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'5‘. .3125?) vs. 3.1.1.333};- l It‘llivl‘d‘u W1\ USRARY . e Michigan State lJnIyersity This is to certify that the thesis entitled LABOR BASED TRAINING MODEL FOR FEEDER ROADS presented by Arthur George Theusch has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science degree in Construction Management Major Professor’s Signature 6L? 28; Zea? Date MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer V ----..--.-----n...-..-.--.-.....-..- -o-----“I-.-'-t-I-O-I-I--l-o-n-O-0-I-v-c-I-b-o-I-I-u-o-I-I-Q--|-I-O-I-I-I-l- PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. To AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 5I08 K:IProj/Acc&Pres/CIRC/DaleDue.indd LABOR BASED TRAINING MODEL FOR FEEDER ROADS By Arthur George Theusch A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Construction Management 2009 ABSTRACT LABOR BASED TRAINING MODEL FOR FEEDER ROADS By Arthur George Theusch Crisis — war, natural disasters, or economic collapse cause abrupt damage within a country which often results in destruction of infrastructure including roads. Further there are people without employment but lacking skills to help repair the infrastructure. This study looks at the training model to rehabilitate the workforce and roads in one process. A model for training developed. It was verified against the ILO, RS Means and a Lansing Michigan contractor for productivities and calibrated similar to the Navy Seabees model used in Iraq. The training model (Restoring U Training Model) was then applied to the situation and the potential productivities were compared to the actual. The RUTM is focused on a training the unskilled available workforce in a training session the takes place before the work day begins. The learning is then immediately applied in the field. The model verifies using a standard learning curve, there is potential time saves available in feeder road construction by training unskilled laborers with the RUTM. Thanks to my wife Jenna, daughter Isabella and son Caleb. If it had not been for their grace and mercy I would not have been able to complete this. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. v LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................. vii ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................... viii 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1 Historical perspective of construction in conflict I natural disaster zones ......... 4 Major Players ................................................................................................... 8 Major Initiatives .............................................................................................. 1 5 Construction Issues ....................................................................................... 29 Successes ..................................................................................................... 34 2 CONFLICTS I NATURAL DISASTERS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES ..... 35 Construction and Recovery ........................................................................... 38 Concerns and Factors ................................................................................... 40 Country Analysis ............................................................................................ 41 3 MAJOR PLAYER GOALS ............................................................................. 45 Similar Attempts ............................................................................................. 46 Restoring U Training Model ........................................................................... 52 4 RESTORING U TRAINING MODEL .............................................................. 67 Restoring U Training Model setup ................................................................. 67 Productivity 8. Learning Curve ....................................................................... 77 Applications of Learning Curve to Restoring U Training Model ...................... 85 Case Study Analysis .................................................................................... 103 5 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................. 112 Training Schedule ........................................................................................ 112 Final Conclusion .......................................................................................... 1 17 Further Research ......................................................................................... 117 APPENDIX ........................................................................................................ 119 REFERENCES .................................................................................................. 122 LIST OF TABLES “Images in this thesis are presented in color” Table 3.1: Sample group of selected projects ..................................................... 55 P. Munters, Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia, International Labour Organization, (2003) 10 Table 3.2: Overview of costs and cost breakdown of road works ....................... 56 P. Munters, Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia, International Labour Organization, (2003) 43 Table 3.3: Labor Intensive Road Tasks and Associated Skill Level .................... 58 Table 3.4: ILO Estimate Productivities ................................................................ 60 B. Johannessen, Technical Manual Labour-Based Road Construction Methods, lntemational Labour Organization, (1997) 83 Table 3.5: lLO Labor Rates translated into Daily Outputs ................................... 60 Table 3.6: Productivity Rates of Lansing, MI Contractors ................................... 61 Table 3.7: RS Means Crews & Productivities ..................................................... 61 Table 3.8: ILO Daily Output converted to Crew Sizes ........................................ 64 Table 4.1: Tasks Sorted by Skill Level ................................................................ 69 Table 4.2: Labor Hours, Workers needed based on Training Hours per KM ....... 75 Table 4.3: Assumptions by the Author ................................................................ 77 Table 4.4: Required Quantities of Work per 1000 lineal meters .......................... 79 Table 4.5: Estimate Productivity .......................................................................... 82 Table 4.6: Productivity Rates of ILO .................................................................... 82 Table 4.7: Productivity Rates of Lansing, MI Contractors ................................... 83 Table 4.8: Productivity Rates of RS Means ......................................................... 84 Table 4.9: Productivity Rates of RS Means translated to Meters ........................ 84 Table 4.10: Estimate Productivity 25% ................................................................ 85 Table 4.11: Crew Sizes based on ILO Productivities .......................................... 86 Table 4.12: RUTM Learning Curve ..................................................................... 88 Table 4.13: RUTM Learning Curve (Continues) .................................................. 94 Table 4.14: RS Means, Lansing, RUTM, lLO ...................................................... 98 Table 4.15: Force accounts and quantities of work in the Labour-based Rural Infrastructure Works Programme ...................................................................... 103 P. Munters, Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia, International Labour Organization, (2003) 23 Table 4.16: Key Performance Indicators I Log Frame Matrix ......................... - ...106 Anon., The Transport Sector Project, The World Bank, (2002) 22 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Cross section of the 1km benchmark ................................................ 51 Technical Manual, Labour-based Road Construction Methods, Ministry of Rural Development, Phnom Penh 1999 Figure 3.2 The S-Curve ....................................................................................... 53 Blaug, Peston, and Ziderrnan 1967 Figure 3.3: Wright’s Learning Curve Model ......................................................... 65 T.P. Wright, Wright’s Cumulative Average Model, http://maaw.info/LearninqCurveSummary.htm (2008) Figure 4.1: PERT Diagram of Training Schedule ................................................ 73 Figure 4.2: Gantt Diagram of Training Schedule ................................................. 76 Figure 4.3: The S-Curve with Restoring U and ILO ............................................. 78 T.P. Wright, Wright’s Cumulative Average Model, httpz/lmaaw.info/LearninqCurveSummarv.htm (2008) [MODIFIED] Figure 4.4: Section cut of typical feeder road ...................................................... 80 B. Johannessen, Technical Manual Labour-Based Road Construction Methods, lntemational Labour Organization, (1997) 44 Figure 4.5 Statistical Analysis of Cost Estimator’s Reference Manual ................ 85 R. Stewart, Cost Estimator’s Reference Manual, 2nd Edition, Learning Curve Calculator, httpzllcostisc.nasaqov/learn.html (1995) Figure 4.6: Graph of RUTM Learning Curve of 80%, 85% and 90% .................. 89 Figure 4.7: RUTM Learning Curve 80% .............................................................. 90 Figure 4.8: RUTM Learning Curve 85% .............................................................. 91 Figure 4.9: RUTM Learning Curve 90% .............................................................. 92 Figure 4.10: Graph of RUTM Learning Curve (Continues) .................................. 95 Figure 4.11: Graph of RUTM Learning Curve (Restarted) .................................. 96 Figure 4.12: Graph of RS Means, Lansing, RUTM, ILO .................................... 100 Figure 4.13: Graph of RUTM Learning Curve with Starting Productivities of 25%, 50% and 75% ........................................................................................... 102 vii B-7 B-10A B-10L B-10M B-11L 3-14 B-30 B-SGC B-63 CAS CM CY DRC ECY EIIP ENSO EU FEMA ACRONYMS 1 Labor Foreman (outside), 4 Laborers, 1 Equipment Operator, 1 Chipping Machine, 1 Front End Loader, T.M., 2.5 C.Y., 2 Chain Saws, 36" 1 Equipment Operator (med), .5 Laborer, 1 Walk behind compactor, 7.5 HP 1 Equipment Operator (med), .5 Laborer, 1 Dozer, 80 HP 1 Equipment Operator (med), .5 Laborer, 1 Dozer, 300 HP. 1 Equipment Operator (med), .5 Laborer, 1 Grader, 30,000 lbs. 1 Labor Foreman (outside), 4 Laborers, 1 Equipment Operator (crane), 1 Equipment Operator Oiler, 1 Crawl Crane, 100 Ton 1 Equipment Operator (med), 2 Truck Drivers (heavy). 1 Hydraulic Excavator, 1.5 C.Y., 2 Dump Trucks, 16 Ton 1 Labor Foreman (outside), 4 Laborers, 1 Equipment Operator (light), 1 Tandem Roller, 5 Ton 1 Laborer, 1 Truck Driver (light), 1 Power Mulcher (small) 1 Light Truck, 1.5 Ton Country Assistance Strategy Cubic Meter Cubic Yard Democratic Republic of Congo Embankment Cubic Yard Employment Intensive Investments Programme El Nifio-Southern Oscillation European Union Federal Emergency Management Agency viii HP HR ICAP IDA IF P ILO IUOE KM KMS LCY LM LN FT NGO M-K MSF NA PERT RUTM SO SoA Horse Power Hour Iraqi Construction Apprentice Program International Development Association. ILO lnFocus Programme International Labour Organization International Union of Operating Engineers Kilometer Kilometers Loose Cubic Yard Lineal Meter Lineal Feet Non-Govemment Organizations Meter Square Meter Cubic Meter Morrison Knudsen Thousand Square Feet Not Applicable Program Evaluation and Review Technique Restoring U Training Model Southern Oscillation Spirit of America SM SY TSP UN UNDP UNHCR UNOCHA US USAID WD Square Meter Square Yard Transport Sector Project United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs United States United States Agency for lntemational Development Work Day CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION Crisis due to war, natural disasters, or economic collapse which may combine with abrupt political change have become an uncomfortable reality in many developing countries. These changes often bring adverse consequences for employment and development. [1]. Developing countries usually find themselves in a unique dilemma. Crises in developing countries often wipe out hard won gains in labor productivity and economic development [2]. These countries often find themselves in a constant cycle of destruction. Many times they find themselves exuding an extreme amount of effort to reconstruct their country only to watch a natural disaster arrive or civil conflict develop and set their countries” progress back about 10 to 20 years. For countries such as Rwanda and Uganda, they were both facing internal conflicts that were followed closely by natural disasters. Following the conclusion of a natural disaster, a country is usually in utter chaos. The roads may have been washed out, thousands of people are stranded, and no one knows where to turn for aid. With this calamity in mind the author is intending to show how this program can organize, train and apply these people to rebuild the feeder roads with minimal outside assistance. In the case of a post war reconstruction zone a country is faced with an entirely different set of issues. Following a conflict of this nature, a country is trying to restore damaged buildings, repair the neglected, rehabilitating the returning soldiers, house and feed the hundreds of thousands that have fled during the duration of the war or disaster. When developing countries emerge from the previous examples, there are three projects that are considered of high importance; they are restoring power, restoration of water, and the repair of roads. The first two priorities require an extreme amount of knowledge and education for the people to operate in, with this in mind, the author has focused on the construction of roads. The nature of road construction in many developing countries around the world will allow for the initial use of labor-intensive construction processes until there is a labor force skilled enough to operate equipment that would expedite the process. Roads are one of the first projects undertaken following the conclusion of a natural disaster and conflict. The destructive nature of both calamities seems to exert an excessive amount of force on the roads. By nature, a natural disaster destroys everything in its way including roads, which is contrary to the collective scheming of a civil war, which often aim for roads in order to cripple the advancement of opposing forces. In both cases, roads are not the only casualties of these events; but the restoration on the local roads is one of the most necessary steps to be taken to stabilize a country. With the restoration of roads, aid can be extended to areas that have been isolated prior to the damage. With the completion of the roads, the community will have greater access to the rest of the country and the larger markets. With these overwhelming factors in mind, the author has selected two road infrastructure projects sponsored by the World Bank. These projects are located in Rwanda and Uganda. Two countries that are bordering neighbors have purposely been selected for the purpose of minimizing the distance and similarity of cultures. The proximity of distance between them does not guarantee like cultures, but it does prevent vast cultural barriers such as would exist in trying to draw comparisons with countries like Ivory Coast and Romania. After the selection of the countries, the next step was to find two projects that have followed closely behind both of these calamities. In the aftermath of these two devastating events, the author has identified a dilemma that this thesis will target. The problem that currently faces these developing nations is a large unskilled population available to work; but many developing countries currently lack training models that will develop a work force that could construct and maintain feeder roads. The objective of the thesis is to develop a training program that will develop a skilled road construction work force. The Feeder road construction training model that is developed could be used in countries that are recovering from natural disasters or conflicts. The purpose of the Restoring U training model is to measure a potential increase in productivity. Finally, the model will be tested in places where some data exist. Available literature for several training programs will be surveyed and applied to similar training programs. The program of the thesis is applied to two distinct projects. The author was interested in the effects this program could potentially accomplish in two environments; First, to the recovery efforts following a natural disaster, secondly to the reconstruction in a post conflict-zone. Each of these circumstances provides very distinct obstacles to over come. Due to the nature of the construction of roads, ideal conditions can be found that will allow time necessary to train people for advanced road construction. In the initial phases of the construction, a construction manager is able to utilize virtually every labor intensive duty in the road construction process. With limited direction and an interpreter (if necessary), a construction manager would direct the labor-intensive construction then, workers are trained before the workday. The program will continue to train these unskilled workers so when there is a need for the skilled labor force, they will be ready. The Restoring U training model is intended to train a local labor force that is capable of performing all the skills for the entire road construction project. 