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COMPARATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF PLANNERS OF FOUR MICHIGAN
COMMUNITY COLLEGES

By

Meshack Mairura Sagini

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Educational Administration

1987

ABSTRACT

COMPARATIVE PERCEPTIONS OF PLANNERS OF FOUR MICHIGAN
COMMUNITY COLLEGES

By

Meshack Mairura Sagini

This research sought to establish the extent to which planning techniques,
plarming participants, planning parameters and planning products were used by
planners to make decisions concerning effective allocation of resources at four
community colleges in Michigan. The researcher used the Strategic Planning Theory
of Management in light of the rational planning model. Since the research viewed
planning to include leading, directing, evaluating, controlling, budgeting, and
programming, it was intended that data would be collected and analyzed to judge not
only the relationship between means and ends, but also how this relationship brought
to bear on major environmental trends which influence decision making approaches
that determine the direction of each institution and vision of its leadership.

Data were collected on the basis of informed opinion, interviewing, and tape
recording. It was analyzed with the use of non-parametric statistics and interpretive
commentary. Having been a product of data analysis and interpretation, the findings
of the study addressed planning and management concerns in the areas of
demographics, formal planning, strategic planning, decision making, and the degrees

of success of goal implementation. One paramount finding was based on the

understanding that urban institutions used different planning models as compared to
those used by rural institutions.

In conclusion, and for the purpose of maintaining anonymity, the colleges were
named A, B, C, and D. From the analysis, it was evidently clear that the rational
model was perceived as a good planning technique by planners of College D only.

The planners of Colleges A, B and C used the consensus or democratic approach in
decision making. Overall, planners who neither used the rational nor the consensus
did not decisively use other planning models (anarchy, compromise, bureaucratic, and

political.)

iii

DEDICATION

I unreservedly dedicate this monumental dissertation to my wife, Rachel
Nyabate and my children — Paul Mairura, Dennis Onkoba, Eileen Moraa, and Kathy
Bosibori.

I also thank them wholeheartedly for their love, patience, and support during
my many and long hours of absence from them, my intentional and frustrating
disregard for attending to their needs, for providing me with the warmth and strong
family ties which were a source of strength for many literary accomplishments, and

for supporting me financially in order to complete this dissertation.

iv

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A dissertation is a product of immense personal indebtedness. This one could
not have been produced without differential and genuine support and encourangement
from: Bernard Lall, Sage Foundation, Kabede Daka, Denfom Musvovsi, Chongo
Mundende, Mogaka Mogambi, Patrick Wavomba, James Obegi, Mona Lisa, Stephen
Bina, Ando Johnson, Norwegina Publishing House, Anthony LaPnea, Marinus Swets,
Pat Oldt, Dick Bezile, Patricia Pulliam, Till Peters, Richard Calkins, Cornelius
Eringaard, Darrel Welles, Jean Calvert, Robert Deaver, Sharon Heydlaugg, Clyde
LaTarte, Robert Carlton, Allaire George, Lee Howser, David Ingall, Ray Moore,
Wallace Ollika, Michale Walreven, Paul Wreford, Dania] Bitz, Jean K. Christensen,
Anne C. Erdman, Patricia Hall, Inja Kim, Greg Koroch, David Maysick, Anne E.
Mulder, Milton Richter, Robert VanArkel, Michael Walsh, Eilliam Weirick, Rachael
Sagini, Paul Sagini, Dennis Sagini, Eileen Sagini, Jim Lantz, John Carlson, Sally
Mathiesen, March F orist, Dan Harmon, Jesse Fox, Dennis Mulder, Lon Holton,
Richard Conrath, Dr. Burns, Samuel Harris, Douglas Campbell, Kenneth Neff, Harry
T. McKinney, Peggy Riethmiller, Kennedy Harding, Phillip Cusick, James Costar, and
Bouldor Pfeiffer.

I also thank the Sage Foundation greatly for the financial generosity which
enabled me to collect data for analysis which lead to the completion of the
dissertation.

A very special thanks goes to Dr. Howard Hickey, my major professor, for his

help and support.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................

Chapter I Introduction ................................................................
Problem ..........................................................................
Purpose of the Study ...........................................................
Rationale for the Study ........................................................
Research Assertions ..........................................................
Theoretical Framework ........................................................
Definition of Terms ............................................................
Methodology ....................................................................
Limitations of the Study .......................................................
Overview ........................................................................

Chapter H REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................
Introduction .....................................................................
Historical Development of the Community College .......................
Philosophical Bases of the Community College ...........................
Governance of Community Colleges .......................................
The Theory of Strategic Planning ...........................................

Assumptions for Educational Planning ...........................
Origin and Development of Strategic Planning Theory ..........
Strategic Imperatives .................................................
Strategic Versus Tactical Planning .................................
Types of Strategic Planning .........................................
Planning Parameters ..........................................................
1. Mission ...........................................................
2. Organizational Structure .........................................
Perceptions of Strategic Decision Making ..................................
l. The Essence and Theory of Strategic Decisions ..............
2. Decision Making Models ........................................
The Rational Model ...........................................................
Summary .......................................................................

Chapter III. METHODOLOGY AND INSTRUMENTATION ...............
Introduction ...................................................................
Methodology ..................................................................

Purposes of the Study .....................................................

Assertions ..................................................................

Population and Sample Design .........................................

Advantages of Using the Interview .....................................

Unit of Analysis ..........................................................

The Role and Tasks of the Interviewer ...............................

9‘9?pr

vi

Instrumentation ................................................................ 72

1. Setting ...................................................................... 72
2. Preliminary Preparation for Entry ....................................... 72
3. Interview Sites ............................................................. 73
4. Pre-testing and the Interviews ........................................... 73
5. Interviewing Techniques ................................................. 74
6. Data Recording Procedures .............................................. 76
7. The Tape Recorder ....................................................... 76
Summary ....................................................................... 76
Chapter IV DATA ANALYSIS ..................................................... 79
Introduction .................................................................... 79
Purposes of the Study ........................................................ 80
Display of Tables ............................................................. 81
Findings of the Study ......................................................... 89
1. Findings Related to Demographics .................................... 89
2. Findings Related to F ormal Planning ................................. 89
3. Findings Related to Strategic Planning ................................ 89
4. Findings Related to College Goals ..................................... 90
5. Findings Related to Decision Making ................................. 92

Chapter V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 139
Summary ....................................................................... 139
Purpose of the Study .......................................................... 139
Review of the Literature ..................................................... 140
Design of the Study ........................................................... 140
Summary of the Findings of the Study ..................................... 141
Conclusions .................................................................... 141
Interpretation .................................................................. 143
Implications for Research and Administrative Practice .................. 144
Implications for Research .................................................... 145
Recommendations ....................................................... -. ..... 147
Substantive Interpretation .................................................... 150
Rationality and Change ....................................................... 159
Goals and Objectives ......................................................... 163
Summary ....................................................................... 166
Reflections ..................................................................... 167

Comparison Between Business Management and Education... 167

APPENDICES ......................................................................... 171
Appendix A .................................................................... 172
Appendix B .................................................................... 191
Appendix C .................................................................... 203
Appendix D .................................................................... 205

vii

Appendix E ..................................................................... 231

Appendix F ..................................................................... 241
Appendix G ..................................................................... 243
BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................... 265

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Issues for Community Colleges Serving Specific Needs ........... 20
Table 3.1 Shows Populations and Sample .......................................... 78
Table 4.1 College Demographics .................................................... 93
Table 4.2 Use of Formal Planning in College ..................................... 94
Table 4.3 F orrnalized Planning ...................................................... 95
Table 4.4 Whether or Not MBO was Used by College Planners ................ 96
Table 4.5 Whether or Not Each College Had Developed According to its 97
Goals and Objectives ..................................................................

Table 4.6 Whether Planning Officials Analysis the External Environment .. 98
Table 4.7 How Environmental Studies Were Prepared for Analyzing ......... 99
Table 4.8 What Influenced Attitudes of Planners to Manage the College ..... 100
Table 4.9 Person(s) Who Prepare(s) Environmental Studies for Analysis 101
Table 4.10 Sources of Information for Analyzing Studies of the 102
Environment .............................................................................

Table 4.11 Environmental Analysis and the Validity and Reliability of 103
College Goals ...........................................................................

Table 4.12 Trends Evaluated by a College Unit ................................. 104
Table 4.13 Does Your College Have a Criterion for Appointing 105
Administrative Personnel ..............................................................

Table 4.14 Whether College Has a Criterion for Appointing Administrative 106
Personnel ..............................................................

Table 4.15 Terms used in the Processes of Appointments of Administrative 107
and Instructional Personnel .........................................................

Table 4.16 Whether College had Specific Budget Goals and Objectives ...... 108
Table 4.17 Whether College had Priorities to Allocate Funds ................... 109

ix

Table 4.18 College Familiarity with PPBS, MBO, ZBB, MLS, IB, and
EDUCOM ..............................................................................

Table 4.19 Whether College Made Faculty/Staff Changes ......................
Table 4.20 Whether College eliminated Academic Courses and Departments

Table 4.21 Whether Each Department had Clear Course Goals and
Objectives ................................................................................

Table 4.22 Whether Faculty Applied and Used Course Priorities ............
Table 4.23 Whether Your College Faculty Consolidated Courses ............
Table 4.24 Whether Faculty Eliminated Courses .................................
Table 4.25 Whether Faculty Reorganized Courses ..............................

Table 4.26 Whether Faculty Had a limited Number of Courses and
Objectives ...............................................................................

Table 4.27 Whether Faculty had 3 Criteria for Measuring and Maintaining
Course Quality ..........................................................................

Table 4.28 Whether College Goals and Objectives Have Changed in 10-15
years ......................................................................................

Table 4.29 How Internal Problems and Issues Were Identified .................
Table 4.30 Determination of Crucial Facts and Relationships .................
Table 4.31 Why Planners Were Selected for Decision Making ...............
Table 4.32 Locus of Consultation ...................................................
Table 4.33 To What Degree of Analytical Information Used in College
Table 4.34 How/By Whom Priorities Were Developed for Decision Making.
Table 4.35 The Most Typical Decision Making Model ........................

Table 4.36 If Decision Making Styles of Central Administration Had
Changed in Five Years ...............................................................

Table 4.37 How Well College Goals Were Realized ............................

110

111

112

113

114

115

116

117

118

119

120

121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

Table 4.38 Condition Rankings by College and Position - Master Plan 130

Table 4.39 Condition Rankings by College and Position — College Goals 134

xi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This study concerns comparative perceptions of planners in four institutions of
higher learning in Michigan. The strategic factors of institutional environments of the
1970’s and early 1980’s have caused a far-reaching impact on national life and
indirectly on the four and many of America’s institutions. Externally there were
economic recessions, oil embargoes, tax limitation initiatives, and the erosion of
constitutional legitimacy - Watergate scandal. Evidently, these economic and
political conditions made their environment to be extremely confusing. The oil
embargo and the fuel crisis of the 1970’s produced a painful blow to the American
economy. “With the geometric increase of fiiel prices, the relationships that served as
the bond of the entrepreneurial system were shattered” (Hoverland, McInturgg, and
Rohn, Jr., 1986, p. 2). The result of these conditions was chaos, bankruptcies, and a
terrible recession. The loss of business life eroded the tax base and forced the
taxpayers to resist taxation formuli; the local, state, and federal legislature to cut
budgets, review them, and restructure them.

The impact of budgetary cuts on socioeconomic life including educational
institutions was severe. First, all governmental units reduced their expenditures.
Second, the budget cuts or reductions limited initiatory possibilities for fiJture growth
and long-term projections and budgets.

Internally, since taxpayers resisted taxation measures, governments imposed

unit budget cuts, and the total situation looked chaotic, growthless, and hopeless;

enrollments cripplingly declined, tensions increased, and made decision making a
nebulous endeavor; and finally, the struggle for institutional survival and maintaining
open door policy was not only further challenged by the disruptive internal and
external forces, but these forces caused the death of some institutions whose
resurrection remains a great uncertainty. The forces caused organizational structures
to experience conflicts.

The external and internal conditions which created problems in national and
educational life were or are trends of the environment which impact(ed) on institutions
and influenced institutional managers (planners) to react perceptivity, rationally, or
irrationally in order to maintain the status quo or change it. Such reactions became the
genesis of polemical or controversial debates geared to making the right choices as
they sought for answers. Since these debates were and are based on differential
perceptions of planning reality by community leaders, legislatures, administrators
(planners), faculty, students, and board members, these groups try to articulate the
issues for purposes of seeking better solutions.

The continuous attempt by institutional planners to seek strategic, tactical, and
operational measures of institutional effectiveness has necessitated for many the use of
the rational planning model to delve into or intellectually to probe institutional
mechanisms for administrative (planning) efficiency, and effectiveness.

In other works, as Moore (1983, pp 75-76) points out:

...any reasonably alert educator knows, critical and fundamental shifts

are occurring in the American society and economy, and colleges are

being pressed to cope with their ramifications, acceleration of

technology, shifts in values, economic uncertainties, blurring of sex

roles, tightening of resources, and changes in demographics — all these
factors are altering the fabric of American life. The inexorable change

in society creates an imperative need for change in education. That

imperative may be strongest for community colleges, precisely because

they are — and should be — both in and of their communities. That being

the case, they have a dual responsibility: to shape their environment and

to be shaped by it.

In the process of making attempts to fulfill the dual responsibility, the
organizational structure (see Figure 1) and the strategic forces (main external and
internal factors which contribute to the formation of viable strategic policy) (Myran,

1983) generate organizational conflicts which by themselves are essential for change.

Figure 1.1 Organizational Structures

External Environment

 

Federal, state Local Other Constituency Local Taxpayers
and local business and educational groups interest (support,
government industry institutions (recruitment, groups funding,
(funding (student (coordination, service) (advice, pressure)
regulations) source, competition) pressure)
support)
| | |
Opportunities Threats Competition

 

 

 

l l 1

Governing Board

 

 

 

 

 

 

Management
Goals Commitment Conflict
Staff unions Student groups College Faculty and staff Informal staff
Departments coalitions relationships
Governance
groups

Internal Environment

PROBLEM

The study sought to establish whether or not planning models exist in four
different Michigan community colleges as perceived by college planners. In other
words, whether the colleges’ planning models existed or not was scientifically an
unverified fact subject to investigation. Secondly, if the colleges had planning
model(s), the study sought to identify and verify the model(s), and examine or analyze
them in light of a formal planning model.

The study examined and assessed the relationship between planning by the
officials of the four colleges in Michigan and execution of plans and the extent to
which the colleges were held accountable for carrying out their stated goals and
objectives. Data were collected, analyzed, and assessed to judge the relationship
between perceptions of planing and actual outcomes of the planning process at these
colleges.

In these colleges, and perhaps in many other colleges and universities around
the world, the planning function is an everyday activity of institutional management.
However, oftentimes little attention is given to the rational planning model as a major
element of institutional management. A careful investigation of this process was the

purpose of this inquiry.

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purposes of the study were fourfold:

1.

To determine whether goals and objectives of the colleges were clearly
identified and effectively implemented in consonance with institutional
mission

To determine whether programs were developed to achieve institutional
goals and objectives

To observe, analyze, and reflect on the role of institutional research to the
planning process

To determine whether goals, objectives, and research were articulated in

the context of a formal planning model

RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY

The questions, which this study intends to answer, are:

1.

How do planning techniques used by college planners help them to solve
their urgent problems?

What characteristics of the planning techniques, planning, and the decision
setting contribute to the outcomes as perceived by the planning team?
Does the rational model of decision-making have any relevance to their
planning?

Are there generalizations that can be drawn from their experiences that are

reasonable hypotheses for use in other colleges and universities?

RESEARCH ASSERTION S

The major theme underlying the study is that institutions changeably use
planning models to improve their institutional management operations. Based on this
assumption, institutions will tend to use planning models which enable them to
operate more efficiently and effectively.

Assertion l: Planners who display authoritarian decision-making styles
in their colleges are more likely to use rational planing than other planning
models.

Assertion 2: Planners who successfully use any one of the other
commonly known decision-making styles are less likely to use the rational
planning model in their colleges.

Assertion 3: Planners who neither use the rational or any one of the

more commonly known planning models tend to use more than two of them.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

F ormalized planning is the degree to which a system or an institution is
pre-specified in terms of its membership, responsibilities, authority, and
discretion in decision making. In the context of strategic management, the
degree of formalized planning is effective because it correlates with cost,
comprehensiveness, accuracy, and successful planning (Johnson, 1975).

The three basic organizational structures of formality, which graphically
display different distributions of authority, are the classical pyramid, the matrix,

and the team. Although it is found in most organizations, the pyramidal form is

a product of classical organization theory in which both the team and the matrix
are inextricably intertwined. The team theory places emphasis on participatory
management in which leaders and followers have authority to contribute to
decision making. This collective decision-Making approach motivates personnel
to be productive because they professionally and psychologically get satisfaction.
The team approach evokes feelings of belonging and ownership. Both belonging
and ownership are manifestations of group solidarity and unity.

The formal planning model is attractive because it is believed that it
prevents ad hoc and random decision making which unnecessarily and
expensively narrows choices for the future. Formalized planning gives the
institutions a structural framework of objectives, goals, and the strategies for
decision making. Such a formal planning structure provides a two-way channel
of communication whose actions help to maintain interactive, iterative, and

hierarchical consistency (Johnson, 1975).

