142 054 ITHS_ I 8 fl LIBRARY " ‘ Michige State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT, JOB SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND TURNOVER INTENT AMONG STATE VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION COUNSELORS presented by Jenelle S. Pitt has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD. degree in Rehabilitation Counselor Education a Major Professor s Signature ém‘a 90727 Date MSU is an Afiirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer — -.--n--I-I-n-.-.u PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 5/08 K:lProj/Acc&Pres/ClRC/DateDm.indd RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT, JOB SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND TURNOVER INTENT AMONG STATE VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION COUNSELORS By Jenelle S. Pitt A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Rehabilitation Counselor Education 2009 ABSTRACT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT, JOB SATISFACTION, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND TURNOVER INTENT AMONG STATE VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION COUNSELORS By J enelle S. Pitt Person-organization (P-O) fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment are all antecedents of turnover intent and actual turnover. The issue of turnover is of particular interest to the field of rehabilitation counseling, especially as national mandates have been issued by the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) to Technical Assistance and Continuing Education (TACE) Centers to develop ways to recruit and retain qualified rehabilitation counselors. While the issue of rehabilitation counseling recruitment and retention is field- related, state vocational rehabilitation (VR) counselors serve as the population of interest. According to the National Rehabilitation Association (NRA), approximately 1 million individuals with disabilities apply for VR services annually, in which more than 220,000 are successfully rehabilitated. Additionally, present-day sources report a void in filling VR counseling positions with the employment need of VR counselors expected to grow by 22% through the year 2016. The purpose of the current investigation was to examine the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent among state VR counselors as a way of Obtaining information that would be useful in addressing present- day rehabilitation recruitment and retention efforts. The study sample was obtained from a diverse state VR agency located in the Midwest region Of the United States. The sample size for the present investigation was 73 participants with an overall response rate of 32%. The majority of the respondents were female, Caucasian, possessed their Master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling, were between the ages of 31-45 years, and earned more than $58,000 a year. Approximately, 20% of participants were licensed, while 30% reported being certified rehabilitation counselors. Roughly 37% of the study participants reported being on the job for 6-10 years, while 31% reported having less than 5 years job tenure. The average caseload size was 122 individuals. The primary research question was examined using correlation and multiple linear regression. Other data analyses also included independent sample t-tests and ANOVA’S to investigate the relationship between the primary variables of interest and demographic variables. Results of the main regression model suggested that pay (p = .01 1) and continuance commitment (p = .020) were significant predictors of turnover intent. Model-building techniques were used to yield other significant predictors, in which P-O fit (p = .017), general job satisfaction (p = .004), pay (p = .004), and continuance . commitment (p = .019) resulted in significant results and accounted for approximately 40% of the variance in the criterion variable. Relationship of findings to the theoretical framework used to guide the present investigation, practical implications of study findings to state VR agencies, and suggestions for future research are provided. DEDICATION To all who have helped see me through by the grace of our Heavenly Father. I am so grateful. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Everything is divinely orchestrated, therefore nothing happens by accident. Gain wisdom and understanding in every situation. Thank you Heavenly Creator for implanting this desire and drawing this degree out Of me. To my dissertation chair, Dr. John Kosciulek, I am so thankful that we had the Opportunity to work together throughout this process. Through your genuineness and support, I have learned a ton about what it takes to conduct high quality research, especially the importance of continuous critical thinking. Thank you for teaching me that if you do not have the time to read, think, and write then you do not have the tools necessary to conduct research. To my committee members, Drs. Michael Leahy, Michael Moore, and Ernest Betts, you have been such a great source of support to me. I feel extremely fortunate to have had the unique opportunity to gain insight and knowledge from individuals who are well-versed in the areas of rehabilitation counseling, labor and industrial relations, and business. I appreciate your warmth and support in pushing me to the next level. To Illinois DRS counselors, Dr. Robert Kilbury, Mr. Douglas Morton, Mr. J eff Standerford, and Illinois DRS staff, for participating in this research study. A special note of thanks is extended to Carmen for scheduling meetings and “making it happen.” To Mom, Dad, and Dana, words cannot express the heartfelt gratitude I am filled with when I think about where I began and where I am now. For your unconditional love and support in every area of my life, I thank you and could not have done this without you. To my family in Trinidad and Tobago, Canada, California, and Alaska, I thank you for your encouragement and hope to continue to make the family proud. I would like to extend a Special note of thanks to my Aunty Jennifer, Uncle Chris, Tanty Nicole, Grandmom, Astra, Tashia, and Curtis. Thanks for calling and texting to “check in.” Your outreach reminded me that joy comes in the morning. To my mentors, Tyra Hawkins, Drs. Bobbie Atkins, Carl Flowers, Brenda Cartwright, L. Robert McConnell, and Keith Wilson, you have been critical individuals throughout this journey. I would like to thank you for your time, energy, spiritual, emotional, and mental support. I have truly experienced the importance of what it means to be mentored, and the even greater importance of what it means to be truly “vested” in someone else’s success. I look forward to supporting those who will become behind me, as I know that I stand on the shoulders of those who have come before. To my friend, Sharai Drew, you have always shared that I have been a positive influence in your life. I thank you for the reciprocity of true friendship that you have provided me, which has greatly contributed to my personal and professional success. To my fiiend, Lakeysha McLaurin, my prayer partner, fi'iend, and confidante, thank you for always believing in me and inspiring me to do more. To my friend, Jennifer Wells-McCullough, thank for your support and for always being open, never judging, always there, and pushing me to dream big, plan, act, re- evaluate, if necessary, and achieve. To my friend John Victory, who has always reminded me tO “enjoy the journey,” I thank you for continuing to be such a Special part of my tapestry. vi To Greta Wu, Senior Vice President of Human Services at Peckham, Inc., thank you for not only being an awesome supervisor, but for providing me with the opportunity to put to use my Skills to work in a real-world setting in the pursuit of ever improving the nature of services for consumers whom we serve. To those that I have had the extreme pleasure of both working with and helping me to grow: Beverly Fort, Pamela Fields, Cynthia Walker, Yolanda Peoples, J on Iannucci-Waller, and Joy Inniss-Johnson. To Dorothy Quinn, thanks for your fire, inspiration, and support. To Dr. Quinton Boston, thank you for the support, laughs, listening ear, practical advice, and help that helped me get through this process. Others that I would like to thank include Ameena Mummin, Drs. Dixon, and Stacia Robertson. Lastly to my cohort members, Barbara Schoen, Cozetta Shannon, and Shemya Vaughn, I started these acknowledgements by saying I believe that nothing happens by accident. You were the ones that I was supposed to share this journey with. For all of the conversations, laughs, tears, support, advice, and resources, I thank you. You truly added to my experience. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................. xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................... xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 1 Problem Statement ........................................................................... 2 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................... 4 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................ 5 Research Question ........................................................................... 6 Research Hypothesis ......................................................................... 6 Context of Study ............................................................................. 6 Definition of Terms .......................................................................... 7 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 8 Public Sector Rehabilitation .............................................................. 11 Overview of Fit Theory ................................................................... 13 Theory of Work Adjustment .............................................................. 17 P-O fit and Turnover Intent ............................................................... 19 Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Turnover Intent ............... 23 Turnover in Rehabilitation Organizations .............................................. 29 P-O Fit Utility in Rehabilitation ......................................................... 32 CHAPTER 3 METHOD ............................................................................................ 37 Participants .................................................................................. 37 Variables and Instruments ................................................................. 43 Procedure .................................................................................... 48 Research Design and Data Analysis ..................................................... 50 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS ............................................................................................ 52 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION ....................................................................................... 69 Limitations of Study ....................................................................... 70 Narrative Summary of Results ............................................................ 73 Relationship of Findings to Theoretical Framework .................................. 8] Implications of Study Findings for State Vocational Rehabilitation viii Agencies ..................................................................................... 85 Suggestions for Future Research ......................................................... 91 APPENDICES ....................................................................................... 97 Appendix A ................................................................................. 97 Appendix B ................................................................................. 98 Appendix C ................................................................................... 99 Appendix D ................................................................................ 101 Appendix E ................................................................................ 102 Appendix F ................................................................................... 103 REFERENCES ..................................................................................... 105 ix LIST OF TABLES TABLE 1: Participant Demographic Characteristics ............................................. 41 TABLE 2: Descriptive Statistics .................................................................. 54 TABLE 3: Correlation Matrix Among All Study Variables .................................... 56 TABLE 4: Results of Regression Analysis for Main Model .................................. 59 TABLE 5: Results of Supplemental Data Analyses for Regression Models ................ 62 TABLE 6: Hypothesis Summary Tables ......................................................... 63 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1: Relationship between Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent ................................................................................................... 4 FIGURE 2: Relationship between Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent ................................................................................................. 27 FIGURE 3: Adapted Model of the Sequencing of Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intent, and Turnover ................................................... 28 FIGURE 4: Adapted Alternative Model of the Sequencing of Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intent, and Turnover ................................. 28 FIGURE 5: Variables used in Correlation Matrix .............................................. 51 FIGURE 6: Measurement Model used for Regression Analysis .............................. 51 FIGURE 7: Variables with the Highest Statistical Significant Correlations ................ 57 FIGURE 8: Frequency Distribution Responses for Item 5 on Turnover Intent Questionnaire ........................................................................................ 66 FIGURE 9: Moderating Variables of Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent ...................................................................................... 84 xi aJDI aJIG ASA CORE CRCC DHS DRS MTWA NRA OCS P-C Fit P-E P-O Fit RSA TOI TWA LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abridged Job Descriptive Index Abridged Job in General Attraction-Selection-Attrition Council on Rehabilitation Education Commission on Rehabilitation Counselor Certification Department of Human Services Division of Rehabilitation Services Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment National Rehabilitation Association Organizational Commitment Scales, Person-Culture Fit Person-Environment Person-Organization Fit Rehabilitation Services Administration Turnover Intent Theory of Work Adjustment xii Chapter 1 Introduction Employees and employers choose between working for organizations and hiring individuals, respectively, based on the perception of fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002). Fit can be broadly defined as the degree of compatibility between an individual and an organization (McCulloch & Turban, 2007). Research suggests that “employees fit perceptions affect their turnover decisions” (Cable & DeRue, 2002, p. 872). One major conceptualization Of fit is person—organization (P-O) fit, which emphasizes the degree of compatibility between individual and organizational values, otherwise known as organizational culture (Chatman, 1989). Moreover, “P-O fit focuses on the fit of the person with the organization rather than fit with a Specific job, group, or vocation” (McCulloch & Turban, 2007, p. 63). P-O fit is important and has practical application in the field of rehabilitation because it can be used to predict movement across organizations, as well eventual turnover (Kristof-Brown, 1996; Sheridan, 1992) based on measuring specific variables such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment (O’Reilly, Chatrnan, & Caldwell, 1991). Additionally, research suggests that “people develop and use perceptions of fit as they maneuver through organizational life” (Cable & DeRue, 2002, p. 875). In the context of shrinking resources, increased organizational initiatives, and organizational restructuring, “the benefits of [identifying and] employing people who can be mobile within an organization” (Kristof, 1996, p. 1) with respect to P- 0 fit, makes good business sense. Organizational success, to a large degree, depends on individuals who can “perform well on the job and who are unlikely to quit the organization” (McCulloch & Turban, 2007, p. 63). A greater degree of P-O fit has been shown to be related to multiple organizational outcomes including enhanced organizational commitment, increased productivity, and reduced turnover (Van Vianen, 2000). Highlighting the importance of P-O fit in the field of rehabilitation may assist in the ongoing exploration of agency possibilities designed to further enhance present-day recruitment and retention efi‘orts. Problem Statement Turnover is a problem in the field of rehabilitation (Barrett, Riggar, Flowers, Crimando, & Bailey, 1997; Bishop, 2001; Bishop, Crystal, & Sheppard-Jones, 2003; Chan, 2003; Chan & Ruedel, 2005). The Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) has issued federal mandates to the Regional Rehabilitation Continuing Education Programs (RRCEP), now known as the Technical Assistance and Continuing Education (TACE) Centers, to develop ways to recruit and retain qualified rehabilitation counselors (Dew, Diller, & Peters, 2005). Take for example the context of state vocational rehabilitation (VR) agencies. According to the National Rehabilitation Association (NRA) 2008 Issue Statements, the average yearly turnover rate is approximately 16%. Whereas many qualified personnel are leaving due to retirement, others are deciding to end their work relationship with state VR for non-retirement reasons. In fact, the 2006- 2007 Council on Rehabilitation Education (CORE, 2008) profile suggests that while nearly 40% of all rehabilitation counseling graduates entered state VR upon employment, present-day sources still report a void in filling VR counselor positions. The effective recruitment and retention of qualified rehabilitation counselors does not only pose a significant problem for the public sector, but for all sectors within rehabilitation, as well (Mallik & Lemaire, 2003). A recent study of rehabilitation counseling personnel working in diverse settings (e.g., state VR, for-profit, not-for-profit, schools, hospitals, etc.) found that almost 50% of participants surveyed who had been on the job for five years or less planned to leave their respective agencies within the next two years (Armstrong, Hawley, Blankenship, Lewis, & Hurley, 2008). The importance of examining rehabilitation turnover, relative to recruitment and retention is warranted, especially as rehabilitation counseling is not as well known as other disciplines, including social work and psychology (Tansey, Bishop, & Smart, 2004). Nevertheless, rehabilitation professionals function in a unique position relative to recruitment and retention because of the daily work opportunities to reach so many individuals with and without disabilities. For example, research suggests that approximately 40% of practitioners surveyed learned about the field of rehabilitation as a result Of fiiendship or association with a rehabilitation counseling professional (Bishop et al., 2003). As such, much can be gained by examining factors which influence practitioners’ perceptions to remain with their respective organizations, which has a direct impact on recruitment. Person-organization (P-O) fit has been shown to share an inverse relationship with turnover, such that individuals who possess a high degree of P-O fit are less likely to leave their organizations (McCulloch & Turban, 2007). As with P-O fit, organizational commitment and job satisfaction are other variables that have been negatively linked to turnover (Cohen, 1993). For example, persons who have a greater sense Of commitment and job satisfaction are less apt to leave their jobs (Mitus, 2006), and perhaps more importantly, their organizations. Previous studies have provided evidence of the positive relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment, and both variables have been described as antecedents to turnover intent and eventual turnover (Cramer, 1996; Dougherty, Bluedom, & Keon, 1985). Thus, a lack of perceived P-O fit has the potential to lead to decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment, thereby increasing the likelihood of eventual turnover (O’Reilly, Chatrnan, & Caldwell, 1991). Turnover intent is of particular importance in the present study as it highlights “what takes place behind the scenes” prior to the physical act of “turning over” or leaving an organization. As the process of evaluating whether one will leave or remain with his/her organization is largely private and takes place over time (Mobley, 1977), supervisors and administrators may not have the opportunity to intervene prior to organizational departure. Theoretical Framework Job Satisfaction Person-Organization . Turnover P-O F It ( ) J Intent Organizational Commitment Figure 1: Relationship between Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent As shown in Figure 1, the theoretical framework for this study is based on extensive research that has been conducted on person-organization (P-O) fit, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intent (Cable & Judge, 1997; O’Reilly et al., 1991; Sheridan, 1992; Westerman & Cyr, 2004) in the fields of management and industrial/organizational psychology. Research suggests that while P-O fit may be conceptualized in different ways (Kristof, 1996; McCulloch & Turban, 2007), values congruence remains an important way to measure fit in an organizational context, especially as it has been shown to influence employee attitudes such as organizational commitment and job satisfaction, as well as other organizational outcomes, including productivity and turnover (O’Reilly et al., 1991; Van Vianen, 2000). Previous research has established a link between outcomes of poor P-O fit including decreased organizational commitment and job satisfaction, leading to increased turnover (Van Vianen, 2000). Furthermore, it has been suggested that the relationship between P-O fit and turnover intent is mediated by the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Westerman & Cyr, 2004). Purpose of the Study Several studies in rehabilitation have examined antecedents of turnover in the context of organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and burnout (Biggs, F lett, Voges, & Alpass, 1995; Layne, Hohenshil, & Singh, 2004; Satcher & McGhee, 1996). However, there are considerably fewer studies that have examined turnover intent, and nearly no studies which have explored turnover intent among state VR counselors, using P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment as predictor variables. Consequently, the purposes of this study are to (a) examine the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent within the aforementioned population, (b) examine the relationships between participant demographic variables and the primary variables of interest, and (c) obtain information that would lead to possibilities surrounding the exploration of the utility of P-O fit in the field Of rehabilitation, as a way of assisting with present-day VR recruitment and retention efforts. Research Question The research question of interest in this study is as follows: “What are the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent?” A supplemental research question is: “What are the relationships between demographic variables in the study such as age, gender, job tenure and the primary variables of interest (e.g., P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent)? Research Hypothesis The research hypothesis of interest in this study is as follows: “Turnover intent may be predicted by measuring variables such as P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. Context of Study The context of the study was state vocational rehabilitation (VR) agencies. State VR agencies assist individuals with disabilities in maximizing employment potential, as a way of achieving independence and self-sufficiency. Eligibility within the VR system is criteria specific, including the existence of functional limitations, as a result of the disability. Success within the VR system is primarily measured by 90 days of consecutive employment. Today, nearly one million individuals with disabilities in the US. apply for VR services annually, in which more than 200,000 are successfully rehabilitated (NRA, 2008) Definition of Terms The following is a definition of terms used throughout the study: Person-organization (P-0)fit: Person-organization (P—O) fit was defined as the amount of congruence between individual and organizational values. Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was defined as the degree of either facet-oriented or global affective orientation towards a job. Organizational commitment. Organizational commitment was defined as the degree to which an individual identifies and exerts energy on behalf of an organization. It was characterized by three dimensions (e. g., affective, normative, and continuance). Turnover intent. Turnover intent was defined as the degree of continuous or intermittent contemplation to voluntarily leave one’s job. Chapter 2 Literature Review Employment is an important aspect of quality of life. Many people spend countless hours preparing for and engaging in work-related activities. In fact, individuals can spend upwards of 60 hours per week involved in work activity (Randstad, 2007). As such, a good fit between organizations and employees is important, especially when considering the impact of work-related factors such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment, which can influence consumer outcomes, productivity, and retention. Research findings suggest that employees and employers choose between working for organizations and hiring individuals, respectively, based on the perception of fit (Cable & DeRue, 2002). Fit can be broadly defined as the amount of congruence between an individual and an organization (e. g., person-environment fit). However, this conceptualization has evolved across time spurring multiple variations of fit (Kristof, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). One major conceptualization of fit is person- orgarrization (P-O) fit, which emphasizes the degree of compatibility between individual and organizational values, also known as organizational culture (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Chatrnan, 1989; Kristof, 1996). The relationship between P-O fit and organizational benefits such as enhanced organizational commitment and job satisfaction, increased productivity, and recruitment and retention are of particular consequence in the field of rehabilitation. In fact, increasing attention has been devoted to the overall context of recruitment and retention of qualified rehabilitation personnel (Bishop et al., 2003; Chan 2003; [R1, 2008; NRA, 2008). For example, a study commissioned by the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) in 2002 for the purposes of examining issues related to recruitment and retention Of qualified state rehabilitation personnel suggested that during fiscal year 2001-2002, VR agencies across the country needed to replace more than 1,000 counselors, of which 30% of replacements were due to retirement. Even more alarming, was that a five-year projection estimated that nearly 4,000 counselors would have needed to have been replaced in 2007, which poses a challenge in terms of demand and supply (Chan & Ruedel, 2005). Given the personnel needs in 2002, if all rehabilitation counseling graduates for that particular year joined state VR agencies for employment, this would only fill approximately 87% of the overall replacements-still resulting in a labor shortage. The importance of closely examining factors, such as P-O fit, organizational commitment and job satisfaction, which can influence rehabilitation counseling recruitment and retention is warranted, especially as rehabilitation counseling is not as well known as other disciplines (e.g., social work and psychology) (Arokiasamy, 2000; Tansey et al., 2004). Thus, much can be gained by examining variables that not only influence the recruitment of potential professionals into the field of rehabilitation, but also impact retention of those presently employed as rehabilitation professionals. Various fields such as business, management, and industrial psychology have provided evidence of the impact that organizational processes and structures have on internal customers (e.g., employees). However, there remains a need for widespread empirical investigation of Similar issues among rehabilitation counseling personnel, if turnover is to be effectively addressed. In fact, research suggests that “by satisfying the needs of its internal customers, an organization upgrades its capability for satisfying the needs of its external customers” (Lewis, 1991, p. 33). Turnover decisions are affected by perceptions of fit and may refer to both voluntary (e. g., quit or retirement) and involuntary (e.g., termination or layoff) reasons for organizational departure. Prior to the physical act of turning over or leaving one’s organization, turnover intent occurs. Research suggests that turnover intent is a predictor of voluntary turnover (Armstrong et al., 2008; Pack, Roessler, Turner, & Robertson, 2007). As turnover intent is largely a private process, if rehabilitation administrators can predict turnover intent among rehabilitation counselors, they may be in a better position to predict actual turnover and intervene prior to personnel leaving their jobs. Previous rehabilitation studies have investigated antecedents and consequences of turnover among rehabilitation personnel in the areas of organizational commitment, job satisfaction, motivation, and burnout (Crimando, Riggar, & Hansen, 1986; Garske, 1996; Satcher & McGhee, 1996; Szymanski & Parker, 1995; Wilkinson & Wagner, 1993). However, an interest in turnover intent appears to be emerging (Armstrong et al., 2008; Chan & Ruedel, 2005; Layne et al., 2004), given the increased attention to recruitment and retention issues in the field. While turnover intention studies are increasing, there have been almost no studies that have specifically explored the link between P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment, which research suggests are predictors of turnover intent. Consequently, the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between P-O fit, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and turnover intent. In order to address the purpose of this study, a literature review is needed. To accomplish this task, the literature review addresses the following areas: (a) overview of public sector 10 rehabilitation, (b) overview Of fit theory, (0) overview of Theory of Work Adjustment, ((1) relationship between P-O fit and turnover intent, (e) relationship between job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent, (I) turnover in rehabilitation organizations, and (g) exploration of present and future utility of P-O fit in the field of rehabilitation. Public Sector Rehabilitation Vocational rehabilitation (VR) in the United States developed after World War I, primarily for veterans with disabilities. The Soldier’s Rehabilitation Act of 1918 provided vocational rehabilitation programming for veterans via the Federal Board for Vocational Education. The provision of vocational training had to result in employment, which still holds true of VR programs today. The need for VR services was catapulted by the thousands of individuals returning fi'om the war with severe injuries and permanent disabilities, as well as the improved survival rate of veterans, due to advancements in medicine and technology. As a result of the recognition that rehabilitation service programming was advantageous in helping veterans return to work and lead productive lives, the Smith-Fess Act of 1920, initiated VR services for civilians. During the 1930’s & 1940’s, the depression and World War II, further spurred the need for VR programming, especially for specific disability populations including people who were blind, and people with mental retardation and mental illness. In fact, the Social Security Act of 1935 made VR programs in the US. permanent, placing the matter in a social justice context (Rubin & Roessler, 2008). Once, VR programming was made permanent, what followed was the Golden Era of Rehabilitation. Public sector rehabilitation expanded as evidenced by increased financial ll support, research and demonstration grants, expansion of rehabilitation facilities, and professionalization of the field (e. g., grants to colleges to train rehabilitation counselors). Today, nearly one million individuals with disabilities in the US. apply for VR services annually, in which more than 200,000 are successfully rehabilitated (NRA, 2008). The goal Of VR programs is to assist individuals with disabilities in maximizing employment potential, as a way Of achieving independence and self-sufficiency. While priority is given to individuals with the most significant disabilities, in order to be eligible for VR services, the following criteria must be met: (a) existence of a disability, (b) functional limitations as a result of the disability poses substantial employment barriers to finding, getting, and keeping a job, and (c) the requirement of VR services (OSERS, 2008). Informed choice is enacted throughout the VR process, whereby consumers take on an active role in their VR program. The VR consumer and counselor work together to develop an Individualized Plan of Employment (IPE), which outlines services that will be provided during programming, cost of services, parties responsible for payment of services, comparable benefits (e. g., financial aid, if education or vocational training is a part of a consumer’s IPE), service provides, and date program will begin and end. Enhanced consumer choice and IPE’s, formerly known as, Individualized Written Rehabilitation Programs (IWRP’S), are a direct result of the 1998 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act and the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, respectively (Rubin & Roessler, 2008). The IPE is reviewed at least once a year to ensure overall progress towards the agreed upon employment goal. In the VR system, a successful closure or “26” is characterized by achievement of the employment goal outlined in the IPE, maintenance of employment for at least 90 12 consecutive days, and no additional services being required at that particular time to maintain the job. Consumers may receive VR services in the future, once they meet the eligibility criteria outlined earlier. Overview of F it Theory Theories of fit have been presented in the management literature for decades (Chatrnan, 1989; O’Reilly et al., 1991; Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007), against which various conceptualizations of person- environment fit (e. g., person-job, person- group, person-organization, etc.) have emerged. Theorists suggest that human behavior is a result of the interaction between the person and the environment. Furthermore, research suggests that when people and environments are a good match, the interaction between the two variables yields increased satisfaction and performance (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987). When considering individuals in the context of organizations, fit, in the broadest sense, can be defined as the amount of compatibility between an individual and an organization. However, in order to better understand the fit concept, it is necessary to examine prior research in this area. Due to the surge of exploration surrounding fit, there are now multiple conceptualizations, which have contributed to a richer perspective, but have also added to the complexity of defining, measuring, and integrating results surrounding the construct (Cable & DeRue, 2002; McCulloch & Turban, 2007). Person-organization (P-O) fit, sometimes referred to as person-culture (P-C) fit, is a widely studied variation of person-environment (P-E) fit. P-O fit is discernible from other forms of fit, as it specifically focuses on the degree of congruence between the individual and the organization, as Opposed to a Specific job, group, or vocation. Kristof 13 (1996) defines P-O fit as ‘ ‘the compatibility between people and organizations that occurs when: (a) at least one entity provides what the other needs, or (b) they share similar fundamental characteristics, or (c) both’ ’ (pp. 4—5). Compatibility is a key term used to describe fit and may fall into two categories: supplementary or complementary. Supplementary fit occurs when the organization and person possess similar characteristics; whereas, complementary fit occurs when the organization and person fulfill each others’ needs (e. g., what the organization lacks, the persons makes up for and vice versa). A key distinction between supplementary and complementary fit lies in the environment, which may constitute the individuals who comprise the organization or the demands of the work environment itself. As many organizations are very dynamic and people constantly maneuver in, out, and about organizations, what may constitute a good fit today, may or may not constitute a good fit tomorrow (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987). Person-organization fit (P-O) can also be described in the context of compatibility between needs-supplies and demands-abilities (Kristof, 1996). The former framework suggests that P-O fit is increased as the organization meets employees’ desires, needs, and preferences. On the other hand, the latter framework suggests that P-O fit is increased as employees’ abilities to meet the demands of the organization increases. Organizations functioning in dynamic environments will seek individuals who can frequently adapt to change and grow with the demands that the context brings. Sometimes constantly changing environments may exceed individuals’ abilities to meet organizational demands. As such, organizational consequences such as turnover intent and eventual turnover may occur due to an incongruent fit. However, some organizational contexts may be very static and will most likely want individuals who will 14 be satisfied with less frequent changes and overall steady demands. For individuals desiring an organizational experience that may be more dynamic (e.g., challenges, frequent change, etc.), the latter organizational context may also result in similar organizational consequences (e. g., turnover) due to a mismatch. Primarily, it seems as though a lasting fit between individuals and organizations results when the criteria upon which the match was initially made remains relatively stable (Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987) Beyond defining what constitutes a good fit, the literature on fit has been criticized due to the emergence of multiple conceptualizations and the lack of integration among the various types of fit (Judge & Ferris, 1992; Kristof, 1996; Kristof—Brown et al., 2005). While there are various frameworks of PE fit, there are also several conceptualizations of P-O fit. For example, P-O fit has been empirically investigated as the degree of overlap between the individual and the organization in the context of goals (Vancouver & Schmitt, 1991), personality (Christiansen, Villanova, & Mikulay, 1997), and values (Chatrnan, 1989; Judge & Cable, 1997 ; O’Reilly et al., 1991). Despite the differences in conceptualization, much of the research surrounding P-O fit has focused on values congruence and remains a widely accepted way in which to study the construct (Elfenbein & O’Reilly, 2007). The development and validation of the Organizational Culture Profile (OCP) helped to further solidify values congruence as a primary way in which to define P-O fit (Kristof—Brown et al., 2005 ; O’Reilly et al., 1991). Moreover, many would argue that values congruence is a critical aspect of overall fit, as values are not only characterized as “fundamental and relatively enduring” (Chatrnan, 1991, p. 459), 15 but can also be considered the building blocks of organizational culture, which guides employees’ behavior (Schein, 1992). Fit has been linked to Schneider’s (1987) Attraction-Selection-Attrition (ASA) theory, suggesting that organizations attract, select, and retain persons who fit their organizations (McCulloch & Turban, 2007), and in turn, individuals are attracted to, select, and choose to maintain membership with organizations that fit their personalities, facilitate the accomplishment of their goals, and meet their needs (Westerman & Cyr, 2004). The underlying premise of P-O fit is that there is a degree of congruence between individual and organizational values. Following entry into an organization, individuals whose values are incongruent to that of the organization’s tend to end their membership, either voluntarily or involuntarily. The benefits of P-O fit have been long supported in the employee selection process literature. In fact, P-O fit is cited as the key to maintaining a global workforce marked by flexibility and commitment (Cable & Parsons, 2001; Sekiguchi, 2004). However, there is an ongoing debate regarding measurement of fit, as well as the benefits of measuring perceived versus actual fit (McCulloch & Turban, 2007). During the pre-entry period or employee selection process, fit measures may be used to help determine a good match. While this is one way to utilize fit, prior studies have not all measured fit in the same way or during the same period in the employment process (e.g., pre or post-employment), thereby adding to the complexity of understanding the construct. Actual or Objective fit measures the actual similarity of individual and organizational values based on profile correlations, while perceived or subjective fit measures the extent to which individuals believe they fit with the 16 organization (KristOf-Brown et a1, 2005). Though some may argue that actual fit is a more important measurement of organizational outcomes (e.g., productivity, retention, etc.) than perceived fit, there is empirical evidence to suggest that the latter is a better predictor of not only organizational outcomes, but organizational effectiveness as well, including contributing to the broader mission of the organization (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Cable & Judge, 1995). Perception is tied to one’s beliefs and values, which impacts employee attitudes and behavior, including turnover (Van Vianen, 2000). A study by Lauver and KristOf-Brown (2001) which measured the P-J and P-O fit perceptions of truck drivers followed the same line of logic, using perceived fit measures for both conceptualizations of fit, as research has previously suggested that perceived fit serves as a better predictor of individual outcomes, such as organizational commitment and turnover intent. Theory of Work Adjustment The fit literature and conceptual fi'ameworks are an extension of both Schneider’s ASA theory and the Theory Of Work Adjustment (TWA), also known as the Minnesota Theory of Work Adjustment (MTWA). The TWA developed as a result of research being conducted at the University of Minnesota on the Work Adjustment Project. With investigation into this theory beginning as early as 1960, the MTWA has been widely used throughout rehabilitation for sewing individuals with disabilities, in relation to vocational counseling, assessment, planning, and consumer iob retention. Furthermore, the MTWA provides rehabilitation counselors with a framework for the application of trait-factor counseling techniques (e.g., matching individual with 17 work environment) (Kosciulek & DeVinney, 2004; Roessler, 2002; Szymanski, ' Enright, Hershenson, & Ettinger, 2003). The TWA is a person-environment (P-E) framework, which suggests correspondence between the individual and the environment. Both entities are mutually responsive for effecting congruence. Correspondence results when individuals meet certain requirements or demands of the environment (e. g., satisfactoriness), and in turn, the environment fulfills certain requirements or needs of individuals (e. g., satisfaction). Individuals who remain on the job are likely to experience reinforcers that facilitate their job satisfaction, resulting in longer job tenure. Individuals who remain on the job and are good at what they do are likely to experience activities that reflect their satisfactory work performance. One of the basic assumptions of TWA is that individuals seek to obtain and maintain environmental correspondence, which tends to result in job tenure, if a minimum level of correspondence is achieved. On the other hand, if correspondence is not