1.2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CONSTRUCTION IN CONFLICT AND NATURAL DISASTER ZONES World War II During the course of World War Two, the US Navy was gradually moving toward Japan. At the time of the war, the military’s building teams were not adequately trained for advanced-base construction. According to Melbourne (Ph.D., University of Southern California) neither regular military construction units nor the Army or Navy construction battalions can be maintained at the level needed for high volume, highly technical construction work. [3] Due to this void, the military was faced with the dilemma of using civilian contractors even when they were exposed to enemy attack. As one of its strategic moves in the war, the US. government decided to build bases in the Pacific Ocean to reduce the distance necessary to travel to war. One of the first companies enlisted to build these bases was Morrison Knudsen (M-K), now known as the Washington Group. Nearly 1150 of M-K’s men were killed or captured during the first weeks of the United States War in the Pacific against Japan. As a result the US. military immediately began organizing the Seabees. They were deployed to build advanced bases for the Navy. [4] Melbourne asserted that success generally depended on aggressive management, sound estimating, retention of the most capable supervisors and workmen, and a complete dedication to the completion of difficult jobs regardless of personal hardships. The US government realized the severity of sending civilian workers to the front lines of combat. Over the remainder of the war, the companies were given added security to finish the construction. Some of the companies took matters into their own hands. Morrison Knudsen took the liberty to train their men in the art of operating military weapons. Marines provided instruction to some of the contractor’s workmen on the firing of machine guns, the manning of the 5-inch anti-ship batteries, and the 3-inch anti-aircraft guns.” [5]. These men would then join in the battle when a base came under fire. The war with Japan “produced entrepreneurs rather unique in American business these American contractors became very accustomed to taking great financial and physical risks. The American contractors mobilized rapidly and successfully shortcut some of the cumbersome government procurement procedures.” [6]. Post World War II On December 28, 1941, just 21 days after the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Rear Admiral Ben Moreell determined to activate, organize, and man Navy construction units. Moreell realized it was impractical to use civilian labor in war zones. According to the international law, civilians were not permitted to resist enemy military attack. On January 5, 1942; with authority from the Bureau of Navigation, he began to recruit men from construction trades for assignment to a Naval Construction Regiment. This is the actual beginning of the renowned Seabees which Admiral Moreell furnished the motto: ‘We Build, We Fight.” [7] By the end of World War II, over 325,000 men had enlisted in the Seabees. They ranged from 18 to 50 years old and represented more than 60 skilled trades. Following the end of World War Two, the US military construction unit known as the Seabees was specifically trained to perform two tasks: the first task was to build frontline bases. The second task was defensive strategy. The purpose of the Seabees was to use military personal on the front lines that were given the proper training in defense in the case they came under fire. The Navy Seabees went on to become very important in future wars, such as the Korean War and Vietnam. Marshall Plan Following the end of World War Two, the United States took an important step towards rebuilding Europe. On June 5, 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall spoke at Harvard University and outlined what would become known as the Marshall Plan. Much of Europe lay devastated by the war they had just survived one of the worst winters on record. The nations of Europe had nothing to sell for hard currency. The democratic socialist governments in most countries were unwilling to adopt the draconian proposals for recovery advocated by the old-line classical economists. Marshall proposed a course of action both for humanitarian reasons and also to stop the potential spread of communism westward. [8] The United Stated led the effort by offering up to $20 billion for relief. This required united action by the European nations. Marshall required a rational plan on how the aid would be used. [9] In addition to helping put Europe back on its feet the Marshall Plan paved the way for many other relief efforts and agencies. The Marshall Plan led to the Schuman Plan, which in turn led to Euratom, then the Coal and Iron Community and the Common Market. An economically and politically united Europe may yet evolve. [10] Many Europeans were concerned about how this money was going to be used to rebuild their country. They feared it would be used for the wrong reasons. To put many of the European nations at ease, Schuman devised a plan (1950) to monitor any country that may be attempting to rearm itself for a possible war. “Rearmament always showed first in an increased production of coal, iron and steel. If an organization such as he was proposing was to be setup, it would enable each country to detect the first signs of rearrnament, and would have a great calming effect on France. [11] The Euratom treaty was setup to monitor the development of nuclear power plants across Europe. The European Union (EU) established the Euratom Loan to ensure that any funding needed for a nuclear facility had the approval of the EU. Euratom provides loans for the construction of nuclear power plants in the EU, accession countries and the former Soviet Union. The nuclear loan facility is now nearly exhausted and will therefore require additional funds. This will require the approval of the European Commission and the unanimous approval of Member States. [12] Following the creation of these organizations came the formation of groups such as the World Bank, African Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, International Monetary Fund, USAID, and FEMA. These institutions began to fund, organize, and direct the rebuilding efforts in developing countries. 1.3 MAJOR PLAYERS Following the conclusion of the Second World War, the United Stated led the way in the reconstruction effort of Western Europe George C. Marshall was the front runner in this campaign to get Europe back on its feet. Marshall knew it was important to invest the money to revitalize this broken continent or else face the possibility of another world war. Marshall orchestrated what became know as the Marshall Plan (1947). The goal of this plan was to organize the money that was going to be invested in rebuilding Western Europe. This set into motion numerous efforts and organizations that still exist today. There are three major external players involved in the rebuilding of a country; the funding organization, non-government organizations and private sector companies. As a group they all start off with one common goal: to restore and rebuild the country. History has often shown that as the project develops; these players may lose the community focus and begin to emphasize their own specific goals. The Funding Organizations The first player involved in the rebuilding effort is the funding organization. The funding organization will usually set the pace of the rebuilding efforts. It will also create the overall picture of what efforts are needed. In collaboration with the local government or state, it will decide where to allocate the appropriate amount of money. It will also set the schedule for the target rebuilding timeframe. If the funding agency proposes an accelerated schedule for the rebuilding efforts this may not be realistic. A typical rebuilding project contains a time-compressed agenda. In the course of normal societal evolution a range of reforms and institutional changes take place over several years, even decades. The funding organization seeks to implement change over a much shorter time span. For example the World Bank must disburse funds according to a set schedule and seeks a plan for the recovery of the funds. The pace for implementing the program’s agenda may conflict with long term needs of the developing country and may even cause a political backlash. [13] Some of the most recognizable funding organizations are the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, African Development Bank, International Monetary Fund, USAID, and FEMA. The World Bank is the institution that has been established the longest, with the early mandate to assist post-war reconstruction. The World Bank channeled aid for the reconstruction of Western Europe following the end of the Second World War. [14] The funding organization partners with the government of the borrowing country. They engage non- government organizations (NGO’s) and private sector players. These latter two players will play a subordinate role. Many of the projects that funding agencies organize are designed at a national level and include large-scale projects which may extend over a longer period of time. [15] Government Planning Governmental planning plays a big part of the funding organizations efforts. The players work together to set the parameters of the rebuilding effort and define the scope of the rebuilding efforts. The World Bank also noted that some promising experiences are emerging from partnerships between governments and local authorities and NGO’s. [16] One of the World Bank’s recommendations is the infrastructure project which is dependent on governments’ abilities to improve the management of the 10 overall construction process. [17] A second recommendation is to select a limited number of good examples of prototypes that have given proven results in local tests and that incorporate technologies similar to those used in local housing construction. Third, these initiatives should be supported with technical advice and monitoring so as to ensure an appropriate level of quality and durability. Fourth, the World Bank recommends the withdrawal of governments from the direct execution of social infrastructure construction programs. Fifth, efficient contract management procedures and capacities should be established through the use, wherever possible, of specialized contract management agencies. Sixth, the allocation of scarce budgetary and external resources should be a priority in the support of local initiatives. Last, annual work programs and budgets that reflect the country’s overall social sector construction, rehabilitation and maintenance needs should be established with the reduction of inequities through the establishment of social safety net programs targeting the poorest areas. [18] This abbreviated list includes the wisdom that funding organizations have learned from the various projects they have completed. From the list, a large amount of coordination is required from the many different players involved in the rebuilding efforts. Non-Government Organizations The next player in the rebuilding effort is the non-government organization. Such a group usually has the intent of aiding the population in 11 practical ways such as providing food, shelter, and other necessities. NGO’s as one of the important social factors began to rise to prominence in the 1980’s and climaxed in the 1990’s, following the end of the Cold War. Their potential role in development has been recognized for a long time in both developed and developing countries. NGOs came to be seen as an indispensable player in the theater of development in the 1980’s with a growing recognition of the limitations of the public sector. [19] Examples of NGO’s are the Red Cross, Habitat for Humanity, Peace Corps and many more. These organizations play an integral part of the rebuilding efforts in developing countries; NGO’s must however, act within areas of their expertise. Failure to reach proposed values results mainly from poor planning and management of construction activities, according to the World Bank. This is true even when funding is sufficient. Ministries such as education and health sometimes compete for project design management, works and construction supervisor. Meager resources are spread among tasks the ministries are ill equipped to carry out. Instead these ministries should focus on defining standards and criteria for setting priorities. [20] For these organizations to flourish, it may be beneficial to all the players in the rebuilding effort to redefine the role of these education and health ministries so that they no longer have direct responsibility for executing infrastructure construction but focus instead on defining priorities, programs and standards. [21] 12 Non-Government Organization Planning The private sector group usually consists of companies who are involved to make a profit for their respective firms. They are usually involved to do a specific reconstruction job; this doesn’t mean they aren’t looking out for the well being of the people but there is a higher priority placed on the profitability of the company. The typical companies that make up this group are architects, engineering and construction contractors. For the rebuilding efforts to maximize their success, the local government needs these three parties (funding organizations, NGO’s and the private sector) to work almost seamlessly together for the good of the people. These three factors usually enter into a project with admirable goals at the start of the project. The three partners; funding organization, NGO’s and the private sector — correspond to three distinct areas of engagement based on the logic, mission and social energies they each mobilize in pursuing the reconstruction effort. Their roles appear complementary because they address some of the fundamental issues of rebuilding worn-torn societies. If pursued successfully, may help the country make a clean break with past experience. The reality is different, however. The three factors are driven by their own values and development paradigms, as a part of a broader effort of reconstruction, involving a multiplicity of other actors and projects.” [22] The private group will usually be the first one to begin focusing on their goals rather than the group’s goals. This is largely in part due to their commitment to the necessary financial well being of their company. If the project begins to deteriorate, whether it is due to internal or 13 external circumstance, the private sector companies will begin to protect their own interest and the future of their company. In one of the case studies examined later, the contractors were forced to invoke contractor rights within their contract in order to withdraw their company from environments that were unsafe for their employees to work in. The private sector companies also have the ability to aid the rebuilding efforts in the positive way. For example they may be willing to work with organizations such as the ILO to implement their labor intensive road construction efforts. They have the ability to employ these people to rebuild their own road systems. There are some hurdles to this; for example, some contractors view this as training their future competition or training themselves out ofa job. The private sector group has, however, the opportunity to enhance the rebuilding effort in multiple ways; if companies continue to work with the funding organizations and the NGO’s, many accomplishments are possible. Private Sector Planning The private sector organizations have the ability to improve the rebuilding effort. The World Bank has pointed out that specialized contract management agencies could provide a mechanism for relieving health and education ministries of the construction burden, while increasing the speed, efficiency and cost- effectiveness of various social infrastructure programs. [23] Another recommendation for these organizations focuses on the planning efforts cf the 14 private sector group. Regional and local research into appropriate construction designs, technologies, materials and methods should be incorporated into current and future social infrastructure construction programs. Care should be taken to promote technologies and materials that are commonly used in the country. This will facilitate the integration of the domestic construction industry in the sectors’ construction programs.” [24] 1.4 MAJOR INITIATIVES International Labour Organization The International Labour Organization (ILO) is the foremost expert on reconstruction and rehabilitation in countries following either a natural disaster or a civil disturbance such as war. They worked within countless rebuilding efforts. The emphasis of their efforts is to maximize the training of the local population in the rebuilding efforts in order to create jobs and thereby aid in stabilizing the economy. Many programs use unskilled local people as a labor force on projects such as road construction that can benefit from labor intensive trades and tasks. The ILO has strategies and objectives in five key areas: armed conflicts, natural disasters, economic and financial downturns, social and political movement, and the gender crisis. Armed conflicts and natural disasters will be explored in the Restoring U Training Model. The ILO has found some critical issues to confront at the end of an armed conflict. Reintegrating the diverse conflict-affected groups into civil society is primary. Others are rehabilitating the socio-economic and physical infrastructure, 15 promoting social and political negotiations, promoting dialogue and reconciliation between the diverse groups, rebuilding the community’s social fabric, and promoting equity and social justice. [25] Natural disasters may affect developing countries by wiping out homes and sources of income. These include droughts, floods, earthquakes, and hurricanes. Such disasters may wipe out decades of development efforts. As one example, Hurricane Mitch is estimated to have eliminated twenty years of development efforts in Honduras and Nicaragua. If preventive criteria and community participation can be obtained, the effects of natural disasters may be mitigated. Secondary effects of the devastation may be poverty, structural changes to society, and environmental degradation. Vulnerable groups living in precarious conditions in hazardous locations may be especially affected. For example, the UNOCHA has estimated that damages and loss of life would have been fifty times less had Hurricane Mitch struck Western Europe or the USA. [26] Following the earthquake that shook Pakistan in 2005, it is estimated that some 1.1 million jobs may have been lost due to the damage. The ILO stated that productive and labor intensive job creation programmes were urgently needed to lift millions of people out of poverty that has been aggravated by quake damage. [27] In the days following the South Asian earthquake on 8 October 2005 assessment indicated that it caused the widespread destruction of most infrastructure and shops in the affected towns in the region — including the North West Frontier Providence and Pakistan administered Kashmir. Following a 16 natural disaster, such as this quake, the infrastructure must be repaired first to reach many of the remote places where people may be stranded. The ILO has shown that labor intensive infrastructure projects can not only answer this problem by beginning to aid in this process, but it also helps to solve some of the unemployment issues. Research has shown that the labor-intensive projects may require considerable more time, but the country benefits of labor—intensive projects far out weigh the time savings of machine intensive projects. Workers in the affected districts have likely already fallen into extreme poverty due to lost employment. [28] Rebuilding the basic infrastructure — roads, utility services, schools, and hospitals - will also create employment, Mr. Somavia noted. This means utilizing productive yet labor-intensive methods. If the country moves rapidly following a natural disaster, it can begin the rebuilding of their infrastructure by utilizing the large number of people without employment to begin the rebuilding efforts. By taking these steps the country can attempt to counter the effects of the natural disaster and stabilize the economy. The ILO knows that in order to counter the vast unemployment following these natural disasters that support is needed from the leadership of the country. Many times following such events the country is determined to get back on its feet as quickly as possible, and often millions of dollars are donated to relief efforts. Thus planning the reconstruction and rebuilding can begin. Infrastructure is usually the first area that is seriously considered when rebuilding plans begin; that is when and where the ILO urges that programs aimed at generating new employment and other income-producing opportunities be 17 incorporated into the rehabilitation and reconstruction programs. These will need to be immediately undertaken following the immediate relief efforts. [29] In many of the developing countries that face natural disasters, a vast portion of the millions of people who have lost their jobs are farmers. The issue arises of how to transition farmers to construction workers. The program must allow a road building effort to move along at a rapid pace to keep to the required schedule as the country determines. The ILO believes in order for a successful labor intensive infrastructure project to take place there are some necessary ingredients: including employment support services to provide both information and short-term training for the jobs that will be generated through the reconstruction effort. [30] The following are some of the points that the ILO has set as goals to accomplish a successful project. . Recording and classifying job seekers and allocating workers to reconstruction efforts in need of skilled labor. 0 Linking unemployed people with available work opportunities. a Assisting in the rehabilitation and reconstruction of public infrastructure with focus on employment intensive approaches to maximize job opportunities for local population. 0 Providing short-term skills-training for men and women from severely affected households to be able to be engaged in reconstruction effort. 0 Providing skills training and micro-business management training to regenerate immediately needed employment and livelihood opportunities for severely affected households. 