DEFINITION OF TERMS

D_ata: Numbers that identify entities such as races, sex, or program level
of students. Data result fi'om observation or measurement. Data may be raw
facts from which information can be produced. The quality of data is determined
by their validity, accuracy, and reliability.

Information: Composed of data that have been combined and given a

 

form in which they convey to the recipient user some useful knowledge.

Information is created when data are selected, organized, analytically

manipulated, and the result is given a form that informs and serves the needs of
users. The quality of information is determined by its relevance, timeliness, and
acceptability.

m: An organizational/structure in which immediate subordinates
have power and authority to make and implement decisions independent of the
chief executive.

Management database: Are a set of data used to support strategic
decision-making. The data are an aggregate, updated less frequently, and may
originate externally.

Mement control: Is the process by which planners (administrators)
assure that resources are obtained and used effectively and efficiently.

Pflamid (hierarchy): When the whole organization is controlled from
one center of authority (chief executive).

Operational (transactional) database: Is data generated internally for the
support of the daily repetitive process of the institutions.

Operational control: Is the process of assuring that specific tasks are
carried out effectively and efficiently.

Efficiency: The amount of resources (personnel, fiscal, facilities, and
time) used to reach ends of time.

Grand Strategy: Is the combination of centrally activated strategies that
define the driving force of the organization in a climate of competitive growth

and qualitative productiveness.

Master strategy (master plam: Is a group of strategic plans formulated to
achieve the institution’s strategic objectives as it manages the institution’s
relationships with the major constituents of its internal and external
environments.

Mission: It the institution’s historic purpose, its reason for being.
Mission statements describes the institution’s major areas of interest, its scope of
intended actions, the basic market needs it intends to satisfy, its primary values,
current performance and vision of the leadership, and its distinctive

competencies.

 

gganizational policy: Comprises broad forms of guidance established to
aid administrators (planners) in determining strategic objectives (goals) and in
formulating, implementing, and controlling the master strategy.

Operational information system: Data stored for daily use in
management.

Outcomes: Ends, results, or changes in condition or state that accrue to
any entry as a consequence of the programs.

Fla—mgr: Manager, administrator, leader, academic expert, consultant,
professional, physical planners, decision maker, policy maker, senior executive
officer, budget director or controller.

_Pu_rpose: Internal or external conditions to be changed or maintained.
Purposes are synonymous with intended outcomes or objectives.

Resources: Refers to human, financial, facilities, and time, which are

allocated, used to provide particular programs.

Strategic decisions: Are those concerned with questions of institutional
policy, purpose, or direction. They are above operational or control decisions.
They may concern programs rather than courses, tenure policy more than a
person’s tenure related problem, long-range strategic planning rather than
objectives. Strategic decisions involve executive rather than operational
judgments. The decisions require information produced by a decision-support
system and a management database.

Strategic management (planning): Is the process of managing the pursuit
of the institutional mission, which manages the relationship of the institution to
its environment.

Strategic objectives: Are major, comprehensive objectives for
accomplishing the mission of the institution. They define the mission in more
specific, measurable, and achievable terms.

College: Organization institution, school.

Management: Is the process of making decisions on economic and non-
economic resources in the organizational context and within a market and non-
market environment that changes continually.

Governance: Is the structural and procedural means by and through
which interested individuals, groups, agencies, and governmental units

participate to make policies for the college or institution.

10

METHODOLOGY
To fulfill the practical and theoretical purpose of the study, this study was

conducted as follows:

1. The research conducted an extensive literature review (Chapter II) on
planning in two-year colleges and other institutions of which colleges and
universities, business, public administration, military, and industry are
organizations, which utilize similar management planning techniques,
theories, and models. Those, which were relevant and applicable to higher
education management, were emphasized by the study. The review of the
literature is found in Chapter II.

2. With advice of a higher education professor and research director, two rural
and two urban colleges were selected for the study. A group of 42 top and
middle-level college administrators (planners) were identified and selected
on the basis of informed opinion from each of the four colleges. In other
words, all the planners were selected for the study not only due to their
planning experience, position, and acceptance, but because the chief planning
official of each college recommended them to inform the study.

3. Measurable responses from the sample (college planners, who included
members of the president’s cabinets or administrative council, presidents,
vice presidents, deans, directors, controller, and recorders). The study
examined available and accessible planning documents too. These

documents included past master plans, official institutional facts, and minutes

11

or agenda, college history documents, calendars (bulletins), missions, goals,
and objectives, and management reports.

Three techniques were used to analyze data and display results. First, the
researcher interviewed all potential respondents from the colleges and
selectively tape recorded responses, which were used for analytic induction
and interpretative commentary. Second, cross-tables (histograms) containing
tabulated sets of numbers and their percentages were displayed. In addition,
the scientific calculator and computer were used for the purpose of data
reduction and more accurate computational analysis. The attempt to use
these analytical methods was not only an introduction to the researcher’s
methodological eclecticism, but it was also an appropriate way to try to
approximate the truth more accurately.

Finally, comparative analysis on the intra- and inter-institutional
management theory and model was reflected on the colleges’ planning
theory(s) and model(s). Such an analytic comparison enabled the researcher
to evolve a suitable planning model for the colleges. The evolution of the
model was a product of comparative analysis of the long-range traditional
and the strategic management models. Through such analytical comparison

and contrasts, or similarities and differences, clarifications were made.

12

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

Although the sample was designed to allow comparisons that yield
statistical reliability, the size of the colleges and the economic and logistical
capability of the researcher had a considerable influence on the study.

Limitations were a function of a lack of internal validity. They were
considered when the researcher drew conclusions about the validity of the study.
The major sources of the limitations included the imperfections in the measuring
instrument itself, interpretations arising from reading or scoring of the instrument
information, and inconsistency in the subjects who were interviewed. For
example, the respondents may not have used or known the concept of the model
as the researcher’s.

The survey sample used in this study was limited to four of the 29 public
community colleges in Michigan. The names of the colleges can be seen in
Appendix F, in which those, which participated in the study, are asterisked.

They study is an illustrative example of the planning styles and strategies of
these four higher education institutions. The institutions should not be viewed as
classic models for emulation: however, each college’s planning style is a product
of it’s and unique evolutionary development. Although it might be expected that
an analysis of the comparative planning approaches of the four colleges may be
beneficial to other institutional planners, not all planning styles of these colleges

may be suitable and emulative in other planning institutional environments.

13

OVERVIEW

The entire study has five chapters on this study. Chapter I is composed
of the problem, purpose, and a brief summary of theoretical and methodological
underpinnings of the study. In addition, the chapter contains a list of definitions
followed by a precise overview of literature and summary.

Chapter H contains a review of literature on conventional and strategic
perceptions of planning.

Chapter III presents the methodology, which formed the basis for data,
collection and analysis.

Chapter IV is based on data analysis and display of results.

Chapter V gives summary, implications, conclusions, and recommendations.

14

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

This chapter, in principle, is based on the review of the literature on
community and other colleges and universities, and strategic planning and decision
making in many organizations. The central themes articulated include: (a) history,
philosophy, governance, and planning structures of community colleges; (b) planning
and strategic planning; and (c) consensual rationality. The major areas of this chapter
are:

1. Historical development of the community college

2. Philosophical bases of the community college

3. Governance of community colleges

4. The theory of strategic planning

5. Perceptions of strategic decision making

6. The rational model

Although the colleges are currently faced by a variety of problems of which
retrenchment, inflation, recession, and apparent difficulty to strategically adjust to
new high technology demands, these problems have not reached a paralyzing phase.
Creative and innovative attempts for reassessing and modifying their mission and
goals can be sensed on campuses, in the press, and in scholarly and professional
literature. The articulation of such problems will not be fi'uitless in addressing

synergistic change in the community colleges.

15

In Michigan these problems have not only been publicly articulated, but such
an articulation has raised issues related to compensation of full and part-time faculty,
open-door policy, definitions of quality in the face of retrenchment, millage politics,
matching institutional goals, business and community needs, community college
relations, and whether or not colleges should collaborate with business, government,
industry, labor, and the press in providing resources for training and retraining of
workers who need relevant and marketable skills. Economically, a well-trained
working force will revitalize the productive capacity or the “economic engine”
(LaTarte, January 29, 1987) of society. On the other hand, a strong economy helps to
promote people’s standard of living, health, education, ability to pay taxes and
credits, and strong communities, state, and nation.

The public articulation and justifiable rationalization of these issues,
according to Wing (1982), does not only create avenues for the exploration of further
and more complex issues and alternatives, but the emergent complexity of issues and
alternatives becomes the springboard for identifying opportunities and constraints and
weaknesses and strengths. Through this dialectical process of sensitizing and
articulating reality, missions, and goals emanate from such interacting institutional
and community dynamics. Such dynamics in structure and content impact on
institutional planners to plan for institutional change. The nature and character of
change will be discussed in this chapter. Table 2.1 shows the relationship between
needs and specific issues. Normally, needs are translated into institutional goals (see

Appendices A, B, C and D).

16

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE

The public community college received its evolutionary roots fiom the
elementary and secondary school system during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
The principles and traditions upon which the public schools were built guided public
community colleges. Of the classical traditions, three have been outstanding as they
have been applied in the past, and as they apply presently (Monroe, 1976).

1. Universal opportunity for a free public education without distinction based on
social class, family income, ethic, racial, or religious backgrounds

2. Originally, local control and support of free, non-tuition educational systems;
hover, today local control remains to be true, but students pay a relatively low
tuition in most community colleges all over the country

3. A relevant curriculum designed to meet both the needs of the individual and
those of the community, state, and nation.

In Michigan the First College (Grand Rapids Junior College) started in 1914;
Jackson, 1928; Lake Michigan, 1946; and Montcalm, 1965. In 1945, the state had
eight community colleges. In 1960 Michigan had sixteen. As of 1987 there were 29
(Research committee: The Impact of Community Colleges on Michigan and Its
Economy, 1984, page 8). The growth and expansion of these institutions is a recent
development of post-secondary education in Michigan and the United States. The
whole country has about 1,224 community, technical, and junior colleges in which
more than 5 million students attend. These statistical estimates show that the
community college movement plays a significant role in the higher education system

of the United States (Parnell, 1987).

17

In the first place, as Monroe (1976, page 14) argues, it is apparently clear that

the rapid expansion of the colleges in question started after 1945. This phenomenon

of growth was attributed to:
1. Growing demands of business and industry for technically trained employees
2. The existence of local communities which had and have both sufficient
taxable wealth and population willing to support community colleges
3. Most important, a body of parents and citizens who aspired to have their

children enjoy firlfillment of a dream for a college education, but who were
financially unable to afford the luxury of an education at a private college or a
state university, where tuition, room and board, and other expenses were and
are beyond the reach of even the most animated parents.

Secondly, parents, local civic leaders, governmental commissions, and

educational organizations popularized the community college movement by making

recommendations and by supporting legislation for the colleges. The arguments of

these public and private groups, according to Monroe (1976), articulated three claims,

which were popular with the 19th century elementary and high school evolutionary

transition. The claims suggested that:

l.

2.

National income increases in proportion to the increase in educational
investments

The national security is made more secure from the ravages of illiterate,
uneducated citizens who might be inclined to be disruptive to public welfare
The pursuit of freedom for individual and the promise of the good life for all

could be best secured by extending secondary educational opportunities

18

“These three arguments are the ones used in support of fiee elementary
schools in the 1830’s and 1840’s and for the public high school in the period from
1870 —1900” (Monroe, 1976, page 14).

It is noteworthy to say that the development of the colleges became more and
more complex with the increase and expansion of higher education, industry, and
automation. This development changed the role of the community colleges from
being merely academic and literary institutions to one which also provides service,

vocational/technical, remedial, and transfer firnctions.

19

NEEDS

Table 2.1 Issues for Community Colleges Serving Specific Needs

SPECIAL ISSUES

 

Provide access to higher
education

Serve local business and
industries

Provide alternatives to local
unemployment

Provide low cost, local
options for access to higher

education

Provide remedial education

Provide education for adults

Training and retraining for
business, industry, labor

Provide high quality in
whatever mission and
program mix selected

Provide occupational training

Enrollment base is declining. New clientele to
maintain enrollment levels will require new
programs and strategies.

Tailor-made programs may require tailor-made
financing arrangements for both colleges and
students.

Individuals debating between job and college
will choose college in times of unemployment.

Commuter options are a big advantage for
community colleges. This option may become
increasingly important.

Lack of clarity exists about where remediation
should take place: secondary programs may be
more cost effective. Caution must be exercised
not to undercut higher education standards.

Vocational and noncredit programs will move
toward self-sufficiency: tuition or fees will
cover direct costs.

Close working relationships with local business
may provide critical markets for community
colleges in the 19803.

Poor or good quality will eventually come to the
attention of students and cause enrollment
decreases or increases.

New technologies, particularly in electronics,
will cause significant changes in both
curriculum content and teaching methods.

 

SOURCE: Paul Wing, “Emerging Relations Between Community Colleges and State
and Local Agencies”, New Directions for Community Colleges 10 (1982)

20

PHILOSOPHICAL BASES OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE

In light of the educational thoughts of the founding fathers, the needs of the
individual and nation, America was forced to democratize education and eliminate
barriers based on class, poverty, race, and cultural deprivation. President Truman’s
1947 Commission on Higher Education expressed similar concerns, but in a more
emphatic manner. The Commission stated:

Equal educational opportunity for all persons, to the maximum of their
individual abilities and without regard to economic status, race, creed,
color, sex, national origin, or ancestry is a major goal of American
democracy. Only an informed, thoughtful, tolerant people can
maintain and develop a free society. Equal opportunity for education
does not mean equal or identical education for all individuals. It
means, rather, that education at all levels shall be available equally to
every qualified person... The commission does not subscribe to the
belief that higher education should be confined to an intellectual elite,
much less a small elite drawn largely from families in the higher
income brackets, nor does it believe that a broadening of opportunity
means a dilution of standards either of admission or of scholarly
attainment in college work The danger is not that individuals may
have too much education. It is rather that it may be either the wrong
kind for the particular individual, or education, dominated by
inadequate purposes. (Community, Technical, and Junior College
Journal, 1987, page 3).

The Commission’s document on higher education and Monroe’s monographs
may be paraphrased to clarify that:
1. Democratic society cannot exist wholesomely without a well-educated citizenry
2. Universal availability of public education through the 14th year was essential
3. Since the social purpose of education is also an individual purpose, higher

education should allow those with potential abilities, who desire it, can afford it,

and can profit from it, to develop their talents for social and self-service

21

9

4. The admission policy was or is “open door’ . Its purpose is to make sure that

every person is granted the opportunity to succeed or to fail by his or her own

efforts

5. A diversified curriculum (comprehensive) which has five main aspects:

a.

b.

development of techniques of introducing students to the life of intellect
education for transfer to senior colleges and universities

the curriculum has diversity occupationally or vocationally

the educational needs of the part-time adult student are taken care of
colleges must adjust their missions to meet the high tech needs of business,
industry, state, and government

In short, what these authors imply is that community college education is

excellent education because it is designed to meet the needs of the students and

individual communities. Secondly, the teaching approach is eclectic, and it makes

higher education available and attractive to students of all ages, all social classes, and

all varieties of ability. To make the curriculum more relevant and manageable,

colleges provide counseling and guidance and encourage students to become higher

achievers. To the extent that the community college will make these principles

realities, it will justify its growing importance in the structure of American higher

education.

22

GOVERNANCE OF COMMUNITY COLLEGES

The governance of a community college is both internal and external. Those
who exercise governance over the community college are persons who are legally
responsible for the management tasks of the institution. Faculty governance (internal
governance) is not part of this type of management. However, external governance
agencies, such as the state legislature, governor, State Board of Higher Education,
Association of American Community and Junior Colleges, AAUP, AFT, NEA, SCUP,
ACCT, and the Board of Trustees are external management agencies which contribute
to decision-making mechanisms, policies, laws, and procedures which enhance the
smooth firnctioning of the community college.

Internally, the chief executive (President), his vice presidents, deans, and
department Chairpersons are individually and collectively managers of their areas of
responsibility in the institution. Their chief functions include planning (programming,
organizing, leading, coordinating, controlling, and evaluating).

It should be made clear, however, that is a public setting, and internal
governance activities are delegated from the external section of management. Since
boards are either elected or appointed from the external sphere, they cannot be an
internal management agency for institutions. They are an external management
agency.

In the case of Michigan, for instance, the state has three major legal
responsibilities in regard to community and junior colleges. These include:

1. to provide leadership and supervision through the Superintendent of State

Education

23

2. to generally plan and coordinate education
3. To advise thelegislature on the financial requirements for the colleges
(Constitution of the State of Michigg, 1963, pp. 65 and 67).

In brief, both internal and external governance structures for the community
college carry out their tasks in the light of the law. Each of the 50 states has its own
unique governance structure, laws, policies, and procedures. No two of them are alike
in every respect; however, similarities and differences between and among them exist

and such are not the subject of this topic.

THE THEORY OF STRATEGIC PLANNING

One of the ways the topic and problem could be related to its purpose and
objectives is to attempt to define “planning” as a term, frequently used in higher
education management. In this regard, it may be said that planning is a campaign to
move an institution toward its image of the future, on a timetable that is both desirable
and feasible. Planning ideas emanate from “individuals, institutions, and society”
(J edamus and Peterson, 1981, page 114). At the institutional level, planning may be
viewed as a separate and analytically oriented institutional function, as an integral part
of the decision making and control function, or as a more politically oriented policy
making function. The planning function identifies possible future states of the
university, and develops relevant strategies, policies, and procedures for selecting and
getting to one or some or all of them.