achieved, this may result in individuals leaving the work environment. Similar to fit, as correspondence increases, job tenure also seems to increase. This dynamic and continuous process of seeking and maintaining correspondence with the work environment is known as work adjustment, where job tenure is the primary outcome (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969). The fit and TWA frameworks seek to establish congruence and correspondence, respectively, from the outset, as well as maintain fit and work adjustment after organizational entry. For example, MTWA suggests that work adjustment (e.g., concept similar to fit) takes place post-hire, as two of the primary constructs within the TWA 18 framework are satisfaction and satisfactoriness (Vandergoot, 1975). Logically, both constructs (e.g., satisfaction and satisfactoriness) seem to need a minimal amount of time to develop or not, whereas if the latter occurs, tenure is shortened. Similarly, within the fit literature, while there has been prolific empirical investigation in establishing fit post- hire, there is also growing exploration of having fit (e.g., concept similar to work adjustment) be used in the employee-decision making process. In the fit literature, satisfactoriness, which may be compared to job performance, is a relationship which still requires empirical support. For example, a meta-analysis of P-O fit and employment decision-making examined more than 150 independent correlations (Arthur, Bell, Villado, & Doverspike, 2006), among which the estimated criterion-related validity for job performance was 0.15. Of the more than 150 correlations investigated, 24% represented the relationship between job performance and fit. While the fit and job performance relationship has received some attention, the majority of attention has focused on the relationship between fit and work attitudes, as the effects and criterion-related validity for this particular relationship seems to be more substantial. For example, effects for job performance have been shown to be approximately half the magnitude of the medium effects for work attitudes. While MTWA seems to have well-established the link between P and E in the pre-hire phase, fit theories are attempting to move more stringently in the direction of excavating and eventually accessing the benefits of fit during the pre-hire employment phase. P-O Fit and Turnover Intent 19 While P-O fit has been linked to turnover as supported by empirical investigation (Arthur et al., 2006; Cable & Judge, 1995; McCullough & Turban, 2007; Van Vianen, 2000), overall measurement of the construct has come under scrutiny. As measures of fit can be either subjective or objective and both types have been previously used, findings regarding P-O fit and turnover intent have been mixed. A meta-analysis conducted by Verquer, Beehr, and Wagner (2003) highlighted existing findings in the literature including the diversity surrounding P-O fit relative to definition (e.g., values, goals, etc.), alternative descriptions (e. g., P-E fit, P-C fit), and measurement (e.g., subjective versus objective). Verquer et al. found important implications for the measurement of P-O fit suggesting that subjective fit measures had higher correlations than objective measures, again providing support for the use of the former in ongoing empirical investigation. Research studies that have examined P-O fit and turnover intent range in effect sizes Of - .02 to -.63, where studies using the OCP have yielded stronger effect sizes than non-OCP measures. Verquer et al. also reinforced the relationships between P-O fit and work attitudes, including organizational commitment and job satisfaction, with effect sizes as high as 0.81. Turnover intent is the most immediate predictor of actual turnover, as it highlights “what takes place behind the scenes” prior to the physical act of turning over, or leaving one’s organization (Mobley, 1977; Pack et al., 2007). The relationship between P-O fit and turnover intent has been well documented in the literature (McCulloch & Turban, 2007; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). As such, it makes sense to conclude that when individuals perceive a higher degree of fit with an organization, they are less likely to leave (Westerman & Cyr, 2004). Person-organization (P-O) fit perceptions from an 20 individual’s perspective may encompass global beliefs about an organization, including how well the organization takes care of its employees, as well as the value the organization places on employees’ contributions (Cable & DeRue, 2002). Additionally, when individuals perceive a higher degree of P-O fit, research suggests that not only are organizational benefits more likely, but the influence on individual health and well-being is enhanced as well (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007), which reduces the likelihood of turnover. Increased P-O fit can be influenced during the employee selection phase, starting with the interview. The interview process offers a potential “snapshot” of P-O fit, and is a time where both the organization and individual can evaluate one another for fit. While some may argue that limited information regarding organizational culture can be garnered from the interview, others may suggest that cues would be available during this time (e.g., person conducting interview, style of interview, observations of employee behavior). In fact, research suggests that P-O fit has been used during the interview to guide hiring determinations (Cable & Judge, 1995), and that organizational benefits could be effected if in fact employment interviews shift from strictly focusing on job performance to assessment of fit (Arthur et al., 2006). While newer employees may be unaware of how well they truly fit with an organization’s values or culture during the pre- entry period and immediately following hire, the selection process is a critical way in which transmission of organizational values takes place (Schein, 1992). Employers seeking to recruit members who share similar organizational values (e.g., supplementary fit), as opposed to those who do not (e.g., complementary fit), most Often, aid in maintaining cultural norms, values, and beliefs within an organization. 21 Like the interview during the employee selection process, organizational socialization has been shown to play a vital role in transmitting organizational culture, influencing P-O fit, and decreasing turnover (Mitus, 2006; Stroh et al., 2002). Organizational socialization is a process by which newcomers to an organization learn about their roles and responsibilities as well as the organization’s culture. The socialization process tends to shape work attitudes and behaviors (Allen & Meyer, 1990), and refers to the overall experiences that newcomers receive when they join an organization, including the type of information provided (Mitus, 2006). The socialization process may occur through informal and formal means. Oftentimes, newcomers are provided with mentors or role models as a way of helping them “learn the ropes.” This method also serves as a way of helping newcomers to understand and become oriented to organizational values, beliefs, and norms. As such, organizational socialization is critical because it is used to ensure the continuance of values and norms, thereby providing newcomers with a framework for organizational participation. Moreover, increased alignment between individual and organizational values which represents a good fit helps to increase commitment and reduce turnover. Research suggests that newcomers experience “reality Shoc ” (Cable & Parsons, 2001 , p. 2) due to having to adjust to a new situation, as well as possibly re-examine their perceptions of values congruence, if expectations are not met. During this period, newcomers may align themselves more closely with organizational values or may choose to turnover. Consequently, it would benefit organizations to pay close attention to this population during the socialization period as there may be enhanced potential for turnover. 22 In Schneider’s Attraction-Selection-Attrition theory, it is suggested that peOple make the workplace (Van Vianen, 2000). Seemingly, the culture of an organization, which represents shared assumptions, values, and norms, does not exist apart fiom the individuals who comprise it (Schein, 1992). Culture must be experienced. It is pervasive and impacts all levels of an organization. Culture provides a framework of how internal and external customers are treated. As with most cultures, sub-cultures exist. As such, another aspect of P-O fit from an individual’s perspective that has been shown to be related to decreased turnover intent is the type of support that is provided in the workplace, as manifested by social networks (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). For example, researchqsuggests that individuals who perceive a higher “level Of support from their fellow coworkers and feel a sense of Obligation toward their colleagues are less likely to express an intention to quit” (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007, p. 2). Research also suggests that the perception of hi gh-quality working relationships with others not only increases the possibility that individuals will remain with organizations, but “social networks become ties that bind employees to their organization and mediate the impact of negative factors or shocks that frequently lead to voluntary turnover” (p. 7). Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Turnover Intent P-O fit, work attitudes, and organizational outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent have been frequently studied throughout the fit literature. The theoretical fi'amework existing between P-O fit, work attitudes, and organizational outcomes suggest that when fit is present between individual and environments, people experience opportunities to fulfill their needs. These individuals are also able to interact with other individuals who have similar needs, which tend to 23 reinforce values and beliefs. The environmental interaction coupled with the interaction with coworkers and colleagues in the environment helps formulate favorable attitudes (e. g., job satisfaction, organizational commitment) and continual fit, leading to increased job tenure. The meta-analysis of P-O fit and employee decision conducted by Arthur et al. (2006) which investigated more than 150 independent correlations found that P-O fit and work attitudes had the highest number of correlations and largest effect size versus other empirically investigated relationships (e. g., P-O fit and job performance). The findings of this meta-analysis are noteworthy as they suggest the importance of the relationship between P-O fit and work attitudes, as well as provides multiple directions for future research in this area. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are critical factors in the overall P-O fit and turnover intent relationship. Research suggests that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are distinct constructs, which illuminate attitudes towards a job and attitudes towards an organization, respectively, not only shedding insight on behavioral intentions (e.g., turnover intentions), but also yielding outcomes likely to impact organizational effectiveness (Bishop & Scott, 2000; Shore, Newton, & Thornton, 1990; Stroh et al., 2002). Studies specific to rehabilitation have found that counselor job satisfaction and organizational commitment is a result of varied factors including consumer satisfaction, organizational socialization, advancement opportunities (Barrett et al., 1997; Mallik & Lemaire 2003; Mitus, 2006), and in a more recent study, organizational culture (IRI, 2008). Research surrounding job satisfaction and organizational commitment is likely to continue well into the future as the field of 24 rehabilitation pursues on- going efforts targeted at the recruitment and retention of qualified rehabilitation counselors. Job satisfaction has typically been investigated relative to satisfiers or motivators (e.g., promotional opportunities, autonomy, work recognition) and dissatisfiers or hygiene factors (e.g., pay, work conditions, co-workers). However, other indicants such as flextime and flexplace are gaining attention as factors worthy of investigation relative to critical aspects of job satisfaction (DeSanis & Durst, 1996; Fried, Litchfield, & I Pruchno, 2003 ). A study of public sector employees suggested the importance of considering work-family balance, implying that work-family conflict, specifically, can result in an overall depletion of the individual’s resources, due to a pile-up of demands fiom participation in one or more roles (e. g., work or family). This depletion thereby results in distress and emotional strain, which rehabilitation research has suggested is a direct link to turnover intent and eventual turnover (Biggs et al., 1995; Layne et al., 2004). Furthermore, without the social support necessary to facilitate appropriate functioning in both the work and family arenas, productivity may decrease and turnover increase (Wadsworth & Owens, 2007). Like job satisfaction, organizational commitment is another variable that has been increasingly investigated within organizational contexts. Many of the findings suggest that organizational commitment has been linked to longer job tenure, extrarole behavior, and reduced absenteeism, thereby, proposing a compelling link between the person and environment (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Biggs et al., 1995; Meyer, Bobocel, & Allen, 1991). Organizational comrrritrnent refers to the degree of identification with and involvement in one’s organization (Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982), and remains a significant predictor 25 of work performance and turnover (Bishop & Scott, 2000). It is a multi-dimensional construct which captures whether individuals choose to maintain organizational membership because they want to (i.e., affective commitment), need to (i.e., continuance commitment), or feel they should (i.e., normative comrrritrnent). Research suggests that individuals may commit to organizations and professions (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993). Consequently, one may conclude that if reduced organizational commitment tends to lead to organizational departure, reduced “profession-commitment” is likely to lead to departure from the profession. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment have been consistently linked to turnover (Andrew, Faubion, & Palmer, 2002; Capella & Andrew, 2004; Dougherty, Bluedorn, & Keon, 1985; Mitus, 2006; Satcher & McGhee, 1996; Wright & Terrian, 1987). However, there are varying perspectives regarding the relationship between job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intent, and turnover. For example, Figure 3 suggests a sequence in which reduced job satisfaction leads to reduced organizational commitment. In turn, reduced organizational commitment leads to an increased likelihood of turnover intent and eventual turnover. Further evidence suggests that beyond being highly correlated with turnover, job satisfaction influences other _ outcomes that can lead to turnover, including burnout, psychological distress, management style, and organizational commitment (Farruggia, 1986; Kim, 2002; Layne etal., 2004). Some suggest that job satisfaction is an important component in understanding turnover and should be included as part of “any basic model of turnover” (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007, p. 4). In contrast, Figures 2 and 4 share more similarity. Figure 2 conceptualizes that both job satisfaction and organizational commitment possess 26 a reciprocal influence on one another, while also having individualized effects on turnover intent and actual turnover. Figure 4 suggests that decreased job satisfaction and organizational commitment can operate independent of each other leading to an increased likelihood of turnover intent and eventual turnover. Organizational commitment has repeatedly demonstrated “relationships with turnover, and of magnitude greater than job [satisfaction],” in some cases (Dougherty et al., 1985, p. 260). Prior rehabilitation investigations have also suggested that organizational commitment is a predictor of job satisfaction (Biggs et al., 1995; Vandenberg & Lance, 1992). Nevertheless, Figure 2 (repeat of Figure l) is being used as the theoretical framework in the present investigation, as it appears to best capture the perspectives of the job satisfaction and organizational commitment causal order research. Job Satisfaction Person-Organization (P-O) Fit IT Turnover Intent Organizational Commitment Figure 2: Relationship between Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent 27 Job satisfaction Organizational Commitment Turnover Intent Figure 3: Adapted Model of the Sequencing of Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intent, and Turnover (Dougherty et al., 1985). Job satisfaction I Turnover Turnover Intent Turnover Organizational Commitment Figure 4. Adapted Alternative Model of the Sequencing of Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, Turnover Intent, and Turnover (Dougherty et al., 1985). Differences between performance and organizational outcomes have been explored as they relate to job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction have been Specifically linked to productivity and absenteeism, whereas organizational ccmmitrnent has been linked to turnover intentions (Shore et al., 1990). Nonetheless, absenteeism may be strongly argued as a manifestation of turnover intent (Mobley, 1977). While research on the relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment continues, there appears to be one consistent interpretation across findings, which is that both constructs have a significant influence on the relationship individuals have with organizations. 28 Empirical investigation surrounding job satisfaction and organizational commitment must be part Of the on-going rehabilitation research agenda. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment have been investigated as antecedents, mediators, and consequences of turnover intent and actual turnover. As the field of rehabilitation continues to explore options for recruiting and retaining qualified personnel, factors impacting rehabilitation’s internal workforce must be continually examined. More specifically, efforts to identify factors that enhance job satisfaction and commitment to both rehabilitation organizations and the profession warrant further investigation. Turnover in Rehabilitation Organizations Person-organization (P-O) fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment are all antecedents of turnover intent and actual turnover (Dougherty et al., 1985; Kristof- Brown et al., 2005; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). Turnover is very costly to the field of rehabilitation and to consumers with disabilities. In fact, the issue of retention should be of particular interest in the field of rehabilitation due to the allocation of resources and effort that is spent on training, and then lost due to turnover. According to NRA (2008), the average yearly rate of turnover is almost 16%. The average cost of personnel turnover in 1995 and 1996 for a Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities (CARF) agency was more than $160,000.00.00, as compared to almost $118,000.00 in 1985 and 1986 (Barrett et al., 1997). Adjusting for the cost of inflation today, turnover costs would amount to more than $220,000.00 (U.S. DOL, n.d.). Whereas many qualified rehabilitation personnel are leaving their jobs due to retirement, others are deciding to leave for non-retirement reasons, posing a real dilemma for the field of rehabilitation. Take for example the state VR employment context. 