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BODY IMAGE: GENDER AND RACIAL ISSUES

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Cynthia L. Manns

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BODY IMAGE: GENDER AND RACIAL DIFFERENCES
By

Cynthia L. Manns

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Sociology

2009

ABSTRACT
Body Image: Gender and Racial Differences
By

Cynthia L. Manns

This paper evaluates the relationship between perceived body image, gender and
ethnicity. The three central areas of focus are: the major influences on body image, the
differences between males and females and finally, the differences in body image between
Whites and African Americans. Data was obtained from a body image questionnaire
submitted to college-aged students (N = 253) in the Fall of 2002. The results indicate that
W’hite women are less satisfied with theft body images than African American Women, and
in general men appear to have less concern over their body images than women.
Additionally, media, peer and family influences play a significant role with body image

satisfaction.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................. iv
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 3
CONSTRUCTION OF BODY IMAGE ......................................................................... 3
GENDER DIFFERENCES ......................................................................................... 4
WOMEN AND BODY IMAGE .................................................................................. 6
THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ................................................................................ 6
ETHNIC DIFFERENCES .......................................................................................... 8
MEDIA/SOCIAL CONTROL .................................................................................... 8
STIGMA AND OTHER INFLUENCES ......................................................................... 9
METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 1 1
MEASURES—INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES ................................ 12
FINDINGS ............................................................................................................ 13
DISCUSSION ....................................................................................................... 20
LIMITATIONS TO STUDY ..................................................................................... 20
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................. 25

iii

TABLE 1:

TABLE 2:

TABLE 3:

TABLE 4:

TABLE 5:

TABLE 6:

TABLE 7:

TABLE 8:

LIST OF TABLES

DESCRIPTIVE DATA .................................................................................. l4
COMPARISON BY RACE—WOMEN ONLY ........................................... 15
BODY PERCEPTION INFLUENCES—WOMEN ONLY .......................... 16
HIGH FAMILY INCOME DIFFERENCES ................................................. 17
HIGH FAMILY INCOME DIFFERENCES ................................................. 17
COMPARISON BY RACE—MEN ONLY .................................................. 18
ANOVAb ....................................................................................................... 19
Coefficienta ................................................................................................... 19

iv

INTRODUCTION

Body image can be defined as an individual’s experience of his/her body. It is the
mental picture a person has of his/her body, as well as the individual’s associated
thoughts, feelings, judgments, sensations, awareness and behavior. Body image is not a
static concept. It is developed through interactions with people and the social world,
changing across life span in response to changing feedback from the environment. Body
image is shaped by many factors including physical changes in the body, physical
conditions of the body, judgments from others, and the prevailing social values. Body
image deveIOps in childhood and this process continues throughout life.

The emphasis on thinness and attractiveness is socialized into children at a very
young age. As adolescents mature, they become increasingly aware of what society’s
standards are for the “ideal body.” Baby girls are described as “beautiful, soft and cute”
while baby boys are “stronger and hardier” (Rice, 1995). Through this socialization,
children learn that girls’ bodies are to be made more beautiful while boys’ bodies are to
be developed and strengthened. Women grow up being complimented on their looks
more than any other quality. Adolescent women are affected by these messages and it is
common for girls entering puberty to develop body image problems, which may last
throughout their life. The messages delivered by the advertisements are discriminatory
against body shape and Size. This discrimination leads women to believe that they are
only valuable if they are thin and attractive.

Women (as well as men) on television, billboards and fashion magazines are
always thin. In the past thirty years; women have been confronted with an impossibly

thin standard of female beauty. Research has shown that almost 70% of female characters

on 33 top-rated TV shows were slender; only 17% of the male characters where thin
(Silverstein, Petersen, Perdue and Kelly, 1986). Twenty-five years ago, models weighed
8% less than the average woman now models weigh 23% less than average (Silverstein,
et al, 1986).

