9 5U1U6199p 10 p01119U1 9111119111911M

0199 9A0p10w U1 U01199nb 9 11119 91 919111 'sM91p U1n1n0111n0 9111110111M U0 M09111

pU9 110199991 911110 9111191 U1 90U9991d 19u0119U191U1 U9 91 91911 _1_ '9A0p10w 101

199q 1115n0111/19111 1911M p9109199 pU9 9U1919A9 sn0119/119 p9>1001919101109 ‘U011n109

u11915U01 9 10:1 's>100q1x91 pu9 91n0111n0 911 99 119M 99 9901911 911 pU9 111019111 911

p9110du11 9A0p10w '90U9p1n6 101 B1UBUJOH 9p19M0119111 p911001 9U0191A91 191n0111n0

19111911110 910111nv '9U1919A9 1001109 91d111nu1 U1011999p1 6U1U1qu100 p9pn10U11nq
B1UBUJOH U1011 [111/19911 6U1M0110q Aq U9690 1119191191001109 M9U 9 6U119913

'9001n3 10191111111M U1919A9 1001109 911 9191691U1 011116n09

9911 9A0p10w ‘9003 U1 u01190np310 M91 M9U 911101116n011119951 10 U011d90U03

191119111 U101=1 '1u919/19 1001109 19u0119U 91119U119p 01 U9>191 1119d 19u0119U191U1 9111

9U191dx9 911119d91119d '>19915U119119n11pU9 6U16U9119110 9 9q p1n0M1x91U00 91111

U1 91n11n019U0119U 9 6U1U119c1 '919q9p 19pun 91 91U9U10t1 1111M d1119U0119191 19011019111

911 pU9 U0119U 9 99M 19119 910919999 19111911M 0199 U0199n091p 911109 91 919111

ZVZ

'A11un00 9111 U1 9091d U9>191991119111 u110191 sn0pU9U1911911101 5U1pU0d991100
M115U8| 91 991pn19 91q1ssod 10 1911 9111 '1U91UU19A06 9111101 96U9119110 6U1nU11U00 9
91 A1101U1119 pU9 U19119U0119U 10 9n991 911_1_ 'U0U9U10U9110 19q016 91111 U0 9A1109d919d
U9A0p10w 9 9p1/101d p1n0M 9A0p10w U1 A0110d 9111110 Apn19 v '1U9u19/10U1

10 199p 19916 9 01 p91 9911 p11110 S‘GUO 1011001109 9 9900110 01111611 911_1_ 'Apn1s
191111n1 199q191119910110d AU9U1 919 919111u0111pp9 U1 '91001109 U9q1n 01 p919du100
91001109 191m U1 90U9119dx91U919111p 9 9q 01 Menu 0919 91 91911 _1_ 'U91u191>1n

pU9 ‘u91zn9699 ‘UB1SSI‘IH ‘919A11d ‘A11un00 9111 U1 9100110910 99dA11U919111p

9111 U1 990U9119dx91U919111p 9111pu91919pun 01 p9p99U 9q 111M Apn19 191111n:1
'999001d 91111 6U1pu91919pun 19 d919191119 ‘19A9M011 91 11 '1001109 915U19 910 9990
9111 U1 pU9 [(01100 19u0119U 10191191 9111 U0 911119U0p 911911 1 '9A0p10w U1 u01119u91110

p0119d 911110 91U9/1910 90U9nb99 9111 9U111n0 0191du19119 Apn1s1U9991d 9111
Aims Jauuna
'PIJOM 8H1

pun019 U1011999p1 6U1900110 U011d90U03 pu9 ‘U01190np3 10 M91 9 “‘1un1n0111n0”

9 p911du100 9A0p10w pU9 9111 U1 'p9/119091 9A911 A9111U011911dsu1 pu9 999p1 U19199M

8’98

(Bl 'd ‘QAOOZ ‘BAOPIOW !!3!|qnd98 |B !nln1919U!.L 19 19119:)an InJGISWMI)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

93 v3 98 smou 10 Jeqwnu 19101
L 1 a [91190np9] U01190np3 I90!3Md
uods
L I l I 1 I [901w0U009 9u1011]uo1190np3 19016010u1109_1_
A6010U11091
l 1 1 [1191 Warsaw; 0118919
1 1 1 [91190np9] U01190np§1 19019nw
11V
- - - [11019111
9 9 9 (011911191 nlanS) A11A11ov 01191119111
[91190np9] U01190np3 01191U9U1nH 191003
3 l l 90U9103
17 17 17 9011911191119w
83U9!OS pu9 90119U191119w
Z 3 - 969n6u9'1 U61910:1
9 9 g 91n191911'1 pu9 959n6u9'1 U91U911101:1
9 9 9 [l999w]A11A110v 6u1u199'1 dn019
U011901unu1u100 pU9 969n6u9'1
V E I Z I L 9U11d1091c1
>199M 190 91n011 10 190mm pu9 9p919 9919 191n0111n3

 

 

11191601d d91s Aq d91s 9111101 U09991 10 91np91109 :01 91q9 .1,

SE‘H'KEHOS SSV'IO 3V XICINaddV

V173

(91-11 'dd ‘cuooa ‘erplow 1101lqnde11 191n1n1919uu1s 1aneonpa InJa1s1U1w)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

83 32 88 OZ 91n011 10 1equmu 1unu11xew
13 03 oz 31 91n011 10 1eqwnu U111u11U1w
1-0 1-0 1-0 1-0 19u011do
Z Z a z U01190np3 19019111“

pads

1-0 1-0 1-0 1-0 19u011do
l 1 1 1 U01190np3 19016010U11091

A6010U11091

1-0 1-0 1-0 1-0 I9U011do
l l 1 1 U01190an 011991c1

1 1 1 1 U01190np3 19019nw

UV

1-0 1-0 1-0 1-0 I9U011do
1 1 1 1 U01190np3 19m111ds 19101111

1 - - - 111019111

u01190np3 01191U9u1n11 191003

1-0 1-0 1-0 1-0 I9U011do
l l 1 - 90U9103

17 v v v 90119u191119w

90U91os pU9 90119U191119w
1-0 1-0 1-0 1-0 I9U011do
Z Z Z - 969n6u91 U6!GJO:|
L I. A 8 91n191911‘1 pU9 969n6u91 U91U9U103
, U011901unu1u100 pU9969n6U9'1
v I 8 I Z I 1 I 9U11d1091a

 

 

 

)198M 19d 91n01110 19qu1nu pU9 9p919 I 9919 191n0111n3

 

1001109 A191U9u1919
p19pU919 U9Aop10w ‘17-1. 99p916 1019999910 10 91np91103 :11 91Q91

9173

(686i 'IJSGUE/‘OP/OW SSH [9 OIIQnd 1n/n1u11u919Au1 [”1919!U!W)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(£19199 p901 99pn10x9)
£8 £8 £8 smou 1o Jeqwnu 19101
01 01 01 (19101 1112911) £16198 1190110 9911111
a z a uomeonpe 190181119
1 1 1 019nw
l l l U9 ODSBId
1 1 1 [901w0U009 9U1011] >110M 116n01111 U0110n119U1
a 1 91n19U 10 90U9103
9 9 9 90119U191119w
9 9 v U9199nu
('U91‘
1 1 111011) 1 61119991 12111111119111
('uer‘ 1U9U1d019/19p
v 17 U1011)9 11099d9 pU9 ‘6U1119d9 ‘19U1U1919
('Uer‘
e 12 111011) 9 1U9U1d019/19p 11099d9 pU9 6U1p993
(8198/11 171)
31 1U9U1d019A9p 11099d9 pU9 6U1111M—6U1p993
8 Z
9p919 Apn19 10 991v

 

 

 

9999910 A191U9U1919 1911103 101 9999910 10 91np9110$ :z1 91q91

9178

 

10 91161p 10 90U9p1A9
9111 Aq 919qu1nu 6U119du103

991

U1 U0119001 911110 9110991

911110 6U1111M pU9 9109100
10 9dno1610 6U119du103

'UO
OS PUB ‘0001 ‘001 ‘01 3!
9101091 911110 9U0 110111M
U1 910np01d 10 u1n9 9 99
190w nu 9 5U1111M [99A11
Ag '91]'d919 9111 U0 p9990
96U1M91p 10 91091q0
10 6U1dn01691 pU9 6U1dn019

'96U1M91p pU9 9109[q0

10 110ddns1n01111M

10 1111M ‘5U1999109p

pU9 6U199910U1 d919

U9A16 Aq pU9 19qu1nu
19111 U9A16 U101119qu1nN

'191110U9

01 U01191U9991d9110

111101 9U0 U1011 6U16U9113

'91161p 6U1111M 10

U1919A9 U011190d 9111 5U19n
19q1unu 10 U01181USSGJGGH

'pe1pn1s
919q1unU 911110 96U1M91p
10 9109100 1111M U011€1UGSGJdGH

'OOOOOOL
01 o 1U0119 19qu1nu

191n19U 9111M pU9 p993

'000 um PUB 000159

1111M 9191110 pu9 q>xs9

‘q>x>9 99 mm x 190111nu
191n19U 9 10 U0119U1LU1919p 9111

'9u11 19q1unu
pU9 5U1sn 919qu1nu
191n19U 10 U09119du103

1126111311

9U0 pU9 191U0211011 9U0)

99x9 0M1 U0 91eqLunU

10 10 119d p919p10

U910 91x9 U9 U0 919qu1nu
191n19U 10 U01191U9991d9t1

19p1010 dquU0119|GH
’|BUO!1!SOd
pu9 U91999q :U1919A9
190wnu 911110 9011911910919113

9p0119d pU9 19p10

"00000 1'0 U110} 919q111nN

'999U1
6U01119 d1119U0119191 9111 pU9
'016 13116113 spuesnom” ..‘1161p
seuo” ..‘1151p spemunu”
““1161p sum, 99 mm

9U1191 9111 1111091100 99n 01 .