29 While almost 10,000 rehabilitation counselors are employed by state VR agencies across the United States, there remains a shortage of qualified counselors to assist the nearly one million consumers with disabilities who access services from VR each year (NRA, 2008). Although, 40% of all rehabilitation counseling graduates are choosing state VR as their “employer of choice” (CORE, 2008), present-day sources still report a void in filling VR counselor positions, with the employment need of VR counselors expected to grow by 22% through the year 2016 (U .S. DOL, 2007). Some of the most frequently studied influences on turnover in business, management, and rehabilitation research include organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and stress. A recent study examined the relationship between rehabilitation counselor personnel job satisfaction and turnover intent across a variety of work settings including public, private, and nonprofit (Armstrong et al., 2008). Results of the study suggested that nearly 80% of participants reported that they were satisfied with their job and had low intentions of quitting. While these findings are positive, nearly 50% of the participants who had been on the job for five years or less were planning on quitting within the next two years. According to another survey of rehabilitation counselors working in state VR programs, approximately 41% projected that they would no longer be employed with their respective VR agencies within five years (Chan & Ruedel, 2005). When asked for reasons related to turnover intent, factors such as increased pay, reduced workload, and recognition of achievements were cited. These results shed light on the significance and urgency to assist VR programs in continuing to investigate factors leading to turnover intent and eventual turnover, especially as rehabilitation counselors are such an essential component in the 30 rehabilitation process (Capella, 2002; F arruggia, 1986; Szymanski & Parker, 1989). More than 200,000 consumers with disabilities are successfully rehabilitated each year with the assistance Of rehabilitation counseling professionals (NRA, 2008). Research suggests that productivity tends to be higher when counselors perceive greater satisfaction with their jobs, as evidenced by the number of plans written, number of successful closures, and number of successful closures with individuals diagnosed with severe disabilities (Wilkinson & Wagner, 1993). Capella and Andrew (2004) address the relationship between counselor job satisfaction and consumer satisfaction with both services received by their counselor and VR services, in general. Findings in this study support the existence of a relationship between counselor job satisfaction and consumer satisfaction with their counselor and VR services. Due to the unique work that rehabilitation professionals perform, it is imperative that a strong working alliance between counselors and consumers is in place, as a way of effecting successful rehabilitation outcomes (Lusti g, Strauser, Rice, & Rucker, 2002). Consequently, it is reasonable to believe that if counselors are happy with their jobs, not only are they less likely to leave, but there is an increased likelihood that positive working alliances will be established which helps to yield higher consumer satisfaction with counselors and the type of rehabilitation outcomes consumers perceive as contributing to their quality of life. Turnover intent and turnover findings have implications for the potential of recruiting and retaining new counselors. For new counselors especially, establishing fit up front and maintaining a good fit is likely to increase organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and retention. Research suggests that turnover intent decreases with years on the job (Armstrong et al., 2008), which means that strategies employed at developing and 31 maintaining a good fit between rehabilitation counselors and their respective rehabilitation agencies will also decrease the high costs associated with turnover. However, prior to the development and implementation of organizational strategies, much more attention must be devoted to exploring factors that increase P-O fit and work attitudes. While there are several ways in which to enhance organizational commitment and job satisfaction, thereby leading to a stronger fit and reduced turnover, organizational culture also plays a vital role (Stroh, Northcraft, & Neale, 2002). Organizational culture, sometimes characterized as person-organization (P-O) or person-culture (P-C) fit, is another area related to rehabilitation organizational retention. Research suggests that strong organizational cultures influence employees’ organizational commitment (Kristof- Brown et al., 2005; Stroh et al., 2002). In other words, the more individuals align with organizational values, the stronger the culture becomes, thereby increasing fit and reducing turnover. Person-organization (P-O) fit can also be enhanced during the selection and socialization process. The selection process allows for choosing individuals whose values and beliefs are compatible with those of the organization; while the socialization process (i.e., process by which culture is conveyed and commitment is produced) “molds the employee to fit the organization” (p. 299). State VR programs may greatly benefit from developing and employing strategies designed to establish and maintain fit during multiple points throughout the pre- and post-employment phases. P-O Fit Utility in Rehabilitation Success to a large degree, within the VR system, means that counselors are equipped to negotiate multiple demands, including meeting the needs of both the setting 32 in which they function, as well as the ever-changing landscape of the various populations which access programmatic services. Because rehabilitation organizations are dynamic, one way in which to utilize P-O fit is in the area of recruitment and retention. Maximizing the use of P-O fit to attract, select, and retain individuals who will be able to fill needed vacancies within rehabilitation counseling organizations across sectors (e.g., non-profit, private, public) will help increase organizational success, enhance vocational outcomes and services, and extend the longevity of the field. Research suggests that employees continually re-examine and use fit perceptions as they move about their respective organizations (Cable & DeRue, 2002). As such, rehabilitation agencies that are able to use P-O fit to identify and employ personnel who have the ability to be mobile are likely to maximize organizational success (Kristof, 1996) and satisfy workforce needs. Organizational socialization can be seen as an early but critical step in the retention process. Socialization assists newcomers in “learning the ropes” and experiencing the organization’s culture first hand. As rehabilitation counselors transition from academic to practice settings, oftentimes, they experience shock once in the workplace due to having to adjust to a new situation. A lack of congruence between expectations and reality among newer counselors in the field of rehabilitation dates back nearly three decades. According to Emener (1979): Many rehabilitation counselors enter the field of rehabilitation with the seeds of idealism which were cultivated in graduate school. It can be very disillusioning for them to realize...that they cannot control as many of the variables that affect them to the extent that they thought they could, and that the techniques which 33 once worked so well with a few practicum clients are not as successful with a caseload of 150 (p. 57). One such variable that is difficult to control is organizational culture. In fact, organizational culture has been noted as a significant factor in attracting, recruiting, and retaining qualified rehabilitation counselors specifically in the public sector (IRI, 2008). The current culture of VR may be viewed through three levels: (1) artifacts, (2) espoused beliefs and values, and (3) basic assumptions. Artifacts refer to everything in the organizational environment one experiences (e. g., past stories or myths about the agency, values statement, technology, language, etc.). Espoused beliefs and values are the goals and philosophies of an organization (e. g., economic independence and self-sufficiency). Basic assumptions are premises that are usually customary in an organization or taken for granted and thus can be difficult to change (e.g., number of successful VR closures or 26’s). For new and seasoned counselors, many aspects of VR culture may not yield a good fit, thus resulting in increased turnover intent and possible turnover. For example, a basic assumption of VR culture is that a large portion of all rehabilitation counselors’ performance is specifically related to the number of successful closures one can attain in a fiscal year. While rehabilitation and the movement towards enhanced quality of life for consumers with disabilities can be seen as a team effort, “credit” for successful closures is typically assigned to one counselor, even though other counselors may have contributed to the effort (Biggs et al., 1995; IR], 2008). Consider the following example: Counselor A manages a caseload of more than 100 consumers and provides services to other individuals not presently on his/her caseload, including job development and placement. However, Counselor B, who is the counselor on record, receives “credit” for 34 a successful closure. The interaction of basic assumptions within state VR may act as an . overall disincentive to rehabilitation counselor recruitment and retention. AS organizational members adopt and align more closely with organizational values and basic assumptions, it is likely to conclude that the quality of work relationships among counselors may be impacted. With caseloads continuing to increase in number and complexity, incentives to help peers may decline. Another basic assumption operating in VR is the idea of whether counseling occurs. According to Bishop’s (2001) study of reasons for becoming a rehabilitation counselor, the motivation to provide counseling and guidance was most frequently cited. In fact, feedback from graduating rehabilitation counseling students suggests that an ideal job upon graduation would be to work in a setting that allows for a meaningful and ongoing counselor-client relationship. The perception of the lack of occurrence of counseling in VR impacts the field’s ability to recruit and possibly retain qualified rehabilitation counselors (Chan & Ruedel, 2005; IRI, 2008). Consequently, organizational cultural change is an important aspect for the consideration of enhancing recruitment and retention efforts among rehabilitation agencies. Person-organization (P-O) or person-culture (P-C) fit in human service organizations is critical in the “quality and outcomes of mental health services” (Aarons & Sawitzky, 2006, p. 62). When individuals perceive a higher degree of P-O fit, research suggests that the manifestation of engaging in activities that support organizational effectiveness and outcomes (e.g., helping peers) are more likely to be present (W estennan & Cyr, 2004). Because the role of many rehabilitation counselors is becoming increasingly complex relative to the knowledge and skills that are required for 35 effective service delivery (Leahy, Chan, & Saunders, 2003), it would be beneficial for rehabilitation organizations to employ and retain individuals who want to promote the larger causes of an organization, due to sharing in and compatibility with organizational values (Cable & DeRue, 2002). The impact on individual health and well-being which increases with perception of P-O fit is critical in the field of rehabilitation, where burnout and psychological distress have been cited in relation to turnover (Biggs et al., 1995; Layne et al., 2004). Research supports the link between P-O fit and turnover intent (Cable & DeRue, 2002). Turnover intent is usually signified by a process in which individuals evaluate their current position, costs of leaving, and existing alternatives (Mobley, 1977). Turnover intent “is the best and most immediate predictor of voluntary turnover” (Pack et al., 2007, p. 26). Since the process mostly occurs on an individual level and is largely private, administrators may not know the extent to which their organizational members are experiencing turnover intent. As RSA continues to mandate that plans be developed to address recruitment and retention issues in public sector rehabilitation, it would be beneficial for state VR agencies to eventually develop and implement organizational strategies by which they aim to identify and employ individuals who will be a good fit and therefore, more inclined to stay. However, most immediately, VR agencies may be assisted in present-day efforts by yielding significant information via continual investigation of factors that impact rehabilitation recruitment and retention. 36 Chapter 3 Method Participants The population of interest in this study was rehabilitation counselors working in state-federal vocational rehabilitation (V R) pro grams. The sample for this study was drawn from the Illinois Department of Human Services (DHS), Division of Rehabilitation Services (DRS). While several contacts and meetings were held with directors and administrative personnel from various state VR programs throughout the country, Illinois DRS was selected, based on several variables including meeting the selection criteria of the population of interest, agency familiarity with prior participation in empirical research, and overall willingness to participate. Rehabilitation counselors are an essential component in the VR process (Capella, 2002; Farruggia, 1986). Research suggests productivity tends to be higher when counselors perceive greater satisfaction with their jobs, as evidenced by the number of plans written, number of successful closures, and number of successful closures with individuals diagnosed as having more severe disabilities (Wilkinson & Wagner, 1993). In addition, as VR counselor job satisfaction has been positively correlated with VR consumer satisfaction (Capella & Andrew, 2004), this further implies that VR outcomes are impacted by counselors’ perceived job satisfaction (e.g., satisfied counselor equals increased VR outcomes and higher level of consumer satisfaction with VR experience). Consequently, rehabilitation counselors employed in state VR programs served as the population of interest. Demographic data, including age, race/ethnicity, gender, 37 educational level, certification, licensure, job tenure, salary, and caseload Size was collected. The demographic data questionnaire may be found in Appendix A. The online survey was sent to approximately 225 Illinois VR counselors via their intranet system (i.e., One-Net). A total of 74 surveys were returned. One survey was deleted from the analysis because the respondent was not a VR counselor. Therefore, the sample size for the current study was 73 (n = 73), yielding a response rate of approximately 32%. Research suggests that an appropriate response rate for online research is 30% (Hamilton, 2003). Nearly 70% of the participants had been working as Illinois VR counselors for 10 years or less, with a little over 30% possessing less than five years job tenure. More than half of the sample participants was comprised of females (54.9%, n = 39) and 32 participants (45.1%) earned more than $58,000 per year. The average age of participants was 47.5 with a total of 74.3% of the study sample comprising the age categories of 31- 45 (37.9%) and 46-55 (36.4%). The majority of participants responded that they were not Licensed Professional Counselors/Licensed Clinical Professional Counselors (78.9%, n = 56) or Certified Rehabilitation Counselors (70.0%, n = 49). While the average caseload size was 122 (mean = 121.7), 35.7% of respondents managed a caseload of more than 130 individuals (n = 25), with the second highest caseload category being respondents who managed caseload sizes ranging from 91-110 (22.9%, n = 16). The majority of participants possessed master’s level degrees (91.8%) in various fields. For example, 43.3% held master’s degrees in rehabilitation counseling (n = 29) while 25.4% held counseling degrees (n = 17). A variety of other disciplines were represented in the sample including psychology (1 1.9%, n = 8), social work (4.5%, 38 n = 3), education (6.0%, n = 4), and other (e.g., science, business; 3.0%, n = 2). Approximately 3% of the sample indicated that they had completed their doctoral degrees in fields outside of rehabilitation counseling (e.g., psychology & medicine), but did not indicate the fields in which they had obtained their master’s degrees. In relation to race/ethnicity, the participant breakdown was as follows: 71.2% (n = 52) of participants were White/Caucasian; 16.4% (n = 12) were Black/Afiican American; 8.2% (n = 6) were Hispanic/Latino(a); 2.7% (n = 2) were Native American/American Indian/Alaskan Native; and 2.7% (n = 2) reported as belonging to more than one racial/ethnic group (e. g., Other). None of the participants identified as being Asian American/Pacific Islander. Table 1 contains detailed information regarding participant demographic characteristics. The present study sample was comparable to the sample in the Armstrong et al. (2008) study which investigated job satisfaction and turnover intentions among rehabilitation counseling personnel. While their sample included various sectors of rehabilitation (e. g., public, private, non-profit, etc.), much of the demographics were similar in relation to gender, race/ethnicity, educational level, and salary. The majority of respondents in both the 2008 and current study was Caucasian, female, possessed master’s degree, and earned more than $58,000 per year. A slight difference was noted between the two studies in the job tenure category. For example, approximately 40% of the individuals comprising the Armstrong et al. study were those who had been on the job five years or less. However, in the present investigation, a slightly lower percentage (e.g., 30%) had less than five years job tenure. 39 Although, many of the respondents in the current study held master’s degrees in rehabilitation counseling which is consistent with the Comprehensive System of Personnel Development (CSPD) standards for the rehabilitation counseling profession (Chan & Ruedel, 2005), there was a significant amount of respondents who held master’s degrees in counseling and other closely-related fields (e. g., psychology and social work). According to the Institute on Rehabilitation Issues (IRI, 2008), it was recommended that recruitment efforts of VR counselors be expanded to fields closely-related to rehabilitation counseling as a way of addressing present vacancies being experienced by public sector pro grams. However, it is also important to note that while employing individuals with master’s degrees in rehabilitation counseling or closely-related fields is in compliance with CSPD standards, efforts towards employing qualified rehabilitation counselors remains at the forefront of the rehabilitation counseling recruitment and retention discourse. For example, research suggests that a qualified rehabilitation counselor is an individual who not only possesses a master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling, but is certified, licensed, and provides service via active membership in professional organizations (Leahy, 2004). Rehabilitation outcomes have also been suggested to be better when individuals possess a master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling versus a closely-related field (Szymanski & Parker, 1989). In relation to sample representation, it was reported that the participants were a representative sample of the population of counselors employed at Illinois DRS (personal communication, April 27, 2009) in a meeting held with Illinois DRS administrative personnel. 40 Table 1 Participant Demographic Characteristics (N = 73) Variables Freq % M SD Range Gender Female 39 54.9 Male 32 45.1 Age 47.5 9.2 28-66 Less than 30 years 2 3.0 31-45 years 25 37.9 46-55 years 24 36.4 56-65 years 14 21.2 Over 66 years 1 1.5 Race/Ethnicity Caucasian 52 71 .2 Afiican American 12 16.4 Hispanic 6 8.2 American Indian 2 2.7 Other (More than 1 group) 2 2.7 Education MA. Rehabilitation Counseling 29 43.3 Counseling 1 7 25.4 Social work 3 4.5 Psychology 8 l 1.9 Education 4 6.0 Other 2 3.0 Not specified 4 6.0 Education Ph.D. Psychology 1 50.0 Other 1 50.0 Overall Education MA. 67 91.8 Ph.D. 2 2.7 LCPC/LPC No 56 78.9 Yes 1 5 21 .1 CRC No 49 70.0 Yes 21 30.0 41 Table 1 (continued) Variables Freq % M SD Range Job tenure 9.7 7.3 .25-40 Less than 5 years 22 31.4 6-10 years 26 37.1 11-15 years 6 8.6 16-20 years 12 17.1 21-25 years 2 2.9 26-30 years 1 1.4 More than 30 years 1 1.4 Caseload size 121.7 60.3 40-400 Less than 50 5 7.1 51-70 5 7.1 71-90 10 14.3 91-110 16 22.9 111-130 9 12.9 More than 130 25 35.7 Salary Below $36,000/yr. l 1.4 $36,000-$42,000/yr. 11 15.5 $43,000-$50,000/yr. 15 21 .l $51,000-$57,000/yr. 12 16.9 Over $58,000/yr. 32 45.1 Note: Sample size (n = 73) for demographic characteristics may not equal 73 due to missing data. 42 Variables and Instruments Person-Organization (P-O) Fit. In this study, P-O fit was defined as the degree of congruence between an individual’s and organizational values, also known as organizational culture (Chatrnan, 1989). The current investigation used a three-item instrument to measure the P-O fit variable. This instrument was developed by leading fit field researchers which examined employees’ perceived P-O fit (Cable & Judge, 1996). The measure was also used in studies which investigated the relationship between ernployees’ perceptions of person-job (P-J) and P-O fit, and the relationships between P- 0 fit, job satisfaction, perceived job mobility, and turnover intent, respectively (Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001; Wheeler, Gallagher, Brouer, & Sablynski, 2007). In addition, the Wheeler et al. (2007) study used the P-O fit instrument in an online format which was comparable to how fit researchers have previously examined P-O fit. The internal consistency reliability of the measure in the Lauver and Kristof-Brown (2001) study was .83. No changes had been made to the instrument relative to updated psychometric properties (personal communication, March 3, 2009). The P-O fit measure used in this study encompassed three items (e.g., last item was reverse-scored) scored along a seven-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly agree to 7 =strongly disagree. For scoring and comprehension purposes during data entry, analysis, and presentation stages, the opposite ends of the scale were reversed so that a response of “strongly agree” received seven points while a response of “strongly disagree” received one point. The possible range of scores for the P-O instrument was from 3 to 21, initially indicating high to low fit, respectively. However, after reverse- item scoring and reversing the ends of the scale, higher scores on the instrument now 43 equated to higher levels of fit (e. g., strongly agree now equals 7 points; strongly disagree now equals 1 point). A score of 21 indicated the highest level of fit. Within the present investigation, fit scores ranged from 7 to 21, with an overall mean of 16.2. Furthermore, the internal consistency reliability coefficient, Cronbach’s alpha, for the P-O fit instrument used in the current study was .789 which exceeds the 0.70 threshold for acceptable reliability (Nunnally, 1978). The P-O fit questionnaire may be found in Appendix B. Job Satisfaction. In this study, job satisfaction was defined as “the extent to which an employee has a positive affective orientation or attitude towards [his/her] job, either in general or towards particular facets of it” (Cramer, 1996, p. 389). Assessing facets of job satisfaction and global satisfaction are two of the most frequent ways to examine this construct. Facets of job satisfaction allow for specific examination of several dimensions (e. g., coworkers, pay, supervision, etc.), as way for organizations to address particular areas that are either suitable or in need of enhancement. On the other hand, assessing job satisfaction in a global manner provides organizations with an overall indication as to whether employees are satisfied (Russell, Spitzmiiller, Lin, Stanton, Smith, & Ironson, 2004). Job satisfaction was operationally defined by two measures. The aJDI assesses job satisfaction on five subscales, including (1) work on present job; (2) present pay; (3) opportunities for promotion; (4) supervision; and (5) coworkers. Participants respond to the 25-item instrument by selecting “l” for “Yes,” “2” for “No,” and “3” for “?,” if they cannot decide. The aJIG asks participants to respond to eight items about their job in general using the same “1 , 2, 3” scale as the aJDI. During the scoring process for both 44 instruments, scoring conversion took place according to instrumentation guidelines (Balzer, Kihm, Smith, Irwin, Bachiochi, Robie, et al. 2000). For example, a 1=Yes received 3 points, 2=No received 0 points, and 3:? received 1 point. If items were flagged as being reverse-scored, then a Yes previously coded