18 The ILO has focused substantial efforts to “monitor and support the creation of decent jobs and livelihoods in the near term and in the future.” [31] Employment Intensive Investment Programme (EIIP) The Employment Intensive Investments Programme (EIIP) is a major branch of the ILO. The EIIP typically works with governments, employers, workers’ organizations, and the private sector and community associations in pointing infrastructure investments towards the creation of higher levels of productive employment and the improvement of access to basic goods and services for the poor. [32] By using ‘poor’ people, the government is training unskilled people to rebuild their communities and roads. At the completion of the projects, the country then has a skilled labor force that can maintain the roads. The maintenance of the roads appears to be one of the issues that many countries fail to focus on. The ILO has determined that many of the rebuilding efforts could have been avoided if there had been proper maintenance programs setup following the completion of roads. One of the main reasons the ILO suggests the use of infrastructure projects is that about half of the public investments in most developing countries is in infrastructure. In many cases over 50 percent of the investments (rising to as much as 80 or 90 percent in the least developed countries) is funded by external donors. [33] There is no shortage of opportunities. Every day the newspapers report the latest news of tsunamis in Sri Lanka, earthquakes in Southeast Asia, genocide in Rwanda, and on and on. The employment potential of infrastructure 19 investments is vast, but is often not realized because many projects are equipment-intensive and often employ foreign contractors. This may be necessary for airports, express motorways or heavy bridges, but employment- intensive alternatives using labor-based technologies are available for more basic infrastructure. Using infrastructure investments to create local employment and incomes, as well as skills and capacities may produce major advantages. I34] Labor-based technologies Labor-based technology is a term used to describe a technology that applies a labor and equipment mix that gives priority to labor, supplementing it with appropriate equipment where necessary for reasons of quality or cost. While producing or maintaining infrastructure to a specified standard in a cost-effective manner, people are employed under fair working conditions. The differences are noteworthy between an optimum and efficient use of labor and inefficient use. Experience has shown that for the same level of investment in local infrastructure, the use of labor-based technologies can create between two and four times more employment (mostly unskilled), reduce foreign exchange requirements by 50 percent to 60 percent, decrease overall costs by 10 percent to 30 percent, and reduce environmental impacts. [35] The use of labor-based methods also implies the increased use of associated local resources. These may include locally available materials, tools and equipment, skills and knowledge, as well as finance. This reinforces the percentage of investment that 20 remains in the country and often in the locality of the works, reduces the dependence on costly imports, and stimulates the local economy. The ILO promotes the use of labor-based methods as a regular component of recurrent public investment programs for the infrastructure and construction sectors. It supports special training and awareness programs for this purpose, as well as the development and use of technical and contractual materials for the realization of such programs. Due to the high dependence on labor, the ILO actively promotes the application of appropriate labor standards and minimum working conditions including minimum wages, non-discrimination, the elimination of forced and child labor, the right to organize, protection of wages, safety and health, and insurance against work accidents. Likewise, the inclusion of women as workers and leaders is also advocated. [36] Jobs or Machines: Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia The ILO performed a comparative analysis of rural road work in Cambodia. Called the Rural Road study, the objective was to observe the performance of two separate crews. The first crew was comprised of laborers and focused on the employing masses of people and operate with labor-based technologies. The second crew was comprised of mostly equipment and was operated by trained employees. Through the course of the study, the ILO made several observations. The ILO was aware that often governments are interested in using labor- based technologies to reconstruct their roads. One of the driving forces for this 21 analysis was that governments would like to use this technology if it seems to fit the circumstances. Until this study there was no historical data to support one method or the other. The ILO believes that many governments are aware of both direct and indirect benefits that can accrue in non-monetary terms. These include capacity building, skills, development, employment creation, and sustainability. A labor-based road construction project can contribute to all of theses. [37] Before the ILO began to compare the productivity of the two groups performing work, the startup costs of the labor-base technologies crew were analyzed. The fleet had an estimated value of approximately $2 million (US Dollars). This included 76 pedestrian operated vibrating rollers and 94 light trucks (etans, a small locally fabricated truck). The typical fleet included 2 pedestrian rollers, 1 etan, 1 light truck, 1 plate compactor and 1 motorcycle. The ILO roughly estimated that this typical fleet could construct around 14 km a year. [38] The comparative analysis determined that the contracted works required about 3,800 workdays as opposed to nearly 5,000 workdays for the labor-based work force. [39] Looking at the overall numbers, the equipment-based force achieved greater productivity rates than the labor-based work force. Even though the labor-based crew took more time, the analysis showed that this method had many cost-saving advantages over the equipment-based crew. The first advantage is the overall weighted average cost of labor-based works is 17 percent lower than equipment-based works. The second benefit of using labor- 22 based methods force account operations, is cost savings (9 percent compared to using equipment based methods). Overall the labor-based works was an amazing 37 percent cost savings when compared with equipment based works. Intriguing to many governments is the extremely large employment potential in rural road works. The average unskilled labor content of equipment-based work is as low as 1 percent of total cost, compared to 37 percent for labor-based works. That equates to nearly 5,000 unskilled workdays per km as opposed to 200 workdays on an equipment-based operation. [40] A fourth observation, not from the figures but from the experience of the research team, is the apparent lack of concise data on cost breakdowns. For labor-based works programs more attention needs to be given to the monitoring equipment costs, while for the equipment-based works more attention needs to be given to the monitoring and repair of equipment. [41] The ILO realized that much of the Cambodian rural road network was still in a very poor condition. As a result, roads are frequently impassable in the rainy season. Cambodia currently has a five year plan that aims to rehabilitate 1,000 km a year with external financial assistance. There presently exists a total of 3,845 km of feeder roads; 309 km are in good condition, 1790 are in poor but passable condition, and the balance of 1745 km are impassable in the wet season. Labor-based technologies are not always the most appropriate method to upgrade village roads for everyday traffic. For example, there are roughly 24,000 km of local commune and village roads which require upgrading to a reliably trafficable condition. The most appropriate work methods should be 23 rationally chosen by assessing impact on timing, quality, and costs in line with the specific design and conditions in the project. For example labor-based technology would be appropriate for bitumen surface roads. For labor-based work programs to be practical, they need to be able to be able to produce 1,000 km a year. As of this study Cambodia’s Ministry of Public Works and Ministry of Rural Development have completed just over 1,000 km since 1993 and have not exceeded 150 km a year. [42] In order to match the 1,000 km a year target, it would take between 18,660 and 33,470 full-time jobs, assuming a 200 days working year. [43] This creates a huge challenge for training and development programs. The existing programs used on this project have trained some 20 contractors and 60 petty contractors, as of 2009. The 80 total people trained is a far cry from the nearly 19,000 minimal that would be needed to make labor- intensive road construction a reality. The World Bank has recognized this as a major concern and acknowledges there is a major vacuum here. The first conclusion of ILO was the use of labor-based road work methods firmly proved to be a cost-saving alternative compared to equipment-based works in Cambodia delivering the same quality and with the same specifications. The second conclusion was that cost savings were enhanced further when implementation was arranged through contracts with proper management and supervision instead of as force account operations. Third, in addition to the cost savings, labor-based projects have effectively provided employment (although for a temporary period) to a larger extent than previously envisaged, and as 24 expected, significantly above the level of equipment—based projects. Fourth, ILO estimated that using labor-based work methods to carry out a programme of rural road rehabilitation, combined with labor-based maintenance of the existing maintainable road network could generate between 3.7 and 6.7 million work days per year, depending on the extent of the programme. Taking the maximum figure, this is equivalent to 33,000 full-time jobs, and would also increase market opportunities for the local construction industry through the award of 100 rehabilitation contracts and 270 maintenance contracts per year. [44] Technical Manual: Labour-Based Road Construction Methods The technical manual for labor-based road construction prepared by Bjorn Johannessen, (an engineering consultant) was intended to provide detailed work methods and technical standards applied to constructing rural roads using labor- based methods for supervisors and engineers. The first chapter of the manual, Surveying and Setting Out, covers road selection, The Profile Board Method and The Centre Line Method. The second chapter titled Construction Procedures covers clearing, earthworks, embankment construction, ditching, sloping and camber formation, off-road drainage, compaction, culverts, drifts, graveling and erosion protection. Chapter three, which is labeled Site Administration, is related to setting up a camp, maintenance and site support activities. The last chapter focuses on work organization and covers work programming, recruitment and employment of labor and inspection and supervision. 25 The first section of Surveying and Setting Out is focused on road selection. The technical feasibility, economic justification and social considerations of the path of the road are examined. Next are factors to consider when the road is staked out. The chapter also presents the Profile Board method and The Centre Line method. The Profile Board is used in conjunction with travelers and The Center Line method. The center of the road is laid out with travelers. These are colored stakes with measurement marking on them. They lay out the center of the road first. Then the Profile Board is used to determine the most economic grade level for the road. The third step is to stake the sides of the road. Once this is complete, the Profile Board is examined to gauge the depth of the excavation. The construction procedures of Chapter 2 summarize the various stages and work categories that play a part of the road construction process, The first topic is clearing (bush clearing, boulder removal and topsoil removal). The earthwork teaches on cut to level, the fill side, camber and side drain construction and super-elevation. The embankment construction teaches earthwork volume calculations and also site level planning and work force organization. The chapter describes ditching, sloping and camber formations. Off-road drainage is the next topic and it includes mitre drains, angle of mitre drains, scour checks and cut-off drains. Compaction is the next area presented. This includes optimal moisture content, compaction methods, quality standards and compaction procedures. The rest of the chapter covers culverts, drifts, 26 gravelling [standards, gravel source, gravel quality, water, work plan, work procedure and control of works], and erosion protection. In Chapter Three, the author discusses site administration. This covers setting up a camp. It deals with choosing a location and also talks about migrant labor. The next section of the chapter deals with hand tools. The necessary supply of tools, their maintenance and also storage are explained. Materials are the next issues addressed. This covers fuel, oil and lubricants. Culvert rings, cement and pegs are also discussed here. The last two sections cover maintenance of equipment and site support activities; which includes drinking water and first aid. The manual has been used as a resource for projects that the ILO is considering using labor-based technologies. Its thoroughness helps the project supervisors and engineers plan for a rural road construction. Navy Seabees Another group that has played an active role in rebuilding efforts has been the Navy Seabees. Their missions and goals are usually focused on military aims, but, following Hurricane Katrina, they have stepped in to assist in the rebuilding efforts of New Orleans. They have also utilized Iraqi people in the rebuilding efforts currently going on in Iraq. The Seabees were formed in 1942 as a critical support and construction unit. Every battalion contains carpenters, plumbers, welders, medics, dentists, heavy machine operators, cooks, electricians and many other support and construction-related specialists. 27 Seabees also are trained for combat. They are basically the do-all and fix-all branch of the military.” [45] Following Operation Iraqi Freedom, the Navy Seabees arrived to set up bases, lines of communication, etc. They looked to the Iraqi people to assist with the vast amount of work ahead of them. The dilemma they faced was that similar to the ILO. They had a large population that was either displaced due to the war or had been temporarily unemployed do the interruption of their lives. According to Jerome Kirkland, an impromptu event occurred next. The Navy Seabees decided to train the local Iraqi people to assist in the building efforts. They created a program that became known as the Iraqi Construction Apprentice Program (ICAP). The ICAP was designed “to teach enough basic construction skills to 14-25 year old Iraqi students that they could then get a meaningful job in their local communities. The classes were organized to give each student an overview of electrical, carpentry, plumbing, and masonry trades so that the students could later concentrate on the construction field they most wanted pursue.” [46] The program was divided into two stages, beginning with six to eight weeks of classroom and hands-on instruction followed by four to six weeks of on- the-job training. The schedule was flexible to allow the program to be tailored to student needs. [47] The success of this program has spread rapidly. Many Iraqis wish to join the program and become skilled in the construction trades. The program has helped many of the young Iraqis gain respect in their towns and villages. They 28 are able to bring added income into their households and even make repairs and additions to the family home. In light of the ILO’s goals, the ICAP is accomplishing the same interest by training Iraqi youth; they are providing new jobs and helping the Iraqi people rebuild their country and their future. [48] The Navy Seabees enjoy teaching the program and have been pleased by the outcome of their impromptu efforts. One Seabee was quoted “This is what we came here to do, to help the Iraqi people.” In order to counter the fears of many Iraqi youth who eagerly joined the program, there is always a large number of Marines visibly providing protection. The ICAP students can concentrate on learning their roles in safety. The Seabees are seeing the dividend of their teaching as two of the recent graduates have taken an active role in the teaching and training of the next generation of construction recruits. In accordance with the goals of the ILO, the ICAP has worked with the government. “Iraqi Ministry of Labor were maintaining a list of former ICAP students so contractors can hire graduates who have known construction skill sets and are writing clauses into work contracts that give Iraqi contractors incentives for hiring ICAP graduates.” One of the added bonuses of the program is the Spirit of America (SoA) which has provided an impressive tool kit to all students at their graduation. [49] 1.5 CONSTRUCTION ISSUES The author has collected various articles and had conversations with experts and construction managers during the literature review. The following 29 issues and concerns have been compiled for construction in developing countries. The first problem is related to planning problems related to materials, labor and equipment. Second, language barrier seems to cause communication problems in programming stages. Third, supervision and quality of work are a constant problem. The fourth problem is concerning the scheduling of payments. The last concern is related to the maintenance of the completed construction. Project Planning The planning of the project develops the parameters for the whole project. In this stage, the designer needs to take into account the materials selected for the project. Two questions are pertinent: What are the local building materials? What are the local building trends? Once the proper materials are selected, the designer needs to consider delivery of materials to the site. This leads to the next set of questions: How remote is the location of the site? What is the condition of the roads to the site? The project planning also needs to consider the skill level of the labor force. Language always needs to be considered as part of the planning. How easy is it to communicate with the laborers? Are the laborers trustworthy? The last concern to consider during the planning stage is equipment for the construction. Is there equipment available in the region or does it need to be rented and brought in? Who will operate the equipment? Do you have to train the operators? If so, how long will it take? Are there alternatives to using heavy equipment? 30 Communication Communication can be one of the first things that can undermine a project. Language barriers can be great obstacles. Creating and maintaining good lines of communication between all parties must be a priority. Over the years, the World Bank has taken note of the communication issues that project team have encountered. One of the first issues related to written communication. Standards are usually not written down. Lack of these written standards can result in the construction of facilities which are too large. Another major concern is related to the inadequacy of planning. Unfortunately, the planning for many of these projects is done during times of financial crises and emergency situations. The next point of concern is insufficient documentation. “Too often, needed information is not available at the time of project preparation.” An example of this is the disparities between projects and sources of financing in terms of surface area to be constructed as well as the selection of technologies and implementation procedures. Incomplete and unrealistic planning may cause major problems. The last concern would be the typical poor coordination of the initiatives that are selected. [50] These are common problems encountered by the World Bank on their initiatives such problems are not specific to World Bank projects, they are a constant concern for every project everywhere. 31 Supervision Problems The next concern for World Bank has been supervision problems. They have found that this leads to substandard work quality. The World Bank believes by minimizing supervision problems there will be increased production and increased productivity. 