Planning is a broad topic in organizational management. It has many

definitions and meanings reflected in those organizations and their individuals. “To

24

some, planning is synonymous with perspective on management and decision making
that emphasizes rationality, utilization of information and control of influence of
future events” (Lee, 1979, page 2). Executives in business organizations call planning
strategic planning. Government officials call it “policy analysis”. It may refer to a set
of techniques used for organizing and analyzing information. Examples of such
techniques include Management Information systems, MBO, Simulation Modeling,
and Resource and Expenditure Forecasting. Planning may imply an organizational
model, an ideal state of the organization, a blueprint for the firture condition of an
institution or organization. The notions may or may not be stated in a master plan, an
institutional rrrission statement or a document of organizational goals and assumptions.

Planning is associated with people working in an office of planning and/or
institutional research and with the organized process conducted by these offices, such
as incremental budgeting, program planning, and budgeting and program evaluation.

Planning is “a process which establishes objectives; defines strategies, policies
and sequences of events to achieve objectives; defines the organization for
implementing the planning process; and assures a review and evaluation of
performance as feedback in recycling and process” (Johnson, 1975, page 51).

Planning may be considered as a philosophy of “projective thought” (looking
ahead). In this sense, planning is an attitude or state of mind, a way of thinking, or '
process of making plans.

Planning may be viewed in terms of structure. Long-range planning

refers to the development of a comprehensive and reasonably uniform

program of plans for the organization, reaching out over a long period of

time. IT is an integrating framework within which each of the functional

plans may be tied together and an overall plan developed for the entire
institution (page 51).

25

Technically, “planning determines the objectives of administrative effort and
devises the means to achieve them” (Halstead, 1974, page 2). The planning strategy
enables administrators to react perceptibly to probable and possible future events and
changes which affect the institution. Because it is a cyclical and continuous process, it
increases the opportunity to identify issues and alternatives which are consistent with
established goals. The identification of issues and alternatives increases the changes
of securing maximum returns with minimum cost.

The planing process is different from a plan. “A plan is a document which
outlines a complete program of action to follow in attaining goals and objectives”
(Planning Universities, 1974, page 18). It is possible, but not desirable, to have a
document which has the appearance of a plan without reflecting the planning process.
A master plan, pr0posal, or a goal, are examples of plans. By itself, or without being
used, reviewed, and continually evaluated, a plan is a static, rather that a dynamic
document (Figure 2.2 shows one example of how to strategically formulate a master
plan goal (objective) and determine policy.

On the other hand, regardless of its depth and comprehensiveness, a plan is a
temporary guide, not a final solution. To be effective, the plan has to be responsive to
the needs of the institution, individuals, private and public institutions, and the general
public which morally and materially support the institution. In spite of its limitations
and strengths, the uniqueness of the master plan (plan) is based on its multiple
elements each of which is functionally distinctive and mutually interdependent.

Effective planning is strategic planning. Strategic planning deals with a new

array of factors: the changing external environment, competitive conditions, strengths

26

and weaknesses of the organization, opportunities for growth and sensitivity to
changing environment. In a sense, “strategic planning is a management activity
designed to help organizations develop greater quality by capitalizing on the strengths
they already have” (Keller, 1983, page vii). “Strategic planning does not deal with the
future decisions, but it deals with the firturity of present decisions” (Lall and Lall,
1979, page 74). Drucker’s (1970) definition of strategic planning asserts that it is a
continuous process of making present entrepreneurial (risk-taking) decisions in a
systematic way and with a fairly accurate prediction of their futurity. Efforts needed
to carry decisions out must be systematic; their results must be measured against the
expectations through the process of organized and systematic feedback.

Strategic planning involves participatory and adaptive management. It has two
major purposes: to obtain agreement on specific long-range institutional goals and to
provide advice to the president and the College Board concerning activities that should
be given priority in annual budgets. Notwithstanding its purposes, there are four
structural performance phases of strategic planning: “(1) the analysis phase which
includes the assessment of external and internal environments, (2) the mission and
goals phase, (3) the objectives and action plan phase, and (4) the resource use, needs
analysis, and expenditure strategies phase” (Uhl, 1983, page 2).

Regardless of the variety of planning concepts, and for the purposes of this
inquiry, the study will articulate planning in three major ways:

1. emphasis on goal setting, goal evaluation, and goal achievement (this view is

policy or decision oriented)

27

2. emphasis on the effectiveness of planned and implemented objectives

(emphasis is on strategic planning)

3. the role of the feedback mechanisms of planning goals and objectives

(emphasis is on the planning model)

For purposes of this review of literature, goals and objectives may be perceived
as ends, while budget resource allocation activities are viewed as means for the
achievement of goals and objectives. The study views research as a source of valid,
accurate, and reliable data needed for appropriate planning technicalities, details, and
strengths rather than planning superficialities which may be symbols of mediocrity and
weakness. Finally, the feedback mechanism of the planning process maintains the
balance between goals and objectives on the one hand, and budget-resource allocation,
implementation, and course review and evaluation nexus on the other. All information
and activities related to planning can theoretically be put into eight components which
characterize the study (Halstead, 1974, page 17):

1. determining goals

2. identifying problems

3. diagnosing problems

4. establishing premises (assumptions)

5. searching for possible solutions

6. selecting the solution

7. implementing the solution

8. evaluating the results of the solution

28

ASSUMPTIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL PLANNING

There are eight major assumptions related to planning and higher education

management. The assumptions, according to Greneman and Firm (1978) generally

focus on the internal and external environments of the college which management

needs to articulate in order to identify possibilities and constraints. Identification of

potentialities and constraints enables plarmers and faculty to determine what issues

and alternatives should be explored before selecting objectives for implementation.

The eight major assumptions are:

l.

A society’s goals whether economic, cultural, political, social, or technological
can be achieved only through the development of human resources. In doing so,
the social needs of citizens and individuals will be addressed more effectively.
The strength of a national program of higher education will depend on the quality
of program and services offered by individual institutions. Therefore, the primary
purpose of a national system of planning, coordination, and control is to
encourage all individual institutions within the system to attain optimum strength.
The presence of one or more well-performing institution or institutions will not
necessarily insure an effective national program of higher education. All
institutions in the system must be encouraged to perform better.

Strength in an institution of higher education is closely associated with autonomy
in the making of essential decisions affecting institutional operations. It is
difficult to be a strong institution unless the institution is given maximum self-
deterrnination in its operations. Self-determination does not, ipso facto, insure

quality; it is only a necessary prerequisite for building quality.

29

5. The coordinating function should be assigned to a single central agency
(Accrediting Agency) that does not have responsibility for the operational control
of any individual institution. By contrast, the control and management of internal
operations of the institution is the prerogative of the chief executive (President).

6. Coordination functions can be carried on with what hopefirlly will be construed as
minimal interference with essential institutional autonomy. Among the necessary

functions of coordination are:

9’

devising plans for the orderly development of higher education in the nation
b. collecting and analyzing pertinent data concerning institutional programs,
facilities, and finances
c. giving advice and/or recommendations concerning the role and firnctions of
institutions in the national system
(I. reviewing institutional requirements for appropriations and making
recommendations to the legislature regarding the financial needs of each
institution
e. reviewing new programs; degree offerings; and physical facilities to ascertain
their consonance with national plans
7. The increasing complexity of the society requires human talents of a wide variety
and achievement at many levels. The needs of society and the needs of individual
self-fulfilhnent are both well served when a wide diversity of educational
opportunities is made available in a manner that encourages their widespread use.
8. In America, students have the freedom and opportunity to attend a higher

institution of learning regardless of cost.

30

In brief, assumptions are a theoretical web which looks like guidelines or
idealistic situational principles through which the validity of higher education
practices, policies, and parameters are continually refined and replenished. The
assumptions also relate the scope of national and state institutional expectations to

individual institutions and their constituents.

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF STRATEGIC PLANNING THEORY

The term strategy means “strategos” (Cope, 1981, page 5). Strategos was a
military leader or general. The verb stratego means to plan. Originally, planning was
a process used by individuals, families, armies, and small groups; as societies evolved
is social organization and technological complexity, planning became a science as
well as an art of leadership and management.

Although the intellectual roots of strategic planning are three centuries old, its
educational theory and practice are only 25-50 years old. Intellectually, strategic
planning drew the wealth of its ideas from five main sources; geopolitical theory,
marketing, field theory, general systems, and contingency theory and management
schools of thought. Five areas of strategic planning identified by Cope (1981) are:

Establishing the mission, role and scope of the institution; analyzing data

on the internal operations: analyzing data on the external environment;

matching institutional mission and strengths in order to capitalize on

opportunities for alternative formulations of policy; and choosing the
strategies that are consistent with the institution’s values, are

economically justifiable, are politically attainable, and are consistent

with serving social needs.

Pearce II and Robinson (1982) assert that strategic management connotes a set

of decisions and actions which result in the formulation and implementation of

31

strategies designed to achieve the objectives of the organization. As viewed by these

two authors, strategic management concerns nine critical areas (1928, page 4). These

are:

1.

Determination of the mission of the organization, including broad statements
about its purpose, philosophy, and goals.

Development of organizational profile which reflects its internal condition and
capability.

Assessment of the organization’s external environment, both in terms of
competitive and general contextual factors.

Interactive opportunity analysis of possible options uncovered in the matching
of the organization profile with the external environment.

Identification of the desired options uncovered when the set of possibilities is
considered in light of the organization’s mission.

Strategic choice of a particular set of long-term objectives and grand strategies
needed to achieve the desired options.

Development of annual objectives and short- term strategies which are
compatible with long-term objectives and grand strategies.

Implementation of strategic choice decisions based on budgeted resource
allocations and emphasizing the matching of tasks, people, structure,

technologies, and reward systems.

Review and evaluation of the success of the strategic process to serve as a
basis of control and as an input for future decision making.

Sensitivity to dimensions of strategic decisions, issues, and concerns, as the

authors argue, require top management decision makers. The responsibilities of the

top management decision makers may include setting the mission, establishing

objectives, planning strategy, establishing policies, planning the organization

structure, providing personnel, establishing procedures, providing facilities, providing

capital, setting standards, establishing management programs and operational plans,

32

providing control information, and activating people in the light of the organization’s

mission.

According to Higgins and Vincze (1986, page 4), strategic management is

principally concerned with executive actions that involve:

1.

The determination of the organization’s mission, strategic policies, and
strategic objectives.

The formulation of a master strategy to accomplish those objectives. This
strategy is most often based on a grand strategy combining basic actions and
marketing considerations.

The formulation of policies to aid in the implementation and control of the
master strategy.

Management through subordinates, the process of implementation, which
translates strategic plans into action and results.

The practices of evaluation and control to determine whether the mission and
objectives have been achieved and whether the plans and policies for reaching
them are functional (see Figure 2.2).

Recently, Peters and Waterman (1980) wrote In search of Excellence. The

document is a study of 17 excellent companies in America integrated into eight by

scholarly organizational theorists (March, Mintzberg, Pfeffer, Scott, Salancik, and

Weik). The principal conceptual theme for which the authors of the book are untied

is the organizational culture. They view culture to be consisting of:

Shared values and interpretations of social activities and commonly held
definitions of organizational purpose and work orientations, all embraced
by the normative perspective taken by members of the organization... (W)
hence culture is strong and cohesive; it provides a sort of multiplier effect
for individual work efforts. Individuals are supported, guided, and given
identity by a social web which moves them toward common goals (page
2).

33

Peters and Waterman believe that excellent organizations possess
organizational cultures that are filled with value systems — usually around content
such as the importance of people, superior quality and service, innovation,
informality, and detail. The cluster of values that are the foundation of culture given
meaning to the life of the organization. This meaning enables individuals to find
purpose in the organization and for their own lives. The role of the administrator of
an excellent institution (corporation) is to manage the value system. Typically, the
management of culture is implemented through consistent behavioral examples
enacted in close proximity to those who perform the essential work of the
organization. As culture develops over years, organizational members come to
believe in and act in the light of values that undergird and direct their behavior, and
once employees are fully uncultured, the need for volumes of specific rules
disappears. As a result, members become free to act autonomously, to experiment,
innovate, and even fail. Planners who integrate cultural values with management
tasks plan strategically.

In relation to schools, Peters and Waterman consistently view the whole
organization to be the unit of culture. Schools culture can be used as an integrating
conceptual framework for increasing the social interaction evidenced in effective
schools. The social interaction of effective schooling is more likely to increase the
level of cultural change from the base rather than fi'om top-down initiatives.

Although the literature on effective schools does not demonstrate how

effective schools and cultures arise, are sustained, and decline, Peters and Waterman

34

suggest that effective schools (organizations) are those which know the needs of their
clientele and devise strategies for addressing them effectively.

Upon visiting many campuses, educators, and planners George Keller (1983)
resolved to write Academic Strategy: The Management Revolution in America_r_r
Hi gher Education to address the causes and effects of the perilous new era of
declining enrollments, inflated costs, and shifting academic priorities — in other
words, retrenchment. To address retrenchment, he examines the new role of strategic
planning and how it is changing the role of professors, trustees, and presidents.
Keller (page 81) defines strategic planning as:

A new development of great potential. This type of planning is not the

same as the mechanical and deterministic long-range planning that was

tried a decade or two ago. Strategic planning deals with a new array of

factors: the changing external environment, competitive conditions, the

strengths and weaknesses of the organization, and opportunities for

growth. Strategic planning is an attempt to give organizations antennae

to sense the changing environment. It is a management activity designed

to help organizations to develop greater quality by capitalizing on the

strengths they already have.

What Keller emphasizes in his strategic conception is not only the
prioritization of institutional resources, but the use of participatory management
techniques and decentralized decision making strategies of faculties, academic

managers, and trustees. Such an approach will motivate institutions to become

innovative, cohesive, productive, and effective.

35

Strategic Imperatives

William C. Giegold (1978) Professor of Management at Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University says that three questions may be asked in relation to
strategic planning. The questions are:

1. Why are we here?

2. Who are we?

3. Where are we going? (Pages 68 and 79).

4. Where are we? (Neff, 6—29-87).

5. How do we get there?
Giegold has articulated the above mentioned questions to sensitize the ability of the
organization to establish standards for assessing its strengths and weaknesses.
Giegold suggests that at any point in time, people, structure, and technology are
crucial entities for organizational survival. Analogically, George Keller believes that
planning, people, and quality are the crucial organizational imperatives.

In terms of contributions, people have skills, attitudes, experience,
interpersonal competence, supervisory styles, and other strengths and weaknesses
which characterize the human resources of the organization.

The structure in which people function in order to fulfill their organizational
roles and obligations is composed of objectives, goals, procedures, policies, and
controls which give purpose, direction, interpersonal constraint and discipline, for the

realization of the organizational mission.

36

Technology consists of the products, processes, facilities, design concepts,
patents, and functional know-how which are used by members to carry out the
purposes of the organization.

In brief, the three terms (people, structure, and technology) serve as the
foundation for identifying strategic activities and serve, in general terms, as criteria
for measuring effectiveness by articulating the needs of social, economic, political,

cultural, and technological environment.

STRATEGIC VERSUS TACTICAL PLANNING

It is usefirl to show the distinction between strategic and tactical decisions
because they differ in ways they are formulated and implemented. To demonstrate
the comparative distinction between the two planning theories, George Steiner’s and
John Miller’s (1984 pages 2-3) dichotomy will be used:

1. Importance. Strategic decisions are significantly more important to the
organization than tactical decisions. Doing the right thing is more important
than doing things right.

2. Level at Which Conducted. Due to their importance, strategic decisions are
made by top-level marketing managers while tactical decisions are made at the
level of product and firnctional managers.

3. Time Horizons. Strategies last for long periods of time, while tactics have
short durations. Strategic plans might have a ten-year horizon, in contrast to
annual marketing plans that delay primarily with tactical issues.

4. Regplarig. The formulation of strategy is continuous and irregular. The
ongoing process of monitoring the environment might trigger an intense
strategic planning activity when new opportunities or threats appear. Tactics
are determined on a periodic basis with a fixed time schedule, typically
designed to correspond to the annual budgeting cycle.

5. Nature of Problems. Strategic problems are typically unstructured and unique.
Hence, there is great uncertainty and risk associated with the formulation of

37

strategies. Tactical problems, such as setting an advertising level or selecting
salespeople, are more structured and repetitive in nature, so the risks associated
with tactical decisions are easier to assess. In addition, strategy formulation
involves the consideration of a wider range of alternatives than the formulation
of tactics.

Information Needed. Since strategies represent an organization’s response to
its environment, the formulation of strategies requires large amounts of
information external to the organization. Much of the information is related to
an assessment of the future and thus is quite subjective. Tactical decisions rely
much more on internally generated accounting or market research information.

Detail. Strategic plans are typically broad statements based on subjective
judgments, while tactical plans are quite specific, supported by much more
detailed information.

Ease of Evaluation. Strategic decisions are much more difficult to evaluate
than tactical decisions. The results of strategies might become evident only
after many years. In addition, it is difficult to disentangle the quality of the
decision from changes that might have occurred in the forecasted environment.
In contrast, the results of tactical decisions are quickly evident and much more
easily associated with the decision.