Clearly, there is a growing disparity between actual body size and the cultural
standard. What this means is that is has become progressively more difficult fur most
women to live up to the ideals thrust upon them by society and media. Many women feel
inadequate when they consider their bodies, but the truth is that the standard is impossible
for most women to reach if they are to remain healthy. Mother disturbing trend is that the
ideal of physical beauty is becoming increasingly standardized throughout the world.
Overwhelmingly the standard for beauty is: young, able-bodied, white, Western and
wealthy (Demerest & Allen, 2000).

This increased dominance of this Euro centric image of beauty has had a powerful
impact on women throughout the world (Chapkis; 1986). Black Latina, Asian and Native
American women are under-represented and often invisible in fashion magazines and the
popular media. The beauty standard promoted in North American Culture is white skin,
blond hair, blue eyes and European facial features (Chapkis, 1986). If you browse
through the popular magazines; the message is overwhelmingly overstated: women are
encouraged by the beauty industry to conform to a very narrow image of beauty that is

reflective of a small minority of the world’s population.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Construction of Body Image

As stated earlier, there is often a large degree of discrepancy regarding the
perception of the body. At what point in time this discrepancy begins is the subject of
many research studies. How an individual perceives his or her body and how that
perception impacts behaviors is of great theoretical interest. Early theorists provided
glimpses of the connection between of body image and cognitive development. Freud
recognized the significance of body attitudes in his developmental constructs in his
personality development theory (Freud, 1908). Piaget (1960) ascribed basic importance to
the perceived body as an organizing force. Erickson (1968) proposed that the body is a
key component in affective and cognitive development. Goffman described three
different types of stigmas and how they impact an individual’s sense of identity
(Goffman, 1963).

Most of the early theories on cognitive and personality development provide very
sketchy paradigms of how children learn to make sense of their body experiences. How is
it that we go from self-love (early childhood) to self-loathing, and is the process a direct
result of cultural stimulus or internal family dynamics? Current research suggests that
body image is a multidimensional construct consisting of many factors such as history,
culture, social and biological factors (Slade, 1994). Research done by Cash and Henry
(1995) suggests that body image is a combination of perceptual and attitudinal
dimensions. Gleaves et al. (1995) model of body image consists of four components: fear

of fatness, body distortion, and preference for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Other

theories on body image look at several components including perception, cognition,
affect and behavior (Banfield & McCabe, 2002).

Clearly, researchers are faced with challenges when creating body image models.
Because of the variance in the models currently being used, it is difficult to compare
findings and interpret results. The multidimensional models are probably the most
accurate, however, more investigation is necessary in order to determine which models
provides the best theoretical framework for studying body image.

Gender Differences
Men and Body Image

Recently, Anastasia Volochkova, a Russian Ballerina was fired because of claims
that she was “too heavy” to be lifted. The ballerina was 5’6 and weighed 110 pounds
(Melnichuck 2003). In contrast, Doug F lutie, Boston College’s Heisman trophy-winning
football hero was also faced with a strong cultural belief—that football requires big men.
F lutie is only 5’ 9, which is significantly below the height of the typical quarterback
However, because of his skill and ability, he was able to overcome that stereotype and
managed to become a successful professional quarterback. It was possible for Doug
Flutie to become a Little Big Man, but not for Anastasia Volochkova to be a Big Little
Woman. A policy like this sends a very clear message—there is an “ideal” body image
men and women are expected to conform to, and this is true whether or not you are
involved in sports or performing arts.

In general men appear to be more satisfied with their body images and they have
less pressure to be thin than women (Cash, et al. 1986). A 1986 national survey indicated

that only 41% of men were dissatisfied with their weight compared with 55% of women

(Cash, Winstead, & Janda, 1986). Drewnoski and Yee’s (1987) research showed that men
were split in terms of those who wanted to lose weight (40%) and those who wished to
gain weight (45%). Recent research however, suggests that men may be falling victim to
cultural trends. Men are receiving messages from the media that fat represents weakness
and is not considered manly (N emoroff Stein, Diehl and Smolack ( 1994). Men are under
pressure in our society to be muscular and strong, and they also feel the pressure to over-
exercise and diet. The ideal man as Shown on TV, in movies and in advertising, has
become increasingly lean and muscular. Even the proportions of G.I. Joe and other
action figures have changed dramatically over the years, from more normal male
proportions to a physique far bigger than the largest body builder. Guys may get the
message that to be a “real man” they have to have huge muscles, a “six pack” abdomen
and little body fat. This can be a hard look to achieve for many men and boys. Problems
surface when excessive exercise and other extreme measures are used (Anderson, et al.
1995).