1 The World Bank was quoted as saying “Poor works supervision leads to low quality construction and weak contract management capacity leads to payment delays which, in turn, cause contractors to ask higher prices.” [51] Not only does poor supervision result in lower quality work; but it is also related to delays and higher asking prices for contractors. The World Bank has found that these and other inefficiencies are often present in government planning and management procedures. Average construction costs are double what they would be if a project were constructed efficiently by the private sector. [52] During the Social Infrastructure Construction in the Sahel, the World Bank found that a lack of quality control in the execution of works was evident everywhere. Considering the works constructed by regional authorities, local communities, or by the users themselves: 75% were found to be substandard, resulting in a waste of resources. [53] The World Bank recommended better quality control to meet the growing needs of Africa’s infrastructure, increase production and productivity. There is not one sole way to achieve this; the World Bank knows this would take an improvement on all the above concerns to begin meeting Africa’s growing infrastructure needs. [54] 32 Payment Scheduling Payment scheduling is a crucial part of every construction process. If the construction managers or contractors are not paid in a routinely fashion, it will begin to effect all the contractors on the project. The World Bank has suggested that payment procedures should be delegated to a local authority. Second, a time table of payments should be established. Lastly, technical data sheets and standards should be disseminated. By delegating the payment process to a local authority, the World Bank feels the local authority can efficiently monitor the project. The local authority should be a reliable executing agency. Timely payment procedures are essential to the participation of small and medium-sized contractors in the construction process. [55] These smaller construction companies can not survive periods of no payment and still keep a project running. By establishing a time table of payment and work completion dates, this will aid in market predictability and completion of work. If there is a formal process or form that needs to be filled out, this may simplify the standard method of payments. The World Bank feels this will also help the project teams in selecting competent technical supervisors to manage the work. If a company has a problem following the standard procedures, this process will help to eliminate contractors who are not capable of managing the project incentives. [56] 33 Maintenance Problems There is concern for proper maintenance upon completion of the project, but many of the developing countries regard maintenance as a low priority. The funding organizations feel that proper maintenance of roads could prevent many of these projects from having to be undertaken in the first place. As a result of this, many of the funding agencies are beginning to construct maintenance plans as part of the project planning process too. [57] 1.6 SUCCESSES The World Bank had suggested a relatively simple method for a successful project. They suggest selecting a limited number of good examples that have given proven results using technologies similar to those used on present project. [58] Consider some practical suggestions that would help every project. First, support these initiatives with technical advice and monitoring so as to ensure an appropriate level of quality and durability. Next, remove governments from the direct execution of social infrastructure construction programs. Governments usually lack the management expertise to complete the project at hand. The World Bank believes in the establishment of efficient management procedures and capacities through the use, wherever possible, of specialized contract management agencies.” [59] 34 CHAPTER 2 2.1 CONFLICT I NATURAL DISASTERS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES In the developing world, the people may encounter crisis due to abrupt political change brought on by war or economic collapse. These may be concurrent with abrupt political change. [60]. Developing countries often find themselves in a unique circumstance. A crisis often impacts drastically on poverty reduction and economic development programs wiping out hard earned development gains. [61] These countries often find themselves in a cycle of destruction. Many times the people find themselves expending an extreme amount of effort to reconstruct their country only to watch a natural disaster or civil conflict set their country’s progress back ten or twenty years. Rwanda and Uganda were both facing internal conflicts that were followed closely by natural disasters. World wide, more than 150 conflicts have been recorded since World War II. In the decade of 1990 — 2000 more than 40 major conflicts have occurred. [62] In the case of a post-war reconstruction zone, a country is faced with an entirely different set of issues. Following a conflict of this nature a country must try to restore severely-damaged buildings, rehabilitate the returning soldiers and house and feed perhaps the hundreds of thousands of citizens that have fled during the duration of the war. All of this and more has been true for developing countries such as Rwanda and Uganda who have been engulfed in civil war and natural disasters. 35 Examining the circumstances of these two countries, a cursory overview reveals why it is so difficult for these two governments to overcome a downward cycle. Crises due to war and natural disasters have kept Rwanda and Uganda classified as developing countries for the decades since independence. Following these two calamities, many government agencies rush to assist impacted people. Their agenda usually comes with three aims in mind. First, is to assist the country in stabilizing its local economy, second to establish self- sufficiency to maintain the infrastructure, and lastly to enable a group of skilled tradesmen to operate under their. Own aegis to sustain jobs for the future. The next thing that can be difficult to address is when the conflict or war is completely over. Looking at the current situation in Iraq, with Iraqi Freedom complete, most would think it is safe to begin the reconstruction efforts. A quick look at the facts shows that more soldiers have died since the end of Iraqi Freedom than during the war. In regards to construction contractors, over a dozen have been killed or taken hostage. The World Bank has noted that the differentiation between conflict and post-conflict may be difficult. The UNHCR also accepts that it may be ‘misleading’ to talk of ‘post-conflict situations’ when there are still ‘periods of intense if sporadic fighting’, but continues to use the term ‘post-conflict.’ According to Macrae, the UNHCR does not present criteria for describing a particular situation as a transition or post-conflict. [63] During the recovery and reconstruction of these countries, even the best efforts can implode on themselves, In an internal assessment The World Bank 36 has concluded that, in post-conflict situations wisdom can turn into folly- This assessment plus external examination of the Bank’s programs concluded that too much emphasis was laid on a rapid pace of reforms (Haiti, Rwanda, and Uganda) and did not ensure low inflation and a convertible currency. [64] There are many factors in the reconstruction of a nation. Even with the World Banks’ vast experience in reconstruction, they admitted that their best efforts can turn upside down. Every government should strive to quickly rebuild and recover from the event that has crippled them. This is a very difficult undertaking. The World Bank stated that the work of UNDP must be coordinated because it tends to concentrate on long term development issues and programs. The UNDP by itself is not well equipped to carry out speedy rehabilitation efforts in various locals. An example is when larger numbers of people suddenly return to areas devastated by war. [65] Following the conclusion of a natural disaster, a country is usually in utter chaos. The roads have been washed out, thousands of people are stranded, and they don’t know where to turn for aid. With this calamity in mind, the program proposed in this thesis can organize, train and employ these people to rebuild the roads and reconnect their villages to the larger markets that allow them to sell their produce and crafts in exchange for items they need to survive. These factors are just some of the obstacles that must be overcome in order to stabilize a nation. Many of the concerns mentioned above do not relate to construction management; yet with the help a training model, these efforts can 37 aid in the recovery and stabilization of the country as well as meet the immediate need of rebuilding the damaged infrastructure of the country. If implemented properly, the training model will also accomplish the three fold objectives of stabilizing the country: to create a more diversified and stable working class, to train this same group to become more self-sufficient to maintain the infrastructure in the future, and lastly to enable this group of skilled tradesmen to operate under their initiatives to sustain jobs for the future. 2.2 CONSTRUCTION AND RECOVERY Where does the rebuilding process start following a conflict or natural disaster? A country is decimated and thousand to millions of people are displaced and the government is faced with the challenge of rebuilding and restoring peace and security to its people. The World Bank has developed criteria to assess recovery efforts following a traditional war. First, the scale of material damage to the country’s physical infrastructure, housing and economic assets must be determined. The housing and infrastructure segments should be given priority in reconstruction efforts, particularly in early stages of reconstruction. Physical damage may cost more to repair than some cumulative years of a conflict-afflicted country’s assets. The drops in output of the country’s goods and services due to war may be very high, representing another of the most intractable problems of post war reconstruction. [66] Although great physical destruction may have occurred in the war, a more challenging task will involve rehabilitation of the institutional infrastructure of the 38 country. [67] As stated above, both a natural disaster and violent conflict are faced with rebuilding issues, but they bring to the table separate issues that need to be addressed and dealt with in their own respect. Restoring U Training Model Of all the infrastructure projects that need immediate attention, road construction is the one area that allows for the use of labor-intensive construction processes. The Restoring U training model is designed to funnel in a large group of unskilled people and train them into a skilled workforce that could rebuild the feeder road systems. The model is set up to work with the large number of refugees that usually return following these natural disasters. In the two case studies that the Restoring U training model investigates, there was a large influx of people that could have been available for immediate training. Consider the case of Uganda; The UN confirmed that there were nearly 200,000 refuges in the DRC and perhaps half a million displaced persons. In Rwanda the corresponding numbers were even greater: In October - November 1996 a huge two week movement of refuges brought 600,000 people back to Rwanda following war in eastern Zaire (uprising of the Tutsi Banyamulenge people). Following was another massive repatriation of another half million people from Tanzania. [68] In Rwanda they faced a larger wave of people, “Following an uprising by the ethnic Tutsi Banyamulenge people in Eastern Zaire in October 1996, a huge movement of refugees began which brought over 600,000 back to Rwanda in the last two weeks of November. This massive repatriation was 39 followed at the end of December 1996 by the return of another 500,000 from Tanzania, again in a huge, spontaneous wave.” [69] With the implementation of the Restoring U training model, the author believes he can show an increase in productivity for the labor-intensive work that could be used for the feeder roads. With regard to the problems listed above, the application of the Restoring U training model could have been a factor in each case: responding to a conflict and natural disaster, rehabilitating the infrastructure, and in training locals who will then assist in the maintenance and ownership of the infrastructure. As local people are trained in the knowledge of road construction, they will be able to rebuild the damaged infrastructure. They will then have the knowledge of how to maintain it, and skills obtained will give them an opportunity to earn a stable income. 2.3 CONCERNS AND FACTORS In theory, the Restoring U model should be able to take an uneducated person, during the standard duration of a typical road construction project, and raise him or her to the level of union-skilled tradesmen. There are two key players that can aid or hinder this process. The first is the local government and the second is the hired construction manager. In reference to the government level, two questions must be asked. The first being, “Is the country focused on building the skill level or the income level?” The second question is, “Does the country desire to build roads?” If the country is aimed at raising the skill level, then it must focus on training. If the focus is on 40 raising the income level, then there will probably be a larger concern with the number of people trained rather than the level of skill achieved. If the efforts of the funding organization, non-government organization and private sector are going to be a success, the local government will need to play an active role and be committed to the longevity of the reconstruction process. This was confirmed by the World Banks experience. After the Cold War, the UN development assistance agenda was broadened to include the parameter of good governance. Recognizing was the role of the country in the development process. [70] If the government is not actively pursuing the projects goals, they will be lost and/or poorly maintained following the completion. The World Bank added that their experience in lntemational aid indicated that local ownership is vital in aid program success. [71] The Construction Management company that is contracted to rebuild the infrastructure project must be asked; “Are they willing to train their future competition?” This places the hired Construction Manager in a dilemma. Why would a company want to raise up the skill level and possibly create its own competition? This thesis suggests encouraging the government to write the specifications of the project to include the Restoring U training model. 2.4 COUNTRY ANALYSIS Two countries were selected for analyzing the Restoring U training model. One is a country that was faced with a war, the other was faced with a natural disaster. Thus the Restoring U Training Model could be applied to two separate 41 sets of circumstances. Rwanda endured a civil war. Uganda suffered from El Nino, a natural disaster. Rwanda - Transport Sector Project Rwanda was in the midst of reconstructing its feeder road system when it was thrown into chaos due to the genocide that erupted in 1994. The Transport Sector Project in the Republic of Rwanda was intended to repair the road system in the country. The project began in 1991, it progressed until, it was interrupted by civil war that culminated in the 1994 Genocide. The civil war and ensuring [genocide dealt a devastating blow to the reconstruction project. There was arrest of project assets, a nest of project activities, and an irrecoverable dislocation of project staff. Project goals had been to increase infrastructure accessibility and reduce transport cost. [72] “The Rwandan Genocide was the 1994 mass killing of hundreds of thousands of Rwanda’s Tutsis and Hutu political moderates by Hutus under the Hutu Power ideology. Over the course of approximately 100 days, from the assassination of Juvenal Habyarimana on 6 April up until mid July, at least 500,000 people were killed. Most estimates indicated a death toll of 800,000 and 1,000,000.” [73] Following the conclusion of the genocide, Rwanda was faced with three issues; first was to restore damaged buildings. The second concern was the rehabilitation of returning solders. The last issue was to house and feed thousands who fled during the war. [74] 42 Uganda - El Nino Emergency Road Repair El Nifio—Southern Oscillation (ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Nir'io) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. The Pacific Ocean signatures, El Nifio and La Nifia are important temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean. The atmospheric signature, the Southern Oscillation (SO) reflects the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. ENSO is associated with floods, droughts, and other disturbances in a range of locations around the world. These effects and the irregularity of the ENSO phenomenon make predicting it of high interest. Many of the countries most affected by ENSO are developing countries that are largely dependent upon their agricultural and fishery sectors for food supply, employment, and foreign exchange. [75] After El Nino struck Uganda in (1997), it was left with two major issues; numerous roads were washed out and thousands were stranded. The El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project aimed to provide emergency recovery assistance to the Government of Uganda for the restoration/rehab"itation of key road and bridge facilities severely damaged by the flooding, associated with the El Nino weather pattern. The project intended contribute to; i) decreasing infrastructure-related market and distribution costs countrywide; ii) securing the timely delivery of social services to the affected population; iii) facilitating the productive settlement of war refugees in Northern Uganda; and iv) stabilizing the eco-system near the affected roads. [76] 43 A primary objective of IDA’s assistance strategy to Uganda was to reduce poverty through a medium—term strategy focused on private investment-led growth and export diversification. Lowering transport costs, and improving reliability of access to infrastructure, is assumed in the CAS as a key element to facilitate business development and to support poverty alleviation. The proposed emergency project fits well into IDA’s strategy for Uganda for two main reasons. First, by targeting investment at the restoration of key road and bridge infrastructure facilities severely damaged by floods associated with “El Nino” weather pattern, it would contribute to reestablishing a more effective flow of ' goods and services countrywide. And second, with more than 30% of the funds under the proposed Credit allocated to the Atiak — Moyo road in Northern Uganda, the proposed project would have a considerable impact in improving accessibility to one of the more remote and poverty-stricken regions of the country. [77] The El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project planned to have 440 kms of feeder roads constructed. The work for these areas was performed from 1998 to 2000. The repair and improvements of 96 damaged road sections was estimated at 350 kms. The Atiak — Moyo road rehabilitation/regraveling was estimated at 90 kms. [78] 44 CHAPTER 3 3.1 MAJOR PLAYER GOALS Government and Funding Organization Goals The goals of funding organizations can vary considerably from project to project. The projects under review typically share the following three objectives: To stabilize the economy, to rebuild the infrastructure and to create jobs. These goals also are typically shared by the government. ILO Goals The lLO’s goals differ slightly from the government and funding organizations. Their goals tend to help the local economy by providing jobs, homes and aiding with the infrastructure. The ILO focuses their efforts to train people to fill the local gap of jobs. When the ILO sees an appropriate application for a labor-intensive initiative, they will encourage the government and private sector groups to use labor-intensive methods on the project. Many of these gaps in their teaching methods are created by the lack of a more thorough and lengthy training program. The ILO program is best suited for simple training programs. Private Sector Goals One of the gaps in common goals comes into play with the private sector groups. Private sector groups have a dual focus. First, they are responsible to make a profit and second they are responsible for the team’s combined goals. 