Although it has been possible to thematically differentiate between strategic

and tactical planning, there is no generally accepted definition to strategy. Hofer and

Schendel (page 3) define it this way: “An organization’s strategy is the fundamental

pattern of present and planned resource deployments and environmental interactions

that indicate how the organization will achieve its objectives.”

This definition creates the awareness that strategic decisions are concerned

with resource allocation that is based on an analysis of the interaction between

environmental factors and organizational capabilities. In this case, strategic

decisions determine where an organization places its efforts which indentifies

markets and submarkets it chooses to participate in, and what products (students in

case of schools) it attempts to produce for its clientele (markets). These strategic

38

 

decisions provide direction for the organization’s effort, while tactical and
operational decisions are needed to implement strategic decisions.

When an organization (institution) experiences growth, it makes decisions
incrementally. However, during periods of uncertainty, crisis, and retrenchment, the
organization finds difficulty to make immediate and effective adjustments. The
difficulty arises because the institution finds itself in a position where there exists
debate concerning whether it should firnd old programs or it should discontinue them
or replace them with new ones; whether the scope of new programs is consistent
with institutional expansion or not, and whether it is rationally logical to cut or retire
tenured faculty and staff, cut funds, and programs in order to prioritize alternatively
and still maintain the mission of the institution. The dynamic, rather than the static,
awareness of institutional adaptability is called the “strategic window” (Abell, 1984,
page 395). Abell’s decision regarding the strategic window concept can be
formulated when the institution analyzes its external environment and relates the
condition of that environment to its master goals and objectives — the grand strategy.
For the organization to be safe and effective, the strategic window should
perpetually remain open, rather than closed. It must help the organization to protect
itself against entropy. As it remains open, the strategic window potentially provides
an avenue that will propel the institution into the future and “keep the ship of the
people afloat.”

Writing about Corporate Planners who do things in the opposite way, Professor
Hayes, (1985, page 111) of Management of Technology at the Harvard Business

School said the following about strategic management:

39

____ _. _-_._-.‘~=J

With all the time and resources that American Manufacturing Companies
spend on Strategic Planning, why has their competitive position been
deteriorating? Certainly not because the idea of doing such planning is
itself misguided. Nor because the managers involved are not up to the
task. Drawing on his long experience with the nuts and bolts of
operations deep inside American and foreign companies, the author
propose a different answer. Perhaps the problem lies in how managers
typically approach the work of planning: first by selecting objectives or
ends, then by defining the strategies or way of accomplishing them, and
lastly by developing the necessary resources or means. A hard look at
what the new industrial competition requires might suggest, instead, an
approach to planning based on a means-ways-ends sequence. Such a
change in strategy makes the organization to compete progressively by
experiencing incremental improvements in the form of “strategic leaps”.

The implication of this type of strategic thinking on the provision of higher
education can be far reaching. The institution needs to devise strategies for securing
resources (funds, personnel, time, and facilities) before it can strategically convert
goals, strategies, and programs into ends (objectives) through research, instruction,
and service. Since Hayes co-authored Restoring Our Competitive Eclga with Wiley,
(1984), a book that was selected by the Association of American Publishers as the

best in 1984, on business management and economics, what he said has proved to be

useful.

TYPES OF STRATEGIC PLANNING

Ackoff (1970, pages 6 — 22) described three organizational postures for
strategic planning: satisficing, optimizing, and adaptivizing. By assessing an
organization’s historic posture toward strategic decision making, planners are better

able to understand the opportunities and pitfalls of undertaking strategic planning

40

within the institution. The characteristics of each of Ackoff’s postures are discussed
below.
Satisficing Ackoff’s first philosophy of planning is that of satisficing —- attempting to
do well enough, but not necessarily as well as possible. (Ackoff (1970, page 7) noted:

The satisficer normally sets objectives and goals first. Since he does not

seek to set those as ‘high’ as possible, only ‘high enough’, he has to

revise them only if they do not turn out to be feasible. Once the

objective and goals are set, he seeks only one feasible and acceptable

way of obtaining them; again, not necessarily the best possible way.

Satisficers seldom formulate and evaluate sets of potential strategic
alternatives since any feasible set will satisfy them. They are more apt to identify
past deficiencies produced by current policies than to define future opportunities.
Satisficers tend to focus on the financial aspects of their operation, neglecting such
elements as manpower planning, physical plant, and services. Financial forecasting
and budgeting dominate their planning efforts. Satisficers shy away from
organizational changes because of their potential for controversy and conflict. They
typically deal with only one forecast of the future as if it were a certainty. This type
of planning seldom produces a radical departure from the past, usually leads to the
comfortable continuation of current policies, and appeals to organizations more
concerned with survival than with development and/or growth. Satisficing seems to
be the traditional approach to strategic planning in higher education. It is not difficult
to deduce, however, that this approach is not of much value in a dynamic
environment. Change, ‘in itself’, demands that an organization look not to the past

but to the firture in order to define opportunities and threats and the means to deal

with them. Therefore, academic organizations which continue to operate from a

41

satisficing posture will surely find themselves left behind by the rapid changes and
economic pressures of today’s environment. Preoccupation with budgets, bottom
lines, and risk avoidances — all characteristics of the satisficing posture, breeds
mediocrity and ultimately organizational decline. Satisficers are conventional rather
than strategic plarmers.

Optimizing An alternative to satisficing planning is optimizing planning.
Optimizers make an effort not just to do well, but to do as well as possible. They are
constantly searching for a better way, a better product, and a better environment.
Optimizing is based on the use of mathematical models of the systems being planned
for, which attempt to translate organizational goals into quantifiable terms and
combine them into a single performance measure.

Optimizers tend to take many elements of the organization and its
environment into consideration when developing optimization models and therefore
often have a deeper understanding of their organization as a system. However, they
assume all parts of the system are programmable, and therefore, fail to control for
unanticipated environmental responses. For this reason, optimization is more useful
in shorter-range tactical planning than in longer-range strategic planning.

The planning models and systems of optimizers can be of immense value in
providing data for the strategic planning process. However, it must be repeated that
strategic planning is an intellectual exercise, not an exact science. Models provide
useful data, but the well informed opinions and even hunches of experienced

managers and professionals must be taken into account as well.

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Planners who attempt to rely only on the results of quantitative analyses of
organizations and environmental scenarios are well advised to note the cautions of
Peters and Waterman (1982, page 23), who reported that the nation’s most successful
organizations have a “bias for action”. An organization preoccupied by quantitative
analysis and data-based decision making stifles the creativity and entrepreneurial
spirit described above. In a dynamic and highly competitive environment, higher
education institutions cannot afford to be overly rational. Successful organizations
realize that environmental opportunities must be created, not simply reacted to. An
over-reliance on optimal decision making techniques and data analysis can paralyze
the development of openness and flexibility in an institution. These characteristics
are essential to organizational development and prosperity in a dynamic, competitive
environment.

Adaptivizing Ackoff’ 5 third planning philosophy, adaptivizing, has three main tenets.
The first holds that the principal value of planning is not in the plans produced, but in
the process of producing them. This leads to the idea that planning cannot be done to
or for an organization, but must be done by the responsible managers. The second
tenet holds that the principal objective of planning is the design of an organizational
management system which minimizes the need for retrospective planning - planning
directed toward removing deficiencies produced by past decisions. The final tenet
holds that our knowledge of the future can be classified into three types: certainty,
uncertainty, and ignorance, each requiring a different type of planning.

For those aspects of the future about which there can be virtual certainty, an

organization can develop plans committed to particular actions or strategies with

43

specific policies and procedures. For these aspects of the firture for which there is a
high degree of uncertainty, contingency plans must be developed. This flexibility
must be built into organizational policies to allow for response to the opportunities
presented when “the future makes up its mind”. Finally, for those aspects of the
future which cannot be anticipated (for example, technological breakthroughs or
radical economic shifts), responsivity, which allows the organization to quickly detect
and adapt to enviromnental deviations, must be built into the organizational planning
system.

Adaptive responses to the two later situations can be of two types: (1) passive
adaption, in which the organizational system changes its behavior so as to perform
more efficiently in a changing environment, as may be seen in current efforts to bring
the computer into curricula throughout higher education, and (2) active adaption, in
which the organization changes its environment, perhaps by addressing new markets
or designing new products, so that its own present or future behavior is more
efficient.

An adaptive organization, therefore, possessesthe characteristics of America’s
best managed organizations (Peters and Waterman, 1982, pages 13-16): (1) a bias for
action, (2) an orientation to the customer, (3) an encouragement of entrepreneurship,
(4) a respect for the worker, (5) a value-driven philosophy, (6) a narrow product line,
(7) a simple structure and a lean staff, and (8) simultaneous loose-tight properties.
That is, the adaptive organization is always looking for opportunities within its
defined scope of activities or mission. It encourages product and program

experimentation within the bounds of its mission, and allows for occasional failures,

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for only through such errors can new developments be generated? The focus of the
organization is on the customer, not the product. Adaptive organizations realize that
no matter how good a product may be, if it’s not what the customer wants, it won’t be
consumed. Quality is the key value of the adaptive organization, and individuals are
encouraged and appropriately rewarded to champion new ideas, products, and
services that meet the organization’s quality standards. Planning is done by the work
units, not by the top managers, since the adaptive organization recognizes the value of
hands-on experience in quality decision making. The structure of the organization
reflects a high degree of respect for and confidence in the workers and their ability to
contribute to the development of the organization. Finally, commitment is encouraged
by a focus on organizational excellence and the creation of a culture that reinforces

experimentation, dedication, and involvement.

PLANNING PARAMETERS

The parametric criteria by which the organization’s performance is evaluated
are its mission, goals, objectives, internal and external environments, and operational
and management databases. An institution’s leadership has the power to coordinate
the application of planning parameters on the planning environment and creatively to
rationalize, not only the relationships among and between the parameters, but also
how the mission which all the parameters embrace, can be achieved.
Mission The mission of the institution is it’s identified, or mirror, self-concept,
institutional philosophy or public image. Because the mission is the aim, reason, or

purpose for the institution’s existence, reason for its being, this mission is viewed in

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terms of what is happening more than in terms of a general statement of intentions or
purposes, or goals. In the case of a university, colleges, departments, units, position
(professional ranks), and a variety of funds, facilities, and review and evaluation
mechanisms are structurally and purposely designed to enhance the development of
that mission.

Martha Hesse (1985), writing about Michigan State University, suggests that
the mission of the university is composed of a profile of the university’s history and
current performances, vision of the leadership, macro-environmental considerations,
and distinctive competencies. Fenske, Richardson Jr., and Doucette (1985, pages
191-192) have conceptually tried to show the hierarchical relationships between
missions, goals, and objectives. They say that:

The common conceptualization of the relationship of institutional

missions, goals, and objectives is that of a continuum or hierarchy of

decreasing levels of generality beginning with missions and

culminating in objectives. Despite this assumed relationship, numerous

attempts to aggregate objectives into goals... They are fimdarnentally

different in nature. Goal statements are abstract, qualitative outcomes

that educators hope their efforts will achieve; objectives are concrete,

the units of measure used in quantitatively oriented management
systems.

Looking at the historical role and place of Oxford University’s 700 years of
existence, Stewart (1975, page 18) says that

Oxford’s notion of her purpose has seldom been clear, and often
fluctuates. Some see the university chiefly as a research institution,
some as a nursery of church and state empire, some as a liberation of the
spirit, some as the microcosm of all society, some as a forcing-house for
first-class intellects, some as a training ground for economic struggle,
some as a channel of accepted wisdom, some as a probe towards new
knowledge The progress of this university is no discipline march of
intellectual legionnaires, but more the groping, quarrelsome, skirrnishing

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and sometimes comical advance of a posse of irregulars, blowing

trumpets and jostling their way across a soggy sort of battlefield.

As Stewart indicates in these two quotations, the institution’s role (expected
performance or behavior); function or purpose varies from place to place over time
and space. This apparent historical instability of the university’s mission does not
necessarily mean that the university, as it may be perceived by various academic
critics and other elitist officials does not address its mission. What this means is that
the servant (institution) of society strives to do things either in the right way or does
the right things. Doing things in the right way is to be efficient while doing the right
things is to be effective. As Cope (1981) argues, efficiency is a symbol of static,
conventional, and mechanistic planning while effectiveness is symbolic of dynamism.
While the former is likely to lead to entropy, the latter results in vision, progress, and
change. Change brings development, while entropy results in eventual decline and
death. For all the time the institution is alive, its struggle for existence is based on its
attempt to make survival adjustments related to efficiency and effectiveness. When
the college or university is neither effective nor efficient, it has no reason for its
existence.

Organizational Structure There are three theories which rationalize organizational
structure. First, the classical Weberian theory of scientific management views the
organization to be a hierarchy (formal organization) in which labor is not only
motivated by material rewards, but it is also highly specialized for efficient
production. This theory which contain both the motivation and organization theories

in one, receive unity of control through a centrally placed bureaucratic or charismatic

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system of authority which uses mechanistic techniques to account for the efficiency
of tactful purposes, processes, and satisfaction of clientele needs (Etzioni, 1964).

Secondly, the development of the Human Relations Theory (school) in
America took into notice that material rewards which motivate a person to physically
become an appendage of the machine did not stimulate workers well enough. As a
result, the human relations school (informal organization) advocated that workers
have noneconomic, social, psychological, and cultural needs which organizations
should nurture and communicate if they expect workers to be satisfied and
productive. The proponents of this school are Mayo and Lewin who placed emphasis
in decision making. Since the critics of this school believe that the human relations
school deals with the management of workers’ emotions, workers are manipulated to
serve the needs of top management rather than their own needs (Etzioni, 1964).

Finally, the third school is the structuralist approach which is a synthesis of
the formal and informal organizations. While the human relations school recognizes
organizational harmony, the structuralists recognize that organizations are in a
dilemma:

There are inevitable strains which can be reduced but not eliminated —

between organizational needs and personal needs; between rationality

and non-rationality; between formal and informal relations; between

management and workers between ranks and divisions (Etzioni, page

38).

In this arena, the roles of management and workers come into conflict as each
group tries to fulfill their own rights and obligations, respectively. Although the

conflicts alienate the workers, they can be managed and minimized, but not

eliminated. The conflicts generate impetus for creativity, organizational health, and

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effectiveness. By itself, this organizational arena provides a conductive climate for
planning strategically.

In short, when the organizational leaders view the structure of their
organization in light of the three schools of thought, they can be able to make better

strategic decisions which can perpetuate the dynamism of their organizations.

PERCEPTIONS OF STRATEGIC DECISION MAKING

A dynamic organization possesses a motivating organizational climate in
which planning participants play diverse roles in strategic decision-making processes.
The main six models (styles) of strategic decision making are anarchy (accident),
compromise-consensus (collegial or team approach or group-think), mechanistic
(bureaucratic or Machiavellian), conflict-resolution (debate), and rational. These
decision making models are also leadership styles. Although each style has
advantages and disadvantages, the rational model, regardless of its
incomprehensiveness in goal and objective setting, and in spite of its narrow
participatory base, is not only the ideal (Chaffee, 1983), but also the most common
management style in organizational settings. However, in the above mentioned
criticism of the rational model, “What is desired is not homogeneity of response, but

diversity in participation.”

1. THE ESSENCE AND THEORY OF STRATEGIC DECISIONS

Strategic decision making is synonymous with “strategic choice, strategic

planning, or simply strategy” (Pennings, 1985, page 1). Though ‘strategy” has its

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origin in the military sciences, it has acquired organizational semantically directional,
heuristic, cultural, and eclectic dimensions.

Military strategy is not only the art of war, but it is the science of “moving and
disposing troops so as to impose upon the enemy, the place and time and conditions
for the fighting preferred by oneself” (page 2). This military analogy is limited,
however, because unlike the mobility and flexibility of armies, organizations are
comparatively sluggish, inert, clumsy, and fixed in place and time. In the light of its
military linguistic roots, strategy is long-term and comprehensive while tactics are
short-term. Hence, strategic and tactical planning become logical derivatives.
Organizationally, strategy means:

1. A statement of intent that constrains or directs subsequent activities (explicit
strategy)

2. An action of major impart that constrains or directs subsequent activities (implicit
strategy)

3. A “rationalization” or social construction that gives meaning to prior activities
(rationalized strategy)

On the other hand, cognitive representations of the phenomenological or
interpretive “schools of thought” hold the assumption that organizations consisting of
people whose collective experience lead to convictions that represent the image of
their organization and its strategy. Strategy, in this case, is viewed as an external
posture of the organization’s identity or mission. This external organization reality or

mission is the organization’s socially constructed reality.

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Strategic decisions may be formulated, implemented, and evaluated in a
directional dimension within the organization (vertically integrated, horizontally
diversified, and perhaps “Concentrically coordinated”).

Empirical findings from private and public institutions and management
consultant firms which are involved in the praxis of strategic decision making provide
heuristic reflections on the theory of strategic decision making. Five heuristic
observations on the theory are evident.

First, Chandler (1962), a business historian who was associated with strategic
and paradigmatic organizational structures examined the evolution of large
corporations and the connection between them and the environment, strategy, and
organization structure. His analytical findings “suggested that strategic diversity
from one product to a multiproduct focus was more effectively dealt with through
divisional organization designs” (page 15). The introduction of designs was often
impeded by organizational inertia and commitments to the status quo.