£91161p 19191199
1111M 1equmu 191n19U 910 01
999q U1 910109191119111M 01 .

tpoued
pU9 19p1010 99p1 9111 99n 0 _1_ .

'p91un00 919 £111 110111M U1
19p10 911110 ‘1u9U19091d 119111
‘9109100 9111 10 U0111U50091
9111 U0 pU9d9p10U 990p 199
9 10 91U9U191910 19q1unu 9111
19111 91du19x9 Aq M0119 0 _1_ .

0000001 01 SJequmu
191n19U19p10 01 919du100

01 ‘p991 01 ‘SIUM O_|_ o

:919qu1nu
1019u011910U 9111pU9
91aqu1nU 91116U1pU91919pun

 

 

'9/11109100 p9U19119 U9

99 U9999101 9911109d90

9111 10 1U9U1d019/19p

9111 ‘1U91U90101U191

‘5U1110991 9111 p991

19111 881111111012) 5U1U1211
191U9U1 101 9U0119956ns

 

((1) 15118182
U9 1111M 910U 911U91U00
M019611q0-U0U)1U91U03

 

:9109
911U9pn19 991 1! M095
111M 9p9U1 U01191n19/19
9111 '99A11091q0
1U919191:1 'U91d 99A11091qo

 

e 9p916 90119U191119w :91 91q91

Wfl'lflOlHHflO 3H1. INOHd SLdHBOXE =8 XIGNEddV

 

178

(66-86 'dd ‘9661 ‘BAoplow 110!and61:1 19191U1119 181811901193111161911111/1)

 

 

'A9U0U1
99n 01 A119U1:1 '9p9U1 919
996U9110X9 1U919A1n09
110111M U1 9911199 ‘9109100
191110 Aq p9091d91
919 0001 ‘001 ‘01 10
9dn016 110111M U1 9109100
1111M 6U11un0010 6U1U199
('019 ‘9n0909 ‘6U1U011190d
10 991n611 01119U1096)
99p0U1 1U90111U619
5U1sn 919011unu 0U119p1o
'U011130d
6111 Aq $11611) 1ue0111u51s

 

 

 

(mum) e1 an91

 

8178

...00.0 .9 9000 0 30.03.30 030 0000.030

 

30.0«03. 0200.200

00303.0 0. 0.:0<

>0..<...00 0. 080..

m<0.:0..03 0200.200

 

...30 0.:003. E... .003.

. .0 «000.<0 0
3000000 .3 .0230
0. 0000.00 00000
0. 0033:3.00..03

. .0 :300«0.030 .30
£00 00300 .3
003.0x.

. .0 .3.0«30..~0 .30
«0.0..03 00.5003
00:0 0. 000003
.220. 003.0300.
.00...

 

 

<0«30_ 0033:3.00..03

.. <0«00_. 20. 030 5:...03
0033:3.00..03. r0<0.
.30.00..030

. 90. 00.03 .3000 :0 0.
00:300 33:03 0
0:00000.03 0. 03030300.

. <<«...03 $0.03 .3000 :0 0.
00. 0. 00030300.

. .3.0«30. 0<0.03 36:03..

N. 203<0«00. 0033:3.00..03
.0 «00..~00 .3«0:03

. m0303..0 .030:000
600.:«00. 3.3.03:
00383.30.

 

908.000 .0« 00. 00:00..03 030

:300«0.030.30 0. .30 000.03. «000.
3000. .._:0.«0.00 3000000. «0.0.3.30
«0.0<03. .3.0«30..03. 53:30 30.00
23:0 ..0.03.30. .0 «00«00:00 0
3000000 .3 030.0 053 £000.

<0003:.0«< 903.000 50.3 03030..0

0.03030. 0.03000 0.
:300«0.030.30 .0. 0033:3.00..30
030 00.0.0330. 0. 30s. .2900 .3
003.0x. 030 00«003«00.30. >0..<..< 0..
0.00. 00800.6: 0. 03 03.00. 0« 03

 

...30 0.:003. E... 00 00.0”

. ...o 0:330«.~0 03 20. 3000000
030 ..0. .30 0«.30.0.0 .0000.

. ...0 0.6.0.3 00««00..< .30 3003.30
0. 0 £03 .«03 .3 003.00...

. ..0 .93 0«0..< 003.03000 53.3
0003 0. .30 302 £000.

...0 ..0. 20.... 0. .000. .50 5000 5...:
0.3..0« :300«0.030.30 .0«

 

 

6178

...00.0 3 .0033.

 

. 00303.30. 0.030
. 9.3.00.0

... O«0. 0033:3.00..03.300«.30
030 000003.
.. O«0.0x0«000.03
... 2000 0.3000000
. 30««0..<0
. 000030.20
. 00«0:00.<0
. ..:0...<.30
. 0030.:0.<0

 

 

 

09.03 30300 0.. 5.20. 088.000 0.
:300«0.030.30 0. .30 300. .«00:03.
0.30330. 03.03.30. 030 3030330

mx0«0.000 0. :300«0.030.30 030
0.00«.3.30..03 0. 0«0330..00. 0.«:0.:«0 0. 0
30010....

 

. 0003 .200 0.<03.

...0 «0803.0 03 .30 000.0 0. 0.<03
.0x. .30 200 0. 3000000. ..0..30 0.
.000. 23 «000030.

 

2.3.0.08. m0:00..0. 0. m...3.0. 0. 300:0..0: .<.0.00<0. .000. 0. mm.

 

098

99019 1911199111un110dd0 10 9691U9/1p9 110010919 1 ma '1991un10A 9 99 90U9119dx9
Aw U0 A191 1 111619U1 pU9 pun015>109q 9111110 119d 1021 'A0110d 19u01190np9 pU9
‘19p0u1 1001109 9 ‘1001109 9 U9111 U1919/19 1001109 9 01910U1 110nU1 91 919111
'PGIOGIIOO 9199
9111U1011 6U15191119 99111911110 U011961199AU1 9111101 M0119 01 110901dd9 0111d9150U1119
pu9 9A1191119nb 9 99n 1 ‘19/191 1001109 9111111 91000 111019111 pU9 9M91A191U1
Aq p91U9u191ddn9 91U9111n00p 10 919A19U9 U9 115n01111995U9110 9p1M U1919A9 pU9
A0110d 911191901199AU1 1 0100199910 pU9 1001109 911110191191 911119 91 pU0099 9111
'96U9110 9p1M U1919As pU9 A0110d 101911191 191191 9U0 '919/191 0M1 U0 996U9110 999111
9U1U19x91 '99p909p 0M1199d 911119/10 U1919A9 U01190np9 9A0p10w 9111U19091d
U9>191 911911 19111996U9110 p901q 9111pU91919pun 01s1d1u9119 Apn1s 91111
'U0119119991p AU1 10 9n0019 9U19090 pU9 919110991 p911099119111/(011od 10 901n09
pU0099 9 9U19090 9111 _1_ '9A0p10w U1 dOd 911110 90U9n11u1 p991d99p1M 9111109dx9
10U pm 1 'p9109dx9 99M19111 '>1U99 p110M 9111 pU91901un 99 mm 9U011921U9510
p19 9n0119/1 9111110n01111 90U9n11u1 19u0119U191U1 110nU1 0919 99M 91911 _1_ ' law 9111
U1011 p9U1u1919 A0110d 9111110 119d '9191109915U1011091d AU9U110 9199190 91116U11np
99U1119n019u1nU p96U9110 p911 p1911/(0110d 19u01190np9 911_1_ '919A19U9 19011019111
911109 911n091 p1n0M 91111 ffiu1>110M 919M A9111 110111M U1 p1911/(0110d 9111 pU91s19pun
01 p9p99U 1 ‘1990 9111 U1 9U0p p911 1191111911M 01 U0119191 U1 6U10p 919M 919110991

1911M pU91s19pun 0119111 p9211991 U009 1 ‘9003 U1 110199991 91111 U969c1 1 9v
919A19U9 pU9 U011091100 919:1

SISA'IVNV CINV NOILOE'I'IOO VLVCI :0 XICINaddV

 