45 History has shown that when projects begin to face difficulties, the private sector will adhere less stringently to the team goals and focus on making a profit for their own organization. Restoring U Training Model Goals The Restoring U Training Model (RUTM) will focus on rebuilding the infrastructure and creating jobs. Stabilizing the economy is deemed beyond the scope of this project. One of the downfalls of past attempts has been due to the fact that private sector groups were typically responsible for the training programs with the ILO’s guidance. That approach was too costly. Instead efforts were focused on the completion of the infrastructure project and, also, to maintain their profit margins. The RUTM proposes to replace the private sector group with a model that focuses primarily on training keyed to teaching skills that will be applied in the field the same day. 3.2 SIMILAR ATTEMPTS The ILO attempted a training program similar to that proposed in the RUTM. The program was able to train 20 contractors and 60 petty contractors over a duration of five years. The ILO abandoned the training program due to the difficulty of coordinating with the private sector group performing the road construction. They deemed it was more cost effective to outsource the training than to train on the job. 46 Labour Based Technology . The ILO defined Labour Based Technology as labour/equipment mix that gives priority to labour, supplementing it with appropriate equipment where necessary for reasons of quality or cost. Governments increasingly recognize that needs for rationalizing and optimizing works have become important. Direct and indirect social benefits often accrue in non-monetary terms, such as skills development, employment creation and sustainability. [79] The lLO’s Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia analyzed labor-based road construction and equipment-based road construction. ILO was attempting to quantify the amount of unskilled labour that was used in both processes. Table 3.2 shows the breakdown of cost for unskilled labour, skilled labour, materials, equipment and miscellaneous. At a quick glance the chart shows labor-based projects cost about 14,000 US$/km and provides an opportunity for 37 percent of the cost to go toward unskilled labor. The equipment based projects cost 16,000 US$/km and only 1 percent of the cost goes toward unskilled labor forces. Analysis of Training Models Three training models were used as a source of appropriate information for the RUTM. The first program was used by the Navy Seabees. This model was created impromptu to train young Iraqis the various methods of construction. This model contained two 4-week portions for training workers before they were 47 released into the construction trades. The second training program was created by the International Union of Operating Engineers for road construction. This program requires 432 credits to be earned over three years while working on the job. The last training model was created by the ILO. This model was created to explain all the tasks that were necessary for feeder road construction in developing countries. All three programs contain methods and models deemed appropriate for consideration in the RUTM that will be described later in this thesis. Navy Schemes In Iraq, the Navy Seabees developed an impromptu program that spans about six to eight weeks. The program gives the students a general overview of all areas of construction. The training model did not have a name; it incorporated a training process that encompasses three to four weeks in the classroom and, then, moved to the field for three to four weeks of hands-on training. The Seabees created the program to fill the gap of unskilled laborers by training young locals in a general overview of the construction fields. While it was an ad hoc program, it was the most advanced program of its kind. This program was marked as an exceptional success in reaching unskilled people and giving them a trade. The local government embraced this effort by encouraging local companies to employ these graduates with tax incentives. The program was studied here for ideas of training unskilled people for construction. One memorable event was when two graduates of the program 48 joined in the effort of training future students of the program. This program was broad in its training scope. The RUTM is more focused. All the training sessions are focused on the work that will be performed that particular day and all training sessions will be related to road construction. International Union of Operating Engineers Training Process National Guidelines for Apprenticeship Standards created by the IUOE, which is a union training program located in the United States. This program had the goal of training local people into competent skilled tradesmen. There is a substantial gap when comparing the Seabees program to this training program. But this thesis shows how RUTM can embrace both program styles, teaching methods, and over the course of a road construction project, produce results similar to the IUOE training program. The IUOE training program is designed to provide on-the-job training over a period of three years. The three years are specific to certain levels of equipment operators and engineers. Please see Appendix A for a detailed breakdown of the training program. The on-the-job training aspect of the IUOE training program is ideal for the time constraints that are placed on rehabilitation projects. It is understood that people will have to be trained in order to achieve aggressive deadlines imposed by many funded projects. 49 ILO Process The ILO created a very detailed technical manual for labor-based road construction methods. The manual breaks down every task in feeder road construction and provides productivity ranges for each task. The manual has proven to be very helpful in the planning of the RUTM. The ILO has acknowledged that this is a guide to construction practice for feeder roads. This technical manual identifies each task that will be necessary in feeder road construction. See Figure 3.1 for a typical cross section of a feeder road. The author intends to build a training program that overlays the identified tasks in the technical manual. In the past, some companies have abandoned efforts to follow lLO’s suggestions for training; others have acknowledged they have avoided it because they recognize that they are training their future competition. The RUTM models the different tasks that are outlined in the manual and creates courses that will focus on each outlined task. 50 . -mré €968an 2888 “26.3 EN o Mr .mmmr ccmm Eoczn— JCQEQO_0>OD _w._:N_ 50 \CquE‘ £00502 cozosbmcoo UGO“ Owwmnizonmg ._mzcm_2 EOESOOF xcmfisocon .5: 05 Go .853» 39.0 ”fin 2:2". 51 3.3 RESTORING U TRAINING MODEL Based on these principles The program consists of a training session each morning for two hours, which will equip the workers with a skill that they can perform for the remainder of the day. The program will span the length of the entire project and will raise a person from unskilled to skilled tradesman. Previously, the construction of feeder roads was performed by outside contractors who, upon completion, would leave, thereby creating a vacuum without highly-skilled workers. In the months following, when the newly constructed infrastructure needs routine maintenance, there would be no skilled work force available. RUTM will cover hand-tool training for feeder road construction. With RUTM, the first two hours of each day are designated for training the workers, assuming a five day week. This would provide 500 hours of training in one year, taking into consideration a two-week vacation. Similar to the Navy Seabee training, the labors will train for two hours in a classroom setting (This may be in an actual classroom or in the field). The class will focus on a skill that they will be incorporating over the course of the day ahead. The focus is not entirely on the training of unskilled laborers. From the research that ILO has provided, the breakdown of the jobs always contains some percentage of skilled laborers. The goal of RUTM is to create a training program that can help each participant understand the complete process of feeder road construction. To do this, participants they will need to learn a variety of construction skills. It is believed that as the workers develop, their level of skill 52 will increase faster than if they had on the job training, and their productivity will exceed that suggested by the ILO. The author believes that the workers’ knowledge of road construction will follow Curve A in Figure 3.2 shown below of a typical S-Curve. Figure 3.2 The S-Curve Blaug, Peston, and Ziderman 1967 Productivity in an occupation A E1 E2 Educational attainment It is believed that the productivity rates will increase and the percentage of skilled versus unskilled will increase as well. This will ultimately decrease the amount of time needed per km of road. A portion of the unskilled workers completing RUTM will become part of the 12 percent skilled labor force that is necessary for rural road construction. A byproduct of this training program should be a skilled workforce that is amply prepared to maintain the feeder road structure. The ILO acknowledges that to deal with the existing backlog of feeder roads, a training program would have to inspire workers to complete 1,000 km a year. Through their past experiences, they have not been able to exceed 150 km a year; so a more realistic goal would be 500 km a year. [80] The author will 53 project how many workers would be needed to be trained in RUTM in order to make this a reality and at what productivity they would have to operate to maintain 500 km per year. By targeting a completion of 500 km of roads 3 year; and using the lLO’s research, assuming a 200 day working year, labor-based projects could create 9,330 and 16,735 full-time jobs in the road sector. [81] As the ILO acknowledges “this would of course require a significant training and development effort over and above the existing programmes.” For this reason it is believed that RUTM can create a training program that can address this need. The data that is used for the rest of this thesis is based on the research collected from the ILO on the following projects that were completed in Cambodia and were a part of the “Jobs or Machines: Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia”, by Paul Munters. The lists of projects are shown in Table 3.1. There are a few points of interest that are believed helpful in achieving the initial goals of the program. According to ILO’s research, the average amount of unskilled labor used in labor-based works is 17 percent higher than equipment- based works. For the contracted out labor-based works, the average amount of unskilled labour used is a surprising 37 percent compared to 15 percent in equipment-based projects. As shown in Table 3.2 there is a very large employment potential in labor- based rural road works. The average unskilled labor content of equipment-based work is as low as 1 percent of the total costs, compared to 37 percent for labor- based works. Labor-based rural road works require nearly 5,000 unskilled work 54 Table 3.1: Sample group of selected projects P. Munters, Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia, International Labour Organization, (2003) 10 Agency Project Name Modality Size Ministry of Rural Rural Infrastructure Contract 77 km Development Improvement PTOjeCt Ministry of Rural Rural Infrastructure Force Account 525 km Development Improvement Project 2 International Labour Labour-based Rural 8 . . Infrastructure Works Force Account 36 km .9 Organisation Pro ¢ gramme 3 International Labour Labour-based Rural 3 Or anisation Infrastructure Works Contract 7 km -' 9 Programme Department of Public Works Urban Road Restoration Contract 12 km 3 and Transport PrOJect "’ Ministry of Public Works and Primary Road . N 3 Transport Restoration Project Contract 438 km E . . . .. . in Ministry of Public Works and Rehabilitation 3 Transport Emergency project Force Account 438 km 3 Nonrvegain Peoples Aid and . cr m Action Nor d Sud Combined records Contract 48 km days per km as opposed to 200 work days on an equipment-based operations. A side note for the labor-based projects is there is less maintenance due to less equipment. It must be stated that labor-based technology is not always the most appropriate choice. The most appropriate work methods should be rationally chosen by assessing impact on timing, quality, and costs in line with the specific design and conditions of the project. In these situations, RUTM can provide its higher skilled tradesmen to rebuild these roads. With the training program, there will be a constant turn-over of skilled tradesmen. If the program can follow the training schedule proposed, within one year there could be an entire skilled work force. 55 Table 3.2: Overview of costs and cost breakdown of road works. P. Munters, Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia, International Labour Organization, (2003) 43 Cost Breakdown 'U o .C 65 t. E 3 ._ w 8 . . . 9 8 8 .. 8 '43 PTOJGCI Description ,7, a g L0 0:) g g 9 ,5, .4‘.’ E .e E 2 2 E 3; '1“, 9 g ‘5’ § 8 (5‘5 :3 5 (7) E LEI 3 'u ADB Rural Infrastructure 3 improvement Project, 525.0 km 14,663 37% 12% 32% 12% 7% ,“9’ Force Account (Chapter 2) 5 ILO Rural Infrastructure 3 Works Programme, 35.6 km 13,773 36% 2% 50% 12% 0% 3 Force Account (Chapter 3) ADB Rural Infrastructure Improvement Project, 77.0 km 11,116 na na na na na Contracts (Chapter 2) ILO Rural Infrastructure Works Programme, 6.6 km 16.732 29% 11% 30% 30% 0% Contracts (Chapter 3) Weighted Average Total 644.2 km 14,211 37% 11% 33% 12% 6% riggfgcgfizage 560.6 km 14,606 37% 11% 33% 12% 7% afgfgcfizfi't’ag" 560.6 km 11,559 29% 11% 30% 30% 0% 13 MPWT Primary Road 3 Restoration Project, 438.0 km 19,121 2% 9% 19% 70% 0% ,3 Contracts (Chapter 6) E MPWT National Road 2 Emergency Rehabi'itafi‘m 438 0 km 16 452 1°/ 5°/ 16°/ 76°/ 2°/ ,9. Project, Force Account ' ’ ° ° ° ° ° 3. (Chapter 5) "J DPWT Urban Road 16 Restoration Medium Scale 11.6 km 20,678 1% 4% 12% 68% 0/ Contracts (Chapter 7) ° NPA and ANS Small Scale Contracts (Chapter 4) 48.2 km 11,790 na na na na na Weighted Average Total 935.8 km 17,513 1% 7% 17% 73% 1% $132233?” 438.0 km 16,452 1% 5% 16% 76% 2% 3:32;; “9'39" 497.3 km 18,447 2% 9% 19% 70% 0% gxggev‘gfgfid “a?” 16,167 15% 9% 24% 49% 3% 56 Table 3.2: Continued Overall Weighted Average (Force Accounts) Overall Weighted Average (Contracts) 998.6 km 15,416 21% 9% 26% 40% 5% 581.4 km 17,456 2% 9% 19% 69% 0% In the course of the road construction, RUTM will begin training on equipment, and then employ the power of equipment to help with the roads. The author sees this happening by balancing out the workforce between multiple jobs. RUTM can be training beginners on the rural roads that may be appropriate for the use of labor-base methods. Past training programs have attempted to train laborers for the labor- based methods with limited success. 20 contractors and 60 petty contractors were trained as of 2003. In the study, Cambodia was planning to expand its rural road network at 50 km a year for five years. Assuming a 200 day working year, this represents between 18,600 and 33,500 full time jobs in the road sector at an average investment value of 3.4 US$ per day for each job created. [82] Training Schedule In the RUTM, the new workers will participate in a series of training courses that will mirror the tasks that ILO has identified in their technical manual. The tasks identified by ILO and are the basis, others were added to the list. The follow list shows the seven categories that the tasks fall into, the tasks, and the author’s assessment on the skill level required to perform the task. 57 Table 3.3 Labor Intensive Road Tasks and Associated Skill Level A. General Introduction — Introduction to Road Construction - [Low Skill] B. Suppon 1. The Profile Board Method - [High Skill] 2. The Centre Line (Staking Roads) — [High Skill] C. Site Clearing 1. Clearing — [Low Skill] a. Brush b. Boulders c. Trees d. Topsoil Removal D. Earthwork 1. Earthworks (leveling of roads) — [Low Skill] a. Cut to Level D. Filling 0. Super-elevation of Curves 2. Embankment Construction — [High Skill] a. Earth Volume Calculation 3. Ditching, Sloping and Camber Formation — [Medium Skill] a. Camber and Side Drain Formation 4. Off Road Drainage — [Medium Skill] a. Mitre Drains b. Cut-off Drains E. Compaction 1. Compaction — [Medium Skill] 3. Tampers and Rammers b. Natural Compaction 2. Hand Compaction — [Low Skill] a. Deadweight Rollers b. Vibrating Rollers F. Structures 1. Culverts — [High Skill] 2. Drifts — [High Skill] G. Graveling 1. Graveling - [Low Skill] a. Gravel Quality b. Un-Ioading c. Spreading (6”-8” before compaction) d. Watering e. Compaction 2. Erosions Protection — [Low Skill] 8. Turfing 58 Training Modules The ILO technical manual recommends that teams consist of 10 to 25 workers. It notes that a trained supervisor is usually capable of effectively controlling a labor force of 100 to 150 workers. In the RUTM the supervisor will conduct a training session for the first two hours of each day. The training will be specific to the area of work they are performing. The supervisor will lead them through the training each morning and then lead them into the field and supervise them for the remainder or the day. For the purpose of the research, groups of 25 have been designed which the trainer will be working with in the field. In consideration of other staff members, a team of human resource staff, mechanics and various others will be needed to support the construction team in the field. Productivity Research The goal of the RUTM is to improve productivity significantly enough to exceed the 500 km a year of feeder roads through diligent training. This is the figure that ILO identified as a realistic quantity to validate using labor-intensive road construction on feeder roads. The ILO in the “Technical Manual: Labour-Based Road Construction Methods.” Johannessen developed productivities shown in Table 3.4. These productivities were then converted to into daily outputs which are shown in Table 3.5. 59 Table 3.4: ILO Estimate Productivities B. Johannessen, Technical Manual Labour-Based Road Construction Methods, International Labour Organization, (1997) 83 0 Estimate and 50 — 150 m3/wd 1.5 — 3.0 m2/wd Excavation and u to 20m tran 1.5 — 2.5 m/wd Corn 100 m/wd Excavation 1.5 — 3.0 m/wd ber Formation 75m/wd 10 — 20 m/wd 5 — 10 m/wd Table 3.5: ILO Labor Rates translated into Daily Outputs Task Crew Daily Output Unit Daily Unit Output Clearing and Grubbing 1 0.25 ACRE 1011 SM Earth Excavation and up to 20m 1 4.5 CY 3.44 CM transport Camber Formation 1 500 SF 46.45 SM Leveling 1 8000 SF 743.22 SM Drain Excavation 1 41.2 CY 31.5 CM Hand Compaction 1 1800 SF 167.23 SM Graveling (spreading and 1 5000 SF 464.5 SM IeveHng) Turfing 1 5000 SF 464.5 SM The ILO labor rates listed in table 3.4 were observed and are not based on training. These rated were generated from recording in place work completed by unskilled trades each day. The next step was to gather productivities from a Lansing, Michigan, road construction contractor and Table 3.6 shows the results. 