Second, Nelson and winter (1982) writing on institutional economics
(resources-dependence research in organization theory), concluded that organizations
are “viewed as establishing favorable exchange relationships with interdependent
actors in their external environment” (page 15).

Third, in industry where oligopolies exist, labor is highly specialized, and
competition is predictable, the situation is viewed as a community or “niche” which is
able to secure necessary external control. If the environment is volatile and highly
diffuse, it will have a narrow niche width which is not very attractive. In this case, an

environment which is highly competitive, has a broad niche width, and is not volatile,

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will be attractive to strategic decision making. In other words, the nature of
environmental posture or environmental focus, or design, will influence
organizational strategy.

Fourth, Mach and Simon (1958) have developed the bounded-rationality
paradigm through which they perceive strategic decision making as a process rather
than an outcome. They see outcomes as secondary, treated as “a cognitive
construction for retroactive sense making” (Pennings, 1985, page 16). Bound-
rationality paradigm perceives organizations to be composed of subgroups which are,
from a structuralist perspective, characterized by goodness and badness, unity and .
diversity, loyalty and disloyalty, etc. In their subgroup dichotomy, organizations vie
for power, although their interests are parochial and incongruent. In this scenario,
dominant organizational coalitions try to minimize the undesirable consequences of
bounded rationality and power differentials. By so doing, dominant coalitions behave
strategically because rational actors (participants) in the coalition help to create
unison. In addition, organizations adopt a course of action that is the result of a
negotiation among internal and external interest groups. Empirical literature on
public policy, especially the works of Allison (1941), has demonstrated that bounded
rationality political, and rational strategic decision making models were used during
the 1961 Cuban Missile Crisis.

Fifth, Pennings says that Wildavsky (1979) and his students reviewed the
value of zero-based budgeting and criticized organizations for inertia. They said that:
the inability of decision makers to dissociate themselves from their
roles and to become proactive rather than reactive, and the difficulty in

dovetailing the plans with their execution. The institutionalization and
routine of formal planning systems might lead to the crystallization of

52

action generators that lead their own life, uncoupled from relevant

strategic events (for example, Starbuck, 1983). Actions are triggered not

because the planning activities required scanning the internal and external

environment for information that induces such actions, but by the routine
planning cycles and their rigid deadlines. The planning systems are

imposed upon the organization — for example, by legislative wave or by

executive order — and, although the organizations at various levels are

required to synchronize their planning activities, these activities become

increasingly vitalized and devoid of strategic significance (pages 20-21).

Organizational inertia is the obvious result of rationally non-participatory
practices in decision making.

Culturally, strategic decision-making theory may be viewed from the practical
viewpoint in such a way that organizations are “systems of symbols, values, and
myths that can be examined on their deeper logical structure” (Pennings, 1983, page
2). The methodology for conceptualizing and analyzing such systems is
anthropological structuralism. Structuralists analyze and expose a system’s culture to
its base configurations of polar opposites. The knowledge of the prevailing opposites
helps to explain how people interpret their reality and how their culture shapes their
behavior. Strategic planners, likewise, analyze the culture of their organizations and
explicate their rudimentary configurations. Strategic change follows the modification
of the configurations of organizational values and symbols. Such organizational
modifications help people to acquire “new cognitive schemata or ‘mantra’ — a
form of mythical thinking” (page 25).

Finally, strategic decision-making theory is a product of strategic

interdependence “mutual or expected rationality” (page 29) of a variety of disciplines.

The interdisciplinarity of strategic decisions making makes the theory quite illusive.

53

The illusion of strategic decision making is, therefore, a critical and crucial issue in

strategic theory and practice.

2. DECISION MAKING MODELS

The six major decision making models (leadership styles) can be used to make
strategic decisions. The processes through which strategic decisions can be and are
made by using these models are not only methodologically theoretical, but also
theoretical. The models, as mentioned earlier, include:

1. Rational: directed by values, based on supporting data

2. Collegial: directed by consensus

3. Political: directed by conflicting self-interests and power

4. Bureaucratic: directed by traditional administrative pattern

5. Anarchical: directed by accidents of timing and interest (Chaffee, 1983,

page 3)

6. Compromise (Paolillo and Jackson, 1985, page 388)

Essentially, none of these six models is practically ideal. Each has
weaknesses and strengths. Some are more popular than others. However, regardless
of their utilitarian complexities, the main advantage of using models to analyze events
is that models create a distance between decision makers and decisions. Such a
distance helps administrators from being directly associated with each decision that

has been or will be made. In some cases, they can distance themselves from

54

unpopular and illegal decisions. By so doing, they survive to make corrections to
enhance organizational stability and progress.
Writing on the essence of strategic decision making models in courts,
Pennings, whom this research cited earlier, said:
The use of multiple models might have important heuristic and
diagnostic values, because they provide alternative postulates about the
content or process of strategic decision making. By explicitly stating
these postulates, one might become sensitive to the variables that surface

from contrasting different models. Indeed, they resemble alternative
looking glasses that accentuate different aspects of strategic phenomena

(page 19).

Pennings’ position implies that when more models are used for making
decisions, decision makers receive comprehensively constructed strategic decisions
whose usefirlness is likely to be more effective than decisions made through single
model decision making strategies. The use of more models, therefore, broadens, but
does not narrow, the theory, structure, role, and strategy of decision making. The
comprehensive approach to decision making is a form of holistic or eclectic strategic
management.

Writing on three political models (bureaucratic—structural, social-consensus,
and personal-rational), Rutherford and Fleming (1985, page 433) stated:

three models which give insight into the factors that promote or

inhibit change in institutions of higher education ... although each offers

a distinctive, perspective, a number of recurrent themes are identified

where the models support and complement one another.

The usefulness of the three or more models can be great for innovative

purposes in organizational settings. In relation to colleges and universities which are

organized anarchies because they exhibit:

55

Problematic goals (i.e., inconsistent and ill-defined preferences that are
constantly changing); unclear technology (i.e., unsystematic and ill-
understood problem solving procedures); and fluid participation (i.e.,
variability in the amount of time and effort that members devote to the
organization) (page 434).

The usage of a variety of models can be complementary in helping senior
academics and administrators to face the challenges of the future with greater insight
and confidence. In addition, an organization like a college or university, is a system
largely based on subject departments rather than on a central administration; a value
system which stresses the autonomy of both the individual academic and
departments; a decision making system which relies on a complex committee
structure to encourage debate and dissent but one in which the actual decision making
process may be obscure; and perhaps, a covert power system which is mainly
controlled by departmental heads. Such a complex organization needs to use an
eclectic decision making strategy which enables it to solve its more urgent, diverse,
and pressing problems (Rutherford and Fleming, 1985).

The effectiveness and success of the model or models depends on the
character of managers who use them. The managers must act as leaders who have
ability to guide, motivate, and integrate the efforts of others. In this case, the
planner’s job is to:

Perfect a team culture that (1) promotes and sustains efficient

performance of the highest quality and quantity, (2) fosters and

utilizes creativity, (3) stimulates enthusiasm for effort

experimentation, innovation, and changes; (4) takes learning

advantage fi'om problem solving situations, and (5) looks for and
finds new challenges (Blake and Mouton, 1964, page ix).

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What Blake and Mouton indicate is that strategic decision making models, per
se, have no significance and relevance in management unless planners who are skilled
in their effective utilization are willing to use the models for efficiency, innovation,
and change. The planners, as Bittel (1972, pages 2 and iv) says, must know about
nine “Master Keys” of the analysis of management problems. The keys are applying
situational thinking, identifying major targets, preparing for the probable, focusing on
performance criteria, acting from a plan, managing by exception, developing
confidence in others, employing the power of training, and knowing one’s true self.

It is apparently clear that recent management circles prefer an eclectic or
holistic approach to decision making rather than a non-holistic one. This holistic
view seems to be strong because of the complementary and inter-disciplinarian
character of comprehensive strategic decision making. The comprehensiveness of
strategy is a form of strategic interdependence. Strategic interdependence can be
rationalized in the context of the rational model. In other words, the rational model
can be manipulated to help decision makers make their decisions by using the
political, bureaucratic, collegial compromise, and of necessity, anarchical approaches

(Pennings, Rutherford and Fleming, 1985, pages 19, 433-34, respectively).

THE RATIONAL MODEL

Essentially, the rational way of making decisions is based on individual
reason. Individuals or groups of individuals may set goals and objectives for their
organizations. They can generate and examine all alternatives for achieving

organizational goals. They can be able to predict the consequent consequences of

57

each adopted alternative. They can compare the consequences in relation to the
agreed goals and objectives. It is true that because of individual values which people
choose for themselves, they devise the machinery for implementing and evaluating
programs which promote the values, goals are “fluid and conflicting” (Van Vught,
1985, page 596). They are fluid and conflicting because, as McNeill (1973) says, the
rational model through which the values are articulated lacks comprehension of
intellectual diversity. However, since an eclectic rationalist perspective of the
rational model possesses collective views from other models, it can be used to
criticize values in the process of decision making; collective and rationally organized
participatory discussions enable values to be collectively formulated, integrated, and
shared by the group or by organizational members. In light of the collective
rationalist view, values can be criticized, liberalized, “de-author—itarianized”, and.
democratized. The liberalization, de-author-itarianization, and democratization of the
rational model is a logical imperative, especially in higher education and other
organizations and corporations.

Bu citing Lawrence, Pennings (page 375) argues that the rational planning
approach rigidifies behavior because the future is unpredictable. This phenomenon of
unpredictability pushes behavior from its goals. As a result, organizational people
spend much more time in executive behavior programs than they do in strategic
planning. In this case, people’s use of time to program behavior blocks rationality,
hence its rigidity.

These strategies, according to Pennings, may be used to reduce the rigid

aspects of rational planning. First, organizational behavior can be programmed to

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contain healthy rationality. Policy decisions can be made retrospectively to
rationalize the past; they can also be made prospectively to guide future behavior.
Second, institutional planners should employ participatory decision making strategies.
The collegial decision making strategies, like the collegial and the informed
consensus rather than the authoritarian control and logic-driven models of judgmental
and analytical reasoning processes should be used. Third, time strategic
interdependence or eclectic rationality should be applied. Eclectic rationality is
balanced and flexible management. Unlike the rational model and MBO “eclectic
rationality” will not stifle creativity.

Grandy (1986), writing on Philosophigal Ground_s_ for Rationality, indicates
that rationality, notwithstanding its narrow and stifling intellectual base, could be
understood better by examining its meaning, reasoning style, psychological
explanation, and ethical reality. Rationality is communication which is “reason
governed endeavor” (page 1). As Grandy points out, Kant and Locke assert that
rational reasoning consists of the entertainment and acceptance in thought and speech
of a set of sequential ideas each of “which is derivable by an acceptable principle of
inference from its predecessors in the set” (page 9).

Rational reasoning has a narrow intellectual base which stifles creativity
because many people who plan rationally, or for whom rational planning is done, are
qualitatively selected. They are selected because of inherent conventional ——
situational or natural limitations of rationality which is ability to argue
argumentatively. Arguing is a skill, more than the ability to see logical connections.

A planner’s ability to make argumentative utterances will be effective when the

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meaning of the words and intentions are known. The meaning is systematized if it is
shared rationally and conventionally. Systematic and conventional rationality is
elocutionary, persuasive, and effective communication (Grady, 1986).

One way in which rational planning is used is in the policy area of
institutional management. In respect to policy-oriented issues, Van Vught (1985)
suggests that actors who participate in the formulation, analysis, and integration of
values can agree on the policies they make because they “purge the private, selfish, or
idiosyncratic preferences in open and public debate” (page 598).

Organizational theory has three main dimensions which characterize policy
networks within the rationalist tradition (perspective). These dimensions include: (1)
centrality — the number and length of linkages between one organization and all other
related organizations; (2) complexity — the extent of firnctional dissimilarity
(differentiation) of goals, services, products, or target populations amount related
organizations; and (3) density — the extent to which members of a population or
network are directly related (connected) cohesively. Rationally, “a policy network
can be seen as an operational elaboration and an institutional approximation of the
rationalist idea of collective decision making and policy development by means of the
‘community of discourse’” (page 602).

Ellen Chaffee authored m1 Decision Ma_kr_°_r_rLin Hi gher Edugrtion in
1983. Summarizing the essential features of the rational decision, Chaffee concluded
that there should be:

1. A clear set of specific values or objectives which serve as criteria for particular
decisions.

2. An organizational atmosphere of stability, confidence, and predictability

6O

‘1

3. Consistency, on the part of the decision maker, with prior practice and with
understood principles of decision making within the institution

4. Provision for analyzing a particular situation as strategic, tactical, or operational
and for determining whether the classification is permanent or temporary

5. Provision for determining who should make the decision, who will be affected by
it, and to what degree each party should participate in the decision making process

6. A mechanism for generating as many alternative solutions to the problem as
possible and for presenting those alternatives for simultaneous consideration

7. A means of assessing the likelihood that a particular alternative will produce
results that correspond with the value structure

8. A process for evaluating the degree to which such correspondence has been
achieved and for feeding the evaluation back into the decision process (pages 60-
61).

It is evidently clear that among other things, the rational model of planning is
associated with institutional or societal goals. The goals rationally evolve from
institutional operations and needs. Experienced goal framers formulate goals in a
social climate conducive to goal articulation, clarification, implementation, and
evaluation. The purpose, intent, and implication of goals (ends) are focused on the
needs and means of the organization which uses the goals. When these goals are
constructed in a psychologically and socio-politically stable climate, they can hardly
get into conflict with declared institutional and cultural values. The tendency to
eliminate conflict between and among goals and values enables management,
irrespective of the rigidity and creativity-stifling characteristics of (rationality) to
reduce or minimize its negative attributes (Chaffee, 1983).

The rational model, according to Havelock (1973), emphasizes a problem

solving process which has six stages: “building relationships; diagnosing the problem;

61

acquiring resources; choosing the solution; gaining acceptance; stabilizing the
innovation.” By comparison, Halstead (1974) argues that the rational strategy has six
components, namely: “determining goals, identifying problems, diagnosing problems,
establishing premises, searching for possible solutions, selecting the solution” (page
17). Kitchell, whom Halstead has cited, indicates that an alternative strategy of
planning involves six of the following “sequential steps”: (1) identification of
problems; (2) diagnosis of the problem situation; (3) clarification of the diagnostic
findings; (4) search for solutions; (5) mobilizing for change, and (6) making the
actual change decisions (page 17).

In brief, strategic planning is not only a rational, scientific, and futuristic
management philosophy, but the strategic philosophy of planning is also alive
because of the impact of strategic forces on the institution. Strategic force is the
process through which external and internal factors of the institution are integrated to
produce strategic policy which can be implemented to result in definite responses (see

Figure 2.2) which may also serve as a summary to Chapter 11.

SUMMARY

Strategic planning provides a logical framework for budgeting, evaluating,
organizing, staffing, leading, and controlling the work of an organization. Strategic
planning in higher education helps an institution define its mission, its unique
strengths and weaknesses, the nature of its clientele, and the methods through which
it can accomplish its objectives. It also enables an institution to deal with

environmental pressures and anticipate necessary organizational adaptations.

62

The strategic planning process, then, involves the analysis of an institution’s
desired future state and the policies and strategies necessary to bring that state about.
Strategic planning deals with the futurity of current decisions through the
identification of opportunities and threats in the environment. It is a continuous
process that begins with the definition of organizational aims or missions, defines
strategies and policies to achieve them, and develops detailed plans to make sure
strategies and policies are effectively implemented. Strategic planning connotes a
philosophy which relates day-to-day organizational activity to a thorough
contemplation of the future. In this sense, strategic planning is more of an intellectual
exercise than a prescribed set of procedures or techniques or philosophical rhetoric. It
seeks to link the long-range objectives of an organization with shorter-range
programs, budgets, and operating plans. Effective planning does not attempt to make
future decisions or control the organization’s environment. Rather, it involves the
design of an overall organizational strategy to help an institution achieve a better

match with its environment.

63

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CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY AND INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION

Chapter III is a description of data collection methods and instrumentation. In
essence, the chapter is a reflective analysis of how ethnographic methodological
theory was practically applied for the purpose of collecting data from amidst
challenging and rewarding experiences, the educative realities of the field (Colleges
A, B, C and D). Data were collected by conducting on—site interviews and selectively
tape recording some of them. A survey instrument (see Appendix E) was designed to
obtain basic information (data) from planning participants of each college. The data
were collected by examining available institutional planning documents and by
interviewing planners about institutional demographics, formalized planning,
strategic planning and decision making, and the degree of effectiveness of their

planning systems.

METHODOLOGY
Methodology is a set of principles and procedures that were used in this
inquiry (study). The principles and procedures included:
1. Purpose of the study
2. Assertions
3. Population and sample design

4. Advantages of using the interview

66

5. Unit of analysis

6. The role and tasks of the interviewer

Purposes of the study

The purpose of this study is fourfold: (1) to determine whether goals and
objectives of the colleges were clearly identified and effectively implemented in
keeping with the institutional mission; (2) to determine whether programs were
developed to achieve institutional goals and objectives; (3) to observe, analyze, and
reflect on the role of institutional research to the planning process, and (4) to
determine whether goals, objectives and research were articulated in the context of a

formal planning model.