198

'5U1111M pu9 110199991 1019U111101un0U19 p9111u11
9 1111M 919p AU1 p92A19U9 A11U9pU9d9pU1 pU9 19110199991 915U19 9 99M 1
'9U0119191d191u1 pU9 999p1 AU1 19A 01 ‘91q1990d 99 110nU1
99 ‘U19111 U0 p91191 1 '9A0p10w U1919110991AU9U1 1111M 901119U0119191 d019A9p 019109
99M 1 199A 91115U11no '9191n009 919 9U0119U91dX9 99911119111 U99U110U 990p19111
1nq '5U1>110M 99M 1 91119119111 U11111M U9A9 ‘99U99 9>19U111151U1 9U0119U91dx9 999111
10 9U103 '9U0119U91dx9 1015U1)1001 A11U919U00 U19 1 19111919M9 0919 U19 1
111991 U0 109091 PIHOO I ‘P!P I ll 'MOlDI
10U 0p 1 ‘919 9991111911M 9211991 10U 0p 1 1911199991q 9111919 9n01p19U1 910w
'991q 1911U910d 10 99919
99911110119 pU1U1 U1 119911 01 A111 '1U9111U19A05191unu1u100 91119p19M01A1119d11U9
10 199p 19915 9 pU9 ‘919110991U9A0p10w A119109d99 ‘9U9A0p10w 101A1119d111A9
10 199p 19915 9 911911 0919 1 '5U1110991 p005 99M1115n0111 1 1911M 10 99p1 19910
9 1111M 191109919 0919 99M 1 'U9U10M Aq p919U1U10p p19119 U1 5U!)|.IOM 919U1 9 99M
1 910119111 U90119111v 9U019191 ‘9101191/1 911911 U10p1991911191001109 U199M 1 99U1111V

'959n5U91 pU0099 9 U1 p9)110M 1 'p91191A 1 91001109 9111U119U5191019 99M 1

91101121111111

'91001109 U99M190 990U919111p19911U00 0191001109 191110 U1 U999
p911 1 1911M 9191109911111M p999n091p 0919 1 '91001109 U9/10p10w 10 5U1pU91s19pun
19910 9 U0 p999q 99M U0119191d191u1 AU111 U1991 019pU9111 1111M 95U1pu11A1U
p999n091p 1 “99919 191m U1 pU9 ‘n9U191113 U1 919U1u199 pu9 9U09991 U9d0 p9pU9119

1 ‘91001109 10 10109d9u1 9111 1111M p9>110M 1 110199991 A111 10 991n00 91115U11np

 

898

1,de pU9 99011091d 191/103
U99M190 90U919111p 911191 1911M ‘99011091d 191/109, 10 ‘19U0111p911, U011U9U1 A911111
g,U191501d dOd 911199n noA 0p AUM
1,)110M9U1011

59w91q01d 9U11d1091p 5U1p19591 199910 U| (“,SIUBJBd 1111M )|.IOM n0A 0p MOH
199n5991100 1111M )|.IOM n0A 0p MOH
1,919/19U111d 19 11099101 91U00 noA p1p MOH
éApn19 n0A p1p 91911M/U911M 1191109919 91110090 n0A p1p MOH
:p9pn10U1 M91A191U1 911110 119d
91111 5U11np 9U01199no 'p9p1A01d s19M9U9 9111110ddn9 019U09991 9‘A9p 9111U1011
991dU19x9 101p9>199 U91101 '5U11001109 pU9 dOd U0 9A1109d919d pu9 pun015>1090

191911099191111n009 p91199 1 M91A191U1 911110 119d pU0099 91115U11nc1
99011091d 9U11d1091p pU91U9U1959U9U1 9111pU9 ‘1911919U1
91115U11109911019U09991 ‘u100199910 9111101U9U195U9119 9111‘91911919U1 U100199910
10 99n 9111 ‘9p01119U1 9111 pU91U91U00 911110 9U15110 9111 ‘9p01119U1 5U11109919111
‘9U09991 911110 91905 91111noq9 p9>199 1 9M91A191U1 9111 5U11ng 'u100199910 911110
91U9A9 91111111M p9109UU00 A199010 09 919M A9111 99n9090 9U01199nb 10 1911 919910
0191q1ssod10U 9111 0100199910 9111 U1 M99 1 1911M1n009 p9>199191111 ‘9M91A191U1
9111 5U11nc] 'UJOOJSSBlO 9111 U1 A9p "me 101 U19111 5U1/1199q0 19119 919110991
19np1A1pU1 p9M91/1191U1 1 °>110M 119111 U1 9p9U1 A9111990101101911M pU91115n91A9111

M011 U1991 0199M 1905 Aw '91U9U0dU100 0M1 p911 919110991 1111M 9M91A191U1
919110991
°U1n1 U1 919/191 9911119111

99n091p 1 110199991 10 p19119111 U1 U9111pU9 131111 91115U1pn10U1 191191 9A1191191U1U1p9

911119 191191 1001109 911119 ‘919A91 991111 U0 9U9A0p10w p9M91/1191U1 1

9M91A191u1

€98

'5U111099111911101p919191 9U01199nb 1911U119 p91199 1 '91001109

9191911103 U1 A1U01115n91p911 011M ‘919110991 p911191 991111 p9M9111191U1 1
'9910p09U9
19191110 11099 01 p9pU0d991 A1190U1 919110991 ‘1du101d 19111U1AU1 1911v '90U9pU9d9pU1
10 p0119d A1199 91111n009 1119111 p9)199 pU9 ‘p99n 911911 p1n0M A9111191119)100q1xa1
19p1010 19qu1nu 9 U19111 p9M0119 1 910551 9111115n0111190U9119dx9 1191111noq9

9U1 1111M pU9 9911199U191115U0U19 p999n091p 0919 919110991U9191911 91115
'p005
99M 11 MM pU9 ‘99A9 119111 U1 5U1110991p005 p91n1119U001911M ‘990U919U1n0110
1U9991d 119111 U1 p9>110M 919110991M011 5U1U1991 U0 99M 9n0019111 U195v '91001109
191110 U1 U999 p911 1 1911M 99 119M 99 ‘9999910 U1101001109 911119 U999 p911 1 91U9119
1n009 p9199 1 9U011991911U00 999111 5U11nc1 '99/1199U19111 5U0U19 01d01911199n091p
U1911119911 U9111 ‘91911099119191199 U1011999U0d991 19911 pU9 9U01199nb >199 p1n00 1
9U019999 999111 5U11nq 'A9p 911110 pU9 911119 99110 dn0 9 19110 91911099110 9dn015
1191119 1111M 9U011991911U00 919M 9U011991911U00 5U1199191U1 190U1 911110 9u109
919110991 U1011 p9U1991 1 1911M 10 U01110d 9 A1U01U9991d91 9M9111191u1 19U1101999111
'1001109 9111U11911099111099 1111M 9U0 ‘9M9111191U119U1101U9911001p910npU00 1
1U99U1 “p9191U90-p11110,,990p 1911M
gp95U9110 U191501d 000 91119911 MOH
1p95U9110 99011091d 1n0A 911911 MOH
1wn1n0111n019U0119U 911101 p919191 dOd 91 MOH
1,1U9U1d019119p 19U01999101d 101911911 n0A 0p 99111un110dd01911M

113w 91111111M d1119U0119191 1n0A 91 19111111
'U191dX3 1919110991 10:1 1U91p11110 10:1 1,9110p10w 101U191501d p005 9 dOd 91

1798

U1 91U919d 1019q1unu 9U011d pu9 99U19U 101919110991 p9>199 1 ‘1001109 911119 9111109
910111 9111 5U0U19 919M 011M 91U919d 10 dn015 911111U9U191dU100 0 _1_ '9M9111191U1
01 p9>199 1 U1011M 91U919d 10 190mm 919111 1 ‘919A911111d 19 5U1>110M 91111M
91U919d
1,999111u1u1001U919d pU9 91U919d 10 9101 91119119111111
1wn1n0111n0 M9U 9111109d991 10U 0p 919110991119U9dd911 19111111
191001109 U9A0p10w U1 95U9110 91n1n110 U0110911p 911191 19111111
g,U1919A9 1001109 9111p90U9n11u1119911 1,9110p10w U1 dOd 10 9101 91119119111111
1A50109p11911103 p9091d91 991119111111
1,95U91101001109 910U101d 919101110 U90 MOH
ape/110119 A0110d 19U01190np9 9911 MOH
gwn1n0111n0 9111101 U1011 9U100 999p1 9111 pm 919111111
¢p91U9U191dU11 U99q U1n1n0111n0 M9U 91119911 MOH
(391001109 5U109199n991 9111919 1911M
1p90U9U11 91001109 919 MOH
1U01190np9 U1 A1191U1U1 911110 9101 91119119111111
:9U01199nb 10 9911059190 5U1M0110191110119M9U9 p9p11101d
U01190np9 A11919111un-91d 10 1010911p 9111 pU9 1U9pU91U119dn9 1U9191999 911_1
'U0119n119 9111p001919pun 9119 M011 999 011001109 911119 919110991pu9 91U919d U1011
91U9A9 10 91U9U1U100 011109d9 0119191 0919 p1n0M 1 °U191501d 911110 A11d0901111d 9111
pu9 ‘de 101919110991 5U1U191110 >110M 9111 ‘A191009 195191 9111pU9 dOd U99M190
d1119U0119191 9111 131111 9111 1111M d1119U0119191 9111 ‘U191501d 911110 U011n10119 9111 ‘de
10 A1019111 9111 U0 p99n0019u01199nb AU1 00d 10 1010911p19U0119U 911111111111
'u01190np9 A11919A1un-91d 101010911p 131111
9111 pu9 ‘10109dsu1 100110919d101unu1 9111 ‘de 10 1010911p19U0119U 9111 ‘n9U191113