Garner and Keamey-Cooke’s (1997) research shows evidence that men are
increasingly reporting body dissatisfaction. The areas in which men are most dissatisfied
with are their abdomens, chests and overall muscle tone (Gamer & Keaney-Cooke 1997).
An example of this is can be shown in the area of cosmetic surgery. The most recent
statistics available show that approximately 100,000 men undergo plastic surgery
annually, compared to only 55,000 in 1992 (CNN 1999). Additionally, Schneider and
Agras (1987) studies have shown that a larger number of men suffer from eating

disorders, particularly youths in gay culture.

Women and Body Image

Given the impact that body image can have on women’s physical, mental and
social well being, there has been a tremendous amount of research on women and body
image. Western perceptions of the ideal body type for women is consistent with women’s
increased dissatisfaction with their bodies, increased dieting practices and a significant
increase in eating disorders (Anderson & DiDomenico, 1992). David Garner’s 1997 body
image survey of 3,452 women found that 89% of them wanted to lose weight. Survey
data shows that 75% of women within normal weight in the United States feel fat and
50% of adult women in the United States are on some type of diet (Wolzon, 1998). Even
more disturbing is that girls as young as five have expressed fears of getting fit and 80%
of 1 0-year old girls have dieted (Center for Media Literacy’s Newsletter, 1997).

One of the most serious consequences of negative body imagery are eating
disorders. Research on bulimia and anorexia have shown that most eating disorders are
found in females in their teens and early twenties, especially those from middle or upper
class families (Garner and Garfmkel, 1985). Eating disorders and body dissatisfaction are
becoming more common on college campuses. Garner and Garfinkel (1985) suggest that
the differences between ideal beauty and actual weight creates conditions where
individuals actively pursue ideal beauty through dieting and exercise, and eating
disorders represent the extreme cases of this pursuit.

The Feminist Perspective

Leslie Heywood’s Dedication to Hunger (1996), discusses how the ‘anorexic

aesthetic” is embodied in high modernism. It can be argued that the objectification and

sexualization of women in general are the underlying influences that lead women to

unhealthy body images. Susan Bordo examines this phenomenon in her book Unbearable
Weight: Feminism, Western Culture and the Body (1993). Even though Western culture
has gone through several significant feminist movements, Bordo argues that women still
carry the burden of their sexuality, and are still evaluated by their bodies. Interestingly
enough, Bordo sees the emergence of eating disorders not from a psychological or
medical view, but evaluates it by looking at our societal cultural norms. Her analysis is
consistent with Niva Piran’s (2001) perspective on body image. Piran states that “the
unchanged rates of violence against women, sexual harassment, the commodification of
women’s bodies... are just a few of the diverse and multiple expressions of bodily
oppression that women experience (2001).”

There are researchers who believe that the empirical models that examine female
body image issues are inherently flawed. Pirkko Markula (2001) examines the problem of
body image distortion (BID) from a F oucaldian feminist perspective. Foucalt stated that
medicine individualizes disease; in other words, Illness is a problem within the individual
(Markula, 2001). Using this logic, through “cultural construction of femininity” women
are told that it is their responsibility to resist the beauty ideals thrust upon them by the
media, yet at the same time they are given information about body image distortion
which leads them to diagnosis themselves with an illness instead of looking at the
dominant cultural standards of beauty (Markula, 2001 ). A similar analysis of body image
theory by Linda Wolzon (1998) criticizes the modern rhetoric of the “male-as-norm,
women-are-deficient” discourse, which also blames body image distortion more on the
individual, while ignoring the key role that are cultural beauty standards play on body

image distortion.