60 Table 3.6: Productivity Rates of Lansing, MI Contractors ask Crew Daily MI and Gru Excavation and u to 20m ber Formation 0.25 4.5 500 8,000 41.2 1,800 5,000 5,000 Excavafion Cont andlevefi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 The final step was to find a third source of productivities to analyze. The author selected the RS Means Building Construction Cost Data of 2006. A table was created to mirror activities in the previous two tables: values for the corresponding crews, equipment and productivities were assigned from the RS Mean book. They are shown in Table 3.7. Table 3.7: RS Means Crews 8r Productivities Task Crew I Daily Output I Unit L Labor Hours Means Crew Clear and Grub: Grub stumps B-7 I 1 I ACRE I 24 and remove Clear and Grub: Cut a chip 630 | 0.3 I ACRE I 160 heavy, trees to 24” diam. Stripping a. Stockpiling of B-10M l 1400 [ CY 1 0.0215 Soil: Clay, medium, hard, 300 HP dozer, ideal conditions Camber Formation B-10A | 150 | ECY | 0.08 BackfiII Camber Formation B-10L | 975 [ LCY L 0.012 Drain Excavation B-10A I 150 I ECY L 0.08 Culverts: 24" Diameter B-14 | 100 | LNFT I 0.48 Finish Grading: Finish grading B-11L | 2000 T sv | 0.008 area to be paved with grader, large area 61 Table 3.7: Continued Compaction B-10L I 975 I LCY I 0.012 Graveling: 6” aggregate base B-36C | 5000 | sv | 0.008 (spreading and leveling) Sodding: 1" deep, sloped B-63 | 15 | MSF | 2.667 ground, over 6 M.S.F. Labor Rate Observations The labor rates that have been collected Show a wide range of variance. The ILO productivity rates are based on observed productivities that were collects of unskilled workers learning on the job. The Lansing based contractor productivities are estimations of skilled laborers performing the same tasks as ILO using similar labor based technology. The RS Means productivities are equipment based tasks that match up to the previous productivities. Due to the use of equipment, most of the productivities can be expected to be higher. This accounts for the reason RS Means tasks are almost five times more productive than the Lansing based contractors. Learning Curve for Lansing MI and RS Means The rates for the Lansing, Michigan contractors are the RS Means contractors will be compared as a flat rate with no learning curve applied to them. The reasoning for this based on the RS Means is an industry standard for labor rates from a large pool of contractors selected from across the Unites States of America. This is accepted as an industry average. If a learning curve was applied it would skew the acceptable average. The same logic is applied to the 62 Lansing Michigan contractor. The contractor estimates his crew productivity everyday and understands that the crew will probably gain efficiency as they learn the job and tasks performed everyday, with this in mind, they typically build this information into their productivity rates. Unforeseen Factors Many outside factors can effect the total hours necessary to complete a job or task. Unforeseen factors can consist of things like unworkable conditions due to weather, unknown conditions beneath the ground, location lack of equipment, etc. In the situations of the case studies; unsafe working conditions were created by insurgents, and inclement weather. These are difficult to predict and even more difficult to account for in this research. The author is aware that these are issues that effect productivity, and will account for some potential variance when the RUTM is compared to the case study. These factors could have many impacts that would lead a project manager to alter their expected productivity rates for each project. Converting Data It was necessary to convert the data received into a form that would help determine the appropriate size of crews to complete the various tasks in feeder road construction. To do this, the productivities provided by ILO were used. The daily output was converted into labor hours per meter. A daily output of 300 meters was selected as a target for each group of workers to complete in the 63 appropriate training courses. The size of each training group was determined by the daily output of the crews and the productivities based on an 8 hour days. The following table shows the results based on the crew sizes shown. Table 3.8: ILO Daily Output converted to Crew Sizes ask Labor Hours Unit Dai Crew Size and G 3.75 M 10 Excavation and up to 20m 0.3125 M 120 Formation 9.375 4 0.375 Excavation 0.375 Com 12.5 1.25 2.5 This information was used to ascertain the number of workers that are needed to be trained in each of the corresponding tasks to keep the project on target and balanced so that all tasks are completed using the same quantity of work each day. Productivities and the Learning Curve Logic A spreadsheet was generated that incorporates the productivities from the ILO and the learning curve formula. This spreadsheet was intended to help estimate the appropriate learning curve percentage. The following table shows a typical learning curve and the formula and variables that generated the learning CU N9. 64 Figure 3.3: Wright’s Learning Curve Model T.P. Wright, Wright’s Cumulative Average Model, httpzllmaaw.info/LearninqCurveSummarv.htm (2008) x Y=a b X Y = the cumulative average time (or cost) per unit. X = the cumulative number of units produced. a = time (or cost) required to produce the first unit. b = slope of the function when plotted on log-log paper. = log of the learning rate/log of 2. The spreadsheet will show the number of hours needed to complete the work based on the nth unit or nth kilometer. The spreadsheet has a built-in function to allow the selection of the productivity that the RUTM can achieve. The spreadsheet then generates the cumulative total crew hours needed to complete the nth kilometer of work. At the bottom of the spreadsheet there is a tabulation of total project hours. The chart has been set to calculate the number of worker days needed to complete an 80 kilometer section of road. The new productivities will be evaluated and compared to a Lansing, Michigan, road contractor and the RS 65 Means productivities. When the appropriate learning curve percentages have been determined in the spreadsheet, the author will attempt to validate them against two World Bank projects. The projects are the Transport Sector Project in Rwanda and the El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project in Uganda. 66 CHAPTER 4 4.1 RESTORING U TRAINING MODEL The focus of the Restoring U Training Model is on teaching unskilled workers the technical aspects of feeder road construction. This Chapter will give a detailed explanation of how the programs are set up and how a worker passes through the varying courses of training. The training program will be analyzed to evaluate the potential for increased productivities of the workers. The productivities that are a result of the program will be analyzed and compared to the labor-based productivities, Lansing, Michigan, contractors, and the RS Means productivities. The author hopes to Show an improvement in productivities that will rival the other construction companies’ productivities. These productivities could be applied to the World Bank projects to see if this program could have been appropriate for the two projects that were selected. 4.2 Restoring U Training Model Set up Supervisors / Management The team of trainers will consist of 12 teachers with possibly 2 helpers per training session. One teacher will cover each of the 12 methods of road construction listed below. It is envisioned that these teachers will possess similar Characteristics as the Navy Seabees. They need to have the capability to train in the Classroom yet supervise in the field on methods of construction. The members will also have to have expertise and knowledge of each phase of 67 training and construction and will need to be able to transition from the Classroom to the field. They will be responsible for maintaining the quality of the road construction, to keep the progress moving along in a timely manner, and to keep pace with the construction schedule. They will also be responsible for daily work planning, which Should be reviewed and completed before the next day of work. Balancing the work crews will be a daily challenge. The supervisor will have to anticipate how many people will be available to work and to determine where the labor is needed each day. Training Tasks [Skill Level] The training schedule will cover the tasks that the ILO has identified as necessary to construct a feeder road in Appendix B. Each task has been labeled based on the interpretation of the skill level that is needed to participate in completing the task. The skills are ranked based on No, Low, Medium and High. The reconfigured tasks are based on the level of skill required. There will be four major categories of training. Table 4.1 shows how the various construction procedures have need sorted under four skill levels. 68 Table 4.1: Tasks Sorted by Skill Level [No Skill] General Introduction Introduction to Road Construction [Low Skill] Clearing Brush Boulders Trees Topsoil Removal Graveling Gravel Quality Un-loading Spreading (6"-8” before compaction) Watering Hand Compaction Tampers and Rammers Natural Compaction Erosions Protection Turfing [Medium Skill] Earthworks (leveling of roads) Filling Super-elevation of Curves Ditching, Sloping and Camber Formation Camber and Side Drain Formation Off Road Drainage Mitre Drains Cut-off Drains Compaction Deadweight Rollers Vibrating Rollers [High Skill] Cut to Level The Centre Line (Staking Roads) The Profile Board Method Embankment Construction Earth Volume Calculation Structures Culverts Drifts 69 Under eaCh of these categories there will be two teachers and two assistants to train the students. A new Class will begin at the beginning of each month and will phase 30 new students into the program. The following structure is based on the work organization outlined by the ILO in their technical manual. The “No Skill” training will cover a general introduction to feeder road construction. “Low Skill” training will focus on Clearing, graveling hand compaction and erosion protection. “Medium Skill” training will then teach earthworks, ditching, sloping and camber formations, off road drainage, and equipment compaction. The final training session “High Skill” will be on “cut to level”, which will include The Centre Line and The Profile Board methods, embankment construction (calculations) and structures. Training Groups The training schedule will cover the previous tasks. The training program is set up so that workers will complete training on the lower skilled tasks and then work their way through the medium skills and on to the higher skills until they complete the entire training course. In order for the program to grow, the program will have to take on a two- fold purpose. First, the program will focus on training the students to perform the task in the field for the day. The second purpose will be to identify capable people who may be recruited for teaching purposes and allow the program to take on more students and expand capability to teach more students. 70 Site Supervisory Staff The ILO technical manual recommends that teams consist of 10 to 25 workers. It notes that a trained supervisor is usually capable of effectively controlling a labor force of 100 to 150 workers. Bjorn Johannessen the author of Labour Based Road Construction mentioned in an email [83], that groups could be as large as 30 and a crew could be as large as 600 workers spread out over multiple locations on the same road. For the purpose of the research, the model will use groups of 30 that will be working with the trainer in the field. Once the group has matured and finished the basic training, they can enter the work force. In consideration of other staff members, a team of human resource staff, mechanics and various others will be needed to support the team in the field. Setting up a Camp The program will need to set up a camp site near the center of construction. This camp will have to provide sufficient space for the training facilities and to house all construction-related equipment and offices. It will also have to allow for maintenance of the construction equipment, see Appendix C. Daily Structure The day will consist of 2 hours of training in the morning, then an 8 hour day of work. The 2 hours of training will relate to the type of work they will be focusing on that day. When the training session is completed, they will then go transition into the field for the day. 71 Training Schedule: PERT The Restoring U Training Model is set up for the workers to flow through 12 different courses over the course of seven months. Figure 4.1 Shows a PERT diagram of the 12 Classes that are involved in the training model. Each course has been assigned a course number. The workers will not be allowed to enter the work force until they have completed RU 001, Introduction to Road Construction. The program is set up in four tiers of training. The first tier (No Skill) is the introduction. This course will introduce the future workers to what is involved in Feeder Road Construction. The second tier (Low Skill) focuses on Clearing, graveling, hand compaction and erosion protection. The intent of this tier is to introduce them to the materials of road construction and get them involved in the labor intensive aspects of road construction that require a low level of skills. 72 2.52:5 GEEE... .0 E2930 .Emm #6 2:2". 73 The third tier (Medium Skill) focuses on the earthworks formation and drainage portion of road construction. In this tier the workers will learn how to cut the roads to the proper elevations, set up the ditching, sloping and camber formation, set up drainage, and use light equipment intensive compaction. The last tier (High Skill) is the most advanced portion of the road construction. In this tier the workers will learn cut to level, embankment construction and structures. This is the most complex of all the tiers and, therefore, is saved for last. A high level of skill is necessary for this portion of work as it covers the center line and profile board methods, earth volume calculation and the set up of culverts and drifts. Upon the completion of this tier the worker has completed the entire program. The class length is based on how long it takes to train and complete one lineal kilometer of road. The chart below shows that each task should take about 80 hours of training. The fact that each task takes 80 hours of training would seem logical since the crew sizes were determined based on how many workers were needed to complete 100 lineal kilometers in the same amount of time. According to the chart below it would take 40 days to complete the training at 2 hours per day. 74 Table 4.2: Labor Hours, Workers needed based on Training Hours per KM Task Labor Hours Workers Training km hour per km Clearing and Grubbing 1,360 17 80 Earth Excavation and up to 20m transport 4,530 57 80 Camber Formation 1,170 15 78.2 Leveling 29,300 367 80 Drain Excavation 3,410 43 80 Hand Compaction 880 11 80 Graveling (spreading and leveling) 8,800 110 80 Turfing 1,070 14 76.6 It may be more appropriate to consider the 80 hours as 2 hours of training in the morning plus the 8 hour work day which would allow the training to be completed in 8 days (2 hours of training plus an 8 hour work day). With this logic in place each class could be completed in 8 days. Next, the classes need to address the level of difficulty. Completing the lower level classes in the 8 day duration does not appear to be a problem. There may be a problem with completing the medium and high level classes in 8 days. With that in mind, a multiplier of 1.5 is suggested for the medium level and 2.0 for the high level courses. The bar chart on the ensuing page shows the courses with the modified training durations. Training Schedule: Bar The following schedule contains the same information that was shown in the PERT chart but makes it easier to see how courses are structured and build upon each other. 75 Figure 4.2: Gantt Diagram of Training Schedule to Road Construction RU 103 Hand RU To Level — Ditching, Sloping and Camber Formation - Drainage - Compaction _ Cut To Level _ Embankment Construction Assumption by the Author Table 4.3 was created as a tool to assist the readers in the following assumptions the author made in order to verify the RUTM. Table 4.3: Assumptions by the Author Assumption Page Number Application of Figure 3.3: 65 Figure 4.1 PERT Diagram of Training Schedule 73 Table 4.1: Tasks Sorted by Skill Level 75 Table 4.5 Estimate Productivity: the chart was based on the ILO productivities, 82 the assumptions were on converting productivities that the ILO did not provide a range. Figure 4.5 Statistical Analysis for Cost Estimator’s Reference Manual: the author 85 lassumed that the 80% learning was appropriate based on feeder road requiring 75% or more hand assembly 20th as the flattening of the learning curve: this was based on a conversation 87 with Dr. Tariq Abdelhamid of Michigan State University Table 4.12 RUTM Learning Curve: the assumption was that the appropriate 88 lstarting productivities were the 25% range of Table 4.6 able 4.13 Feeder Road learning Curve (Continues): this chart was based on 94 reating a new chart with the 20 km productivities of table 4.12. The assumption behind this was that the curve would continue not restart once the laborers tarted working in the field. Figure 4.12 Graph of RS Means, Lansing, RUTM and ILO: this graph was 100 created using the average productivities of the ILO in table 4.5 4.3 PRODUCTIVITY 8: LEARNING CURVE The intent of Restoring U Training Model is to propose that a training program could elevate the productivities to a level that is competitive with the equipment-based contractors. The idea behind this training is that by following Wright’s Learning Curve Model (Figure 3.3) the Restoring U Training Model will create higher productivities The author believes that the productivities generated from using Wrights formula will then form a typical S—Curve as shown in Figure 4.3. 77 Figure 4.3: The S-Curve with Restoring U and IL0 T.P. Wright, Wright’s Cumulative Average Model, http://maaw.info/LearninqCurveSummaryhtm (2008) [MODIFIED] Productivity in an occupation A Restoring U ILO (/ r ‘ , Educafional attainment The training, which will take place through the Restoring U training model is believed to generate productivities that will surpass those that were recorded by the ILO in the Technical Manual for Road Construction. The author postulates that the productivities will resemble the chart above. Road Work Calculations Figure 4.4 was used to estimate the amount of square meters and cubic meters that would need to be completed in order to achieve each activity. The calculations are based on the dimensions shown in figure 4.4 and then equated to one lineal kilometer. The author has created the following chart as a result of calculating the amount of earthwork that would be necessary for each task. 78 Table 4.4: Required Quantities of Work per 1000 lineal meters Task Length Width Depth Units Per Unit of m M M km Measure Clearing and Grubbing 1,000 8.5 NA 8,500 SM Earth Excavation and up to 20m transport 1,000 8.5 .10 850 CM Camber Formation 1,000 5.5 NA 5,500 SM Leveling 1,000 5.5 NA 5,500 SM Drain Excavation 1,000 .64 .32 640 _ CM Hand Compaction 1,000 5.5 NA 5,500 SM Graveling (spreading and leveling) 1,000 5.5 NA 5,500 SM Turfing 1,000 1.34 NA 1,340 SM 79 Emfi _ _ to Baton _ div/$2. 3 fig: .coszEmmLO Song .mcoszEE £8522 2282.950 umom “333.533 .35.). 325.8... .commoccmzow .m .50.. .303“. .333 no «:0 5309.0. "1* 2:2“. 80 Productivities from ILO It is understood that as students progress through the training program, their productivity will increase as the acquired training takes effect. The above table will be the basis for estimating how productive the workers will be on average. A very low productivity is anticipated as the training begins due to the nature of the program and the nature of the workers that are recruited. The Restoring U Training model uses these ranges to generate their learning curves and productivity charts. The lower end of the range of numbers will be used to generate the charts. Before the learning curve productivities could begin to be calculated the ILO productivities had to be analyzed. The assumption was made that the provided productivities were the result of some on-the-job training. The lower end of the ranges provided by the ILO were used. The low range provided would be set to 25 percent productivity and the high range at 75 percent. In the cases where the ILO only provided one number it was assumed to be the 50 percent productivity. Best judgment was used to estimate what the 25 percent and 75 percent productivities were. The RS Means and the Lansing Contractor were used to determine if these estimates were reasonable. With that in mind, Table 4.5 was generated. 81 Table 4.5: Estimate Productivity Estimate Productivity 25 °/o 50% 75% Units Clearing and Grubbing 50 100 150 m3/wd Leveling 1.5 2.25 3 m2/wd Earth Excavation and up to 20m transport 1.5 2 2.5 m2/wd Hand Compaction 50 100 150 m2/wd Drain Excavation 1.5 2.25 3 m/wd Camber Formation 37.5 75 112.5 m/wd Turfing 10 15 20 m2/wd Graveling (spreading and leveling) 5 7.5 10 m2/wd These productivities were taken along with the estimated productivity of 25 percent as a starting point. These were divided by 8 hours to generate the units per hour productivities. Once these where determined, the next step take was to determined how many labor hours would be needed to complete one lineal kilometer of road. The productivities are listed in the chart below. Table 4.6: Productivity Rates of ILO Task (ILO) Crew Daily Units Per Unit ILH per KM Output Hours Clearing and Grubbing 1 50 6.25 SM 1,360 Earth Excavation and up to 20m 1 1.5 0.188 CM 4,530 transport Camber Formation 1 37.5 4.69 SM 1,170 Leveling 1 1.5 0.188 SM 29,300 Drain Excavation 1 1.5 0.188 CM 3,410 Hand Compaction 1 50 ' 6.25 SM 880 Graveling (spreading and leveling) 1 5 0.625 SM 8,800 Turfing 1 10 1.25 SM 1,070 82 Productivities from Lansing Michigan Contractors In an attempt to provide a few different comparisons for road construction productivities, Tom Larson of ET. MacKenzie of Lansing Michigan, was interviewed to gather road construction productivities related to labor-intensive tasks. The following Table 4.7 is the estimate of productivities in United States measurements. These measurements were converted to metric units for future comparisons, and the labor hours necessary to complete one lineal kilometer of road were calculated. Table 4.7: Productivity Rates of Lansing, MI Contractors ask Daily Unit Daily MI and 0.25 RE 1,010 Excavation and up to 20m 4.5 CY 3.44 ber Formation 500 SF 46.5 8,000 SF 743 Excavation 41 .2 CY 31 .5 1,800 SF 167 5,000 SF 465 5,000 SF 465 RS Means Crews and Productivities RS Means which is a gold standard or starting point for most construction managers in the United States of America was used as a third measurement for productivities. Table 4.8 shows the appropriate tasks that relate to the ILO tasks in table 3.4. The table shows the crew sizes, daily output and labor hours. Table 4.9 shows these tasks converted to metric units. 