U1101099 901U9103 9111101U9pU91U119dn91U9191999 9111p9M9111191u1 1

910191191U1111pv

998

'911009 p919119U01199nb
911101A199010 p91911p9 1 ‘91U919d 1111M d1119U0119191 5U105U0 U9 5U111911 10111

5901101110d 10 99n pU9 99p91510 11091 91111noq9 1991 noA 0p MOH

1,919d1U00 A9111 0p MOH (91001109 191110 p91191/1 n0A 91191.1
1A5059p9d 10 9111191 U1 1,1U9U1959U9U1

10 9U1191U1 11001109 911190U9n11u1 n0A p1n00 ‘01 p91U9M n0A 11

'U!B|dX3 1,9110p10w 10111191501d p005 9 dOd 911191

1,5U11001109 101A9d A11n110U 990p 91919 911119111 1991 n0A 0p M01.1

1n0A 101 91119U9dx9 1001109 911191

11001109 9111U10111U9M n0A 0p1911M

1,95U1199U1 19110991-1U919d 9111u1011p9U1991 n0A 911911 1911M

(0100199910 9111 U1 11001109 9111 U1 919d101119d noA 0p MOH

119110991 91U91p11110 1n0A 1111M 199w noA 0p U9110 MOH

1191109919‘p11110 1n0A 1111M d1119U0119191 1n0A 91 19111111

1U91p11110 1n0A 1111M )110M noA 0p MOH

199111111109191111/1 1w91501d 1001109 19119 9111 U1 919d101119d U91p11110 1n0A 00

0001108 9111 1noq9 01118113 Due 0111 11011 Op 1911M

11001109 911119900110 n0A p1p MOH

:9pn10U1 9U01199nb1U919d
'U01191ndod 1U919d 911110 A11919111p 911110 U01191U9991d91
10 1U9p11U00 U19 1 1nq ‘9/11109 910U1 919M 011M 91U919d 9p19M01 p9111519M Amy
91 91du199 911_1_ '1U91U119d9 AU1 U1 U191115U1199U1 pU9 ‘>110M 10 9091d 11911119 U19111
5U1199U1 Aq ‘U91p11110 119111dn p91101d A9111 U911M 95U1U9119 9111 U1 U19111 5U1199U1
Aq 91n011 191n591 5U11np1001109 9111019U10010U p1n00 011M 91U919d 919p0u1u10009

01110119 U9 9p9u1 1 '9111109 0910U pU9 9111109 1110q 919M 011M 9999910 119111

 

 

998

9U1AU0pn99d 919 99U19U 11v

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

J 8 ‘8 WWW
U1 1 10101/\
LU 8 19119
W 17 91M

1 1 95109119

1 9 61121111
LU 1 eounr
w 9 1uop1w

1 1 I03!/\

1 1 91191911

1 8 91191111

1 8 91119:]

J v '8 BUBO
U1 3 909n199
w 9 ‘91 191111111
U1 9 U911n1

1 1 ‘17 BAIAS

19pU95 'p11110 10 99p915) 9U19N

 

 

p9M9111191U1 91U919d 10 191-1 :91 91q91

 

 

1.98

‘919110991 911110 9U01109 U0 p99n0019910U Aw '1115n91A9111M011 pU9 p1p A91111911M
U1991 019999910 119111pU9 919110991p91119900 1 '109101d 19109d9 10 ‘199n5 9 99 mm
9U0199000 19109d9 10110 ‘115n011119U111191119111 U999 91191110U A9111 1 191119U09991
011109d9 p91119900 U9111 pU9 ‘A9p 11n19 10119110991A19119 p911199q0 1 '91U919d

1111M 9M9111191U1 9111 5U1pn10U1 10U ‘1001109 911119 9A9p 3910 119d 10 119 1U9d9 1

9U011911199qo

°U01191U9U1n00p AU1 U1 9d95 A1U191190 919 91911 _1_ 110199991 AU1 011U9/19191
919M19111 pU11p1n00 1 99 AU9U1 99 Ad00 01 p9111 1 131111 9111Aq p9n99191u9u1n00p
10 901n09 9A19U91191d11100 0U 99M 919111 9911111019 131111 911119 9911110911p
91111011d90x3 911000 19p10 10 pU11 p1n00 1 91911M d0119)1000 ou 99M 919111
'91901p0119d pU9 91100q1x919U10919 5U!)|OO| A191q1-1 19U0119N 9111U1 9111111U9d9

1 'pun011 191111U9U1959U9U1 1001109 10199U119p1n5 5U1p19591 919111du19d p911911qnd
0919 law 911_1_ '919A19u9 ddl pU9 919101110 13w U99M1eq d9119110 99M 919111

sewn 1v 'Aouocl 01111119 101e1n111SUI 9111112 8131119119 pue 619101110 1311 A11 1191111111
1U919A9 1001109 911110 9U0119n19119 pU9 9110d91 pU110191q9 99M 1 °A191q11 1011191p
1001109 n9U191113 911119 9U1111U909 1 '9/10p10w 10 A1019111 19u01190np9 U0 91000

pU9 9>100q1xe1 1111M 911111019 news 9 p911 19111A5059p9c1 10 U1n99nw 9 19 9U1111U9d9
1 '1U9U1959U9U1 1001109 pU9 U110191 1001109 01 p919191 911111019 13111 9111U19911110911p
13w 115n011115u1>1001 9x99M191911991U9d9 1 '110199991 ALU 5U11np 9110d91

13w pU9 ‘9911110911p 13w ‘9M91 ‘9)100q 10 190wnu 910 991d00 9p9u1 1

91U91unaoa

 

 

 

898

000 91115U1p19591 91U9U1111002doc1
A191009 U1995U9110 :A1910os
SMOOQDGJI

pU9 U1n1n0111n0 91115U1pn10U1A0110d 911 pU9 law 9111 5U1U190U00 99n991 :A1191U1w
95191 19 1001109 91115U1111011U191U9119:1001103

'9p011191u 5U1110991 :5U111099_1_

'99M9111191U1 911110 19110991911110 pun015)109q 19U0919d 9111 :19U0919d/91911099_1_
'91U919d 10 9101 9111 :91U919c1

:p9pn10U1 99911 _1_ '99p00 M919 A1U0 5U19n 9u111pU0099 9 5U1p00

p911919 1 '99p00 9n019111nu p9pn10U1 5U1p00 19 91du19119 19U15110 Aw '919M1109
919A19U9 9111191119nb swv _1_ 5U19n U19111p9p00 pU9 ‘U011d1109U9119111p91910UU9
pU9 p91091100 pU9 901109U91110U pm 1 M91/1191U1 11099 01 p9U91911 1 'U1911110 9U109

p901109U9111 fSM81M91U19u11OISOUJ p9q1109U9119n5991100 U9110p10w v

919A19UV

'p9191U91 p10M
191110 AU9 10 ‘919110991 10 99U19U ‘91091qn9 Aq 9999910 1U919111p ‘5U1199111 1U919d
‘5U1199U1 1911099199 110n9 p9191U9 1 U1191AU9 1011101999 p1n00 1 '99 19d ‘99p00 10U
9p10M 101 5U11101999 1019M0119 919M1109 9111 '991n101d pu9 1xe110 99111U9 A119p 101
9M011919111 919M1109 ‘JG|BU.anf‘ 01U1 p9191U9 919M 9U01191119900 U1011 9910111
'95U1199U1 U0119n19119 19110991 1010911p ‘U91p11110
101U01109 A19U11d1091p ‘95U1199U1 U01191009991U919d ‘95U11991U 11oun00 1001109
‘95U1199U1 19110991-1U919d ‘95U1199U1 A11n091999 0191q9 0919 99M 1 1001109 9111

19 911111Au1 5U11nc1 'Apn1910 901d01pU9 ‘p99n 91911919U1 9111 ‘91U9pn19 1019>19919111

698

'109111p9 A111 1111M 91191p 91115U199n091p pU9119911
U0119119991p 9111 5U1111M 99M 999001d 919A19U9 911110 95919 19U11 9111 '91n1919111
9111 pU9 ‘9M9111191U1 911110 9U011d1109U91111n1 ‘91U9U1n00p ‘9910U p191101p9119191
A119nu11U00 1 '999001d p19M101111519119 9 10U 99M 919A19U9 pU9 5U1p00 911_1_
'95U1199U11U919d 1noq9 91U9U1U100 :95U1199111 1U919d
1U9U19111011U11U919d 1n009 91U9U111100 :1U9U19111011U1 1U919d
91119U9dx9 1001109 911191 :1903
1001109 91111990110 91U919d A11M pU9 M011 29010113
1001109 9111U10111U9M 91U919d 0p1911M :91U9M
:5U1pn10U1 9M9111191U1 119111101 9911059190 19191199
p919910 1 U0111pp9 U1 pU9 9911059190 911009 91.11 10 LlOflLU p99n 1 91U919d 10:1
'U0110n119U1
10 901d01 p9109199 919110991M011 ‘_1__:1w 91119p19M0199pn11119 1911099110 ‘dgd
911110 99011091d 199d 99 mm ‘U19111U11111M 99U191119195119911U1 pU9 9911059190
911009 9111115n011111101999 U9111 p1n00 1 p9p00 919M 9M91A191U1 911190UQ
'99U111