Ethnic Differences

Research on the racial differences in body perception have shown that African
American women report higher satisfaction with their body images than white women,
and are more realistic about the perceptions of their body (Rucker & Cash, 1992, Molloy
& Herzberger, 1998, Adkins, 1999). In general, African American women have lower
incidences of eating disorders and are less likely to be obsessed with dieting (Markkar
and Strube, 1995) however African Americans are not immune to the pressures to
conform to cultural norms. Recent research on body image distortion has shown that
African American women do not differ significantly from white women in body
dissatisfaction (Demerest & Allen 2000, Bissell, 2002). As African American women
attain higher income levels, they may begin to adopt more Euro-American values. This
may make many of them feel unacceptable and powerless. Some women of color may try
to ignore the cultural standards of beauty and gain support, validation and acceptance in
their own communities, other women feel caught between two different cultures—being
asked to look and behave in two different ways and told from early on that they have to
conform to two standards of beauty (Hooks, 1984).
Media/Social Control

American women are obsessed with thinness. Advertisements bombard us with
images of thin women who became that way because they drank Slimfast in the morning,
took Dexatrim in the afternoon exercised to their TaeBo videos in the evening. Women
are exhorted to strive for a physical ideal that is laden with moral judgment. Slendemess
represents restraint, moderation, and self-control—the virtues of our Puritan heritage. Our

culture considers obesity “bad” and ugly. F at represents moral failure, the inability to

delay gratification, poor impulse control, greed, and self-indulgence. The slim figure has
also come to represent health as well as beauty. The beauty industry, the pharmaceutical
industry, and the food industry make billions of dollars annually by exploiting women’s
insecurities about their bodies. Bookstores are full of advice on losing weight, flattening
the stomach, getting rid of cellulite, or dressing to look more slender. American food,
weight loss, and cosmetic industries thrive on the purchases made to obtain the
unobtainable goal of physical perfection. The slim and flawless cover girl is an icon
created by capitalism for the sake of profit. Millions of women pay it homage. Women
are inundated with the message that if you want to be valued in our society, then you
must be thin and fit. Gender has always played a significant role in commercialism, and
today’s unrealistic beauty standards are clearly being used to control nOt only how
women feel about their bodies, but also how we behave as consumers. (Bordo, 1993).
Stigma and other influences

Obesity is highly stigmatized in our society (Wolzon, 1998). Research has shown
that children as young as six have already conceptualized a bias against fat (W olzon,
1998). According to Erving Goffman, the term stigma refers to an attribute that is deeply
discrediting, but it should be viewed in terms of a language of relationship (1963). A
stigma is a special type of relationship between an attribute and a stereotype. Goffman
identified three types of stigmas: 1) abominations of the body, 2) blemishes of individual
character and 3) tribal stigma (1963). All three of these types of stigma can impact how
women feel about their body images and create serious eating and weight problems. It
helps to think of body image problems on a continuum. On the one end is the healthy

body and positive self-esteem, which represent the goal of body and self-acceptance.

Dissatisfaction with the body image follows, then weight preoccupation, yo-yo-dieting,
dieting induced weight gain and emotional and compulsive eating. Finally, the opposite
end of the continuum is comprised of eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia.

Hatred of fat is a socially acceptable form of prejudice and stigma Large people
are still the butt of jokes by many professional comics and the media. Health
professionals rate fat people as more “disturbed” and likely to have less favorable results
from treatment. Recently, a politician attempted to pass a law, which would have forced
larger individuals to purchase two airline seats in order to accommodate their size, and
several American airline companies have policies regarding weight restrictions for
passengers (Crutcher, 2002). Overweight people have lower rates of acceptance to
college, reduced likelihood of being hired for jobs, and lower rates of pay (Karris, 1.977,
Valenti, 2002). Strong economic, psychological and social sanctions against fat are
imposed on women and men, however, studies indicate that women are discriminated
against more than men. For example, larger women have a greater difficulty getting
accepted into college, lower wages, and vulnerability to verbal and physical abuse
because of their body size (Schoneflelder & Wieser, 1984).