Assertions
A paramount theme which underlies the study suggests that educational

institutions changeably or unchangeably use planning model(s) for the purpose of
improving institutional planning operations. On the basis of such an understanding,
the institutions which use the model(s) do so in order to manage their own affairs
more efficiently and effectively. The research question which the study intends to
answer then is “What planning model(s) did planners use for planning activities of
their colleges?” The answer for this question is an assertion which states that:

1) Planners who display authoritarian leadership styles in their colleges are more

likely to use rational planning than other planning models.

67

a. A subsidiary research question states that: “What other planning
model(s) did the planners use for planning in their colleges?” The
answer to this question is likely to result in two researchable or
observable assertions. The assertions state that:

2) Planners who successfully use any one of the other commonly know planning
models are less likely to use the rational planning model in their colleges.
3) Planners who neither use the rational model, nor any one of the more

commonly know planning models tend to use more than two of them.

These assertions were theoretical statements which were analytically,
substantively, or inductively used to confirm or disconfirm empirical evidence. In
other words, confirming or disconfirming their essence was an attempt to

intellectually break them asunder and see what they mean, imply, and reflect.

Population and sample design

A sample of 42 top and middle level planners was identified and selected from
a pepulation of 60 college administrators. The sampling units (elements) were
chosen on the basis of informed opinion (“expert sampling”) (Warwick and Lininger,
1975, page 74).

A survey-interview was designed and administered for data collection of
planning perceptions in one junior college and three community colleges in Michigan.
The four colleges are among the twenty-nine public two-year institutions in the state.

An interview-survey (Appendix E) was designed to obtain basic planning information

68

on strategic planning and management from each of the four colleges. Each of the
planners was willing to respond and provide information on college administrative
structure, principal tenets of the planning participants, planning parameters, planning
procedures, planning products and strategic planning.

In addition, each interviewee (respondent or informant) was provided with a
copy of the interview-survey. These interviews were unstructured and scheduled.
The interviews were conducted during daytime, either in each respondent’s office or
in the main administrative committee room. The interviewees were composed of top
and middle-level management administrators who participate in planning and
decision making activities of each college. Such management teams were called
“Administrative Councils” in College A, “President’ Cabinet” in Colleges B and C,
and “administrative Committee” in College D. Each of these teams of college
planners was composed of people from both sexes, whose ages ranged from between
30 and 60 years. These predominantly white, middle-class, and middle-aged
administrators, of whom males were numerically and administratively dominant in
three colleges, were composed of three presidents, eight vice-presidents, fifteen
deans, two comptrollers, and fourteen directors. Their numerical distribution in each
college, except for the presidents, was uneven. These college planners also differed
in planning and administrative experience and in academic levels and specialties.
Above all, thirty were males and twelve were females. For further details, see Table

3.1.

69

Advantages of using the interview

The interview instrument was in a form of both open and close-ended
questionnaires. The interview permitted greater depth of exploration; it permitted
probing to obtain more complete data; it made it possible to establish and maintain
rapport with the respondents, or at least helped to determine when rapport had not
been established; and it provided a means of checking and assuring the effectiveness
of communication. Irrespective of these advantages, interviews were costly, time
consuming, and at times inconvenient.

The three main reasons for using the survey interview were:

1. To determine whether the interview could be an exploratory device to identify
variables and relations for suggesting the assertions and to guide other phases of
the research.

2. To use it as an instrument for collecting research data.

3. To supplement the tape recorded method of the research study and delve more
deeply into the feelings, attitudes, beliefs, and motivations of each respondent.

Unit of Analysis

The unit of analysis was each individual planner (administrator). The
responses of each planner in each college formed the data-corpus of each specific
college. The collective responses from each college became the data-corpus
used for comparative strategic planning perceptions among the four colleges.

Comparative analysis of the planning perceptions provided not only the means

for testing the generality of relationships between and among institutional

variables, but such an analysis was, oftentimes, a means to realize new concepts,

70

theoretical insights, and the generation of new assertions and sub-assertions

about the phenomena involved in the study.

The Role and Tasks of the Interviewer

As explained earlier, the goal was to maximize the collection of adequate,
relevant, and valid information from his interviewees. To collect the information
effectively, the interviewer acted the role of an observer, a note taker, and
analyst. The tasks as Gorden (1980, Chapter 3) indicates, included (1)
understanding the purpose of the interview, (2) communicating clearly and
purposefully, (3) detecting and correcting misunderstandings of the questions by
interviewees, (4) distinguishing the irrelevant from the relevant, (5) probing for
the relevant, (6) motivating interviewees to respond willingly and uninhibitedly,
(7) detecting and resisting inhibitive characteristics in the respondent
(interviewee), and (8) refraining from putting pressure on the interviewee to give

information before he/she was ready to do so.

71

INSTUMENTATION

Instrumentation is the application of instruments (survey and tape
recorder) for observation, measurement, control, and analysis of data. In this
study, the instruments were used in accordance with the following procedures,
principles and steps: Setting; Preliminary preparation for entry; Interview sites;
Pre—testing and the interviews; Interviewing techniques; Data recording
procedures; The tape recording,
Setting

The named colleges are A, B, C, and D. They are located in central and
southern Michigan. Two are rural and two are urban. For either of the two pairs,
one is big and the other is small. Essentially, all the colleges serve the needs of a
majority of the disadvantaged communities. See Appendix F for the chronology

and location of the 29 colleges.

Preliminary Preparation for Entry

A contact person was identified and he laid the groundwork for the role-
negotiation and entry into each college. Three presidents in the colleges and one
dean in the fourth college became the intermediaries for establishing the
structure and form of the interviews. To play their intermediary roles effectively,
each participant was supplied with samples of interview-surveys, human subjects
documents (see Appendices E and F) and an abstract of the dissertation proposal.

Through phone communications, the interviewer did not only discuss with the

72

contact persons from attempts to seek support and cooperation from them and

their planning teams, but they also accepted scheduled interviews.

Interview Sites

The interview sites for colleges A, B, and D were the offices of each
planning official (administrator). An administrative council committee room was
the common interview site for college C interviews. The sites were selected on

the basis of maintaining privacy, convenience, and confidentiality.

Pre-testing and the Interviews

With the recommendation of and consultation with one of the senior
master planners of each of the four colleges, four administrators were selected
and pre-tested on the survey and item suitability, relevance, and
understandability. The four administrators were pre-interviewed and supervised
by divisional (departmental) deans. Each pre—tested interview took one hour.
The pre-testees suggested a few survey corrections, modifications, and gave
some positive comments. They individually mailed their pretest responses to the
researcher who used the suggested opinions, comments, and corrections to refine
the original survey-document.

Basically, each interview site was visited as scheduled; the interviewer
was either introduced by the contact person or introduced himself to his potential
respondent, shook hands with and thanked the potential respondent, and supplied

him/her with the human subjects’ document, instrument, and abstract. The

73

purpose of each was examined. Each introduction was brief, data collection —
purpose oriented, and geared to make the interviewee feel comfortable and
fiiendly. In addition, the interviewer made it clear to each interviewee that
he/she was free to express, or not to express, information at his/her convenience.
An attempt was made to direct the discourse into desirable channels by
motivating each respondent to reveal information and facts that could be drawn

from their experiences.

Interviewing Techniques

The objectives were to obtain data that were relevant, reliable, and valid.
The main goal was to create a positive climate for obtaining maximum and
relevant information through the process of maintaining optimum interpersonal
relations. The aim was to maximize the flow, quality and quantity of
information with optimal rather than maximum interpersonal relations. To
gather the information more effectively, and in light of pressing demands for
meeting institutional and personal time schedules, four types of interviews were
used: personal, group, telephone and tape recording.

First, face—to-face meetings between an interviewee and the interviewer
(researcher) were convened in each administrator’s office, except for Institution
C in which the personal interviews were conducted in an administrative council’s
committee room.

Secondly, ten of the eleven administrators in Institution B and two of the

eight administrators of Institution D convened for group interviews. Each group

74

was composed of three people — the two interviewees (respondents) and the
interviewer (researcher). There were six group interviews. The group and all
other interviews were each one hour long. Like the personal interviews, and
with the exception of the group interviews held at College D where the interview
was conducted while one of the interviewees was driving around the city getting
his child fiom school and taking him home, between 3:30 and 4:30 pm, the five
group interviews were held in private settings. Since each of the three people in
the group had a copy of the questionnaire and since each could fill it in
respectively, each interviewee could express himself/herself firlly and truthfully.

The group interviews were composed of eight men and four women: four
directors, one comptroller, five deans, and two vice presidents. With their
apparent divergence in backgrounds, these administrators explored problems,
raised issues, and meticulously evaluated prepositions. The information they
gave varied considerably. However, they helped one another to recall, verify,
and rectify information. Whenever one interviewee tried to dominate, the
researcher moderated the dialogue to enable the other participant to express
himself/herself freely and thoroughly.

Thirdly, only one telephone interview was conducted between the
researcher and one of the deans at College C. Although the researcher did not
directly interact with the interviewee, the conversation was private, convenient
and relevant.

Fourth, a tape recorder was used selectively to gather crucial information

and analyze that information.

75

Data Recording Procedure

The survey instrument, sample, and the interviews were designed and
structured to selectively make systematic, sharp, and discriminating, but
objective, observations. The observations were made in light of the relevant
universe of discourse. These observations or responses were recorded on the
survey instrument during interactive and reflective field experiences.
The Tape Recorder

The second method of collecting data was the tape recorder. The two
most experienced planners in each college were selectively tape recorded on the
basis of seniority and ability to provide needed data. The purpose of selectively
recording some interviews was to more fully explore complex issues perceived
to contain, as well as further explore latent feelings, attitudes, inconsistencies,
interruptions, and tenseness. After every tape recorded interview, the entire tape
was replayed, transcribed, and material was inserted in the survey instrument.
Analytic interpretations of the study were given in light of social structure and
culture of the society, immediate interviewing situations, and the demands posed

by the questions and the ultimate requirements for data.

Summary
Chapter III is a brief description of ethnographic (substantive)
methodology and how the methodology was used to generate data from 42

planners of four post-secondary institutions in Michigan. A survey instrument

76

was constructed and used for observation and measurement of the members of
the sample. Data pertaining to institutional demographics, formal planning,
long-range, and strategic planning and decision making and institutional research
were collected. The analytic integration of ethnographic theory and practice
formed the basis for data analysis. This integrative process and the review of the
literature in Chapter II were viewed as dynamic intellectual processes without

which this study would have lacked satisfactory evidentiary warrant.

77

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CHAPTER IV

DATA ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Chapter IV is based on a comprehensive and comparative analysis of
data. The data were analyzed with the use of tables (Histograms) and
interpretive commentary.

The major problem of the study was inductively based on the assumption
that the rational planning model was the ideal model suitable for institutional and
management operations in higher institutions of learning. Since it was not clear
whether the model was widely used or not used in institutional settings, the study
was designed to investigate the veracity of the assumption. Because the rational
model (according to Chaffee, 1983) is the best planning model in higher
education circles, the research employed strategic planning theory and
ethnographic methodology to investigate the problem in four Michigan
Community Colleges (A, B, C and D).

The problem was extended to refer to three major assertions of which the
first one, according to the literature, and contrary to Chaffee’s belief, argues that
the rational model is authoritarian (Rutherford and Fleming, 1985). The three
research assertions include:

1. Planners who display authoritarian decision making styles in their colleges are

more likely to use rational planning than other planning models.

79

2. Planners who successfully use any one of the other commonly known decision
making styles (anarchy, bureaucratic, political, consensus, and compromise) are
less likely to use the rational planning model in their colleges.

3. Planners who neither use the rational nor any one of the more commonly known
planning models tend to use more than two of them.

The results of these three research assertions, Table 4.35 and the interpretive
commentary, were, in a sense, partly used for comparative analysis. In addition,
two analytic questions were derived from the assertions. Those analytic
questions, on which some of the conclusions of the study were based, are:

1. What planning model(s) did planners of College A, B, C, and D use for planning
activities of their colleges?

2. What other planning model(s) did the planners use for planning in their colleges?

Purpose of the Study
The purposes of the study are four:

1. To determine whether goals and objectives of the colleges were clearly identified
and effectively implemented in consonance with institutional missions.

2. To determine whether programs were developed to achieve institutional goals and
objectives.

3. To observe, analyze, and reflect on the role of institutional research to the planning
process.

4. To determine whether goals, objectives, and research were articulated in the

context of a formal planning model.

80

To make the analysis clearer and structurally objective, Chapter IV will be
divided into five sections. Section one will be a display of tables containing
descriptive comments about observed phenomena. Section two will be
composed of findings of each section. Section three will contain a brief
interpretive commentary based on tables, and more importantly, tape recorded
data. Section four will be a brief analysis of goals and objectives. Section five;
the last section will be a summary of Chapter IV.

Display of Tables

Table 4.1 displays relevant demographics. In all four colleges, resources
used for institutional research and other programs corresponded with the size of
the institution; however, College B’s board used the least time (10 hours) yearly
for planning.

Table 4.2 shows that all respondents indicated their colleges planned
formally.

Table 4.3 illustrates that most of the college planners believed that
formalized planning was an excellent, rather than good, way to plan.

Table 4.4 demonstrates that most respondents don’t believe that MBO is
used for management.

Colleges A, C and D had developed according to their stated goals and
objectives as Table 4.5 shows. College B, as 63.6 percent of the measured
perceptions indicated had not.

In relation to the person(s) who control(s) formalized planning, College

A’s president used a participatory approach at cabinet, rather than at an

81

instructional level. The budget planning committee controlled' it too.
Operational decisions were reviewed quarterly.

In College B only the cabinet members and hardly any other groups can
participate in formalized planning. The four deans as members of the expanded
cabinet were invited to the cabinet only on an occasional basis.

In College C, the administrative council and the Committee of the 2001,
which is concerned with planning, controls the formalized planning process. The
board of trustees acted in an advisory capacity only. The committee of the year
2001 was composed of five committees (campus development, community
development, curricular development, marketing development, and student
development).

In College D, college planning councils, deans, vice president, and
president planned. The college did not have a planning officer or planning office
per se, except a planning task force. The trustees also had a long-range planning
committee of 40 people whose special committees were given the responsibility
to plan for a variety of specific needs within the public school district which
controlled the institution’s governance and operational structures.

In relation to persons who set college goals, in College A, the board,
chief administrator, cabinet, faculty, administrative council (president, vice
president, deans, directors, and divisional chairpersons and staff) assessed goals

quarterly, annually, and tri-annually.

82

In College B, the cabinet and the expanded cabinet set college goals.
Divisional heads and board of trustees were occasionally invited for consultation
or briefing retreats. Goals and objectives were assessed as normal.

In College D, administrative councils, faculty, students, long-range
planning committees, and board of trustees of the public school district set goals.
Goals were assessed annually for effectiveness or failure and adjustment. Table
4.5 describes how colleges were perceived to have developed according to their
goals.

Table 4.6 describes how the colleges analyzed their external environment
and became informed to make more intelligent decisions.

Table 4.7 indicated how the college studies were internally prepared and
used to monitor trends.

Table 4.8 shows that perceptions which influenced the attitude of
planners to manage the colleges were academic standards for all colleges. For
College A students, government; for B, economic trends; for C, economic trends,
and students; and for D, policies and economic trends.

Institutional research is the gathering, analysis, integration, (synthesis)
interpretation, and dissemination of data and information suitable for improving
administrative decision making. Tables 4.9 through 4.12 (inclusive) concern
institutional research.

College planners relatively analyzed their educational, social, economic,
political, and cultural environments in order to develop better goals and

objectives (Tables 4.11 and 4.12).

83

ll

Table 4.9 describes the perceptions concerning persons responsible for
analytically sensitizing the reality of the external environment and integrating
that reality with internal institutional planning dynamics. The respondents
indicated the persons responsible were the president’s and vice president’s
offices in College A, the offices of director of institutional research and public
relations in College B, the offices of the president, vice president, and student
affairs in College C, and the offices of director of institutional research in
College D.

According to Table 4.10 each college tried to analyze data from its
environment, the sources of information used for analysis included local
government studies and occasionally directed college research for A.
Occasionally directed college research for College B, independent external
agencies for College C, and local government studies and professional groups for
College D.

Tables 4.13 and 4.14 show that planners in all four colleges responded
that they had criteria for appointing people for specific administrative and
instructional positions.

Table 4.15 shows the process of recruiting administrative and
instructional personnel to the colleges. Of the nine terms employed in the
process, three (recruitment, selection, and hiring) were more commonly applies

than the other six (see Table 4.15).

84

Tables 4.16 and 4.17 indicate that planners said that each of the colleges
had specific budget goals and objectives and that they (planners) prioritized fimd
allocations.

None of the four colleges reported using PPBS, MBO, ZBB, MIS, IB,
and EDUCOM planning techniques, although college planners were familiar
with the techniques as Table 4.18 illustrates.

Table 4.19 addresses the question of whether the college made faculty
and staff changes. Planners in all colleges made faculty and staff changes in
order to make adjustments consistent with the level of enrolhnents, funding
ability, program demand and student interests.

Whether the college eliminated acaderrric courses and departments was
illustrated in Table 4.20. The colleges could discontinue academic courses and
departments on the basis of the same reasons given for Table 4.19 above.

Table 4.21 shows that planners in the four colleges said that their
departments had clear course goals and objectives.

Table 4.22 indicates that faculty applied and used course goals and
priorities.