1911103 U10115U119p U0119U1101U1 pu9 91U9119 101 9U0 pU9 9110p10w 1U9pU9d9pU1

1019U0 ‘99p00 0M1 p911 ‘A105919019U1191111090x9 ‘9911059190 99911110 11093

098

9/91u9/9/1 Ll| '[9110p10w 10 011nqd9t1 9111 U1 U01190np910 U011d90U03
9111] mop/ow 991/away 00010091010 endaouoo '(3661) '19 19 "9 '1
‘01UI9w "1'1 ‘01509ue1900 "I '11 9119011100 “v '11 11019 "I 'N ‘unona "v '1 ‘191199

'9110p10w
‘n9U1S1110 ‘191190npa 919 910119 99 1111018111 19101000 pausuqndun
'[(0’176 1-9151) 910919999 U1 1115n0111015059p9d 10 1U9U1d019119p

9111] (0161-9161) 919919899 U!9015069ped11111w95 991911011290 (17003) '1 ‘111uexv

'Pl'l ‘Su0119011qnd
9593 2911111 Ape/199 '9u1919AM 19u01190np910 9015110 191009 '(6L61) '3 'w ‘191101v

'9A0910w 1101191999
19 9150101003 19 9011911913 1n1U9U19119d9c1 :n9U191113 '[9110p10w 10 0110nd9t1
9111 10 1009:9911 19011911919] (1003) 911091010 1101and99 19 011911918 1n19nuv

'9Aoplow 11011911999
19 9150101003 19 9011911913 1n1U9U19119d90 :n9U191113 '[9110p10w 10 0110nd9t1
9111 1o xooqmeA 19011911919] (3003) 9110191010 1101lqnd99 I9 0119119191n19nuv

911091011 1101lqnd911
19 9150101003 19 9011911913 1n1U9U19119d9c1 :n9U191113 '[9110p10w 10 0110nd93
9111 10 1001119911 19011811919] (9661) mop/ow 110119nd99 19 011811919 1n19nuv

"91109101111 nouqndea
19 9150101003 19 9011911913 1n1U9U19119d9c1 :n9U191113 '[9110p10w 10 011qnd93
9111 10 10099911 1901811919] (1661) 9Aoplow110119nd99 19 011811918 1n19nuv

'AN ‘XJOA

MGN ‘A11919111un 111011 M9N ‘990U9103 191003 pU9 99111U9U1n1.1 101U9111119d9p

901191198919 19101009 pauanndun 911091011 10 01lqnd99 9111 U1011u9191
19u0119u pU9 ‘u01190np9 A1019111 ‘dlqsuezmo 0119100u190 '(9003) 'v '3 ‘U0919puv

'919119110nd ||8M)|OB|8 :p101xo 'uo1190np9 1112010
U) 9u09119du100 19u0119u191u1 :A5059p9d pU9 91n11n9 '(1003) '1‘ 'H ‘19pU9x91v

911013101111 110191999 19 9011811919 910 19u0119N 1110119

:n9U191113 '[10/9003 199A 911110 5U1UU1590 911119 9U011n1119U1 19U01190np9

11199110099 1919196 We Amwud 10 89111111109 91111 (1003) 1019003 11pms 9p
1n1nu9 1n1nd90u1 9/ 1919u95 19pun099 19 19U111d 1u1u191911u1 9p 101111n1119u1 9919111111011

SEONBHBflHH

L93

\

'9-1 ‘1 ‘01:! 901109p!a '[de19 A9 c1919] 899 no 899 '(1003) '0 ‘19110U10

'9u1u1n'1 :n9u191113
'[9A0p10w u1 1115n0111 015059p9d pu9 u01190np910 A1019111 911_1_] mop/01111
U! 90!5059ped !U!pU!5 9 !8 !nm1U!LU919AU! 9!10!SI '(1661) ('93) '1 '1‘m910913

919 (9)1 ‘1U9w959U9w
19u01190np3 10 19u1nor 19u0119u191u1 911_1_ '[uo191911 01u0110913] 1u9u1969u9u1

p999q-1001109 10 9011911910919110 pue M09111 911_1_ '(8661) '3 'A ‘fiuaug

' 13-9 ‘( 1)91 ‘Aoejoowaa 1o 19u1nor
'[uo191911 o1u0110913] w61p919d u0111SU9119u110 pu9 911113003) '1 9191110193

'9991d A11919A1un uo190u11d :u0190u11d 'p/JOM
PM” 9111 U! UO!1!SU911 191009 pU9 U01190np_=! '(0661) '1‘ 11011199 9 "w ‘AOUJ90

'019-199 ‘(17)og ‘M91A95 u01190np3 91111919d1u00 '[uo191911
01u011091_:1] 19u0119u191u1 9111 pu9 9A11919dwoo 9111 6u1>1u1u193 '(9003) 'w ‘A0u193

'361-191 (3)99 “801111091
p/JOM '[00191911 01u0110913] u01192119100u19p1U9091 6u1>1u1q19t1 '(9003) 'A ‘9oung

'001-19 ‘(€)9 ‘xfowoowea
1019u1nor '[u0191911 01u0110913] L11n09 pu9 1999 6u119dw03 '(9661) '/\ ‘9oung

'u0119pun0;1 9693 11999na 311011 M9N 'H's's'n
PUB '9'n SPOOUPIILIO 10 SPIJOM 0M1 '(OLG L) “O 'l‘ ‘MPUOO ‘8 "n ‘JGUUBJQUGJUOJB

'09U181U0 '[9Aoplow 1o ouqndeu 9111 U! uoneonpal 9110191014
90!and99 U! 91900193 '(9003) 9Aoplow eouqndea 19 9911811919 99 19UO119N 100119

'93-1 ‘( 1)go1 ‘uo1199np31019u1nor ueoyewv '[UO1SJGA 01u0110913]
uuo191 19u01190np9 Mn1u90-9q1-10-u1n11o su01suaw1p 19u0119u191u1
9111u0 Apms 9990 v :9d0m3 u1 1(9M9c1 '(9661) 's ‘9u19p91w 19 "1' '1‘ '9 ‘919919

'Gollqnd !0!1!I0d 9P ImmnSUI PUB 190M)
:n9u191113 '[91001109 Alpu9111p11113 :9Aop10w 1o o11qnd93 9111 u1 u01190np9
01999]_11doo 9p 91919990u91911d1/oos:9110p/o11v equndey u1 929q

9P GIJBODPS ”(8003) 'N ‘n09901p91A '8 "I “95!? "V ‘NOSIBUJGJS "V ‘9!3019q198

901501011199 18 9015059999 mums ep !nIn1n111SUI I9
01111U1119 Inmsuoo 10911181110 (139 'dd)1 9911961 -'!nln1U!LU919AU1 19w1019a

398

'9u1u1n'1 91n11p3 :n9u1s1u3 '[9p915 puooes 101/(6010111uv :9p9109c1]
'11-” 9 99910 nuuad 9101091 99 91190 -'9p9!09a '(6661) 'v ‘nnsemus 9 "N ‘9!!q90

901601011189 !9 9015059999 mums

ep1n|n1n111su1 I9 0!)!1U!!IS 1n111su03 :n9u191113 'II 99119:! .'_1n/n1u11u919/1u1

19w10195 9/91u9/9/1 u1 '[99p916 Mewud 911110 9991n00 p9191591u1
p91np9u09 911_1_] '(8661) 19w11d 1n1010 n11ued 91n291191d 9191591u1 9111n91n3

1917-9117 (7)917 ‘M911195 u01190np3 91111919d1u09 '919dw00
‘919du100 ‘919du103 :u01190np91o suo11n1119u1 91.1 _1_ ’(6661) 'M ‘96u1u1u1n3

991115001 3110/1 M9N ('p9 puz) 0861-0681 91000199910
U90119Lu9 u_1 95u9q0 pU9 1(0U91su09 :1q6n91 919110991 MOH “(1786 1) "1 ‘u9qn3

'91-99 ‘(3) 19 ‘U0119onp_=119!1\09
0110191 1001.109 u1 u01109 01w9uAp pU9 q1d9p 10:1 '(6951)99111wu1031911u93 nSdO

'03-31 ‘93 ‘9991d191Aos 91111019961p1u9un9 9111 'uuo191
IOOUOS 911110139U119mnfi 0598 '(‘17861 A9W 08 ”1786 1) 9911111111100 IBJIUBO 0990

3179-699 ‘(8)98 ‘U0119onp_=1
91111919du100 1,9199d 6u119du100 10 991n1n16u119du103 '(0003) '3 ‘u9M03

'p911u11-1 959d uefiox :uopu0'1
'U0!1!SU91110 sewn U! UO!19onp_=1 '(0003) '0 “senor 9 "9 ‘U9MOO "0 ‘Aqmoo

'91n111su1 [(191003 U9d0 :n9u191110 '9110p10w1o
Quandau -'110d91I9U0!19N '(9003) 'v ‘9190 9 "N ‘l00!A "11 1110819111919 "3 ‘10100