Parents and peers also play a significant role in how individuals feel about their
bodies. There are few studies that directly study the correlation between body image
distortion and family and peers (McCabe, et al. 2001). McCabe et a1. (2001) found that
adolescent girls perceived that their mothers encouraged them to conform to societal ideal
body standards. Moreover, peers were also indicated as influencing girls to conform to
societal standards, however this pressure was not true for boys. Further research is

necessary to explore the correlations between parental and peer influence on body image.

10

This research investigates the relationship between body satisfaction, gender and
ethnicity. This study examined the factors that most influence body image, differences
between males and females and finally, differences in body satisfaction between Whites
and African Americans. My expected findings are:

Hypothesis l—White women would have a lower satisfaction with their body
image than African American women.

Hypothesis 2—Men of all races would report a higher satisfaction with body
image than women, and

Hypothesis 3—Afiican American women would have a higher satisfaction with

thefi body image compared to White women.

METHODOLOGY
Participants

253 college-students—l 81 females and 72 males took part in this study. I
obtained my sample by entering into two large sociology classes—Integrated Social
Sciences 310 ([88 310) and Sociology 315 (Soc 315) in the Fall semester of 2002 at
Michigan State University. Because both classes were 300-level courses, the strategy was
to obtain a pool of young adults reflective of the general college population. I explained
that I was a graduate student interested in studying body image and I asked if students
would be interested in participating. All of the subjects volunteered and were informed
that they did not have to answer any questions that they were not comfortable with. The
study was approved by The University Committee on Research Involving Human

Subjects’ (UCHRIS). The survey took approximately 15 minutes to complete.

11

Measures—Independent and Dependent Variables

The independent variables were gender and/or race. The dependent variables were
the various questions that were asked about body image. Both the male and female
respondents completed the same questionnaires. Race was coded into two categories:
white and African American and students of other races were left out because of the
small sample size.

Alter reviewing the literature on self-reports related to body image, I created a
questionnaire consisting of 44 questions and statements concerning body image. The
sequential order of the questions were to ask general questions in the beginning, the more
personal/difficult questions in the middle of the survey, and the demographic information
at the end of the questionnaire. The subjects were asked questions ranging from
perceptual, affective, cognitive and behavioral issues concerning their bodies. Perceptions
of body image were measured (for example, ‘Do you consider yourself overweight?)
using yes/no format or a range of answers (for example, ‘How much weight do you want
to lose?’). Affective questions (for example, ‘How do you feel about the way your body
looks?’) were Likert-scaled from I = very satisfied to 5 = very dissatisfied. Cognitive
questions also used a l to 5 scale (for example, “How often do you think about your body
weight, 1 = always, 5 = not at all), and behavioral questions used a yes/no and range of
answers format (for example, ‘Do you diet?’ and ‘How ofien?’). Additionally, the
demographical measures of race, sex, family income and educational statuses were also
recorded. Dummy variables were used for race and Sex (1= female, 1= Afiican
American). There were several questions used to identify variables associated with body

image. For the main question “How satisfied are you with your body,” the categories

12

were: very satisfied (5), somewhat satisfied (4), satisfied (3), dissatisfied (2) and very
dissatisfied (1). The measures used were demographic (age, sex, race, parental income
and marital status), body satisfaction, perceptions about ideal body weight, dieting and
other weight loss practices and influences on body satisfaction (media, friends,
significant other, etc). The subjects were asked their current height/weight, if they

considered themselves overweight, and if so, how much weight they wanted to lose.

FINDINGS

Table 1 represents the descriptive characteristics of the sample. The sample was
generally reflective of the university’s population, but approximately 70% of the sample
was female and 28% were male. Almost 85% of respondents were white, compared to
15% who were Black or other. The mean age was 20.1, and the overwhelming majority
was unmanied (97.6%). Almost 55% of the respondents had a family income of $80,000

and above.