According to Table 4.23, planners in Colleges A, B and C said that they
did not consolidate (join courses together into who units). College D planners
said that their institution eliminated classes that were underenrolled,
understaffed, or both. The research did not indicate that these conditions were

necessarily influenced by quality of instruction.

85

Table 4.24 illustrates responses to the question “do faculty eliminate
courses?” The faculties of Colleges A, C and D eliminated (discontinued)
courses which were not in demand. Those of College B said that they both
eliminated and retained courses.

Table 4.25 demonstrates that faculty reorganized courses to make
adjustments on firll—time equivalent, under enrollments, teaching loads, and
student interest.

According to Table 4.26 faculty were not limited by the number of
courses and objectives because the colleges provided superior instructional
services.

Planners in Colleges A and B said that their faculty did not have criteria
for measuring and maintaining course quality, according to Table 4.27. Those in
Colleges C and D had their criteria. The criteria were based on grade point
average, student evaluation of faculty, faculty evaluation of students, and
observance of North Central Accreditation requirements.

In Table 4.28, planners of Colleges A, C and D said that their college
goals and objectives had changed in 10-15 years. The goals and objectives had
not changed in College B — it appears that no change had taken place in all these
years.

College planners were asked how internal priorities were identified
(Table 4.29). Colleges A, B and C identified them by consultation. College D

applied analytic approaches.

86

Table 4.30 demonstrates that College A also used planners who could
analyze, were experienced and sensitive to institutional action effects to
determine crucially factual relationships. College B and C determined
institutionally related facts and relationships by using experienced individuals to
analyze, 54.6% of all planners determined the cruciality of facts and
relationships by using experienced individuals.

Data in Table 4.31 demonstrate that planners in all colleges said that they
were selected for decision making because of their expertise rather than
statesmanship or position.

The locus (center of power or consultation) of consultation for all
colleges was wide rather than narrow, according to Table 4.32.

While planners in College D felt that the degree at which they used
analytical information was high (Table 4.33), those in Colleges A, B and C
believe that analytical information was used moderately.

Planners of Colleges A and C said that priorities were ranked for decision
making as indicated in Table 3.34. This meant that priorities which were
considered superior in importance or rank took the first place in the process of
priority consideration. In Colleges B and D decision making priorities were
developed by top administrators. Obviously, these latter colleges which did not
broaden the base for decision making were likely to be less democratic than

those in Colleges A and C.

87

The consensus displayed in Table 4.35 as used in Colleges A, B and C
and rational model was used in College D. The table has been described fully in
several places in this dissertation.

According to Table 4.36, planners in Colleges A, B and C said that
decision making style of central administration had changed in three years. The
planners of College D disagreed.

Overall, college goals were realized well in Colleges A and B, and very
well in Colleges C and D according to Table 4.37.

Of the eight conditions rank-ordered for their contribution to the
evolution of college master plans in the 19603 “interdisciplinary nature of many
courses” was ranked first (Table 4.38).

Three out of ten goals (teaching, economic, and academic standards)

were ranked highest in three sets of Community College Goals (Table 4.39).

Findings of the Study

The findings of the study have been extrapolated from the analysis of
data and interpretive commentary. These findings could be divided into five
sections or categories consistent with the structure of the survey instrument and
perceptions of the respondents. The five sections into which the findings are
categorized include: (1) demographics; (2) formal planning; (3) strategic

planning; (4) college goals; and, (5) decision making.

88

Findings related to Demographics
Table 4.1 shows the demographics of the colleges. According to the

table, the Board of Trustees of College B spent the least amount of time (10

hours) a year in planning for the college. In addition, the expenditure of

resources by each college depends on its size and mission.

Findings related to Formal Planning

a. All respondents (100%0 in the four colleges indicated that their institutions
practiced formal planning procedures (Table 4.2)

b. In all colleges, 91.7% of College A planners, 63.3% of College B, 60% of College
C and 77.8% of College D believed that formal planning was an excellent rather
than a good way of planning (Table 4.3)

c. With the exception of College C, Colleges A, B and D did not formally (officially)
use Management by Objectives (MBO) for planning (Table 4.4).

d. On an individual basis, some college planners of the four colleges tried to use
MBO.

Findings related to Strategic Planning

a. Although planners in all the four colleges evaluated and monitored environmental
trends, they were more sensitive to monitoring economic trends than political,
social, cultural and technological trends. This showed that people were more
receptive to economic trends because the trends greatly influenced their lives more
than the other trends (Table 4.12).

b. Specific individuals in institutional units were assigned the responsibility of

preparing studies of the environment for articulation and analysis (Table 4.9).

89

c. When the colleges’ environment was scanned, it made it easier for the planners of
each college to formulate more valid and reliable goals for their institution (Table
4.9).

(1. Each college used different sources for information on environmental analysis
(Table 4.10).

e. With the exception of College A, which had initiated a few institutionally designed
procedures for the articulation of strategic concerns, the other colleges used long-
range rather than strategic planning systems.

f. A large number of college planners in all colleges, except College A, as it was
observed, did not lcnow who or which office was responsible for the research
matters of their institutions.

g. Institutional research offices were not independent units. The offices were
incorporated into the administrative responsibilities of either the president’s office
or the vice president’s office, or the registrar’s office or the director’s office.

h. Particular processes for monitoring environmental trends existed in each college.
The main processes for monitoring the trends included assessments conducted by
specific faculty members, local government studies, studies of professional

consultants, and summaries given through presidential briefings.

Findings related to College Goals
a. Various divisions (departments) had clear goals and objectives.
b. The goals and objectives were integrated into the institutional mission and

programs.

90

. Planners in all colleges applied and used course priorities.

. Faculty were not limited by the number of courses (taught) and their objectives.
Colleges A, C, and D had developed according to their stated goals and objectives.
College B had not because 63.6% of its planners (respondents) believed so.

The community college faculties were tenured; administrators were not.

. Planners in each college had unwritten criteria for appointing personnel into
administrative positions.

. The same planners had unwritten criteria for appointing people into instructional
positions.

The planners in these colleges had specific budget goals and objectives.

They used priorities to allocate funds.

. The managers of the four colleges made faculty and staff changes on the basis of
changes in enrollments, student interest, and program demand.

Also, administrators reorganized courses on the basis of changes in enrolhnents,
student interest, and program demand.

. Planners in all four colleges discontinued academic courses and departments when
funding and enrollment opportunities dwindled.

. Of the eight conditions that were rank ordered for their influence on the
institutional master plans during the 19605, “interdisciplinary nature of many
courses” was ranked first. (Table 4.38).

. When ten academic and strategic goals of community colleges were also rank
ordered in three sets for their priorities, the three goals that ranked highest were

related to teaching, economics, and academic standards (Table 4.29).

91

Findings related to Decision Making

a.

In all the four colleges studied, a majority of planners indicated that they were
selected for decision making due to their expertise rather than statesmanship or
position.

Based on the perceptions of the planners, the best planning model was
consensual rationality (consensus-rational).

Planners in Colleges A and C were more democratic in decision making
approaches than planners in Colleges B and D. Several explanations have been
used to explain this phenomenon.

The locus of consultation in the colleges was wide rather than narrow.

The unique characteristics of Colleges B and D were as follows:

COLLEGE B

Board of Trustees spent less time (10 hours per year) in planning
Only cabinet members, excluding deans, for most of the time, made all

decisions regarding institutional management
Had no criteria for measuring and maintaining course quality
College goals and objectives had not changed in 10-15 years

Decisions were made by top administrators only

COLLEGE D

0 Top administrators made decisions
0 Used rational model

0 Decision making style had not changed in three years

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Table 4.12 Trends evaluated by a College Unit

PLANNER PRESIDENT VICE PRESlDENT DEAN OTHERa TOTALS PERCENTAGES
E P S E P S C E P S C If P S C E P S C E P S C
COLLEGE
A l 1 l 4 2 3 l 3 3 3 3 3 l 3 1 ll 7 10 5 33 33.8 21.2 30.3 15.2 100
B l l 2 2 2 2 l 2 l 4 4 8 5 7 2 22 36.4 22.7 31.8 9.1 100
C l l l l 3 3 l 4 2 3 3 9 5 5 4 23 39.] 21.7 21.7 17.4 100
D 1 l 1 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 6 5 5 2 18 32.3 27.8 27.8 11.1 100
Total by Rank 3 2 l 8 5 7 4 10 10 7 4 13 5 12 5 34 22 27 13 96 35.4 22.9 28 13.5 100

%byRank 50 33.3 16.7 33.3 20.8 29.2 16.7 32.3 32.3 22.6 12.9 39.1 14.3 34.3 14.3 35.4 22.9 28 13.5

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E = Economics
P : Political
S = Social
C : Cultural

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C ollege No. of Position Mean Standard

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130

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation
Table 4.38 cont
Size of campus enrollment
Entire Samfle = 37 5.5 2.1
1 President 7.0 .0
A 2 Vice President 7.0 1.4
3 Dean 6.0 1.4
4 Other 3.8 3.1
2 Vice President 7.0 .0
B 3 Dean 6.0 1.0
4 Other 4.8 2.6
1 President 8.0 .0
C 2 Vice President 7.0 .0
3 Dean 6.3 2.1
4 Other 3.4 1.8
2 Vice President 6.0 .0
D 3 Dean 5.5 1.7
4 Other 5.5 2.1
External support organization
Entire sample = 37 5.2 1.7
1 President 2.0 .0
A 2 Vice President 3.8 1.3
3 Dean 3.5 2.1
4 Other 6.2 .50
2 Vice President 6.0 .0
B 3 Dean 5.3 1.2
4 Other 5.5 1.3
1 President 2.0 .0
C 2 Vice. President 4.0 .0
3 Dean 4.7 1.5
4 Other 5.6 1.5
2 Vice'President 8.0 .0
D 3 Dean 7.5 .58
4 Other 4.5 2.1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

131

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation
Table 4.38 cont
Student interest in programmatic areas
Entire sample = 36 5.5 1.9
1 President 6.0 2.2
A 2 Vice President 6.0 2.2
3 Dean 4.0 4.2
4 Other 4.0 1.2
2 Vice President 4.0 .0
B 3 Dean 5.3 1.5
4 Other 6.0 1.4
1 President 7.0 .0
C 2 Vice President 6.0 .0
3 Dean 5.7 2.1
4 Other 7.4 1.3
3 Dean 5.3 1.3
D 4 Other 4.0 4.2
Articulated national plannig
Entire sample = 36 2.3 1.9
1 President 1 .0 .0
A 2 Vice President 1.5 1.0
3 Dean 1.5 .7
4 Other 3.3 3.2
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
B 3 Dean 2.0 1.0
4 Other 2.5 1.0
1 President 21 .0 .0
C 2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.3 .6
4 Other 3.2 2.2
3 Dean 3.5 3.3
D 4 Other 2.5 2.1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

132

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation
Table 4.38 cont
Interdisciplinary nature of many courses
Entire sample = 36 3.2 1.6
1 President 3.0 .0
A 2 Vice President 2.3 .5
3 Dean 4.0 .0
4 Other 3.8 2.2
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
B 3 Dean 2.3 1.2
4 Other 4.0 1.4
1 President 6.0 .0
C 2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 4.3 3.2
4 Other 3.0 2.1
3 Dean 2.8 .5
D 4 Other 2.5 .7
Development of manpower for Mic—higan and USA
Entire sample = 36 4.8 2.1
1 President 5.0 .0
A 2 Vice President 4.3 2.5
3 Dean 7.0 1.4
4 Other 6.0 1.8
2 Vice President 8.0 .0
B 3 Dean 2.6 2.1
4 Other 4.0 2.2
1 President 4.0 .0
C 2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 4.3 1.5
4 Other 5.6 2.2
3 Dean 4.0 1.6
D 4 Other 4.0 2.8

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

133

 

TABLE 4.39 Condition Rankings by College and Position — College Goals

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation

Teaching

Entire sample = 40 2.7 .65
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.5 1.0
3 Dean 2.3 1.2
4 Other 2.8 .5
1 President 1 .0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0

B 3 Dean 2.5 1.0
4 Other 3.0 .0
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 3.0 .0
4 Other 2.8 .4
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 2.8 .4
4 Other 3.0 .0

Community service

Entire sample = 41 1.5 .74
1 President 1.0 .0
2 Vice President 1.8 1.0
3 Dean 1.7 1.2
4 Other 1.3 .5
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.8 .5
4 Other 1.8 1.0
1 President 1 .0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 1.3 .6
4 Other .14 .5
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 1.2 .4

D 4 Other 1.0 .0

 

 

 

 

 

134

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation

Table 4.39 cont

Training manpower

Entire sample = 40 1.9 .61
1 President 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 1.8 .5

A 3 Dean 2.0 .0
4 Other 2.0 .8
1 President 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 1.8 1.0
4 Other 1.7 .6
1 President 2.0 .0

( E 2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.7 .8
4 Other 1.8 .8
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 2.0 .7
4 Other 2.0 .0

Politicallxinclined

Entire sample = 39 2.1 1.0
1 President 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 1.3 .5
3 Dean 2.3 .6
4 Other 2.5 1.0
1 President 4.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 2.3 1.0
4 Other 2.0 1.0
1 President 1 .0 .0

C 2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 2.3 1.2
4 Other 1.2 .4
3 Dean 2.4 1.2

D 4 Other 4.0 .o

 

 

 

135

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation

Table 4.39 cont

Culturally oriented

Entire sample = 39 1.8 .96
1 President 1 .0 .0
2 Vice President 1.8 .5
3 Dean 1.0 .0
4 Other 2.09 1.4
1 President 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.3 .5
4 Other 1.7 1.2
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 1.7 .6
4 Other 2.4 1.1
3 Dean 2.4 1.3

D 4 Other 1.0 .0

Economically attuned

Entire sample = 41 3.7 .57
1 President 4.0 .0
2 Vice President 4.0 .0
3 Dean 3.7 .6
4 Other 3.8 .5
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 4.0 .0
3 Dean 3.5 1.0
4 Other 4.0 .0
1 President 4.0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 3.7 .6
4 Other 3.6 .9
2 Vice President 4.0 .0
3 Dean 3.6 .5
4 Other 3.0 .0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

136

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation

Table 4.39 cont

Socially geared

Entire sample = 40 2.5 .88
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 3.0 .0
4 Other 1.8 .5
1 President 1 .0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0

B 3 Dean 3.0 .8
4 Other 2.3 .6
1 President 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 4.0 .0
3 Dean 2.3 1.5
4 Other 2.8 .4
2 Vice President 4.0 .0
3 Dean 1.6 .5
4 Other 2.0 .0

To maintain academic standards

Entire sample = 40 2.9 .33
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 3.0 .0
4 Other 3.0 .0
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 2.8 .5
4 Other 2.8 .5
1 President 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 2.7 .6
4 Other 3.0 .0
2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 3.0 .0
4 Other 3.0 .0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

137

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

College No. of Position Mean Standard
Respondents Deviation

Table 4.39 cont

To produce elite

Entire sample = 1.2 .50
1 President 1 .3 .5
2 Vice President 1.3 .6
3 Dean 1.0 .0
4 Other 1.5 .6
1 President 1 .0 .0
2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.3 .5
4 Other 1.7 1.2
1 President 1 .0 .0
2 Vice President 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.0 .0
4 Other 1.0 .0
3 Dean 1.3 .5

D 4 Other 1.5 .7

To liberate the poor

Entire sanflile = 36 1.9 .53
1 President 1 .7 .5
2 Vice President 1.8 .5
3 Dean 2.0 .0
4 Other 1.5 .6
1 President 2.0 .0

B 2 Vice President 2.0 .0
3 Dean 2.0 .8
4 Other 1.7 .6
1 President 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 2.3 .6
4 Other 2.0 .0
2 Vice President 3.0 .0
3 Dean 2.0 .0
4 Other 1.5 .7

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,
IMPLICATIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATION S

Chapter V is a summary of the purposes, review of literature, research
design, and findings of the study. Conclusions which resulted from data analysis
are displayed and followed by implications for planning and further research.

Recommendations are prescribed.

SUMMARY
Purpose of the Study
With the current demand for managerial efficiency and effectiveness, the
need to establish the degree to which effective college planning, or the absence
of it, made it necessary to investigate the merits and demerits of institutional and
managerial efficiency and effectiveness. The major purposes of the study are
four fold:
1. To determine whether or not institutional goals and objectives were clearly
implemented in accordance with institutional missions.
2. To determine if programs were developed to achieve institutional goals and
objectives

3. To ascertain the role of institutional research in the planning process

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4. To determine whether goals, objectives, and research were articulated in the

context of a formal planning model

Review of the Literature

The review of the literature, as related to three major sections, was in
keeping with the purposes of the study. The reviewed areas and their findings
are summarized as:
0 History, philosophy, and governance and planning
0 Planning and strategic planning

0 Rational and consensual decision making

Design of the Study

For the purpose of conducting the study, it was imperative for the
researcher to develop a survey instrument that was used to measure perceptions
of rational planning and decision making in the four community colleges in
Michigan. For purposes of maintaining the principle of anonymity, colleges
were named A, B, C and D.

A sample of 42 college planners (administrators) was selected from the
population of 60. Its composition was made of three presidents, eight vice
presidents, fifteen deans, and sixteen directors. These planners were selected on
the basis of informed opinion (expert sampling) and the measuring instrument
was administered through the processes of personal and group interviews and

tape recordings of respondents. The instrument was pre-tested in one college

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(A). Since the comments, observations, and recommendations of those tested
were consistent with the study’s design, and because its structure and format had
evolved from studying several similar instruments, the interviewer decided, on
face value, largely, and with the advice of two institutional research consultants,

to use it for data collection.