/uo11n111suoo/uo1191s1591/u9/pu1'A09100u19p
~9'MMM11zd1111 111011 ‘9003 1900190 171 9911911199
'(17661) [9110910111 10 ouqndea 911110 uonnmsuool 9110910111! 1191191999 911n111su00

'1 'd ‘1n/nJodod 9900/1 '(19qw91d99 91 ‘9003) 1191919u03

9617-6117
‘(v)3v ‘M9!A99 UO!19onp_=1 9A119J9dw00 'uoueouusfiw puofiea '(9661) '1 90111910

'9-1 'dd 919mg 911119u1911v
'[uo1190np9 911119111101 u1 w91601d 1n199900ns 9 -..d913 Aq d913,,] 'A119u1101
1n1u1u1919Au1 U19900n9 9p w91601d un -,.99c1 no 39d" '(7003) '3 ‘901U9101Q

'19161d3 91n11p_:1 :n9u191113 '[90u91u19nb9 6u1119w :d91s Aq d91s]
'91u1190un0 w909193 399:) n3 99d '(1003) 's ‘Aou1w93-9sooz1 19 "Q ‘19110u13

 

898

‘6-3 'dd ‘(U0119onpa 011909) 0119119 1U!w919AU1 '['9'9'9
U9110p10w 9111 u1 u01190np9 1919u9610 u011d90u00 911_1_] '90999u9Aop10w
SSH 91919u96 91n11n0 9p n1p91u 1n1n1u1u1919Au19911d90uoo (New

11 ‘595 1) <<90999u9110p10u1 919009» dSOl 19 9119910 9p n11021A01d 1ndn19

911009 Umfiued 31101 MN ('99 (4117) UO!19onp_=! 1911109 '(6161) 'N ‘1U919

‘1 'd ‘9M9N 11100901111 '19M9u91 10 A60109p1
9111 pU9 911!0118919d M9UO11n10A99 '(8961 UOJBW 61-9 9961) 'w 71911099109

699699 ‘(v)0v ‘U0!19onp_=! 9A119J9dw00 '[UOrSJGA 0!U01103|3]
91u9Ao1s pu9 91u9n1111-1 ‘pu910d :9d01n3 u191993 1o 9911910091911103
-1sod U1 uoueonpe 1o MdOSOINd '(17003) '2 91990» 9 "9 9911119900 "9 ‘opoo

'90llqnd !0!1!I0d GP 101n111SUI IHBUVSNO “EAOPIOW
1o 01/qnd93 9111 u1 uo_1190np9 1919u951o 9191s1u911n0 911_1_ '(9003) '9 ‘19u119

9176-136 ‘(17)99 ‘U0!19onp_=1
19u01109110310 19u1nor 9111 '[uo1919A 01u0110913] “'H's's'n 911110 [(911190
Uuoru 9111 =0>1U919>19w UO1UV'(9003) '9 ‘1LI5!JM 9 "9 '9 919111109 "1 ‘5U11u99

'w9n 930 :n9u191110

9191101129013 ‘9191u91u9/du11 91910910113 :191003 Lun/n0111ng ‘('p3)

9016109 '1 L11 '[uo1190np9 A19w11d 101 wn1n0111n0 1001109 9111101U9u1do19119p

pu9 ‘u01191u9u191du11 ‘6u1uu91d 911_1_] '191u11d 1u1u191911u1 n11u9d 191009
1n1nu1n1n0111n0 9919110A29p 19 99191u9u191du11 ‘99191091o1c1 “(1008) '1 ‘991u99

'6178-088‘(17)OZ 9191111 199109-1909 '[U0!SJGA 0!U01109|3]
w61p919d 1u9u1u10p 9 10 uMw 9111 pu9 suo1119u911191unu1u100-190d
10 991109111 A191odu191u03 291916010119u9111015u1q01993 (17003) '1‘ ‘991ow-SU99

096-1176 ‘(9)61. ‘U01190np3 pooup1!U0
'[u01919A 01u0110913] 9151099 u1 6u1u09911o 991601op01119u1 M9U 90np011u1
0191du19119 pue u1919/(9 u01190np9 1911103 911110 [(09591 911119003) '9 ‘9npunc1

20'101'MMM mm;
‘9003 Jeqweoeo 91 9911911199 'u1M019 9001100 9.9Aoplow '(9003) '/\ ‘m9500

'9991d 0690111310 A11919A1un :05901113 ('p9 p9u1qu103)
1119,1009 pU9 1001109 9111 pu9 .‘Lun1n0111n0 9111 pU9 p/1q0 911_1_ '(9951) '1‘ ‘A9M9c1

999UO9911LU111'19691ufiq11919d1J/A06'e191s'MMM11:dnu 111011 ‘6003
110191111 09 p911911193 '9110p1011v :91ou pun01611099 '(5003) 9191s1o1u9u1119d9c]

1793

'9u1/uo 9uo111SU91_1 '9199 101 9911101d1c1 '(3003) 'N ‘U9u111n9)1

'399-139 (9)617 ‘U0!19onp_=1 9A!19J9dw00 '[UO1919A
01u0110913] d1119u921110 9A1109 pu9 6u1p11nq-uo119u 6u1110u0099 :9199n9
pU9 9U19J>In U1 uoueonpe dNSUGZflD (1003) 'N 9119011919 9 "9 '1‘ ‘199wU9r

'1n1n110ds 19 ‘1n1n1919u11

(91190an 91919u99 91109110 :n9u191119 '[n9u191113 10 A1119d101unw

9111 u1 u01190np910 6u10u9u11 919191u911n0 9111] 919n109 9d919 91 n9u191qo
1n1d_10_1unu1 u1p 1n/n1u911191911u1 91919 9p 91910u9u11 99191n619v '(1003) 'v ‘nU9A1

'9011qnc1 !0!1!I0d 9p 1n1n111su1 :n9u191119 '[u01190np910 99900919nb9 pu9
u01190np9 A11919A1un-91d u1 s1u9u1A9d 19u1101u1] 91190np9 911959/n9900919
1911819A1Ur191d1n1U!w919AU! U! 919UUO!U! 9111919 (1003) 9911909 19111109 991010111991

pu1'129'MMM u1011 ‘gooz 19qu19AoN 11 p911911199 '[9u01691 93 u1 9>11119
919110991] 91190199 90 93 u1 911919 09:1 111099101d (9003) '(901n09) 914195111

pu1'129'MMM

u1011 ‘9003190u1909c1 171 p911911199 '[91u919d1u9161u19 Aq p9u0pu9q9
9A0p10w '9 u1 ue1p111101o 19qu1nu 6u1M016 91.11 mm p9u190u00 919 9uo119N
p911un 911_1_] 11U9161u19 11u119d 9p 1119919d 9A0p10w '9 mp 10111d0019 91919910

u1 1n19u1nu 9p 919101116u11uns 911un 911un119N '(gooa) '(901n09) 09N 11111c1-01u1

'96-93 (1.)66 ‘U0!19onp_=1
1911109 'u0919d 99119 001190np9 111111001109 99119 1(1uo '(1661) 'v '9 ‘u1p0691

996-1176 (17)61 9111911900 UO!19anp_=1!0 MO1S!H '[UO1919A
0!UOJIOGEI] 18611161 ‘90!1091d IBUOHBOHPG lelAOS PUB 999011119 1(qu
:11191191u9u1119dxe 19u01190np9 pu9 11191U911911111n 91119119109 '(9151) '3 "1 ‘9911110H

'0u1 ‘5u1u91lqnd pU91199 01101 M9N 'uo1119u911pu9 u0111p911
:uo1190np9 UBISSDH '(9551) 'N ‘9A911909991>190/\ 19 "H '9 ‘p999 "g ‘99u1101.1

'1n1n1919u11 19 1n1n1u1u1919Au1
1n19191u1w :n9u191119 '[u01190np9 A19u111d 1019u191601d 1001109
9111] '19w11d 1n1u1u1919/(u1 n11u9d 9191009 919w91601d '(8661) '('p;1) '1/11 ‘991914

'91U1119 =n9U191u0 '[I 119d 99105

19015010p01119w :u01190np9 A191u11d 101 u1n1n0111n0 911110 uo1191u9u191du11

pu9 1u9111d019A9p 9111] 1 991.19d 01b‘olopo191u p1q6 :19w11d1n1n1u1w91911u1
1n1n-1un/n0111n0 991911191u9/du11 19 9991911011290 '(6661) '('p3) ' A ‘n1n9

 

998

PLU'!ZB'MMM U101) ‘8003 ludv 38 PGAGHIGH ‘!ZV BAGPIOW '[su011n1119u1

9191s 9n011911 u1 191 10 9u01111u110 99011q A9d A119nuu9 U9u1 999u19nq pu9

SJGQUJGUJ DIOLIGSHOH] '(8002) 1918 9C] mnmSUI 9313M] U! !9‘| 9C] aUBOHW)!
90 911w 19nuv n90 1190919 90 11u9u1991s 901u999 1011119p0d909 111qu19w