13

 

TABLE I: DESCRIPTIVE DATA

 

SEX
Female

Male
RACE
White
Black
Other
MARITAL STATUS
Single
Married
FAMILY INCOME
$10,000-39,999
$40,000-79,999

$80,000 and above

71.50%

28.50

84.60%

8.30

6.30

97.60%

2.40

1 1.40%

34.70

53.90

Table 2 shows a comparison by race of women the percentages that responded to

six key questions regarding how they felt about their bodies. The first five rows are the

percentages that responded to the question, “How do you feel about your body?’ Row six

contains the responses to the question, “Have you ever dieted?” Rows seven through nine

show the responses to the questions about binge eating, vomiting to control weight and

feeling depressed about how their bodies looked. Only five percent of white women listed

that they were very satisfied with their body image, compared with 11.8% of Black

women. More than 56% of white women listed that they had not eaten because of feeling

14

fat, compared to 23.5% of Black women. Interestingly, white and Black women reported

similar response rates (23.7% and 23.5% respectively) to being dissatisfied with their

body image. However, there were significant differences found in the questions related to

binge eating, vomiting to control weight and being depressed about body image. Twenty-

five percent of white women in the sample admitted to binge eating to control weight

compared to only 5.9% of Black women. Almost 12% of white women admitted to binge

eating, whereas only 5.9% of Black women reported such behavior. Depression about

body image was significantly higher among white women. Over 35% in the sample

reported to feeling depressed about their bodies, compared to only 17.6% of Black

 

 

women.
TABLE 2: COMPARISON BY RACE—WOMEN ONLY
WHITE BLACK

Very Satisfied w/body 5.1% 11.8%
Somewhat Satisfied 39.1 29.4
Satisfied 30.8 35.3
Dissatisfied 23.7 23.5
Very Dissatisfied 1.3 --
Dieted 52.6 41.1
Not Eaten Because of Feeling Fat 56.4 23.5
Binge Eating 25.0 5.9
Vomited to Control Weight 1 1.6 5.9
Depressed About Body 35.9 17.6

15

Table 3 highlights a comparison of women by race of the top three influences on
body image. For both white and Black women, friends, media and parents were the
highest reported influences. Interesting, friends were slightly more influential than friends
for white women, and the media was the most influential for Black women. This may
indicate the strong message that Western media sends to young women: to be beautiful

you must have a slender body.

 

TABLE 3: BODY PERCEPTION INFLUENCES—WOMEN ONLY

 

WHITE BLACK
Friends 67.9% 35.3%
Media 64.1 41.2
Parents 29.5 17.6

Tables 4 and 5 shows the percentages of responses to five key questions on body
image that were in a higher income bracket ($80,000 or higher). These tables are also for
women only and are divided by race. Over 70% of Black respondents, and 57% of white
respondents reported that they were currently dieting. Fifty-nine percent 0 white women
and 57% of Black women reported not eating because of feeling lit. This table indicates is
that within the higher income brackets for both races there is even more pressure to be

thin.

16

 

TABLE 4: HIGH FAMILY INCOME DIFFERENCES

 

White Family Income $80,000 and Above

Dieting 57.0%
Not Eaten Because of Feeling Fat 59.8
Binge Eating 29.0
Vomited to Control Weight 7.0
Depressed about Body 39.0

 

TABLE 5: HIGH FAMILY INCOME DIFFERENCES

 

Black Family Income $80,000 and Above

Dieting 71.0%
Not Eaten Because of Feeling Fat 57.0
Binge Eating 14.0
Vomited to Control Weight 14.0
Depressed about Body 14.0

Table 6 shows the responses of men to the six key questions regarding how they
feel about their bodies. Although the data set is much too small to make any generalized
conclusions, it is clear that men do not suffer from the same body image issues that

women have. Men of both races reported higher body satisfaction than women.