as a 1 receiving 3 points received 0 points; a No previously coded as a 2 receiving 0 points received 3 points; and points remained the same for questions answered with a “‘2.” Additionally, both instruments have a possible range of scores which fell between 0-54, with 54 indicating the highest level of satisfaction. Within the present investigation, all job satisfaction facets and job in general scores ranged from 0 to 54, with the exception of coworker satisfaction, ranging from 11 to 54. The a] DI and aJIG have been widely used in research and applied settings and have sound psychometric properties, including reliability coefficients of .85 and above, content, criterion-related, and convergent validity (Capella & Andrew, 2004; Stanton, Sinar, Balzer, Julian, Thoresen, Aziz et al., 2001). Both measures have been found to have strong predictive validity of turnover intention (Russell et al., 2004) and exceed the recommended reliability criterion of .70 (Nunnally, 1978; Stanton et al.). The aJDI and aJIG may be found in Appendix C. Organizational Commitment. In this study, organizational commitment was defined as “the strength of a person’s identification with and involvement in an organization” (Satcher & McGhee, 1996, p. 213). Organizational commitment was conceptualized as a multi-dimensional construct along three dimensions: (1) affective commitment (e.g., exerting effort on behalf of the organization because one wants to; also, characterized by strong acceptance of organizational goals and values); (2) 45 normative commitment (e. g., exerting effort on behalf of the organization out of loyalty or because one feels he/she should); and (3) continuance commitment (e.g., exerting effort on behalf of the organization because one feels he/she needs to; also, characterized by the perception of “costs-to-benefits” ratio). The multi-faceted approach to conceptualizing organizational commitment provided a comprehensive understanding of an individual’s tie to his/her organization (Meyer et al., 1993). Organizational commitment was measured using the Organizational Comrrritrnent Scales (OCS) developed by Allen and Meyer (1990). The OCS specifically measured organizational commitment along three dimensions (e. g., affective, normative, and continuance). It included three sub-scales, eight items per sub-scale, and used a seven- point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly agree to 7=strongly disagree. For scoring and comprehension purposes during data entry, analysis, and presentation stages, the opposite ends of the scale were reversed so that a response of “strongly agree” received seven - points while a response of “strongly disagree” received one point. The possible range of scores for each OCS subscale (e. g., affective, normative, and continuance) was 8 to 56, indicating low to high organizational commitment, respectively. Higher scores on the instrument equated to higher levels of commitment. Internal consistency reliability coefficients for the three subscales have been reported as follows: .87 for affective commitment, .75 for normative commitment, and .79 for continuance commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990), with a range of .69 - .84 in a previous rehabilitation-related study (Satcher & McGhee, 1996). Within the present investigation, OCS scores for affective, normative, and continuance commitment ranged from 14 to 50, 8 to 52, and 16 to 56, respectively. 46 Furthermore, the internal consistency reliability coefficients for the respective scales used in the present study were as follows: affective commitment, a=.851, normative commitment, a=.741, and continuance commitment, a=.836. All of the reported internal consistency reliability coefficients exceeded the .70 threshold for acceptable reliability (Nunnally, 1978). The OCS instrument may be found in Appendix D. Turnover Intent. In this study, turnover intent was defined as the degree of continuous or intermittent contemplation to voluntarily leave one’s job (Layne et a1. 2004; Mobley, 1977). The Turnover Intent (TOI) scale used a global index of turnover intent, as opposed to other measures that may examine “staying” or “leaving” with a single-item. More specifically, turnover intent was measured by asking participants five questions based on Mobley’s model depicting the employee turnover decision process, as well as prior studies that have investigated turnover intent. Participants were asked to respond to four of the items along a four-point Likert scale ranging fi'om “l=agree to =disagree.” On item number five, participants were asked to specify where they would seek employment if they were to leave their present job (e. g., in field of rehabilitation, outside field of rehabilitation, etc.). This particular item was used for descriptive purposes only in the study. The possible range of scores for the T01 instrument (e.g., items 1-4) was 4 to 16. Higher scores indicated lower intent to turnover. Within the present investigation, turnover intent scores ranged from 5 to 16, with a mean of 12.33. An internal consistency reliability coefficient of .911 was obtained which is consistent with the reliability coefficient (a=.92) suggested in the Layne et al. (2004) rehabilitation-related study which examined psychological strain, coping, and turnover intentions. The reliability coefficient achieved in the present investigation also 47 exceeded the .70 recommended threshold for acceptable reliability (N unnally, 1978). The TOI questionnaire may be found in Appendix E. Procedure Initial consultations for access to a state VR agency began a year prior to the study. The Council of State Administrators of Vocational Rehabilitation, Committee on Rehabilitation Research was consulted. As the present investigation included one state VR agency, individual VR directors were contacted to discuss possible agency needs and usefulness of the current study. Upon submitting a proposal to Illinois DHS-DRS and meeting with the director and other agency personnel, access to conduct the present study was granted. Throughout the development of the investigation, close contact was maintained with the state director and other administrative staff. An e-mail announcement of the study issued by the state director was sent to all Illinois VR counselors via the Illinois One-Net in December 2008 (personal communication, December 26, 2008). The content of the announcement included an invitation to voluntarily participate in the upcoming study, purpose and importance of the investigation, method (e. g., online), confidentiality (e. g., no tracking information would be collected), and approximate time of completion. Pre-notification is a recommended way in which investigators attempt to increase potential response rate (Punch, 2003). Additionally, prior to the implementation of the actual study, a pilot investigation was conducted to account for any technical issues that needed to be resolved, approximate completion time, ease of reading, etc. Feedback was obtained from approximately seven individuals in the rehabilitation field, including past, 48 present, and future rehabilitation counselors. Feedback obtained from the pilot investigation was used to improve the study prior to its launch. Following receipt of notification of approval for the use of human subjects by the Michigan State University (MSU) Institutional Review Board (IRB), Illinois DHS-DRS disseminated another study announcement and Internet link to participate in the study (personal communication, February, 20, 2009). The first page of the survey contained information similar to that in the initial study announcement (e. g., statement of voluntary participation, content on confidentiality, purpose of the study, benefits and risks, etc.), as well as a statement of informed consent. Due to the perceived possible sensitive nature of the study, participants were informed that they had the right to refuse participation during the consent procedure, as well as at any point during the study. As survey research in an online format was used, participants were provided with safeguards against possible threats of coercion and confidentiality as a way to encourage honest participation. Specifically, informing participants that no identifying information would be collected and the manner in which data would be secured so that responses remained anonymous, was done as a way to increase potential participation rates and enhance honest responses without fear of reprisal (Sieber, 2001). See Appendix F for overall study and informed consent information provided to participants. In an effort to increase potential response rate, a follow-up announcement and link to the survey was issued by the state VR director approximately two weeks after the initial launch of the study (personal communication, March 13, 2009). At that time, the survey response rate was approximately 22%. After the follow-up announcement was 49 issued, the online survey remained active for three weeks, resulting in a final response rate of 32%, based on usable data. I Research Design and Data Analysis The research design for this study was a descriptive quantitative design, where survey methods and correlational analyses were used. The research question of interest in this study was as follows: “What are the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent?” A supplemental research question in the study was: “What are the relationships between demographic variables in the study such as age, gender, job tenure and the primary variables of interest (e. g., P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent)?” The research hypothesis of interest in this study was as follows: “Turnover intent may be predicted by measuring variables such as P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.” As the constructs of interest (e.g., P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intent) were measured as continuous variables and given the research question, data analyses were correlation and regression. More specifically, a correlation matrix and multiple regression analysis was used with P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment, as predictor variables and turnover intent as the criterion variable. Figure 5 depicts the variables used in the correlation matrix and Figure 6 illustrates the variables used in the regression analysis. As per Figure 6, which illustrates the measurement model used to guide the current investigation and answer the primary research question, job satisfaction and organizational commitment were measured by six and three, components, respectively. Job satisfaction was measured by both facets of job satisfaction and global satisfaction. 50 Organizational commitment was measured by examining three different dimensions of commitment including affective, normative, and continuance. Figure 5: P-O Fit Work Pay Promotion Supervision Coworkers aJIG Affective Commitment Normative Commitment Continuance Commitment Turnover Intent P-O Fit Job Satisfaction Work (aJ DI) Pay (aJDI) Promotion (aJDI) Supervision (aJDI) Coworkers (aJDI) aJIG Organizational Commitment Affective Normative Continuance Predictor Variables Variables used in Correlation Matrix Turnover Intent Criterion Variable Figure 6: Measurement Model for Regression Analysis 51 Chapter 4 Results The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intent. Prior to conducting the statistical analyses related to the primary and supplemental research questions, descriptive statistics and correlation analyses were calculated to yield data to depict the variables in the present investigation and examine the interrelationships among them. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences 15.0 for Windows (SPSS, 2006) was used for all analyses. The primary research question, “What are the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intent,” was addressed using a multiple regression analysis. The supplemental research question, “What are the relationships between demographic variables (e.g., gender, caseload size, age, job tenure, etc.) and the primary variables of interest” was addressed using ANOVAs, t-tests, and correlations. Descriptive Statistics Table 2 depicts descriptive statistics for each study variable, including means, standard deviations, ranges, and alpha levels. As illustrated, the Cronbach alphas for the study variables were similar to those reported in previous research (Balzer et al., 2000; Layne et al., 2004). Moreover, all of the internal consistency reliability coefficients for the measures used in the study were above the .70 threshold recommended for reliability. The range of scores for the P-O fit instrument in the present investigation was 7 to 21 (e.g., higher scores indicating a higher level of fit) with an overall mean of 16.23 indicative of a high level of fit. Both the aJDI and aJIG had a possible range of scores of 52 O to 54, with the exception of coworker satisfaction which ranged from 11 to 54. Higher scores on the aJDI and aJIG indicated higher levels of satisfaction with both various aspects of the job and the job in general. The facets of work and coworker satisfaction had the highest means (M = 46.04, M = 44.70) of all other job satisfaction facets. The aJIG mean (M = 44.70) indicated an overall high level of job satisfaction. As per Table 2, the possible range of scores for organizational commitment within the present investigation was 14 to 50, 8 to 52, and 16 to 56 for affective, normative, and continuance commitment, respectively. Higher scores on the instrument indicated higher levels of each type of organizational commitment. Continuance commitment (e. g. being committed to an organization because one feels she/he needs to) had the highest mean (M = 42.08), followed by affective commitment (M = 35.03; being committed to an organization because one wants to), and then normative commitment (M = 30.83; being committed to an organization because one feels she/he should). The highest type of commitment found in the present investigation (e. g., continuance) was similar to that found in a national rehabilitation-related study of organizational commitment among state VR counselors (Satcher & McGhee, 1996). Lastly, the possible range of scores for turnover intent within the present investigation was 5 to 16, with higher scores indicating lower intent to turnover. The overall mean for turnover intent was 12.33 indicating a low intent to turnover. 53 Table 2 Descriptive Statistics Variables M SD Range 0: l. P-O Fit 16.23 3.60 7-21 .789 2. Work 46.04 12.86 0-54 .780 3. Pay 35.89 17.63 0-54 .825 4. Promotion 24.09 18.95 0-54 .834 5. Supervision 31.49 18.40 0-54 .815 6. Coworkers 44.70 12.60 11-54 .723 7. Job In General 40.85 12.84 0-54 .835 8. Affective 35.03 9.87 14-50 .852 9. Normative 30.83 7.99 8-52 .741 10. Continuance 42.08 9.87 l6-56 .836 l 1. Turnover Intent 12.33 3.48 5-16 .911 Correlation Matrix Among All Study Variables. The correlation matrix, as shown in Table 3 depicts many statistically significant correlations between the variables of P-O fit, facets of job satisfaction (e. g., work, pay, promotion, supervision, coworkers), job satisfaction in general, organizational commitment (e.g., affective, normative, continuance) and turnover intent. The variables with the highest statistical significant correlations (r 2.40, p < .01) are shown per Figure 7. Positive significant relationships for affective commitment were found between P-O fit (r = .62), global job satisfaction (r = .61), turnover intent (r = .52), and promotion (r = .40). Marked to moderate correlations for global job satisfaction were 54 found between work (r = .61), turnover intent (r = .52), P-O fit (r = .47), and coworkers (r = .43). Lastly, positive correlations were found between P-O fit and promotion (r =. 50) and promotion and pay (r = .43). The strongest statistically significant correlations for P-O fit were found among affective commitment (r = .62), promotion (r = .50), and global job satisfaction (r = .47). Whereas the weakest correlations for P-O fit were found between pay (r = .06) and normative commitment (r = .29). Turnover intent Shared statistically significant relationships with many of the primary variables of interest, but the strongest statistically significant correlations were between global job satisfaction and affective commitment (r = .52, p < .01). Turnover intent was not found to be statistically correlated with either normative (r = .22) or continuance commitment (r = .16). It is important to note that continuance commitment suggested a negative relationship with a majority of the variables, including P-O fit (r = -.30, p < .05). 55 Table 3 Correlation Matrix Among All Study Variables Variables l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 l. P-O Fit --- 2. Work .33** -- 3.Pay .06 .31* -- 4. Promotion .50** .2* .43** -- 5. Supervision .37** .12 .14 .30* -- 6. Coworkers .38** .33** .18 .35** .25* -- 7. Job (general) .47** .61** .24 .33** .23 .43** -- 8. Affective .62** .39** .26* .40** .25* .31* .61** -- 9.Normative .29* .14 .19 .27* .12 -.02 .23 .30* -- 10. Continuance-30* -.19 -.04 .02 -.00 .08 -.03 -.09 -.03 -- ll.TOI .37" .31* .39** .‘36** .27* .35** .52" .52” .22 .16 -- "Correlation is significant at the p < .01 level *Correlation is significant at the p < .05 level 56 .50 \ Promotion .43 Turnover intent .52 Pay Affective JOb in commitment gene“? satisfaction 61 .43 Figure 7: Variables with the Highest Statistical Significant Correlations 57 Research Question Table 4 illustrates the results of the regression analysis used to answer the primary research question, which was as follows: “What are the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent?” Based on the theoretical framework used in this study, it was hypothesized that P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment would predict turnover intent. As job satisfaction and organizational commitment have been defined in the literature as multi-faceted constructs, the present study contained multiple measures of both job satisfaction (e.g., facets and global satisfaction) and organizational commitment (e. g., affective, normative, continuance), bringing the total number of predictor variables to 10 (see Figure 6). A multiple regression model using all 10 predictors (e. g., P-O fit, work, pay, promotion, supervision, coworkers, and job in general, affective, normative, and continuance) accounted for 40% of the explained variance in the criterion variable (e. g. turnover intent), as per Table 4. These findings provide a moderate amount of support for the study’s hypothesis. Continuance commitment and pay satisfaction were the only two significant predictors within the main regression model (p < .05). Multicollinearity diagnostics or variance inflation factors (VIF’s) were analyzed for each of the variables. No VIF scores were close to 10 which is a cause for concern regarding multicollinearity among the study variables (N eter, Kutner, & Wasserman, 1985). Nevertheless, numerous statistical significant correlations were found among the primary variables of interest. As multiple linear regression models were used as the primary analysis to answer the research question, adjusted R square (Ra) measures were also used to report the amount of variance accounted for in the models as this measure took into account the 58 percentage of variation in turnover intent accounted for by the predictor variables. In addition, adjusted R square is typically used as a more precise goodness-of-fit measure than R square (Algina & Olejnik, 2000). Table 4 Results g” Regression Analysis for Main Model Variables B 6 Si grrificance Variance Inflation Factors (V IF) (Constant) -2.91 l. P-O Fit .283 .310 .086 2.86 2. Work .008 .031 .828 ' 1.84 3. Pay .066 .346 .011* 1.58 4. Promotion .019 .103 .460 1.77 5. Supervision -.003 -.015 .901 1.35 6. Coworkers .003 .010 .937 1.43 7. Job (general) .057 .211 .190 2.31 8. Affective .021 .062 .694 2.27 9. Normative -.007 -.016 .886 1.20 10. Continuance .108 .290 .020* 1.33 Predictor variables: P-O fit, Work, Pay, Promotion, Supervision, Coworkers, Job in general, Affective commitment, Normative commitment, Continuance commitment Criterion variable: TOI (Turnover intent) *Significance level = p < .05 Note: R square (R2) = .511; Adjusted R square (Ra) = .402 Variance Inflation Factors (VIF) = scores used to examine multicollinearity among variables. 59 Supplemental Data Analyses The amount of predictor variables (k = 10) in the main regression equation, as shown in Table 4, may have created redundancy in relation to criterion significance and so potentially increased the standard errors and correlation coefficients, yielding non- significant results. The most effective regression equations seemingly require the least amount of predictor variables which will account for the largest percentage of variance in the criterion variable (Cohen, 1990). Furthermore, based on a power analysis conducted for the present investigation, it was suggested that in order to detect a small effect size using 10 predictor variables with an alpha level of .05 and .80 level of power, 102 (n = 102) cases would have been needed (Cohen, 1988). Consequently, supplemental analyses were conducted in the form of model building techniques to investigate whether other predictors would yield significant results and account for additional variance being explained in the criterion variable. Table 5 suggests various models that were tested to predict turnover intent, using a combination of predictor variables based on the theoretical framework guiding the present investigation, as well as prior research conducted in the fields of business and management relating to turnover intent and the primary variables of interest. In the first model listed in Table 5, P-O fit, pay, and continuance commitment were included in the model to test for significance and amount of variance accounted for in turnover intent. Model 1 suggested that all three predictor variables were significant (p < .05) and accounted for approximately 32% of the variance in the criterion variable. In Model 2, a global measure of job satisfaction was substituted for a facet of job satisfaction to test for significance. Model 2 suggested that all three predictor variables (e. g., P-O fit, job in 60 general satisfaction, and continuance commitment) were significant (p < .05) and accounted for approximately 31% of the variance in the criterion variable. Model 3 which includes four predictors (e.g., P-O fit, job in general satisfaction, pay, and continuance commitment) suggested significant results (p < .05) for all four variables and accounted for nearly 40% of the variance in the criterion variable. Adding additional job satisfaction facets (e. g., promotion, work, supervision, coworkers) to Model 3 resulted in no firrther percent of variance being accounted for in the criterion variable. It is also important to note that Model 3 which used four predictors accounted for approximately the same amount of variance (RaI = .398), in the main model which used all 10 predictor variables. Overall, the findings in the supplemental data analyses based on model- building techniques provided support for the study’s hypothesis that turnover intent can be predicted by measuring variables such as P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. 