83 Table 4.8: Productivity Rates of RS Means Task Crew Daily Unit Labor Hours (RS Means) Output Clear and Grub: Grub B-7 1 ACRE 24 stumps and remove Clear and Grub: Cut & chip B-30 0.3 ACRE 160 heavy, trees to 24” diam. Stripping & Stockpiling of B-10M 1400 CY 0.0215 Soil: Clay, medium, hard, 300 HP dozer, ideal conditions Camber Formation B-10A 150 ECY 0.08 Backfill Camber Formation B-10L 975 LCY 0.012 Drain Excavation B-10A 150 ECY 0.08 Culverts: 24" Diameter B-14 100 LNFT 0.48 Finish Grading: Finish B-11L 2000 SY 0.008 grading area to be paved with _grader, large area Compaction B-10L 975 LCY 0.012 Graveling: 6” aggregate B-36C 5000 SY 0.008 base (spreading and leveling) Sodding: 1" deep, sloped B-63 15 MSF 2.667 flund, over 6 M.S.F. Table 4.9: Productivity Rates of RS Means translated to Meters Task Crew Daily Unit Daily rUnit LH per (RS Means) Output Output KM Clearing and Grubbing B-10 1 ACRE 4050 SM 16.8 M Earth Excavation and up to 20m B-10A 150 ECY 115 CM 59.3 transport Camber Formation IB-10A 150 ECY 115 CM 384 Leveling IB-11L 2000 SY 1670 SM 26.3 Drain Excavation IB-10A 150 CY 115 CM 44.7 Compaction B-10L 975 SY 815 SM 54.0 Graveling (spreading and leveling) B- 5000 SY 4180 SM 10.5 36C Turfing B—63 15 MSF 139 SM 77.0 84 4.4 APPLICATION OF LEARNING CURVE TO RESTROING U TRAINING MODEL Building the Table 4.10 Estimate Productivity 25%, the author selected the 25 percent productivity column as the starting point for learning curve equations. The chart below shows the starting points for future calculations. Table 4.10: Estimate Productivity 25% [Estimate Productivity 25% Units Clearing and Grubbing 50 SM Leveling 1.5 CM Earth Excavation and up to 20m transport 1.5 SM Hand Compaction 50 SM Drain Excavation 1.5 CM pamber Formation 37.5 SM Turfing 10 SM Graveling (spreading and leveling) 5 SM The next step was to apply the formula of Wright’s Learning Curve Model shown in Figure 3.3. A learning curve of 85 percent was used for the equation even though NASA.gov states that it would be appropriate to use an 80 percent learning curve based on the typical task involving 75 percent hand assembly. Figure 4.5 Statistical Analysis of Cost Estimator’s Reference Manual R. Stewart, Cost Estimator’s Reference Manual, 2nd Edition, Learning Curve Calculator, http://cost.isc.nasagov/learn.html (1995) o 75% hand assembly/25% machining = 80% learning 50% hand assembly/50% machining = 85% 25% hand assembly/75% machining = 90% 85 The size of the crews was ascertained in order to produce 100 lineal meters of their particular tasks. Table 4.11 showed how many labor hours would be necessary to complete each lineal kilometer. Below is a chart that incorporates the beginning productivities. 100 lineal meters was selected as a common denominator to help determine the appropriate size of crews. The required number of labor hours per lineal kilometer was divided by ten (because there are ten separate 100 lineal meters in a kilometer). This answer was divided by eight, which is the number of working hours per day. This gives the required number of workers necessary to continue that task for 100 lineal meters per day. Table 4.11 shows the results of this calculation. This step was necessary to determine how many workers would need to be trained in that particular course. It is understood that some tasks will be more labor-intensive than others. For example, to complete 100 lm of Camber Formation, a crew of 15 is sufficient where as a crew of 57 is necessary to produce 100 lm of Earth Excavation. Table 4.11: Crew Sizes based on lLO Productivities Task LH per Required Daily Unit Crew (ILO) KM Output Clearing and Grubbing 1360 100 LM 17 Earth Excavation and up to 20m transport 4,533 100 LM 57 Camber Formation 1,173 100 LM 15 Leveling 29,333 100 LM 367 Drain Excavation 3,413 100 LM 43 Hand Compaction 880 100 LM 11 Graveling (spreading and leveling) 8,800 100 LM 1 10 Turfing 1,073 100 LM 14 Total 50,566 634 86 Bjorn Johannessen recommended that crews be no larger than 600 people. He stated that this was a manageable number spread out over the length of a typical worksite. The productivities selected for the 25 percentage should provide realistic expectations for entering the training model. Table 4.12 is the summary of data produced for the 25% productivity. Figure 4.7 shows the new productivity for each successive kilometer based on a learning curve of 80 percent. In other words, for each additional kilometer the crew should get faster and increase its productivity. Further on the Chart, the learning curve begins to slow and, therefore, the increase in productivity begins to flatten out. Or. Tariq Abdelhamid of Michigan State University suggested that the 20th repetitive unit is where the learning curve will flatten out and that this point should be used for all calculation. The best place to see this is the learning curve that was generated based on the total hours to complete each kilometer of the road. Table 4.12 suggests that an 80 kilometer feeder road can be constructed in 306 days. Sensitivity Analysis As part of a sensitivity analysis the RUTM will also generate a learning curve of 85 percent and 90 percent. These numbers will be analyzed throughout the research to assist the author in verify the model. These figures can be seen in Figure 4.7, 4.8 and 4.9. In the range between 80 percent and 90%, for every 1 percent of increase an additional 1000 labor hours is added to the chart per kilometer. 87 Table 4.12: RUTM Learning Curve Task Clearing & Earth Camber Leveling Grubbing Excavation Formation cm” 5'" 17 57 15 367 (=1oo Im) mlhr 6.250 0.188 4.688 H our! 1,554,480 Total Project \ Houn[415 KM] 5'm'186 g 834 “' \ 88 ‘IEUWW‘ Learning Curve 80% 0322 [W Hand Graveling Turfing Total ompactlon 367 11 110 14 634 0.133 6.250 0.625 1.250 2913333313000 hr 8,800.00 hr 1072.80 hr 50,566.12 hr 17.4711 524 hr 5,241 hr 639 hr 30,116 hr 13,9751 419 hr 4,193 hr 511 hr 24,091 hr 12,2651 368 hr 3,679 hr 449 hr 21,143 hr 11,1111 335 hr 3,354 hr 409 hr 19,272 hr 10,1151 312 hr 3,121 hr 381 hr 17,936 hr 99111 294 hr 2,943 hr 359 hr 16,913 hr 9,3111 280 hr 2,801 hr 341 hr 16,094 hr 1.9411 258 hr 2,683 hr 327 hr 15,417 hr 1,111: 258 hr 2,583 hr 315 hr 14,843 hr _' 3,3231 250 hr 2,497 hr 304 hr 14,348 hr 1,072.11 242 hr 2,422 hr 295 hr 13,914 hr “TW_235 hr 2,355 hr 287 hr 13,530 hr m7_229 hr 2,295 hr 280 hr 13,186 hr WT— 224 hr 2,241 hr 273 hr 12,875 hr 733T _219 hr 2,191 hr 267 hr 12,592 hr Wis hr 2,148 hr 262 hr 12,333 hr __—_'—-—s——-’ —-———"” - ¥ 634 “refs: 8 306 worker days _______../ _——-—'/ .1 k 534 ":3323 8 1,357 worker days Figure 4.6: Graph of RUTM Learning Curve of 80%, 85% and 90% Clearing & Earth Camber Leveling l Hand Grubbing Excavation Form ation Eu ”lipid 89 welt-I Hand Graveling Turfing 0 compaction 23050:! uh on no ow mm on 9. av mm on nN ON 3 or m o 25.3 coax... F ooodN ooodm ooodm Jed unoH Joqr' § 1.0 n ")1 ooodv .58 2:5 258.. 55¢ :8 2E6 2.5%.. 55¢ a: 2:2“. 90 wk on om mm on 289.52 39.388829... o 892 68.2 n 898w Boom u 898 w Soon m 86.9. «.3 256 9:53.. 5.5: $8 2:5 uses... :5: 6.. 2.5.“. 91 mu o» no om mm om 382505.. mvsmoonmmoufleo o 68.2 892 n . m 825w Boom a 80.8 M 68.8 m 68.8 .58 2.50 2.5%.. 55¢ 58 2:3 6558.. 55¢ 5.4 2.5.". 92 As shown in Figure 4.7, a substantial learning process takes place in the first few kilometers. As you get to about the 25th — 30"1 kilometers the productivity begins to level off. Initially it was believed that this learning curve could take place in the classroom setting. The Restoring U Training model, assumes that they can move this learning curve into the training sessions. The selected productivities are equivalent to the 20 kilometer and developed a second table. Table 4.13 is a better representation of productivity achieved by the students when they are released into the field to begin to have a relevant impact on the project. Some may make a case that the learning curve will start over again in the field. In the present study the learning curve is considered to continue from the 20 km as if the training were continuous from that point. It would rival the Lansing contractor and the RS Means contractors. By using the continuation of the learning curve, Table 4.13 was produced. This table suggests that an 80 km road could be constructed in 239 working days. This would result in a time savings of 71 percent of the original 820 working days (based on the productivities of the ILO). If the learning curve had been started over, Figure 4.11 would have been created. This chart suggests that the same 80 km road would be constructed in 117 working days. This chart would suggest that the training would result in a time savings of 85 percent. Given that the RS Means based estimate is 433 days and the Lansing contractor based estimate is 378 days, this is not likely. 93 Table 4.13: RUTM Learning Curve (Continues) Task Clearing & Earth Camber Leveling Grubbing Excavation Formation Crew Size (=100 Im) 17 57 15 367 mlhr 1.929 0.579 2.236 ; Hours 1,214,177 Drain Excavation 43 Hand Compaction 11 2.982 634 Graveling 110 0.298 Turfing 14 239 worker days Total Project 1 Hours [415 KM] 5,856,618 94 634 workers @ 8 hour day 1,155 worker days 53050:! mm om mm on no cm mm on mv 9. mm on ma ON or or m o 80.3 000.9 25.3 0006—. 25.3 "M 10d "NH “qu ooodu €255.59 2:50 9:53.. 1.51 Awe—=55“: 2.50 95:21. 2.51 _—o .395 5.3. 2:2“. 95 55:35. 00 00 mp ON. 00 00 mm on me 0v mm on mm cm 0.. op m 0 000.3 000.N_. 000.3. 000.09 0006—. my 19d smoH .ioqe1 000.0N 32.55.50. 2:50 05:53.. 5.5”. 3255.80. 9.50 9:53.. Ebm no .320 "3.1 230E 95 .32-3:! 00 00 on on no 00 mm on 9‘ 0v mm on 0N cm 2 0p m 0 000.v 000.0 000.0 000.9 ")1 10d smoH .ioqe-l 000.9 €35.85 256 9:58.. 55¢ 39.885 256 9:53.. 55¢ .o .326 :5. 2:2". 96 schedules will have to be well-balanced to prevent bottlenecks as they move through the program. The training sessions will have to keep a balance to the appropriate work force necessary to the divisions needed. It is understood that during certain stages of training, the amount of workers trained in a session will have to be proportionately balanced to the work that needs to be performed on the road. The training will also need to balance the necessary amount of time to cover a subject of material for the division of work. The reverse is true for other courses. For example hand compaction surely will not require longer than three days of training to understand. A reevaluated course schedule will be proposed based on the reasonable amount of training necessary to educate the workers over the course of a year. Learning Curve Matrix The following chart is a side by side comparison of the four different charts. The first column represents the task, the second column is the RS Means, followed by the Lansing contractor, then RUTM at the 30 km, and last by the ILO based on the productivities. Table 4.14: RS Means, Lansing, RUTM, ILO Task RS Lansing RUTM @ ILO @ LH per Means Contractor 20 km 50% KM Clearing and Grubbing 17 67 418 680 SM Earth Excavation and up to 59 1980 1,390 3400 CM 20m transport Camber Formation 384 930 361 587 SM Leveling 26 58 9,020 19,600 SM 98 The estimated working days above do not take into account that the contractors may have more than one crew performing each task. After creating the Restoring U training model (RUTM) and reviewing the findings, it is believed that the training provided by RUTM would take place during the first 20 lineal kilometers of the road. The RUTM Learning Curve (Restarted) shown in Figure 4.11 would not be applicable to RUTM. Following this logic the 306 working days that were calculated in the initial learning curve would stand as the appropriate productivities for the case studies at the end of this chapter. The initial stages of the support training program will cover the aspects of construction safety and introduction to construction terminology. Then the program will then train in the areas of earthwork, graveling and erosion protection. At these stages, the workers will begin to be profitable to the construction manager. As the worker moves into the third phase of the training, they will cover areas of Profile Board, Center Line, embankment construction, culverts and drifts. In this area of the training, the worker is performing at a much higher knowledge of construction. As shown in figure 4.7, the worker will begin to level off in productivity. The reason behind this is that there are a limited number of positions in which they can work. For example, one can not take 120 people who just learned earthworks and move them directly into center line staking. The project would become unbalanced and there would be overcrowding. This area of work only needs a fraction of the earthworks workers to produce the finished product. This is where the scheduling of the course 97 Table 4.14: Continued Drain Excavation 45 163 1,050 2280 CM Hand Compaction 54 258 270 440 SM Graveling (spreading and leveling) 11 93 2,710 5860 SM Turfing 77 23 330 715 SM Figure 4.12 shows a gradual increase in the productivities from the RS Means to the ILO. The reason is that the RS Means is based on crews with heavy equipment as necessary. The Lansing Contractor is based on labor and light equipment where necessary. RUTM is based on an assumed learning curve developed with the aid of the ILO productivities. When reviewing the chart, a gradual decrease in labor hours per km in productivity is generally true. There are a few outliers that lead the author to question some of the productivities. The clearing and grubbing, leveling, drain excavation, graveling tasks productivities hold true to the logic; [they gradually increase as you move from the RS Means productivities to the ILO productivities]. The earth excavation appears to deviate from this in the fact that the Lansing contractor labor hours are significantly higher than the Restoring U productivities; but are lower than the ILO hours. Perhaps the contractor was off in his estimate of productivity. In Figure 4.13, even if the 75 percent productivity was used as a starting point, the productivity would still have been faster than the Lansing contractor. This may tell us that the contractor may have under estimated the productivity. 99 Figure 4.12: Graph of RS Means, Lansing, RUTM, ILO Clearing & Earth Camber Grubbing Excavation Formation 100 Levehng Drain Excavation Hand compactio n Graveling Turfing The camber formation appears to deviate from the trend as well. The Lansing contractor labor hours are significantly higher than the RUTM productivities but are lower than the ILO hours. This could be the result of either an underestimate on productivity for the Lansing contractor or the RUTM could be too aggressive in this case. The leveling, drain excavation, and graveling tasks appear to be in line. In Figure 4.12 the labor hours increase from the bottom of the chart to the top of the Chan. Hand compaction shows the Lansing Contractor and the RUTM hours as almost equal. This could be an accurate assumption. The hours increase to the ILO model. The turfing task appears to have an outlier at the RS Means productivity. The RS Means appears to require about three times as many hours as the Lansing contractor. The other labor hours appear to follow the expected trend. This could be the result again of the Lansing contractor under estimating their productivities or it could be the result of the RS Means task being as relevant to the task as the other three productivities. 101 The camber formation appears to deviate from the trend as well. The Lansing contractor labor hours are significantly higher than the RUTM productivities but are lower than the ILO hours. This could be the result of either an underestimate on productivity for the Lansing contractor or the RUTM could be too aggressive in this case. The leveling, drain excavation, and graveling tasks appear to be in line. In Figure 4.12 the labor hours increase from the bottom of the chart to the top of the Chan. Hand compaction shows the Lansing Contractor and the RUTM hours as almost equal. This could be an accurate assumption. The hours increase to the ILO model. The turfing task appears to have an outlier at the RS Means productivity. The RS Means appears to require about three times as many hours as the Lansing contractor. The other labor hours appear to follow the expected trend. This could be the result again of the Lansing contractor under estimating their productivities or it could be the result of the RS Means task being as relevant to the task as the other three productivities. 101 Figure 4.13: Graph of RUTM Learning Curve with Starting Productivities of 25%, 50% and 75 ‘7 Clearing & Earth Camber Leveling Drain Hand Graveling Turfing )6}, / Grubbing Excavation Formation Excavation compaction ° \ 102 4.5 CASE STUDY ANALYSIS Comparison to Cambodia Project The ILO performed a comparative analysis of rural road work in Cambodia specific to [Jobs or Machines]. The Cambodia Project provided a thorough comparison of the amount of time it would take to construct a feeder road with both construction equipment and then also with labour intensive techniques. Table 3.1 shows a breakdown of the projects that were analyzed and separates them as labour-based or equipment-based. The ILO also goes on to show Table 4.15 later in the report that breaks down some of the research related to the labour-based roads. In this figure they quantify that there were an average of about 4,900 workdays per kilometer of road. Table 4.15: Force accounts and quantities of work in the Labour-based Rural Infrastructure Works Programme P. Munters, Jobs or Machines Comparative Analysis of Rural Road Work in Cambodia, International Labour Organization, (2003) 23 Number of roads 5 Total km 35.6 Quantities per km (weighted average)1 Workdays/km 4,909 Clearing m2/km Not recorded Earthworks m3/km Not recorded Laterite m3/km (compacted)2 1,000 Culverts/km 2.6 Small bridges/km3 0.2 Cost per km (weighted average)4 13,194 103 Based on the projected learning curve the RUTM program would surpass the 4,909 WD/KM on the 3rd kilometer. The ILO does elaborate on what makes up these hours. “At a daily task rate of 4 M3NVD for spreading and compaction of Iaterite, it was calculated that 250 WD was required for a one kilometer section, assuming a 5 meter width. Of the remainder of 4,659 WD/KM, it is assumed that 90% or 4,193 WD/KM relate to earthworks, while 10% or 466 WD/KM relate to brush-clearing.” [84] Performing a comparison for the 77 km section of road; using the ILO 4,909 WD/KM it would take about 378,000 work days to complete this road. With the Restoring U program and a projected learning curve it would take an estimated 187,966 WD. This is 2.0 times as fast as the researched project. In theory the RUTM would have been two times as fast as the Cambodia team simply due to the training program. Based on the theory of RUTM, it would take 296 days to complete the road based on a crew size of 634 members. The set up and tear-down time that may have been needed to switch between the 5 separate road projects is not included. Rwanda - Transport Sector Project The Transport Sector Project in the Republic of Rwanda was intended to repair roads across the country. The project began in 1991 and progressed until it was interrupted by civil war that culminated in the 1994 genocide. The war and the ensuing genocide that took place in 1994 dealt a devastating blow to the project. There was a huge loss of its assets, an irrecoverable dislocation of 104 project staff, and a temporary halt of its activities during and immediately following the genocide. [85] The goals of this project were to (i) increased accessibility internally and externally; (ii) reduce transport costs both through new infrastructure and transportation services. [86] The main risks in the SAR were technical in nature and related to cost overruns on the Gitarama-Kibuye Road, delays in the implementation of the road maintenance program, and cost increases and delays in the communal roads pilot program. Three of the co-financiers withdrew during implementation as a direct consequence of the Genocide which, as indicated above, was not evident during project preparation. [87] The following chart shows the original agenda for the Transport Sector Project (TSP). The highlighted sections are the projects for comparison with the RUTM. 105 Table 4.16: Key Performance Indicators I Log Frame Matrix Anon., The Transport Sector Project, The World Bank, (2002) 22 Indicator/Matrix Projected in last PSR Actual/Latest Estimate 1. Upgrading and paving Gitara-Kibuye road 75.5 kms 75.5 kms 2. Secondary/feeder roads rehabilitated 550 kms 190 kms 3. Communal pilot roads reconstructed 600 kms 148.9 kms 4. Urban roads maintained using SMEs 80 kms 27.98 kms 5. Road maintenance 5.1 Resurfacing Paved international roads 197 kms 0 5.2 Regraveling unpaved national roads 1,796 kms 0 5.3 Patching entire paved road network 1,107 kms 1,107 5.4 Gradingunpaved roads 2,640 kms 0 5.5 Routine maintenance on earth and gravel roads 4,050 kms 0 6. Road Safety: 6.1 Functional weighbridges on major paved roads 8 0 (but 8 weigbridges bought but yet to be installed) 6.2 Traffic ;Iights, markings and simals in Kigali 100% completed 100% complete 6.3 Vehicle built and operational 100% Vechile inspection center built but not operational 6.4 Traffic accidents recorded 100% 100% (but a computerized database is recommended) 7. Institutional Support 7.1 Second Generation Road Fund legally established 100% 100% (but operations need enhancement) 7.2 Roads Department restructured 100% 100% (but staff need additional training) 7.3 Staff Trained 729% 221 The Rwanda TSP began on March 29, 1991 and continued for 21 months until it was halted on December 31, 1993. The project was delayed until issues related to the 1994 Genocide were settled. Once the project was restarted, the report mentions that there were 24 months of unsatisfactory work largely attributed to the guerrilla war in the project area. Work was restarted in June of 1997 and it took 58 months to complete the project (April of 2002). [88] 106 The TSP initially planned to construct 550 kms of secondary roads. Only 190 kms were actually completed. The work for these areas was performed from 1996 to 2001. 