17

 

TABLE 6: COMPARISON BY RACE—MEN ONLY

 

WHITE BLACK
Very Satisfied w/body 17.2% --
Somewhat Satisfied 37.9 25.0
Satisfied 26.0 75.0
Dissatisfied 17.2 --
Very Dissatisfied 1.7 --
Dieted 33.0 25.0
Not Eaton Because of Feeling Fat 21.0 --
Binge Eating 14.0 --
Vomited to Control Weight 1.7 --
Depressed About Body 15.5 --

Hypothesis I predicted that white women would have a lower satisfaction with
their body image compared to African American women. The dependent variable was
body image and the independent variables were race and gender. Multiple regression
analysis using SPSS (Statistical Program for the Social Sciences) did not support this
hypothesis (See Tables 7 and 8). The most likely reason for this failure is due to the
significantly limited number of African American women who participated in the study.

Hypothesis 2 predicted that men of all races would report a higher satisfaction
with body image than women. This hypothesis is supported through regression analysis
(See tables 7 and 8). Based on the responses, men appear to have less concern over their

body images than women.

18

Hypothesis 3 predicted that African American women would have a higher
satisfaction with their body image compared to White women. Again, because of the
small number of African American respondents, this hypothesis was not supported by the
data. Although African American women showed higher satisfaction with their body

image, the difference was not statistically significant.

 

TABLE 7: ANOVAb

 

Model Sum of Squares DF Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 5.752 5 1.150 1.291 .268’1
Residual 21.248 236 891

Total 216.000 241

a . .
Predictors: (Constant, Single, pregnant, sex, race, age

bDependent Variable: Satisfaction w/Body

 

TABLE 8: Coefficienta

 

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constraint) 2.453 .301 8.135 .000
Age .365 .259 .096 1.411 .159
Sex -.292 .140 -.138 -2.091 .038
Pregnant .325 .280 .078 1.161 .247
Race 1.503E-02 .163 .006 .092 .927
Single 7.533E-02 .148 .033 .508 .612

aDependent Variable: Satisfaction w/ Body

19

DISCUSSION

My research indicates that White women are less satisfied with their body images
than African American women, however, it appears that women from both races share
common concerns about body their image; which may make many of them feel
inadequate. Behaviors such as binge eating, vomiting, and being depressed about weight
indicate that there is a great deal of Shame, guilt and stress involved in women’s
relationships with their bodies. This contributes not only to eating disorders, but also to
risky cosmetic surgery, depression, agoraphobia and feelings of helplessness (Freedman
2000). We learn to dislike our appearance and place a high premium on the cultural ideals
of beauty. Underlying this concern is a strong cultural imperative for women to measure
their value with physical attractiveness. Socialization and sex role stereotyping leaves
many women feeling ugly, fat, inadequate, self-conscious and uncomfortable in their
bodies. For many women, the body is not a pleasurable and functional part of being
female, instead, it is an object to be manipulated, punished and misused: to be made more
“acceptable.”

In contrast, it appears that men in our culture are not bound to the rigid standards
of beauty that exist for women. However, it is difficult to conclude this because the
sample size was very small and this afier reviewing the questionnaire, it is obvious that
this study was designed for women.

Limitations to Stuaj»

A major limitation to this study is the under—representation of minorities. The

sample size for African Americans women may have been reflective of Michigan State’s

minority population, but it failed to provide representation for African American women

20

as a whole. Future studies on body image must be sure to use probability proportionate to
size sampling (PPS). For example, a study can be developed with equal numbers of Black
and White females using a 2 X 2 mixed design. This method would ensure that African
American perceptions on body image are accurately reflected.