61 Table 5 Results of Supplemental Data Analyses for Regression Models Model B {3 Significance R2 Ra 1 (Constant) -1.76 P-O Fit .430 .455 .000 Pay .074 .385 .001 Continuance .107 .276 .019 (Predictors) .350 .315 2 (Constant) -.044 P-O Fit .251 .265 .043 Job (general) .113 .229 .001 Continuance .089 .424 .050 (Predictors) .344 .309 3 (Constant) -2.34 P-O Fit .278 .294 .017 Job (general) .092 .346 .004 Pay .061 .317 .004 Continuance . l 00 .25 8 .019 (Predictors) .439 .398 1: P-O fit, Pay, Continuance commitment (predictors) 2: P-O fit, Job (general satisfaction), Continuance commitment (predictors) 3: P-O fit, Job (general satisfaction), Pay, Continuance commitment (predictors) Criterion variable: Turnover intent; Note: R square (R2); Adjusted R square = R8 62 AS shown in Table 6, the main regression model used to test the primary research hypothesis indicated that 2 of the primary variables of interest were significant predictors of turnover intent and that 40% of the variance was accounted for in the criterion variable. In relation to the supplemental research hypothesis, the model-building techniques also used to examine the primary research question resulted in 4 significant predictors, which also accounted for approximately 40% of the variance in the criterion variable. Table 6 Hypothesis Summary Table Research # of Significant Predictors Ral Hypothesis Predictors (significance level) Primary 10 Pay (p = .011) .402 Continuance (p = .020) Supplemental 4 P-O fit (p = .017) General (p = .004) .398 Pay (p = .004) Continuance (p =.019) Criterion variable: Turnover intent; Note: Adjusted R square = R2‘ 63 Supplemental Research Question The supplemental research question in the present study was as follows: “What are the relationships between the demographic variables and the primary variables of interest?” Based on the fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent literature in rehabilitation, management, and business, certain variables such as gender, age, job tenure, and caseload size have been characterized as important variables to include in analyses. One such example of a critical demographic characteristic in the field of rehabilitation is job tenure. Job tenure has been continuously examined as an important demographic variable in recruitment and retention studies (Armstrong et al., 2008; Chan & Ruedel, 2005). More specifically, individuals with job tenure of five years or less have been increasingly investigated as a primary group of interest in relation to organizational outcomes such as job satisfaction and turnover intent. For purposes of the present investigation, gender, age, job tenure, and caseload size were the demographic variables explored via independent samples t-tests, correlation, and ANOVAS to investigate the relationship between the study variables. Independent sample t-tests were used to examine significant differences between gender and P-O fit, pay, job in general satisfaction, continuance commitment, and turnover intent. Gender revealed significant relationships with continuance commitment (F = 7.27) and turnover intent (F = 4.27) at the p < .01 and p < .05 levels, respectively. Females were more likely to agree with items which measured a high level of continuance commitment such as “I feel I have too few options to consider leaving my agency.” Also, females were more likely to report higher levels of turnover intent than males. More female respondents consistently reported thoughts of looking for a job 64 within the next year, leaving within the next year, and leaving as soon as they found another job. Correlations were used to explore the relationship between age and P-O fit, pay, job in general satisfaction, continuance commitment, and turnover intent. No significant correlations were found among this particular demographic variable and the primary variables of interest in the study. Correlation analyses were also used to examine the relationship between caseload size and the primary variables of interest. Statistically significant correlations between caseload size were found with both pay (r = -.278) and continuance commitment (r = -.263) at the p < .05 level. Lastly, the job tenure categories were collapsed into three categories to afford for a usefirl examination of years on the job and the primary variables of interest (e. g., P-O fit, pay, job in general satisfaction, continuance commitment, and turnover intent). The collapsed categories were as follows: (a) less than 5 years; (b) 6-10 years; and (c) more than 10 years. An ANOVA was used to examine the relationship between job tenure and the primary study variables. Job tenure suggested statistically significant differences with global job satisfaction (F = 5.12) and pay (F = 4.01) at the p < .01 and p < .05 levels, respectively. Individuals with job tenure of more than 10 years reported the highest level of global job satisfaction followed by individuals with 6-10 years on the job. Conversely, those with less than five years job tenure reported the least amount of satisfaction with pay followed by those with 6-10 years on the job. Additional Data Analysis Item 5 on the Turnover Intent (TOI) questionnaire was included in the study as a descriptive item to obtain information on where participants would seek employment if 65 they were to leave their present job. As per Figure 8 which illustrates a frequency distribution of the responses to item 5 on the T01 scale, 37% of respondents (n = 27) would choose to work in another human service-related field such as mental health or school counseling while 18% of respondents (11 = 13) would choose to work within the field of rehabilitation, but within a different organization, if they were to leave their present job. More specifically, females were more likely to report seeking work in a closely-related field, while males were more likely to seek work within the field of rehabilitation, but within a different organization. Individuals with less than five years on the job were among 42% of the total number of respondents that would choose to work in a related field such as mental health or school counseling. 5. If I leave my current job, I will look for a job in: lwill not seek Field outside Non-human Related human Different agency Other employment rehabilitation service field service field within rehabilitation (e.g., mental health) Figure 8: Frequency Distribution for Item 5 on Turnover Intent Questionnaire 66 Additional data analyses also included data summaries of 29 participants, who reported possessing their Master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling. Descriptive statistics of the primary variables of interest yielded similar means in relation to the overall study sample (e. g., Work, M = 46.18; Turnover intent, M = 12.81; Normative commitment, M = 31.07). Slightly higher means were reported for continuance commitment (M = 45.89), general job satisfaction (M = 42.05), coworkers (M = 45.93), supervision (M = 34.14), promotion (M = 26.19), and pay (M = 37.37). Somewhat lower means were reported in the areas of P-O fit (M = 15.97) and affective commitment (M = 34.79). Correlations for individuals possessing a Master’s degree in rehabilitation counseling appeared to be similar in direction as compared to correlations for the overall study sample, but somewhat stronger in magnitude. For example, the highest statistically significant correlations for this group at the p < .01 level were as follows: general job satisfaction and work (r = .82), P-O fit and promotion (r = .67), affective commitment and work (r = .63), P-O fit and work (r = .54), and affective commitment and normative commitment (r = .50). Turnover intent correlations for this group were similar in magnitude in relation to the overall study sample, but at a lower significance level (e.g., turnover intent and P-O fit, r = .48, p < .05; turnover intent and coworkers (r = .48; turnover intent and pay, r = .42, p< .05; turnover intent and general job satisfaction, r = .40, p < .05). Lastly, a frequency distribution of the responses to Item 5 on the Turnover Intent Questionnaire (e.g., “If I leave my current job, I will look for a job in. . .”) suggested that approximately 16% (n = 12) of individuals possessing their Master’s degree in 67 rehabilitation counseling would choose to work in another human-service related field such as mental health or school counseling, while 10% (n = 7) reported that they would seek employment in the field of rehabilitation, but within a different organization. It is however, interesting to note that individuals with 5 years or less on the job, as well as those with more than 10 years on the job each comprised 50% of the total number of respondents that would choose to work in a related field such as mental health or school counseling. 68 Chapter 5 Discussion The theoretical framework guiding the present investigation suggested that variables such as P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment can predict turnover intent. While rehabilitation studies have examined antecedents of turnover (Barrett et al., 1997; Biggs et al., 1995; Layne et al., 2004; Satcher & McGhee, 1996), there have been considerably fewer studies that have examined turnover intent, and nearly no studies which have explored turnover intent among state VR counselors, using P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment as predictor variables. Recent rehabilitation recruitment and retention studies have begun to direct attention toward certain segments of the rehabilitation counselor population such as individuals with less than five years job tenure (e. g., Armstrong et al., 2008; Chan & Ruedel, 2005). As the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) continues to issue federal mandates to the Technical Assistance and Continuing Education (TACE) Centers to develop innovative ways to recruit and retain qualified rehabilitation counselors, the investigation of factors that impact persons presently employed within the public VR sector as well as those likely to choose state VR as their employer of choice is warranted. In this manner, the current investigation had three purposes. The first purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent among state VR counselors. It was hypothesized that variables such as P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment would predict turnover intent. The primary research question of interest 69 was as follows: “What are the relationships between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent?” The second purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationships between participant demographic variables and the primary variables of interest. The supplemental research question for addressing this purpose was as follows: “What are the relationships between demographic variables in the study such as age, gender, and job tenure, and the primary variables of interest (e.g., P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent)?” The final purpose of this study was to obtain information that would lead to possibilities surrounding the exploration of the utility of P-O fit in the field of rehabilitation, as a way of assisting with present—day VR recruitment and retention efforts. This chapter addresses the following topics: (a) limitations of the study; (b) narrative summary of results; (c) relationship of findings to theoretical framework; ((1) implications for VR agencies, and (e) suggestions for future research. Limitations of the Study Sampling Procedure. Prior to the discussion of the results and implications, limitations of the present study are noted. The first set of limitations relate to the sampling procedure. Nonprobability sampling was used. As such, there was no way to guarantee that each characteristic of the population was representative in the sample (e.g., race/ethnicity, age, tenure, degree, certification, etc.) (Leedy & Orrnrod, 2005). Sample Size. A second limitation in the study relates to sample size. A sample size of 73 (N = 73) was used in the present investigation. While significant predictors were found in relation to turnover intent among state VR counselors, findings should be 70 interpreted with caution due to small sample Size. Additionally, the size of the sample was also likely a factor in the lack of overall significant findings. According to a power analysis conducted for the present investigation, it was suggested that in order to detect a small effect size using 10 predictor variables with an alpha level of .05 and .80 level of power, 102 (N = 102) cases would have been needed (Cohen, 198 8). Response Rate. A third limitation in the study relates to response rate. A response rate of 32% was obtained for the study. While attempts via pre-notification and one follow-up electronic announcement were conducted as ways to increase potential response rate, other methods such as offering incentives and multiple follow-ups were not conducted which may have potentially increased response rate. Additionally, self-interest may have been a potential motivator to participate in the study. Therefore, if a significant portion of individuals were interested in the study or conversely disinterested, this may have also impacted response rates (Groves & Peytcheva, 2008). Participant Bias. A fourth limitation in the study relates to participant bias. The results may have been potentially impacted if there was something unique about the individuals who chose to participate in the study versus those who did not. For example, were the individuals who participated in the study more satisfied, committed, and, did they possess a greater degree of fit than non—participants? Arthur et a1. (2006) suggests that individuals who remain with organizations are more likely to demonstrate a higher level of fit, as well as more positive work attitudes such as job satisfaction and organizational commitment. The Arthur et al. hypothesis suggests that those who participated in the current study may have been individuals who demonstrated adequate levels of fit and have chosen to remain with the organization for various reasons. Or 71 conversely, the individuals who have left the organization are the ones who did not fit and therefore, did not participate in the study. Representativeness. A fifih limitation in the study relates to sample representativeness. Many of the participants were Caucasian, female, possessed master’s degrees, and earned more than $58,000 per year. Furthermore, the present study was conducted with one public VR agency. While Illinois DRS represents a fairly large and diverse organization within rehabilitation, the use of one state VR agency limits the overall generalizability of results. History/Events. A sixth limitation of the study refers to the history or events that may have taken place in the lives of participants which may have impacted responses (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). A logical, yet speculative theory that may have biased results is due to the US. economy at the time data were collected in 2009. On one hand, it is possible that participants could have been experiencing high levels of fit because they perceived compatibility with the organization’s values, and thus were also inclined to experience high levels of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and low levels of turnover intent. On the other hand, it may also be possible that individuals may not have been considering leaving their jobs or intending to turnover because of the perceived lack of available alternatives and unstable job economy. Psychometric Properties. A seventh limitation may have existed in relation to the validity and reliability of measures and operationalization of constructs. More specifically, P-O fit has various definitions and has been measured in multiple ways throughout the fit literature, thereby adding to the complexity of appropriately examining this construct. The instrument used to measure P-O fit in the present investigation was 72 comprised of a total of three items and may have potentially resulted in measurement issues. While previous studies have used this instrument (Lauver & Kristof-Brown, 2001; Wheeler et al., 2007) to examine fit and the internal consistency reliability coefficient for the instrument was found to be .789 in the present study, this was the first time the instrument was used within the field of rehabilitation with the population of interest. Multicollinearity. An eighth limitation in the study relates to multicollinearity among the study variables. Multicollinearity may have contributed to the lack of significant findings in the main regression model. Some of the constructs used to predict turnover intent may have been very similar relative to how they were measured in the present study. While variance inflation factors (V IFS) for each of the variables were analyzed for multicollinearity and no scores came close to 10 (e.g., score of 10 indicates multicollinearity), moderate to high correlations were found between many of the variables (Neter et al., 1985). Narrative Summary of Results The present investigation yielded a significant number of correlations among the study variables. However, the highest correlation among all the study variables was between P-O fit and affective commitment. In some manner, P-O fit is an extension of Schneider’s ASA theory which suggests that individuals are attracted to, select, and choose to maintain membership with organizations that fit their personalities, facilitate the accomplishment of their goals, and meet their needs (Westerman & Cyr, 2004). Affective commitment refers to individuals who choose to maintain membership with an organization because they want to or feel an emotional attachment (Allen & 73 Meyer, 1990). Research suggests that individuals with high affective commitment, like high P-O fit, are more likely to perceive their work environment or culture favorably than those with low affective commitment or a low degree of P-O fit (Allen & Meyer, 1996; Cable & DeRue, 2002). These individuals are also likely to engage in extra-role behavior such as contributing to the broader mission of the organization (Cable & Judge, 1995). Therefore, it was not that surprising that affective commitment and P-O fit yielded one of the highest significant correlations (r = .62, p < .01) considering that participants reported relatively high levels of fit (M = 16.23) and affective comrrritrnent (M = 35.03). In addition to the correlation between P-O fit and affective comrrritrnent, P-O fit also suggested a statistically significant relationship with promotion (r = .50, p < .01). Research suggests that employees continually re-exarnine and use fit perceptions as they move about their respective organizations (Cable & DeRue, 2002). The relationship between P-O fit and promotion may support this previous finding. As promotions represent employee movement within organizations and employees use physical manifestations of fit (i.e., promotions) to make decisions about leaving or remaining with an organization, it is logical that P-O fit and promotion would share a relationship. However, it is important to note that promotions were the facet of job satisfaction in which participants in the present study seemed to be least satisfied (M = 24.09). As P-O fit and affective commitment were highly correlated and research suggests that employees with a high degree of fit and affective commitment are more likely to positively evaluate their work environments (Cable & DeRue, 2002), this may help shed insight on the low promotion score. Research has shown that organizational commitment tends to buffer the effects of stress and job dissatisfaction, making it less likely that 74 individuals will experience turnover intent (Begley & Czajka, 1993). Such a rationale may provide an explanation for having high degrees of fit and affective commitment, while experiencing low satisfaction with a facet of the job such as in the area of promotions. Supervision was the second area in which respondents in the present investigation seemed to be least satisfied (M = 31.49). Approximately 31% of the respondents had less than 5 years of job tenure, while 37% had less than 6-10 years on the job. While time spent in supervision was not evaluated as part of the study, research has shown that it can influence how counselors view what constitutes “good” and “bad” supervision. For example, in a prior study that examined clinical supervision within public sector rehabilitation, researchers found that among some participants less contact with their supervisors and overall less time spent in supervision-related activities equated to high quality supervision (e. g., “good supervision was an absent supervisor,” p.219) (Schultz, Ososkie, Fried, Nelson, & Bardos, 2002). Bearing in mind the composition of the study sample, it may be logical to conclude that newer counselors (e.g., ones with less job tenure) are likely to receive more supervision than those who have been on the job for a longer period of time. Additionally, supervision satisfaction may not only be related to the amount of supervision received, but type as well (e.g., administrative vs. clinical). Another study which examined satisfaction with clinical supervision practices within public sector rehabilitation suggested that counselors reported being overall more satisfied with administrative versus clinical supervision (Herbert & Trusty, 2006). Still for other counselors working within the state VR system, the absence of a certain type of supervision if it was not received, yet desired, may be deemed less than satisfactory. 