600 km of Communial Roads were planned, but only 148.9 kms were actually completed. [89] The secondary roads were comprised of three sections; the Rwengera — Ruegerero Roads (80 kms), the Circuit des Volcens Road (65 kms) and the Kibuye — Gis.vu (43 kms) [90] Each one of these sections will be compared to the Restoring U training model to determine if the model might have performed the section of road faster than the labour-based crews. The Rwengera — Ruegerero Roads (80 kms) was started in 1996 and construction was completed in 1997. The RUTM would have completed the work in 307 days with a crew of 634 workers for a total of about 194,000 worker days. The report did not give exact dates of work starting and stopping. The Restoring U should have been able to complete the work in the same amount of time if not less. The Circuit des Volcens Road (65 kms) was completed in 2000. The report does not state when the work began. The RUTM should have been able to complete the work in about 217 days with a crew of 634 workers for a total of 137,000 worker days. The Kibuye — Gis.vu (43 kms) was completed in 2001. The work does not state when the work began or finished. The RUTM would have completed the work in about 144 days with a crew of 634 workers for a total of 90,907 worker days. 107 The last two phases of the Restoring U Training Model used the productivity of the 20th kilometer due to the learning process taking place on the first section of the road. Issues that the Transport Sector Project faced are difficult to quantify and factor into equations. The following three issues caused many delays and at times halted the project completely: the civil war that displaced project staff, the withdrawal of three co-financers which delayed portions of the project, and the difficult terrain. There may have been lapses between one project’s completion and start of others so these numbers may not be comparable. It has also been acknowledged that there is a significant amount of time that is needed to set up and breakdown a camp or worksite. In conclusion, RUTM would have been comparable to the results that were achieved by the TSP. If all the TSP projects were complied and compared based on a 250 work days per year and assuming that they started and finished on the same days in 1996 as they did in 2001 it would have taken the TSP about 1250 work days. The RUTM should have been able to complete all three projects in 668 work days. Staff Training The TSP was also successful at training 221 staff of which 61 were drivers for equipment. During the course of this project, the TSP concluded that “it was easier to use ‘out-of the-country” training programs. One of the main focuses of 108 the Restoring U Training Model is the training. The program is focused on getting all of the workers trained in the various aspects of feeder road construction within 6 months on the project. With that in mind, all 634 workers would have been trained during the duration of this project. The TSP’s original goal was 729 staff over a 12 year period or an average of 60 workers a year. Uganda — El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project The El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project aimed at providing emergency recovery assistance to the Government of Uganda for the restoration/rehabilitation of key road and bridge facilities severely damaged by the flood associated with the El Nino weather pattern. The project would contribute to; i) decreasing infrastructure-related market and distribution costs countrywide; ii) securing the timely delivery of social services to the affected population; iii) facilitating the productive settlement of war refugees in Northern Uganda; and iv) stabilizing the eco-system near the affected roads. The project consists of five components. First, repair of damaged road sections will support repairs and replacement of pipe culverts on 96 identified sections of road countrywide. Second, rehabilitation and regraveling of Atiak-Moyo Road will comprise rehabilition/regraveling of 90 kilometers of gravel road as well as repairs of five bridges and two ferry landings. The third component will repair or replace box culverts and about 120 bridges. The fourth component is the procurement of pipe culverts and Bailey Bridge sections. Finally, the fifth 109 component consists of consultant services for engineering studies and civil work supervision. [91] A primary objective of IDA’s assistance strategy to Uganda is to reduce poverty, through a medium-term strategy focused on private investment-led growth and export diversification. Lowering transport costs, and improving reliability of access to infrastructure, is assumed in the CAS as a key element to facilitate business development and to support poverty alleviation. The proposed emergency project fits well into lDA’s strategy for Uganda for two main reasons. First, by targeting investment at the restoration of key road and bridge infrastructure facilities severely damaged by floods associated with “El Nino” weather pattern, it would contribute to reestablishing a more effective flow of goods and services countrywide. And second, with more than 30% of the funds under the proposed Credit allocated to the Atiak — Moyo road in Northern Uganda, the proposed project would have a considerable impact in improving accessibility to one of the more remote and poverty-stricken regions of the country. [92] The El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project planned to have 440 kms of feeder roads constructed. The work for these areas was performed from 1998 to 2000. The Repair and Improvements of 96 damaged road sections was estimated at 350 kms. The Atiak — Moyo road rehabilitation/regraveling was estimated at 90 kms. [93] The Repair and Improvements of 96 damaged road sections (350 kms) was started sometime during September 1998 and construction was completed 110 sometime during May Of 1999. Assuming all tasks were needed to complete the repair the RUTM would have completed the work in about 1,200 days with a crew of 634 workers for a total of about 765,000 worker days. Due to the report not giving us exact details of what tasks took place it is hard to understand how long exactly the Restoring U model would have taken to complete these tasks. The Atiak — Moyo Road (90 kms) was started in May of 1999 and completed in December of 2000. According to the El Nino report this section took about 20 months to complete. The RUTM should have been able to complete the work in about 340 days with a crew of 634 workers for a total of 215,450 worker days. The 340 days would equate to 68 weeks and about 15 months 3 weeks. Atiak — Moyo Road (90 kms) There are outside factors that affect schedule and productivities. According to the El Nino report the security situation in Northern Uganda was at (High Risk) and the government was required to provide an appropriate level of protection during the execution of works. [94] The RUTM would have been comparable to the results that were achieved by the Republic of Uganda El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project. The comparison shows that the RUTM would have completed the project 4 months 2 weeks sooner than the current crews. That would have been a savings of 23% of the schedule. Another benefit to employing the RUTM would have been the result of 634 trained feeder road contractors who could be employed to maintain the completed roads. 111 .II'JJKJILI m. . , . 1 CHAPTER 5 5.1 CONCLUSION The main goal of this thesis was to show how the implementation of a training program in Labor Intensive Road construction would generate a trained road construction crew. The second goal was to utilize the learning curve to show improvement of the productivity of the workforce and the revised productivity would be faster than the three case studies that were selected. Lessons learned about Training Schedule, Training Model and its application to the three case studies confirm that the goals were achieved. Through the research and application of the RUTM the author believes the training model will assist in creating a trained labor force as well as increase prod uctivities. 5.2 TRAINING SCHEDULE Three lessons were learned related to the training schedule. The first lesson was that the training schedule should be based on the time it takes to complete at least one kilometer of roadway. Second, the training schedule should be altered to account for tasks with a higher level of skill required. The third lesson is related to workers continuing through the RUTM. Some people may not continue through the entire program, but they may continue to impact the learning curve in a positive way. The last lesson learned was related to the retention of workers. Workers may leave the RUTM program or the work force. 112 Restoring U Training Model The first lesson learned from RUTM was in regards to the nth unit of the Ieaming curve. The nth unit is determined by what task is being observed. In most industries this is determined by the completion of one unit, but in this case the parameter was one lineal kilometer. The second lesson learned related to the starting point of the learning curve. Initially a Ieaming curve ratio of 85% was selected to be on a more conservative side in the calculation are running the Restoring U Model the 80% Ieaming curve ratio was selected. The 80% ratio is based on 75% hand assembly and 25% machine assembly. The third lesson relates to the flattening of the productivity curve. This was crucial to all the calculation and comparisons for the case studies. The research indicated that the 30th unit is the flat point in Ieaming curves. The fourth lesson was related to where the line was drawn between training that was related to “classroom” and “on the job training”. Initially it was anticipated that a second learning curve could be selected based on the middle point of the learning curve (selected as the 20th kilometer). A second learning curve was created that began with the 20th kilometer productivities. Two exercises ran from that point: the first was to restart the Ieaming curve calculation. It was believed that this curve was too aggressive. The results started to rival the productivities of the Lansing Contractor and the RS Means productivities. The second curve was generated based on the same learning curve of the Restoring U Training Model but without the first 20 kilometers 113 graphed. This seemed to make sense and was even appeared flatter. This graph was determined to be a truer representation of how the learning would develop. The productivities of the RUTM appear to be in line when compared to the Lansing & RS Means productivities. The fifth lesson: After running multiple possibilities of the learning curves the author came to the conclusion that the “classroom” learning would take place during the first kilometer. The “on the Job” learning would take place on the successive kilometers. This was determined that the nth unit was one lineal kilometer, and that the Class lengths would be based on how long it took to complete this first kilometer. After this realization, there was no need for a second learning curve. The last lesson was learned when the productivities were graphed side by side. A chart was created that showed how the productivities of the RS Means (equipment), Lansing Contractors (hand tools), Restoring U (training labor based), and ILO (no training) compared with one other. The results of the graph lead to the conclusion that the results of the RUTM were appropriate for the case studies. The productivities of the RUTM were below the Lansing Contractors but higher than the ILO productivities. All the lessons allowed the conclusion that the Restoring U Training Model was configured properly and was appropriate to be applied to the case studies. 114 Case Studies The three case studies that were selected were then compared to the Restoring U Training Model. The first goal of the comparisons was to determine if the Restoring U Training model would be competitive with the duration it took to complete the Feeder Road reconstruction. The second objective was to determine if it would be appropriate for the situation to which it was compared. The first case study was the Cambodia Project. The project was a 77 kilometer section of road (that the lLO’s nearly 4,900 worker days per kilometer for a total of almost 378,000). When the Restoring U Training Model was applied to the 77 kilometer road, it was determined that the RUTM would require about 188,000 worker days. In theory the RUTM was 100% faster and would complete the project in half the time. The second case study was the Rwanda - Transport Sector Project [TSP]. The TSP project consisted of 190 kilometers of Feeder Road, but the TSP was missing exact dates of when projects started and stopped. It was estimated that the project would have taken 1250 work days to complete. The RUTM projected completion of the project in 673 work days for an improvement of 66%. The last case study was the Uganda - El Nino Emergency Road Repair Project. This project consisted of a 90 kilometer section of feeder roads. The project was completed in about 20 months. When the RUTM was applied to this case study it was projected to take 340 work days which would equate to 15 months and 3 weeks. The RUTM would project an increase of 53% in productivity. 115 The Restoring U Training Model does not take into consideration the realities that the case studies were faced with: civil wars, genocide, and constant safety concerns for the workers. But the increase in productivity and the times saving would be worthy of consideration. The average time saving for these three case studies was 171%. Staff Training The last objective to accomplish was to train a skilled workforce to construct the roads. In the three case studies, only the Cambodia was successful at training staff members, and in this case study the project team determined that it was beneficial to send the staff off site for training. The Restoring U Training Model should produce 600 plus trained Road construction workers every six (6) months. This is almost three (3) times as many workers trained drivers from the Cambodia project 221 of which 61 were trained drivers. The TSP’s original goal was 729 staff over a 12 year period or an average of 60 workers a year. The RUTM would theoretically eclipse this goal in the first year. Limitation There are two limitations identified by the author. The author has verified the RUTM has been constructed correctly, however the next task would be to validate the RUTM was built correctly. Another limitation is that the impact on socio-economic factors was not considered (if the training is more productive, 116 then what happens to wages, what happens to workers who are not needed any more. 5.3 FINAL CONCLUSION In conclusion, the author entered this thesis with the goal to development a training program in Labor Intensive Road construction with two objectives. The first objective was to generate a trained road construction crew and the second was to show how the Ieaming curve would improve the productivity of the workforce. Thus the new productivity would be faster than the three case studies that were selected. It is believed that the Restoring U Training Model would accomplish these objectives. The RUTM should generate a skilled work force capable of completing the feeder road construction and also perform at a higher productivity than the case studies that were analyzed. 5.4 FURTHER RESEARCH There are areas of further research to be considered that would affect feeder road construction. The first item would be to validate the Restoring U Training Model. The objective here would be to analyze the model and validate that it was constructed correctly. The second area would be to evaluate the impact of socio-economic factors and the affects they would have on the training model. An example would 117 be to analyze if the training is more productive, then what happens to wages, what happens to workers who are not needed any more and etc. The last area of further research is to analyze when Labour Intensive Road Construction should be shifted to Equipment Based Road Construction. This research could analyze the Supply and Demand, or time available in various case studies. The last area identified as a possibility for further research is the Retention Factor. Many of the laborers rely heavily on farming to support their families; for this reason the retention of laborers could impact the Labour Intensive Feeder Road construction. 118 APPENDIX Appendix A: lnternational Union Operating Engineers - Hand Tool Engineer Hand Tool Engineer Aggroximate Hggrs Introduction 60 a. Apprenticeship Rules and Regulations b. Local Road Work Orientation c. Issue Tools d. Drug & Alcohol presentation e. Labor History Safety 12 O.S.H.A. Rules and Regulations (lntemational Equivalent) Commercial Drivers License Preparation (lntemational Equivalent) 24 a. Testing Requirements b. Inspection Stipulations c. Driving Course Health 24 a. Standard First Aid 8. CPR Basic Skills Training 312 1. The Profile Board Method 2. The Centre Line (Staking Roads) 3. Clearing (Brush, Boulders, Trees, Topsoil Removal) 4. Earthworks (leveling of roads) 5. Embankment Construction 6. Ditching, Sloping and Camber Formation 7. Off Road Drainage 8. Compaction 9. Culverts 10. Drifts 11. Graveling 12. Erosions Protection Total Hours 432 119 I "- ‘ - t . _ 1..."..- Appendix B: Feeder Road Tasks determined by ILO B. Johannessen, Technical Manual Labour-Based Road Construction Methods, International Labour Organization, (1997) 25 Clearing Bush Clearing Boulder Removal Topsoil Removal Reporting Earthworks Cut to Level The Fill Side Camber and Side Drain Construction Super-elevation Reporting Embankment Construction Earthwork Volume Calculations Site Level Planning and Work Force Organisation Ditching, Sloping and Camber Formation Off-road Drainage Mitre Drains Angle of Mitre Drains Scour Checks Cut-off Drains Compaction Optimal Moisture Content Compaction Methods Quality Standards Compaction Procedure Culverts Drifts Gravelling Standards Gravel Source Gravel Quality Water Work Plan Work Procedure Control of Works Reporting Erosion Protection 120 Appendix C: Supply of Tools B. 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