My study failed to provide any meaningful data on what factors influence male
body image—it is logical that they would be influenced by the media and other pressures,
but in different ways than women. For example, men may not want to lose weight, but
gain muscle and look more athletic. I realize that this study was not designed for men——
the questions were, and a questionnaire designed to specifically looked at things such as
what defines male prowess—muscles, money, and status—is needed. Clearly, there is
evidence that men are experiencing some type of pressure to conform to an ideal standard
of male beauty. In professional sports, there are always accusations of steroid use, and
pressure to control and manage weight, however I found limited research in the area of
males and body images, the exception being the literature on gay males. The overall
majority of men that filled out my questionnaire did not express problems with their body
image. Researchers are now starting to realize that by focusing on the problems
associated with women, they are ignoring issues that may concern men (McCabe &
Ricciardelli, 2001).

One obvious limitation in my study is that I used college students who are very
young. Perhaps as individuals mature, their satisfaction with their body images may
increase. It would be beneficial to look at different age groups of individuals and
compare these results with the college age group to see what trends are consistent across

timelines. However, considering the double standards that exist for aging in our culture

21

(de Beuvoir 1972)—in which women’s aging is not as acceptable as men’s aging—
combined with the other pressures of physical aging, it is doubtful that older women have
more satisfaction than younger women. Additionally, variables such as race and
socioeconomic status should be explored to see how they influence older women’s
perceptions of their bodies.

Another component of my study that I would like to explore further is the
correlation that I have discovered between higher economic status and lower satisfaction
with body image. Although my study showed that friends and the media are significant
factors on body images, parents may also play an important role in reinforcing the
sociocultural messages regarding body image. More research is needed that looks into
family structures and how this impacts body image, especially for women in higher
income brackets because they are at the greatest risk for developing eating disorders.
Parental comments about weight and dieting have been shown to increase dieting and
body concerns in daughters (Dunkley, Wertheim, Paxton, 2001).

Even though my sample size was small, the overall findings suggest that upper
middle class white women have a tremendous pressure to be thin, most women are not
completely satisfied with their bodies, and it appears that the media does play a
significant role. The majority of women wanted to change at least one part of their
bodies, the most frequent desire being to have larger breasts. Magazines such as
Glamour, Cosmopolitan and even Oprah—who has had public struggles with her own
weight-depict wafer thin models in advertisements who are tall, tan, tin and well
endowed. Everything from vacuum cleaners to beer ads depicts Slim, shapely women

with perfect hair and faces. The pressure to be thin seems to be a combination of peer,

22

media and family influences, and although African American women appear to be more
satisfied with their body images, my qualitative research suggests that as their income
increases—Le. develop more middle class values, their satisfaction with their body image
decreases. This study did not truly Show this, due to the small sample size, however there
is research that indicates that as Afiican American women become more acculturated
within the dominant white culture, they have a greater risk of becoming less satisfied
with their bodies due to the higher exposure to the preferences, attitudes, and ideals of
white culture (Allan & Michel, 1993).

Longitudinal research would also be helpful in order to determine the trajectory of
body image, and if there is a time—such as early adolescence—when individuals actually
find acceptance with their images. Moreover, it would be beneficial to look at research
that examines what factors promote healthy body image and positive self-concept. This is
critical if we ever hope to overcome the growing problem of eating disorders.

Finally, it is my opinion after doing this investigation that much of the research on
body images falls to look at the broader issues of social control and social change.
Miffions of dollars are spend annually on products that tell women (and men) that there is
something wrong with their bodies. The latest Sports Illustrated (Spring 2004) was more
about flesh and beauty than swimsuits (there were several shots in which the women were
not wearing bathing suites). Fashion trends often reflect the current themes or movements
in our society. In the Sixties, the Skirts became shorter, women threw away their bras, and
the sexual revolution was born. In the seventies, the aftermath of the sixties led to the
polyester disco era. The eighties were symbolized by the extravagance and

conservativeness of the Reagan era—big hair, big shoulders, and perhaps this was the

23

decade when the seeds of perfection that we are faced with now were sown. Blumer
described fashion as an expression of collective behavior—a “positive wish fulfillment.”

If this logic is applied to women and body image, perhaps women just want to be in

“fashion” and look like the images that they are constantly bombarded with.

24

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