75 Depending upon the frequency and type of supervision participants were receiving (or perhaps not receiving) at the time the data were collected, these factors may have influenced the level of supervision satisfaction reported in the study. Furthermore, if supervisory experiences were not a good fit with what counselors expected, this was also likely to decrease the level of satisfaction with supervision. The strength of the correlations among P-O fit and normative commitment (r = .29, p < .05) and P-O fit and continuance commitment (r = -.30, p < .05) in the present investigation were similar. However, it is important to note that based on the descriptive statistics for the study variables, continuance commitment had the highest overall mean (M = 42.08), as well as the highest range of scores (16-56) of all other forms of organizational commitment. Additionally, continuance commitment was found to be a significant predictor of turnover intent (p < .05) in both the main regression model and supplemental data analyses. Results of the main regression model suggested that affective commitment was not a significant predictor of turnover intent (p = .694), while P-O fit appeared to be approaching significance (p = .086). Given that that similar constructs may have been included in the main regression model thereby increasing redundancy and yielding non- significant results, model-building techniques were used. Reducing the number of predictors using model-building techniques yielded significant results for four predictors, including P-O fit, pay, global job satisfaction, and continuance commitment all at the p < .01 level. Additionally, combined, the four predictors accounted for approximately 40% of the variance in the criterion variable (e.g., turnover intent). 76 While affective commitment was significantly correlated with turnover intent (r = .52, p < .01), it was not found to be a significant predictor in either the main regression model or supplemental data analyses. It can be hypothesized that the primary form of organizational commitment fiom which sample participants were operating was continuance. More than 30% of the sample was comprised of individuals who had less than five years on the job. Nearly, 70% of the sample included individuals who had less than 10 years job tenure. Many state VR agencies have begun to emphasize state employment benefits as a recruitment strategy (IRI, 2008). Therefore, “advocacy” for establishing P-O fit and congruence with state VR agencies may be rooted in continuance commitment (e.g., pay, benefits, job security, etc.), which emphasizes the cost-to-benefits ratio. Continuance commitment differs from other forms of organizational commitment in that individuals exert energy on behalf of an organization because one feels he/she needs to. In the current investigation, performing additional data analyses to address the supplemental research question (e. g., “What are the relationships between the demographic variables and the primary variables of interest?”), a statistically significant relationship was found between continuance commitment and caseload size (r = -.263, p < .05). This finding suggests that as caseload size increases continuance commitment decreases. In relation to costs and benefits, large caseload sizes within state VR agencies may be perceived as a cost. The average caseload size for individuals in the current study was 122, with 36% of the sample managing caseload sizes of more than 130 individuals. Some participants reported caseload Sizes as high as 400. It is also important to note that 77 correlation analyses for the supplemental research question yielded significant findings between caseload size and pay (r = -.278, p < .05). In the context of considering the primary form of organizational commitment and the significant relationships found between caseload size and pay, as well as caseload size and continuance commitment, it may be natural to assume that as perceived benefits decrease (e. g., pay, promotional opportunities, etc.), the perceived costs of remaining with an agency increase, such as the added stress and strain of managing a large caseload size. While pay and other like benefits may have been emphasized during the recruitment process to highlight VR agencies as the employer of choice among potential candidates, factors that were initially considered a benefit (e.g., pay in relation to smaller caseload size when individual first started with the agency) are no longer seen as such. The findings fi'om the present investigation lend support to previous findings among rehabilitation personnel. More specifically, the relationship between caseload size and pay was consistent with the findings in the Armstrong et al. (2008) study which investigated rehabilitation personnel working in various sectors, including public sector rehabilitation. In their national study, Satcher and McGhee (1996) found that continuance cormnitrnent was also the primary form of organizational commitment from which state VR counselors operated. The uniqueness of the continuance commitment construct is that it not only encompasses behavioral and cognitive foci (e. g., It would be too costly for me to leave my agency in the near future), but dimensions of personal sacrifice and suitable alternatives as well (Cohen, 2003). AS an example of continuance commitment, if Counselor A perceives an increasing caseload size as a cost, a resultant impact may be a decrease in 78 the amount of personal sacrifice he/she is willing to make to help either a consumer or coworker working with another consumer to achieve rehabilitation success. Viewing continuance commitment from the personal sacrifice dimension in this context supports the findings of the present investigation (e.g., caseload size and continuance commitment, r = -.263, p < .05). In relation to perceived costs and benefits, pay was the only facet of job satisfaction that yielded significant results (p = .011) in the main regression model. Based on descriptive statistics, participants appeared to indicate an overall high level of satisfaction with pay (M = 35.89). Pay satisfaction was also a significant predictor of turnover intent in the supplemental data analyses. Research suggests that pay satisfaction significantly feeds global job satisfaction which can have a critical impact on turnover intent (Vandenberghe at. Tremblay, 2008). In the present investigation, an ANOVA was used to examine the relationship between job tenure categories and the primary variables of interest. Findings yielded significant differences for Individuals with job tenure of more than 10 years. These individuals reported the highest level of satisfaction with both pay and the job in general. The significant results of both pay and global job satisfaction provide support for previous findings which suggest that the more satisfied individuals are on the job, the less likely they are to experience turnover intent (Andrew et al., 2002; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). It is, however, puzzling to note that while respondents reported a high degree of satisfaction with coworkers (M = 44.70) and the type of work that they perform (M = 46.04), neither of these variables were found to be significant predictors of turnover intent in either the main regression model or supplemental data analyses. One 79 interpretation of these findings is embedded within state VR organizational culture in relation to the type of work that is performed and evaluated as well as the context in which coworker relationships are developed and maintained. For example, research suggests that when individuals perceive a high degree of P-O fit, the manifestation of engaging in activities that support organizational effectiveness and outcomes, such as helping peers, is more likely to be present (Westerman & Cyr, 2004). However, within state VR, while teamwork may be an espoused value, as evidenced by a strong working alliance between consumer and counselor or a positive helping relationship between counselors (e.g., counselors helping each others’ consumers with job development and placement activities), in reality, only one counselor is rewarded for the work of the “team”. Additionally, a counselor is said to have helped a consumer become rehabilitated or successful, when the consumer has obtained and maintained employment for 90 consecutive days. Other areas of success such as acquiring independent living skills, developing a resume, independently making cold calls to employers, or maintaining employment for 30 days with consumers who have experienced chronic unemployment, typically go unrecognized in terms of actual rehabilitation success within state VR. Turnover intent shared several statistically significant relationships with many of the primary variables of interest including P-O fit, work, pay, promotion, and supervision. However, the strongest statistically significant correlations for turnover intent were between global job satisfaction and turnover intent and affective commitment and turnover intent (r = .52, p < .01). The third highest significant correlation in this area was between turnover intent and pay satisfaction (r = .39, p < .01). Pay satisfaction is not 80 an absolute proxy for global job satisfaction. However, it is an important component in overall level of job satisfaction and has also been linked to turnover intent (Chan & Ruedel, 2005; Vandenberghe at Tremblay, 2008). Findings from the present investigation suggested that individuals with more than 10 years on the job reported the highest levels of satisfaction with pay and the job in general compared to individuals in the less than 5 years and 6-10 years job tenure categories. A frequency distribution of item 5 on the Turnover Intent (TOI) questionnaire (see Figure 8) sought to obtain information on where participants would seek employment if they were to leave their present job. Approximately 37% of respondents said they would choose to work in another human service-related field such as mental health or school counseling. More specifically, women and individuals with less than 5 years on the job were more likely to report seeking work in a closely-related field such as mental health or school counseling if they were to leave their present job. Salary discrepancies exist among master’s degree concentrations (e. g., rehabilitation counseling, counseling, and education). Individuals with master’s degrees in education and counseling stand to make approximately $10,000-$11,000 more a year than rehabilitation counselors (CRCC, 2008). Other reports have cited salary discrepancies as a recruitment and retention related issue for the field of rehabilitation (Feroz, 2007). Relationship of Findings to Theoretical Framework While previous rehabilitation studies have explored antecedents of turnover, almost no studies have explored turnover intent among state VR counselors using the primary study variables (e. g., P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment) as predictor variables. The theoretical framework guiding the present investigation 81 suggested that P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment influenced turnover intent (see Figure 2). The research hypothesis for the current study was that turnover intent could be predicted by measuring variables such as P-O fit, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. The findings from the main regression model suggested that pay and continuance commitment were both significant predictors of turnover intent while P-O fit appeared to be approaching significance (p = .086). A power analysis conducted for the present investigation suggested that in order to detect a small effect size using 10 predictor variables with an alpha level of .05 and .80 level of power, 102 cases would have been needed (Cohen, 198 8). Additionally, as 10 predictors that potentially shared a moderate degree of overlap were used in the main regression model, criterion Significance and standard errors may have been increased, yielding non- significant results. Consequently, model-building techniques were used to obtain the least number of predictors that would account for the largest amount of variance in the criterion variable. Executing supplemental data analyses using model-building techniques suggested that P-O fit, global job satisfaction, pay satisfaction, and continuance commitment were all significant predictors (p < .01) of turnover intent and combined accounted for approximately 40% of the variance in the criterion variable. The findings in the present investigation provide evidence to support attending to variables that influence turnover intent among state VR counselors. The current findings also support findings from previous rehabilitation studies which have investigated factors that impact turnover such as organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and burnout (Biggs et al., 1995; Layne et al., 2004). While the MTWA and P-O fit Share theoretical similarities and the concept of 82 work adjustment has been well-established in the rehabilitation literature, the application of P-O fit to state VR counselors for the purpose of exploring recruitment and retention as per the present investigation adds to the rehabilitation literature. Moreover, using the population of state VR counselors, who are an essential component in the rehabilitation process and overall consumer success, adds to the literature in various fields (e. g., business, management, etc.) that continue to examine P-E interaction and outcomes. Research suggests that individuals select in and out of agencies based on their perception of fit (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Findings from the present investigation may be helpful for refining theoretical frameworks used in future rehabilitation studies designed to examine turnover intent among state VR counselors. Per Figure 2, the theoretical framework used to guide the present study only included the constructs (e.g., P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment) as variables of interest in the primary analysis. Coupled with existing research, findings from the present investigation suggest that gender and job tenure are two factors that impact retention (Armstrong et al., 2008; Moynihan & Landuyt, 2008). As such, it is recommended that future theoretical frameworks include gender and job tenure as moderator variables, as shown in Figure 9, as a way of strengthening overall study findings and extending the research on turnover intent, particularly within the field of rehabilitation. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment outcomes which influence turnover intent may be different for males versus females and individuals possessing more years on the job. 83 Job Satisfaction Person-Organization (P-O) Flt Turnover —I Intent Organizational Commitment Figure 2: Relationship between Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent ----------------------- Job Satisfaction Person-Organization - Turnover P-O Frt ( ) I. Intent Organizational Commitment Figure 9: Moderating Variables of Person-Organization (P-O) Fit and Turnover Intent 84 Implications of Study Findings for State Vocational Rehabilitation Agencies Based on the findings in the present investigation, pay satisfaction was a significant predictor (p < .01 level) in the main regression model, as well as the supplemental data analyses which used model-building techniques. Level of pay has been cited as a factor in turnover intent among recruiting and retaining qualified state VR counselors (Armstrong et al., 2008; Chan & Ruedel, 2005; IRI, 2008). From a practical standpoint, the findings from the present investigation highlight the role of pay satisfaction, which is a significant component in increasing global job satisfaction and reducing turnover intent. Individuals with more than 10 years job tenure reported higher levels of satisfaction with pay and the job in general versus individuals who comprised the less than 5 years and 6-10 years job tenure categories. An increase in pay satisfaction among Specific job tenure groups may result in an increase in various types of organizational commitment. For example, research suggests that pay satisfaction may influence affective commitment. If individuals are being compensated at a rate that they feel is fair and in proportion to the work that they are performing, this also facilitates feelings of value, worth, and recognition among employees creating an emotional attachment to their organization (V andenberghe & T remblay, 2008). Qualified state VR counselors who have high P-O fit and high affective commitment are more likely to positively evaluate their work environments, assist in the broader mission of the organization, and engage in extra-role behavior, including helping peers (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Cable & Judge, 1995; Judge et al., 1999). While research suggests that as counselors increasingly exert more energy on behalf of the organization 85 because they need to (e. g., continuance commitment), concerns regarding work performance, quality of work, thoroughness, and completeness also increase (Satcher & McGhee, 1996). While many state VR agencies have employed measures of continuance commitment (e.g., highlighting state employment benefits) as a recruitment strategy (IRI, 2008), what aspects of state benefits are highlighted for retaining qualified VR counselors? As recruitment and retention are directly related, it is imperative that state VR agencies develop and implement other aspects of continuance commitment that may be just as effective in retaining qualified counselors as they are in recruiting them. Additionally, finding ways to increase the emotional attachment to state VR agencies (e.g., affective commitment) is recommended as research shows that affective commitment is more likely to be linked to positive work performance, less stress, conscientious work behaviors, and lower turnover intent (Begley & Czajka, 1993; McConnell, 2003; Meyer et al., 1993). Person-organization (P-O) fit was found to be a significant predictor of turnover intent. Rehabilitation research is beginning to emphasize fit as a factor in recruiting qualified rehabilitation counselors (Chan & Ruedel, 2005; Lusti g & Strauser, 2009). Research suggests that “80% of turnover is due to hiring mistakes,” which can be attributed to lack of fit (Campbell, 2002). As rehabilitation retention research (e. g., satisfaction, commitment) is increasingly investigating individuals with less than 5 years on the job, they become an integral group which warrants further investigation in the area of P-O fit. The alignment between individual and organizational values has been shown to increase as tenure increases (Cable & Parsons, 2001). Additionally, as fit increases, 86 organizational commitment tends to increase (McConnell, 2003) having a reciprocal impact on turnover intent. Socialization practices play a significant role in transmitting organizational culture, influencing P-O fit, and decreasing turnover (Mitus, 2006; Stroh et al., 2002). Moreover, the socialization process tends to shape work attitudes and behaviors (Allen & Meyer, 1990), especially in the context of unmet expectations. If counselors with less job tenure experience a high degree of incongruence relative to values, expectations, and needs, there is increased likelihood for turnover intent and eventual turnover. Helping counselors to increase their affective commitment during the socialization process helps them deal with dynamic environments that are subject to ambiguity and frequent change (Judge et al., 1999). During the socialization period, newer counselors may align themselves more closely with organizational values or choose to turnover. Consequently, it would benefit state VR agencies to pay close attention to counselors with shorter job tenure and the socialization experiences they have. Potential candidates are opting out of state VR employment due to the value perceptions and basic cultural assumptions embedded within state VR. For example, state VR agencies have been cited as valuing counseling as an essential tool that assists consumers in reaching rehabilitation success. Yet, a majority of counselor time may be spent in activities that are indirectly related to counseling such as case management and completing paperwork (Lustig & Strauser, 2009). Another example of possible fit incongruence is rooted in the idea of teamwork. State VR agencies may espouse the importance of working as a team; however, only one counselor receives credit for 87 assisting a consumer (IRI, 2008). The teamwork approach unique to VR was cited by some counselors as a motivator to enter public sector employment (Bishop, 2001). It may be beneficial and help socialize newer and current employees if organizational values are explicit. What are the values that are both endorsed and enacted by state VR agencies, and how does that translate into the workplace? Making espoused and enacted values explicit and congruent assists employees in accurately measuring fit (Ostroff, Kinicki, & Tomkins, 2003). Having accurate fit assessments among employees provide guidance to organizations in developing and implementing strategies designed to enhance fit. State VR agencies must seek to understand the various ways in which fit, satisfaction, and comnritrnent interact to influence turnover intent among presently employed rehabilitation counselors, as well as individuals likely to choose state VR employment in the future. Some VR agencies have implemented recruitment taskforces and engaged in organization-wide cultural audits in an attempt to address rehabilitation recruitment and retention related issues (personal communication, June 16, 2009). As state VR counselors adopt and align more closely with contemporary organizational values and basic assumptions (e.g., measure of success equates to number of successful closures; teamwork is expected, but only one counselor receives recognition), it is logical to assume that the quality of work relationships among counselors may be impacted. With caseloads continuing to increase in number and complexity, incentives to help coworkers may decline. While state VR agencies share a distinct culture (Thompson, 1997), field offices may operate within their own unique sub-cultures. Bearing in mind that P-O fit was 88 found to be a significant predictor of turnover intent, research supports that certain state VR cultures (e. g., ones where counselors are allowed to exercise high autonomy and high levels of counselor/consumer interaction) were successful at retaining qualified rehabilitation counselors (Lustig & Strauser, 2009). Hiring employees who have a high level of congruence between individual and organizational values (i.e., P-O fit) assists in building both organizational commitment and job satisfaction, thus reducing costs associated with