'9991d 9101 M9N 1o A11919A1un
91919 311011 M9N (9919171 'dd) 'U0!191U9w91dw1 ('93) 119990 '11
U1 '19191 91991) U912£pn191u96v 96U9110 pU99 9111(90661) 'M 'w ‘U11ufin9'19w

'9991d x101 M9N 10 A11919A1un 91913 01101
NW (961-961 'dd) 'U0!191U9UJ91dw1 ('93) 119990 '11 UI 'U01191U9w91dw!
A0110d 11101191109991 :90u9119dx9 u1011 Bu1u199'1 '(90551) 'M 'w ‘u11116n9'10w

'067-117 (7)09 9111911195 u01190np3 9A11919du103 '[uo1919A 01u0110913] 9191s
6u0119 91919 119911/1 :u0119211911u909p 19u01190np3 '(9951) 's ‘199119 19 "N ‘uu190w

'71 (966)01 “9117199109 'Uoueonpa
101 9911111111109 9191s ussn 10 U9u1119110 u1p0691 1p9uu99 1.1111111 M91/(191m
:u11o191 10011091911109 6u199n091o “(8861) '1 ‘9A9119A0191d 19 "3 ‘9A01111x9w

'qnd p00MU19:1 :uopuo1 '1uau1d019119p1o
991109111 5U119du100 o1 9p1n5 v:19)1191u pu9 91919 91191003 '(1661) '1'- ‘u999nu1119w

966-666 (3)96 ‘M9!A99
u01190np3 9A11919du109 '[u01919A 01u0110913] u01un 1911103 '(1551) '2 (61101119111

'937-907 (9)13 ‘19u1nor' 110199993 19u0_1190np_:1 U90119u1v
'1191109q109 19pun 1101190np9 1911\03 u1 96u9110 pu9 A11nu11u09 '(0661) '0 ‘6001

'176-9 (6)66 ‘oneonpa 191109 9101109 19911110d
9191199919111 pU9 1119190910 UO!19Aou91 9111 (1661) '2 510119111 9 "A ‘A9.1n>1

'09-97 (3)1 ‘SJOGdSOJd 90190099 9!and pU9 U!U9'I '(OL6L) 9 9 ‘AGIOJOM

'39-19 (1)1 ‘A5010q019d/90111/0d '[uo19191\ 01u0110913] w10191 0190ue191991
pu9 ‘9u11d1091pu1 ‘u011dn11001911109 10 A601000Asd 911_1_ '(9951) '1‘ ‘u91115n1)1

'0u1 ‘91911911qnd 19u01190np3 A9199/1A-u091ppv 01101
M9N '('p9 puz) 9910110d 01/qnd pu9 9911119u191/9 ‘99pu95v '(9003) ' M '1‘ ‘u0p6u1)1

'9991d u011n1119u1 19A00H :011v 019d
'91n11n010 90111/od 9111 pu9 ‘9199ny ‘91u9on :9u9110p1011v 911_1_ '(0003) '9 ‘6u1)1

998

'9u1u1n'1 :n9u191119 '[7-1 9999910
U! seouelos 9111] ('SU9J1 '1 '1)17-1 9199910 U! !!Jn19N 91U!!!9 '(1661) '3 (910w

'91u9110119911901c1 :Moosow
'A5059p9d1911103101u91ud019119p pu91u91uq911q9199 911_1 '(1951) '1 '3 ‘uozsouow

696-196 (6)91 901199an 10 M91/199 19UO!19u191U1 '[UO1SJ9A 91U0119913]
99111un00191191009 u1 110199991 19u01190np3 '(0151) '1" ‘9)11923 '9 "1 '3 ‘uuozsouow

'>1U99 DIJOM 9111 21(N 511011 M9N (aw-60616 '0N)109./01d UO!19onp9
1919u95 9 101 9110p10w 10 011qnd95 9111 01 u01/11u1 9'91 $9n 1o1unow9 9111
u_11_1p910 pu9 U90] 9 up 110d91 u01191du100 u01191u91u9/dw1 '(9003) '0 'w ‘990190w

'96-91 ‘(a-1)57 ‘u01190np3 1011191119131 19u0119u191u1 '9dom3 U191999
pu9 1911U90 u1 9910110d 19u01190np3 :uo119u11019u91110 9p909p v '(9003) 'M ‘191111111

'91n11p3 :n9u191119 '[u01190np9

011qnd 6u1p19691 011qnd93 191191003 1911103 U9110p10w 911110 M91 911_1_] 011qnd

1n1u11u91911u1 91 9111111d n01199U9110p10w 9191191009 901191103 11011qnd93
99697 '(9161) ouqnd99 19191909 1911109 U9Aoplow 911110 9911901“ 10 M191U!w

'9u1u1n-1 91n11p3
:n9u191119 '[1001109 1919095 9111 101 9u191601d] 91919u95 91n1/n0 9p 919009
n11u9d 9u191601d '(5951) 1199u9Aop10w $89 19 011qnd 1n1n1u1u1919Au1 1n19191u1w

'9u11un-1

91n11p3 :n9u1u91119 '[u01190np9 1un9011 pu9 ‘1919u96 ‘19129uu116 ‘A191u11d

101 9u91d 19u01190np3 :u1n1n0111n0 19u0119u 9111] 199011 19 ‘1919u95 n1p9w

‘19129uu116 ‘19w11d/n1u1u191911u1n11u9d1u1u1919Au1 9p 9111nu91d :19uo119u
WHIHOIJJNO '(QLOOZ) BAGPIOW 11011qnd99 19101019199119 !9!180nPE-l lmalsluflN

'179 N u1p10 ‘[(1001109 1919u95 ‘u1n129uuM6 ‘1001109

A19w11d) suo11n1119u1 19u01190np9 1919u95 A19pu0099 911110 u01191n691

1019A01dd9 9111 6111p19699] (91919U96 191n11n0 9p 919009 ‘n129uu116 ‘919u111d

919009) 1919U96 19pun0991u1u191911u1 9p 1911n1119u1 19 d11-1n1n1u9u191n591
9919q01d9 91 911/sud n9 '(91003) 1n1n1919u1119 191190np3 1n19191u1w

'19u0119u191u1
1n1c1 :n9u191119 '[AI-I 9999913 :u1n1n0111n0 100L109 911_1_]/11-/ 9199910
:191009 wn/n0111n3 '(8661) 1ngDIOW 11011qnd93 l9 !91U!!IS !S !9!190"PE 1n19191u1w

'99-19 ‘( 1) 19 9991003 9 90111/od '99n991 1U91u91n999u1 pU919n1d90u09
:u191191009-190d u11ueu1d019A9p-9q '(9003) '9 ‘9116u199u93 19 "w ‘91n9w

 

1.93

'13-03 ‘7-6 991991910 019 'wnlnowno 19 91911U1990w '(3003) '1\ 9191999

'793 99591 '[6003 19911 911110111191 196an 91919 9111)
6003 NW 99 1919 90 101019609 99691 '(1003) WWW 1191lqnd99 In1U9w9IJ9d

'179 9969-1 '[uo1190np9
)0 M9| 9111] !n|mu1u19191\u19959'1 '(9551) 9A0p10w 11011qnd93 1n109u19119d

199 '1u 911191011 '[u110191 19u01190np9 911110 96u1p99001d

9111101 110un00 5011901p1000 911110 00119111101 9111 pu9 9A0p10w 10

011qnd93 9111 u1 u01190np9 101u9u1d019A9p 911110 u011d90u00 91115u1p19691

u01s109p 9111] 1n1n1u1u191911u1 1911110193 99191n991990 n11u9c1 1019u0p1009

1n1n111suoo 9919u1103 9‘1 19 9A0p10w 9011qnd93 u1 1n1n1u1u191911u1 111911011290
911d90u09 91 91111113 no 911191011 '(1766 1) 9A0p10w 11011cind93 1n1u9u19119c1

'889

'1u 911191014 ‘[A60109p1191unu1u100 911110 u011nq11119 191110 pue s1u9u1nu0u1

10 1911011191 91116u1p19693] 9191unu10919160109p1 9 1011nq111v1911v1s
10191u9u1nu0w 9919p11101'1 91 91111113 n9'(1561) '9A0p10w 11011qnd93 1n1u9111911ed

'166-616 (6) 11 ‘99!w0u09_=1
191unw1u03-1sod 1110191911 01u0110913]91\0p10w 10 9990 911_1_ :uo119u11019u911

9191du100u1u9101900 5U11dd110 9111(5551) 'd ‘99uu03 19 "N ‘9110110

'99913 A11919A1un
su1>1d01.1 suuor :91011111193 7(09100u19p 101 9109d901c1 :91n1 U91191110111n9
U1011 SUOIJISUBU. '(9861) '1 ‘PBGUGINM ‘8 "0 'd ‘JGHMHOS "V '9 ‘IIGUUOCIO

I30939090/90/SM3U/3009/510'011!'MMM/l IdllLl

w011 ‘wd 00:31 90031eqw909p
91 p911911193 'u0119/ndod90 Aq 19199910 919mg mop/ow '(9003) '3 ‘9110>1ueu91(1\1

'1n1n1919u1_1_ 19 191190np3 1n19191u1w :n9u191119 '[u01190np9 u1
9u11019110 u01191ueu191du111u9101119 91.116u1p19691 u0119u1101u1] 91190np9 u!
1019u110191 11191u9u19/dw1 91U910119 91 911/(yd n0 9119Lu101u1 '(p919pu n) '_1_ ‘9901n01N

'99913 9,u1119w
'19 311011 M9N '190U9910 Jepun 100U99 199109 91011911109 '(0661) '1' 911190111

'9u1u1n'1 :n9u191119 1919110991101 :1001109 A19w11d

199A 1n019 u1 9p916 p11111 u1 9011911191119u1 10 Apn19 911_1_] ('9U911 ‘n159N

' A 'v)110191911u1 n11u9d1u9 n119d 9p 919w11d 111009 9 g 999/0 u! 110119u1919w
BGJGIPHJS '(6861) ‘:l 'N ‘19!Ud9/\ ‘9 "A '9 ‘BAOWIGQ "V 'W ‘BAOIUBB "I 'W ‘OJOIN

893

'139—667 (7)67 ‘M91A99 UO!199993
9A11919d1u00 '91010911p pu9 ‘19110991 ‘91u919d 10 911119111 6u119911u00
:91001109 9211911u909p 011u9u1119dx9 9,9n691901N (5551) '0 ‘1911n3 19 "1111 ‘910191113

'u1191.1 u10019 :uop00'1 '(091
-991 'dd) 'uo1190np3 1911103 915919190 011113 pU9 u01191u10_-1 1910919119
-' U92!1!0 199109 911110 5UI>I9W 9U1 ('93) 911111 '0 U1 (001199 191/199 9111
u1 5u16u110dn191unu1u100 u19u011b921U9510 u1noA 10 9101 911_1_ (1951) '1‘ ‘u9p1013

610'11u90p110M'u009/1:d1111 u1011 ‘5003 110191111
13 9911911199 310091999 999U9111w99 pu9 UO!191511/v '(6003) '2 ‘nx 9 "0 911199

'11-3 (1)09 901199993
10 (60101003 'u01192119u011n1119u1 9p1Mp110M pu9 9015110 u99d01n3
:6u11001109 999w 10 u0110n119u0019011110d 9111 '(q1961) '1‘ ‘1100 19 "o '3 ‘2911u193

'9u0119011qnd 9699

(11190] ‘1999 909M911 '19991A19U1 91119U9 (191909 ‘91919 5U!1n1!1suoo

:9Jn1on11919uonn1119U1 ('93) 99190111 'w '0 U1 'U01192119UO11n1119U1
19901199099 90 9U19119d 199019 (91661) '1' ‘1109 9 "0 '9 79111999

'19u0119u191u1 11119-1
1911mm :9n691.1 911_1_ 'u0119u11u1919p-1/9910 M91 9111 pu9 p00q9191s '(3003) '0 ‘0193

99999119919019 :Moosow '[1961-1161 9999 9111U1 991199093
91999119691 161 9999 A 99911029190 90UP019N (1961) 'v 'w ‘A9110>1019

'979-939 (9)99 9111911195 u01190np3 91111919du100 '[uo1919A 01u0110913]
39911 9111pU9 pU916u3 u1 u01109191199 19110991pu91011u00 9A1191191u1u1p9
U1996U9110 (7661) '1 '9 (111199 9 "9 '9 (11990119199 "9 ‘U91919d99

'393-913 (1)61 ‘19!10919UO!199n93 '919M 5U1999! 9111 (7003) '0 '9 9091999

'1U1J1q9'1 :n9U191u0 (6003-3661 !!Uv)!19991599!!19w 990d3
:9110p/o11v 901/qnd95 U19016069p9d1111pu95 9110191 (1003) ' A ‘nU99110qn9-11n199c1

'wsn dBO :n9u1s1110 9191101129019 9191u91u91d1u/ ‘919109101d
:191003 wn1n0111n9 ('p3) 9016100 '1 u1 '[u1n1n0111n01001109 91111019p0u1
190119109111 90;] 191009 1n1nwn1n0111n0 19 011910911n19p0w (1003) ”A ‘n19199d

3.9911111019101193 2099191110 '[UO1190099
1o 91d10u11d 9A11190d 911_1_]191190np9 19 91111190d1n1d10u1d '(9003) ' A ‘n19199d

693

'99913 A11919111un p19A191.1 :'999w ‘95p11qu199 91101911001109
011qnd1o 1(1n1u90 v :91do1n p19M015u11911u11 '(9551) "1 ‘ueqno 19 "9 '0 ‘>1091(_1_

'661-131 (1)36 ‘19UJnor109U99
1(191u9u1913 9111 '[u01919A 01u0110913] 9A1109d919d 19011019111 u1 9011091d

1u911n0 :u01un 1911109 9111 u1 u91p11110 fiunofi 10 u01190np3 (1551) '1" ‘96pn _1_

'9UI ‘9dJ9119 '3 'w 99911 M9N ‘99U1919 9119M
'U9!195!199AU! 199109 11 :1U9wd919A99 9U9 5U1U9991 '(1161) ('93) '9 '9 ((9)1929

993-973 (3)93
‘u01190np3 91111919dw09 '[u01919A 01u0110913] u110191 19u01190np91911109
o191019A0uu1-19110991911110 u011nq111u00 911110 u0119n19A3 '(6961) (,1 ‘Aqeppns

'A11919111un 91qu1n109 “9691109 919110991 31101 M9N '6u1pual
pu9 5u1M0110q 19u01190np91o 9011110d 19q016 9111 '(7003) '9 ‘19u1911)1-19u1919

'(0161) (91001109 91pp1u1 1919u95 1019n1919 9111] '91919u99
9101190 90 1199w 111999 19101919 (0161) 1199U9A9919w 999 I9 191111991111 1919999

639 (6)16 ‘U0!199n9_=1
1911109 'ouow 9991199919111 -6U1Jn19m1999 '((1661)6661) '9 9039919119119

963-693 (1)61 ‘A9!10919UO!199993 'SJ9M 111919 9111 (7003) '11 919999999

961-611 (1)69 ‘M91A99 991919 '[U91919A 999119913]
06 011du19119 A9111 p1n01191999 9111 01191 11101.1 :919160109p1109u00 pu9
91916919119U91119 919/1911 19n1d99U09 9111 (7661) '1 '1 ‘99)1 9 "0 '9 991111111199

pw'fipZ'MMM u1011 ‘9003 19qu19A0N 11 u0
p911911193 '9p195 9p1n191z'[>110~1191n11n01159 u110119d 01 p90101 ‘9A0p10w
u191uapn19]91001169 10110unu119110119ndn9 ‘9A0p10w u1p 1111913 (9003) '1 ‘91npu99

'67-93 (193)99 ‘19UJnor
9!wou09_=1 9U1 'u1M919 99U191909-1199 9191 11091191 9111 '(9961) 'M 'M ‘M91999

99111911909 X91911 2N0 ‘uod1991v1

(919-963 'dd) '101/0d/9u01190np910 919/(19u9191n1/n001009 91111919du100

9 p19M0_1_ 9090913 99 1101103 ('p3) 009011191 '11 '9 U1 'A0110d u01190np9
90119u191119u1 uo 919q9p 9 u119p1o1910u1 pu9 6u1119111 111111111 '(1003) "1 ‘u9903

'399-799 (7)99 7111911195 0111913 '9u011n10A91 19u0119u 9191du100u1
19 91999 199111199 9111:6661 19119 991919 9U9 9919999 '(6661) '9 '9 ‘199999

OL3

'07-13 (6)63 ‘U9!!99n9_=1
1911103 '91n0111n0 1001109 101u9u191101du11 9111u1A11nu11u03 '(1951) '0 '1 ‘1\9191\z

'19u119;1 95911n03
01101 M9N '(99-59 'dd) 'uo1190np9 u! w9119uo119u pu9 u01192119qolb‘
59008 U0119001” IO #0001991) PIJOM ("$93) BIGQUJBZ '3 ‘8 AQInOO

'0 u1 91919/(9 p92119qo16 9 u1 1119119u0119u1019A1A1n9 9111 '(9003) '3 ‘9190u192

'06-91
(3)16 ‘U0!199n9319!A99 '11 9191919999 919/(9111121199191 1991199 (6661) '9 91911911

'73 ‘91 (07)76 99919 1911109 9111
191999101U911n0 9U1 91996911 '11 '9 99911990 £9 199999 '(6661) 'v '9 91996911

'>IU99 PIJOM 2'0 '0 991GU11199M
'101099 u01190np9 9111 u1/(0u9101119 pU9 A11nb9 ‘1f1119nb u1 s1uaw91101du11
1o 110ddns u_1 919/(19uv :91ou 101/ad u01190np3 :9110p1011v '(9003) )1u99 pqu

‘9 ‘(8)98 99913
1911109 9111101995101u911n0 911_1_ '9u19w A16uv111011 191191 '(7961) 'v ‘9u109/\

'67-73 (6)16 ‘U0!199n93 1911199 '[99U9191U99
u01un 11919 u0199n091p 101 p91U9991d A19u1u1n9] 91ueu1911nb91 91A9p01
10 19A91 9111 u0 6u11n10n11991 1001109 90913 '(5951) u01190np3 10 A1191u1w ussn

11111111

2 8931

93 0306

312