turnover (Vandenberghe & Tremblay, 2008). State VR agencies may use values congruence to match potential candidates with certain field offices upon hire. Some counselors, prior to the employment interview, have investigated specific VR offices in relation to office culture and used the subsequent information to make a determination as to whether to proceed with the employment process (personal communication, June 16, 2009). Just as rehabilitation counseling graduates are using information based on their perception of the VR employment experience (Chan & Ruedel, 2005), potential candidates are also using the perception of P-O fit (e.g., congruence with individual and organizational values at the field office level) to select membership with specific state VR offices based on culture. Attending to promotional opportunities within state VR agencies is critical. Promotions were the facet of j ob satisfaction in which participants in the present study were least satisfied (M = 24.09). There are multiple generations currently comprising the state VR workforce (e. g., Baby Boomers, Gen X-ers, etc.). Research suggests that different generations possess different work needs, values, and beliefs (Campbell, 2002; Smola & Sutton, 2002). Because “one size does not fit all,” factors that motivate Baby Boomers may not work for Generation X-ers. As such, investigating and implementing 89 multi-faceted methods that appeal to various generations within state VR agencies that enhance fit, satisfaction, and commitment also increases the likelihood of a reciprocal impact on work performance, work behaviors, consumer outcomes, and tenure. Low cost methods of agency investigation and implementation may include altering something as simple as email messages that are sent to counselors. For example, including a message about group success, as well as highlighting counselors who developed the most Individualized Plans for Employment for a particular month is a way to target different values (e.g., individual and team worth) among generational work groups (White, 2008). Another important area for state VR agencies to attend to is supervision satisfaction. Supervision was an area in which respondents in the present investigation were less satisfied (M = 31.49). Attending to job satisfaction is critical as VR counselors are an essential component in the rehabilitation process and overall consumer success. Supervision satisfaction is a facet of overall job satisfaction (Balzer et al., 2000). Findings from Capella and Andrew (2004) suggest that a relationship exists between counselor job satisfaction and consumer satisfaction with their counselor and VR services. Due to the unique work that rehabilitation counselors perform, it is imperative that a strong working alliance between counselors and consumers exist as a way of effecting successful rehabilitation outcomes (Lustig et al., 2002). Consequently, it is reasonable to believe that if counselors are happy with their jobs not only are they less likely to leave, but there is an increased likelihood that positive working alliances will be established which helps to yield higher consumer satisfaction with counselors and the type of rehabilitation outcomes consumers perceive as contributing positively to their quality of life. Additionally, attending to supervision satisfaction can help improve 90 rehabilitation recruitment and retention related-issues. A study of more than 20,000 employees reported that turnover intent reasons within the first year of employment are related to supervision, including lack of supervision, as well as poor super-vision (Campbell, 2002). If supervisory experiences are not a good fit with what rehabilitation counselors expect (e. g., frequency, type, etc.), such a situation may decrease the level of satisfaction not only with supervision, but with global job satisfaction as well, leading to an increased likelihood of turnover intent. As both clinical and administrative supervision are vital components in counselor professional development in the post-educational setting, the importance of developing and implementing supervisory practices that not only meet counselor expectations, needs, and satisfaction level are necessary, but more importantly, are required to help counselors facilitate consumer rehabilitation success. Study findings suggest that other effective VR processes could be restructuring caseloads to make them more manageable, increasing pay, creating explicit expectations regarding promotional opportunities, and offering consistent clinical and administrative supervision experiences designed to promote professional development and consumer success. Suggestions for Future Research Replication. While the present investigation yielded usefirl findings in relation to fit, satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intent among state VR counselors, it was undertaken with one state VR agency. As a way of building upon the findings in the present investigation, the next study should be one of replication. Including multiple state VR agencies via regional or national samples would be a way to increase sample 91 size, as well as test the theoretical framework (e. g., variables of turnover intent among state VR counselors) applied in the present investigation. Replication affords numerous benefits. For example, replication of the present investigation via a larger sample size would not only increase the likelihood of obtaining a more diverse sample in relation to demographic characteristics, but would also allow findings to be scrutinized under different circumstances, thereby increasing the validity and reliability of results. Results of the present investigation could (a) reflect how participants felt in relation to fit, satisfaction, commitment, and turnover intent; (b) reflect responses based on an unstable economy at the time in which data were collected in 2009; and/or (c) be attributed to other factors not accounted for within the present investigation. Replication research with regional or national samples would expand the parameters of generalizability and help exclude the role of confounding variables. Integrating fragmented rehabilitation findings via replication would assist in advancing turnover intent theory. Conducting replication studies in conjunction with the Rehabilitation Services Administration (RSA) would directly relate to one of their primary objectives initially commissioned in 2000 which was as follows: (a) determine and evaluate the variables that facilitate or hinder graduates from entering and remaining in state VR agencies (Chan & Ruedel, 2005). Findings from replication studies may be disseminated to RSA as a way of helping to meet the aforementioned objective. Factors that continually provide support for turnover intent within public sector rehabilitation could be strategically used in the eventual development and implementation of strategies designed 92 to target recruitment and retention among specific groups (e.g., women, individuals with less than 5 years job tenure). Longitudinal. As many public sector rehabilitation agencies are dynamic and individuals frequently maneuver in, out, and about such organizations, what constitutes a good fit today may or may not constitute a good fit tomorrow (Muchinsky & Monhan, 1987). Research suggests that employees constantly re—examine and use fit perceptions as they make decisions about whether to remain with their respective organizations. The likelihood of exit increases if expectations regarding variables related to turnover intent such as P-O fit, satisfaction, and organizational commitment are not met (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). Measuring fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment and turnover intent longitudinally affords for collecting data over time. This research method is effective in measuring data and changes in variables from one point to another. Additionally, longitudinal studies can be beneficial in identifying trends (Menard, 1991). For example, examining turnover intent via the socialization process among individuals with less than 5 years job tenure at various points post-hire (e. g., 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, etc.), may be one way to yield significant findings regarding trends relating to fit, satisfaction, and commitment. Turnover is very costly to organizations. As such, expanding the employment interview to include assessment of potential job performance, as well as correlates of turnover intent not only at the time of interview, but at designated periods throughout the probationary period (e.g., 3 months, 6 months, 9 months, 12 months, etc.), would offer vital information that could be used to guide state VR agency hiring determinations. 93 Knowing that unmet expectations can potentially result in eventual turnover, examining fit, satisfaction, and organizational commitment levels over time may prove to be useful for RSA and state VR agencies. The generation of new knowledge and substantiation and integration of significant findings may eventually lead to the development and implementation of specific strategies designed to reduce turnover intent and promote longer job tenure among qualified rehabilitation counselors. Participatory Action Research. Participatory Action Research (PAR) involves collaborating with the community that will be examined, as a way of helping to formulate the problem that will be empirically investigated. PAR focuses on effecting change within individuals, as well as the communities and cultures to which they belong (McTaggart, 1991). It is recommended that researchers closely work with state VR counselors, as they are embedded in the organizational context on a daily basis, in order to obtain information regarding the aspects of turnover intent that are worthy of empirical investigation. Additionally, it is imperative to build and maintain good working relationships with state VR systems in order to conduct high quality research and enhance potential response rate. Systematically developing and implementing exit interviews across state VR agencies is one way to obtain information regarding factors that impact turnover. Presently-employed and exiting state VR counselors could assist in developing the types of questions and interview format that would be most beneficial in yielding the type of information needed to study the turnover and turnover intent phenomena within the public sector. Information gathered from the interviews could be used for testing future 94 theoretical frameworks, designing replication studies, and substantiating previous empirical results. Research Design. Examining predictors of turnover intent among state VR counselors may be perceived as a sensitive issue. While quantitative methods are beneficial, qualitative research may also yield another level of data. Employing qualitative research generates detail and provides an in—depth understanding of complex issues (e.g., turnover intent) (King, Keohane, & Verba, 1994). Unearthing specific factors via interviews, story-telling, and focus groups that are likely to influence turnover intent among state VR counselors could be used to design future quantitative research investigations. In addition, utilizing various instruments, particularly in the area of fit such as the Organizational Culture Profile, may assist in advancing understanding of P-O fit and subsequent implications, as applied to turnover intent of state VR counselors. As such, it is recommended that firture studies utilize instruments that afford an in-depth examination of fit, as well as the individual and organizational values that are likely to facilitate or inhibit rehabilitation recruitment and retention within the public sector. Data Analyses. The present investigation examined the direct effects of fit, satisfaction, and organizational commitment on turnover intent. It is recommended that future studies also focus on mediators and moderators of turnover intent. Mediators help to explain the relationship between predictor and criterion variables, and illustrate why certain effects occur. Moderator variables can influence the strength or direction of the relationship between the predictor and criterion variables (Baron & Kenny, 1986). AS such, it is recommended that future quantitative studies examine the link between P-O fit 95 and turnover intent as mediated by job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Moreover, investigating the relationship between P-O fit, job satisfaction, organizational comrrritrnent, and turnover intent as moderated by specific variables such as gender and job tenure would also fill a gap in existing rehabilitation research. These lines of investigation would help advance turnover intent theory and practice within the field of rehabilitation. Finally, utilizing alternative methods of data analysis such as structural equation modeling would allow for a more comprehensive and sophisticated approach to investigating the theoretical framework, hypothesis, and overall relationships proposed in the current study (Hoyle, 1995). 96 Appendix A: Demographic Questionnaire Directions: For each question, please indicate the answer that best describes you. 1. Indicate your age. 2. Indicate your educational level. a. BA/BS Degree (in what field) b. MA/MS Degree (in what field) c. Ph.D. (in what field) 3. Indicate your gender. a. Female b. Male 4. Indicate your race/ethnicity (you may select more than one). a. Afiican American/Black b. Caucasian/White c. Asian/Pacific-Islander (1. Hispanic e. Native American/Alaskan Native/American Indian f. Other (please specify) 5. Indicate number of years working as a counselor for this particular state VR agency. 6. Indicate your salary range. a. Below $36,000/year b. $36,000-$42,000/year c. $43,000-$50,000/year d. $51,000-$57,000/year e. Over $58,000/year 7. Indicate your caseload size. 8. Do you hold a Certified Rehabilitation Counselor (CRC) credential? a. Yes b. No 9. Are you a Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) or Licensed Clinical Professional Counselor (LCPC)? a. Yes b. No 97 Appendix B: Person-Organization (P-O) Fit Measure Directions: Please read each question carefully and indicate the response that best corresponds to your answer using the following scale: 1=Strongly Agree 2=Agree 3=Agree Somewhat 4=Undecided 5=Disagree Somewhat 6=Disagree =Strongly Disagree 1. My values match or fit the values of this organization. 2. I am able to maintain my values at this company. 3. My values prevent me from fitting in at this company because they are different from the company’s values. 98 Appendix C: Abridged Job Descriptive Index (aJDI) Directions: Think of the work you do at present. How well does each of the following words or phrases describe your job? In the blank beside each word or phrase, please indicate: 1 for “YES” if it describes your work 2 for “NO” if it does not describe it 3 for “?” if you cannot decide Work on Present Job _ Satisfying Gives sense of accomplishment Challenging Dull Uninteresting Present Pay Income adequate for normal expenses Fair Insecure Well paid Underpaid Opportunities for Promotion Good opportunities for promotion Promotion on ability Dead-end job Good chance for promotion Unfair promotion policy Supervision Praises good work Tactful Up-to-date Annoying Bad People At Work Boring Helpful Responsible Intelligent Lazy 99 Abridged Job in General (aJIG) Directions: Think of your job in general. All in all, what is it like most of the time? For each of the following words or phrases, please indicate: 1 for “YES” if it describes your work 2 for “NO” if it does not describe it 3 for “?” if you cannot decide Good Undesirable Better than most Disagreeable Makes me content Excellent Enjoyable Poor 100 Appendix D: Organizational Commitment Scales (OCS) Directions: Please read each question carefully and indicate the response that best corresponds to your answer using the following scale: l=Strongly Agree 2=Agree 3=Agree Somewhat 4=Undecided 5=Disagree Somewhat 6=Disagree 7=Strongly Disagree . I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this agency. . I enjoy discussing my agency with people outside of it. . I really feel as if this agency’s problems are my own. . I think I could easily become as attached to another agency as I am to this one. . I do not feel like “part of the family” at my agency. . I do not feel “emotionally attached” to this agency. . This agency has a great deal of personal meaning for me. . I do not feel a strong sense of belonging to my agency. WQQM-RWNW . I think that people these days move from company to company too often. . I do not believe that a person must always be loyal to his or her organization. . Jumping from organization to organization does not seem at all unethical to me. . One of the major reasons why I continue to work for this agency is that I believe loyalty is important to and therefore feel a sense of moral obligation to remain. 5. If I got another offer for a better job elsewhere, I would not feel right to leave my agency. 6. I was taught to believe in the value of remaining loyal to one organization. 7. Things were better in the days when people stayed with one organization for most of their careers. 8. I do not think that wanting to be a “company man” or “company woman” is sensible anymore. #WNH 1. I am not afraid of what might happen if I quit my job without having another one lined up. 2. It would be very hard for me to leave my agency right now, even if I wanted to. 3. Too much in my life would be disrupted if I decided to leave my agency right now. 4. It would be too costly for me to leave my agency in the near future. 5. I feel that I have too few options to consider leaving my agency 6. Right now, staying with my agency is a matter of necessity as much as desire. 7. One of the few negative consequences of leaving this agency would be the scarcity of available alternatives. 8. One of the major reasons why I would continue working for this agency is that leaving would require considerable personal sacrifice-another organization may not match the overall benefits here. 101 Appendix E: Turnover Intent Questionnaire (T01) Directions: Please read each question carefully and indicate the response that best corresponds to your answer using the following scale: Agree Tend to Agree Tend to Disagree Disagree 1 2 3 4 l. I often think about quitting ....................................................... 1 2 3 4 2. It is very likely that I will actively look for a new job in the next year. . ...1 2 3 4 3. I will leave this organization in the next year .................................. 1 2 3 4 4. I will leave this organization as soon as I find another job ................... 1 2 3 4 Please read each statement carefully and check the statement that best corresponds to your answer. 5. If I leave my current job, I will look for a job: _ In the field of rehabilitation in a different organization _ In a field other than rehabilitation (another industry) _ In a non-human—service—related field _ In another human service field, such as mental health or school counseling __ I will not seek employment (leave workforce) __ Other (please specify): 102 Appendix F: Research Information and Participants’ Consent Form Title: Relationship between Person-Organization Fit, Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment and Turnover Intent Among State Vocational Rehabilitation Counselors Purpose: You are invited to participate in a research study being conducted by J enelle S. Pitt of Michigan State University. This study will examine the relationship between person-organization (P-O) fit, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intent among state vocational rehabilitation counselors. The overall purpose of the study is to yield information that will be helpful in addressing present-day recruitment and retention efforts of rehabilitation counselors. Your participation: Your participation involves filling out surveys, which should take approximately 20-30 minutes. Your rights: Your decision to participate in this study is entirely voluntary and you may decide at any time to withdraw from the study. If you choose to participate, you may skip any items you do not wish to answer. If you do not wish to submit your responses, simply exit the study at any time by closing the browser page. No identifying information (e. g., names, intemet provider or e-mail addresses, etc.) will be tracked. Therefore, your responses will remain confidential. Data from the study will be secured and stored using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) security software, which is used for transmitting private documents or information via the intemet. Only Ms. Pitt will have access to the surveys. A preliminary summary of the results will be made available and provided to Robert Kilbury, Director and Douglas Morton, Strategic Planning Manager of the Illinois Division of Rehabilitation Services (DRS) to be disseminated. A full copy of the report will be available during summer 2009 and will also be provided to Dr. Kilbury and Mr. Morton to be disseminated. The results of the study may be presented at scholarly conferences and published in professional journals. All results will be reported in the aggregate. The data will be securely stored by Ms. Pitt for two years after the study. Benefits and Risks: This research can potentially contribute to the advancement of understanding the importance of organizational culture and its impact on both internal and external customers. This research may also help spur information that leads to the development of healthier work environments. Lastly, the type of information that will be yielded from the present study helps to contribute to ongoing national and state recruitment and retention efforts of qualified rehabilitation counselors. The study addresses some issues that may be potentially viewed as sensitive, in nature. Please remember that you have the right to refuse to answer any question, as well as withdraw from the study at any time. 103 Researcher’s Contact Information: J enelle S. Pitt Office of Rehabilitation and Disability Studies Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology and Special Education Michigan State University 455 Erickson Hall East Lansing, MI 48824-1034 (323) 490-9991 pittiene@msu.edu By clicking on the CONTINUE box below, you voluntarily consent to participate in this study. After clicking the “continue” box, you will be taken to the study questionnaires. 104 REFERENCES Aarons, G. A., & Sawitzky, A. C. (2006). 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