Summary of the Findings of the Study

The findings of this research were a product of data analysis and
interpretation. Their analytic and interpretable uniqueness was consistent with
the purposes of the study. The findings addressed planning and management
concerns in the areas of institutional demographics, formal planning, strategic
planning, and decision making, and the degree of success of goal
implementation. One of the most interesting findings was that urban institutions

use different planning models from those used by rural institutions.

Conclusions

With regard to the findings of this study, and in reference to the named
population, the following conclusions have been empirically arrived at and are
being offered.

On the basis of the first research questions, it is clear that the rational
model was perceived as a good planning tool by planners of College D only.
College D was the largest of the four institutions studies and its planners (those

who were interviewed) were academically and experientially highly qualified

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persons. Both their experience, qualifications, and the complexity of their
metropolitan and political, socioeconomic and technological environments would
have influences institutional planners to select rationality for institutional
planning. It was not distinctly clear whether the planners’ use of the rational
model made them authoritarian. Although arguments for the existence of
authoritarianism could be advanced, more scientific evidence on the subject
could be provided through anthropological means.

In relation to the second question, the planners of Colleges A, B and C
used the consensus or democratic approach in decision making. Other planning
models were less important in this regard. Therefore, it can be clearly asserted
that planners who successfiilly used any one of the other commonly known
planning models (anarchy, compromise, bureaucratic, consensus, political, and
rational) were less likely to have used the rational planning model in their
colleges.

With regard to the research question which was intended to articulate
measured perceptions of other models, it was found that planners who used the
rational and the consensus model did not decisively use other planning models.

Each college had achievable and written goals and objectives
incorporated into institutional planning structures. Though the
comprehensiveness of goal utilization and other planning perceptions affirmed
that planning was not very simplistic in these colleges, the qualitative generality
of their objectives necessitates the establishment of machinery that could

quantify, specify, and make them measurable. That the degree of goal

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realization, and with the exception of College B, was generally quite good; it

testified the tempo of seriousness with which the goals were operated. _

Interpretation

Within the college environments, college planners at intervals, rather than
continuously, attempted to design, conduct, synthesize and apply institutional
research for the purpose of improving academic management. Institutional
research was applied fer the purpose of utilizing the accuracy and validity of
institutional data, and for orchestrating the usefulness of a centralized,
controlled, and monitored reporting system.

Although traditionally oriented managerial planners underutilized, due to
lack of finds and research methodology, the office of the institutional researcher,
his/her responsibility was to educate the president and his/her cabinet on
institutional strategic concerns.

As a whole, based on the evidence at hand, the four community colleges
were tuned to using long-range plans rather than strategic ones. The essence of
strategic planning is visionary, scientific, and philosophical involvement that
leads to dynamic change: but, the essence of long-range planning is the modified
duplication of past planning traditions and institutionalized perpetual craving for

cosmetic improvements aimed at maintaining the status quo.

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IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND ADMINISTRATIVE
PRACTICE

Implications for administrative practice
If all institutions are to succeed in their academic management, they have

to design and utilize suitable (good) management models. A good model is an

effective model because it shows what is important for the institution, its

constituents, clientele, etc., and the existing relations between organizational
means and ends, i.e., inputs and outputs.

Models may be quantitative or qualitative. Some may be static or
dynamic, efficient or effective, and explicit or implicit. Regardless of the mode
of a model, it involves subjective judgments and institutional values. A model is
designed to assist management officials (planners) and policy makers to make
more informed decisions about the allocation of resources and the translation of
the resources into productive end results.

With reference to the purposes of the study, therefore, the following
implications could be instructive:

1. Colleges, and especially College B, need to develop internal communicative
working relationships. This network of contacts should involve and enable
people to be involved in activities that involve all staff and student groups in
the governance structures of the college. Such activities need to be designed
qualitatively in order to have maximum effect.

2. The communication network of activities needs to be designed and structured

to include program evaluation, evaluation of administrative fimctions, staff

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evaluation, and the evaluation of general and specified accreditation and the
functions of institutional research.

3. Activities designed to ensure the effective functioning of the Board of Trustees
and major college policies need to be evaluated too.

4. A participatory decision making model needs to be designed and implemented
to involve all groups which benefit the colleges and fiom which the colleges
benefit.

5. Other local, national, and international institutions and organizations which
have not become strategically sensitive in their operations need to make

relevant and appropriate strategic adjustments.

Implications for research

The purpose of designing a model is not only for improving the strategic
concerns of academic management (decision makers), but it is also to increase
one’s understanding of some phenomena in order to advance scientific
knowledge, to aid teaching, learning, management, or even to satisfy intellectual
creativity and curiosity.

In relation to the problem, ethnographically and quantitatively oriented
scholars need to pursue this study further and discover valid conclusions on the
effects of the concept of the administrative iron curtain.

The concept of the administrative iron curtain evolved with the
interviewer’s interpretive integration of the review of the literature and data

analysis. The interviewer conceptualized three reasons why senior academic

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managers behave that way. First, senior academic managers influence or
determine the agenda, policy, and goals of the institution. Determination of
agenda, policy, and goals etc., may take place at the level of the president, or
inner cabinet, or vice president’s council. When this kind of planning has been
done, it becomes the strategic policy (decisions) which are collegially further
shared in the administrative cabinet or in the administrative council. The four or
five or more administrative power groups (governance structures) in which they
are shared do not allow those making them to identify clearly the decision
making model (style) of the senior administrator. This argument is based on the
observations made in College A. The reason for using this politically inclined
administrative model was to control power by manipulating the strongest
coalitions to legitimize authority.

In the case of College B, the senior administrator was an autocrat, yet, the
same person was still perceived by planners as one who articulated consensus.
Autocracy was viewed to serve these functions:

0 To eliminate or exclude strong opposition from central (strategic) decision making
arena

0 To consolidate support through those perceived to be loyal, trusted, and able but
conservative elements

a To narrow the scope of participation in central decisions and make their
implementation possible.

Finally, through the administrative iron curtain phenomenon, senior

planners can brilliantly distance themselves from unpopular decisions. The

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rational model which stifles creativity is rigid, and equally exclusive, but also
legitimate. It is legitimate because the privileged few who use it can justify their
actions in the name of accountability for institutional responsibility. While
essence of autocracy is insecurity and doubt, the essence of rationality is
authoritarianism.

Researchers need to find out what the positive and negative aspects of the
administrative iron curtain concept are and provide an explanation for its causes

and what could be done to alleviate its side effects.

RECOMMENDATIONS

From the analysis of data, it was learned that the best planning model in
these settings was consensual rationality. The best model is a good and
participatory model.

A good model has the following criteria:

0 A model should be simple

0 A model should be complete on important issues

0 A model should be easy to control

0 A model should be stable

0 A model should be adaptive, and

o A model should be easy to communicate

In respect to the entire study, consensual rationality can explicitly be used

to develop a plan or make a decision. It can also be used to produce a better

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result than intuition and judgment. Intuition and judgment are implicit models.
Their implications, though mostly useful in legal and other circles, make them
less objective.

Consensual rationality is simple because its users can be taught or guided
how to use it. It is complete because it is democratic and rational. It is
controllable by the users (planners or models) who will decide on which aspect
of its consensual rationality they will use to articulate circumstantial issues,
problems, and needs. It is stable because of its capability to be used rationally
and with flexibility. It is adaptive because of its immense potential in strategic
theory and practice, and above all, it is easy to communicate if its users
understand when, why, how, and where to use it. Because of its flexibility, its
use enables institutions to become more open, functionally efficient, and
objectively effective.

Five guidelines are recommended for models. They are:

0 Decision makers who use models should be involved in their development

0 Data must be representative and reliable

0 Models should have an executive godfather

- Models should be comfortable to their users, and

0 Results should be communicated with care.

Since model construction is a strategic intellectual process, decision
makers should know their models so they can practically control and change
them to suit rising demands, needs, and situations. Model builders should share

their assumptions in order to increase constructive creativity. Their creativity

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can be used to challenge the validity of computer models and increase their

ability to deal with the model. To be effective, model building should be a

participatory process of organizational development.

Based on the interpretation of data analysis and literature review, there

are seven major advantages of using consensual rationality for planning and

decision making. These are:

1.

Organizational goals and values are known and responsibility for activating them
is equally shared.

Solutions to problems are not only viewed from a means to end continuum, but the
search for a solution is determined by participatory and iterative practices.
Decisions are made by maximizing deliberative alternatives, yet maintaining the
shared power, authority, and solidarity of the group.

Choices are made by selecting best alternatives which satisfy most or all
participants.

The results of implemented choices are based on intended consequences
characterized by transitional change; detailed choices may be delegated or enacted
by each person concerned.

Feedback is given on the basis of information related to understanding casual
relations and nature of the problem. The problem may be analytically and openly
examined before conclusions are informally shared.

To use the model successfully requires: unity of commitment to organizational
purposes, application of appropriate technology, unanimity on major functions and

assumptions, time and opportunity for discussion, and mutual respect.

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Substantive Interpretation

This research is based on comparative perceptions of planers in college
planning and the study’s field work results in field work. This section will
integrate such field work with data analysis. Since administrators use the
mission, goals and objectives to plan, and since institutional planning was
conducted on the basis of relevant, observable, and measurable data, the research
was, in a sense, a form of institutional policy analysis whose major objective was
to make useful and analytical observations on the strengths and weaknesses of
institutional planning and provide viable recommendations for reforming the
four institutional planning systems. Institutional policy analysis focuses on the
utilization of variables and changeable aspects of institutional governance. The
boards, presidents, vice presidents, deans, faculty, students, and others (directors,
comptrollers, etc.) are some of the governance structures in the community
colleges.

In this study, the researcher used procedural values to investigate the
processes and structure of internal governance. The criteria which was used in
this investigation included such terms as participation, administrative efficiency,
expertise, rationality, formality, planning model, effectiveness, mission, goals,
roles (positions or ranks) etc. Such terms formed a logical substantive criteria
which was applied to study the problem(s) of institutional design as viewed from

a strategic viewpoint.

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Substantively, the criteria of data collection and analysis were used to
assess the functions of planners (college administrators), norms and values of
institutions (e.g., standards, planning models, goals, objectives, and missions),
and institutional procedures that included planning techniques. The utilization of
institutional (planning) functions and norms were viewed as values that reflected
institutional culture whose maintenance was regulated by those who played
various planning roles in light of prescribed institutional rules defined as rights
and obligations. The planning processes were conducted through established
institutional governance structures. The structures used a variety of planning
models to make institutional decisions. The consensus and the rational models
were more commonly used than the organized anarchy, compromise, conflict
resolution, and bureaucratic models. The fact that all these models were used
reflected not only the degree of freedom with which planners expressed
themselves, but, that these expressions were reflections of institutional
willingness to accommodate flexibility in decision making mechanisms.

Although the consensus and rational models were more dominantly being
used than others, the decision making styles of the four colleges were amenable
to eclectic consensual rationality. The institutional governance structures which
utilized a variety of decision making models were viewed as a form of
educational architecture.

The institutional existence and utilization of a variety, rather than a
uniformity of governance structure(s) and planning model(s) did not only show

the presence of class struggle (conflict of interests) latent in hierarchical

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institutional settings, but that conflict of interest was reminiscent of situations
which arose from institutional desire for career and professional paths,
technological advances, social class, the ideology of individual self-
determination (autonomy), and the status of the community colleges themselves.
Because the conflict of interests were, inevitably, indirectly or directly, impacted
on by strategic forces, what happened daily in these institutions, and perhaps in
many other high education institutions, mirrored the wider workings of the
cultural social fabric.

In relations to students, and even as Clark (1976) has also observed, in
practice, a democratic society tries to limit and block culturally instilled goals
and the approaches needed to “deflect the resentment and modify the
disappointment of those whom opportunity is denied” (page 151) to subject them
to bad jobs. Looked at from this perspective, the major function of the
community college then was to cool the aspirations of students and temper their
frustrations through gradual accumulation of evidence based on tests, course
grades, teacher recommendations, and the advice of counselors. Cumulative
evidence from these sources convinced students to make decisions which
influenced them to get two-year vocational and terminal degrees instead of
making decisions on transfer to four-year educational institutions. As it may be
observed from Table 3.1, fewer students from each of the four colleges joined
four-year institutions. This implied that society limits and blocks culturally
instilled goals of the majority of students whose social mobility may have been

considered ipso facto, undesirable.

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Each of the four institutions was viewed as a formal and rationally
organized social structure or subsystem. The structure involved an element of
clearly defined patterns of activity in which a series of actions were functionally
related to the purpose of each institution. There were a series of integrated
offices (positions), characterized by a hierarchy of statuses that had obligations
and privileges. The obligations and privileges (rights) were defined by limited
and specific rules. Each position was awarded on the basis of proven
competence and responsibility. Each planner in each office had authority that
was a form of power used for controlling, and derived from acknowledged status.
In other words, authoritative power used for controlling did not rest in the
person, it rested in the office. Planning actions occurred within the framework of
pre-existing institutional roles.

Planning actions were related to the purposes (mission, goals, and
objectives) of each institution. The purposes (parameters) were defined,
implemented, and subjected to periodic evaluations. The offices were arranged
in a hierarchical order and circumscribed by rules and procedures.

The structure of each institution rested on the bureaucratic organizational
theory rather than on the human relations and matrix theories. Within that kind
of bureaucratic order, management (planning) activities were instituted
scientifically. Responsibility for designing and formulating institutional goals
and objectives, determining the scope of worker’s job description, place of work,

and job specification, evaluating performance, distributing rewards and penalties,

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and hiring and dismissing rested with the chief planning officers within the
central administration.

On the basis of each governance structure in the four colleges, the control
system was a set of processes and techniques designed to increase the probability
that people would behave in ways that led to the achievement of institutional
goals. The intent of the control system was not to control people’s behavior per
se, but to influence them to act and make decisions that were consistent with
institutional goals. The factors that influenced the effective application of
institutional goals were size and structure of each college, technology,
environment, and dominant structure coalitions. With respect to colleges, and in
references to Table 4.35, college planners indicated that their dominant decision
making model was consensus for A, B, and C. Ironically, these observations of
the colleges were not consistent with the testimony of the chief planning officials
of Colleges A and B. The chief planning official in College A very brilliantly
used the political model to orchestrate the decision making mechanisms in his
institution whose decision making structure was based on four power groups (the
inner cabinet, the president’s cabinet, vice president’s council, and the
administrative council). College A’s senior planning officer, influences the
structural design of these power groups and used the political model to influence
the strongest coalitions to support his policies (institutional policies) and make,
implement, and evaluate decisions.

The reasons that appeared to account for his success in using the political

model (conflict resolution) were largely based on his thorough understanding of

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the American political process, the lot of community education, and the gamut of
the strategic environment. In addition, this chief planning officer’s ability to
remain open rather than closed, enabled the power groups and resultant
coalitions to perceive institutional reality, as interpreted by the chief planning
official, to be open, free, democratic, and therefore, beneficial and acceptable to
them.

The inner cabinet was made of the president and some loyal and trusted
members of the cabinet. This vice president’s council was made up of the four
vice presidents only; the cabinet was made of the president, vice presidents, three
deans, and four directors; and the administrative council, which was composed
of 35 people, was comprised of the cabinet and divisional chairpersons. It was
evidently clear that most decisions made at the higher levels of administrative
authority were not know or were not certain to those in lower echelons of the
administrative structure. What this implied was that planners at the lower ranks
were not seriously involved in participatory decision making forums of the
college’s power groups.

Unlike College A, College B’s senior planning official used the
autocratic decision making model. The structure of internal governance power
groups in College B was composed of the inner cabinet (made up of the
president, three women, and one man who was invited occasionally), cabinet
(made up of seven people -— president, two vice presidents, and four directors),
expanded cabinet (made up of cabinet and four deans who were only invited to

attend cabinet meetings occasionally) and finally, the annual off-campus retreat

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in which all planners and faculty informally met .for the articulation of long-
range goals and policy decisions of the college.

The senior planning official in College B succeeded in making decisions
for the college by utilizing the several coalitions of interests reminiscent in the
internal institutional governance structures (power groups). Ironically, although
41.2% of the respondents (largest percentage) indicated that the planning model
for College B was consensus, the chief planning officers believed that it was
autocratic (tape No. 5; 3-16-87). Autocracy is a ‘government in which one
person possesses unlimited power” (Webster’s New Collegijge DictiorLag, 1979,
page 74). This autocratic decision making model, as it was perceived, may have
been used to eliminate faculty and deans from the decision making process of the
college. If the issue of elimination was true, then College B’s management
strategy was less participatory, less healthy for institutional operations, and
unhealthy for strategic planning purposes.

For both Colleges A and B, as it was said earlier, large percentages of
response from plarmers showed that the consensus planning model was
dominantly used. However, evidences based on close scrutiny of the chief
institutional planners in the two colleges argue to the contrary. College A’s chief
planners used the political model (conflict resolution) while his contemporary at
College B was an autocrat. Paradoxically, other senior and middle level planners
were not able to determine the nature of models they used in their governance
structures. The chief planning officials of College A and B were so acute in

political acumen that they designed governance structures that worked for their

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own interests and concerns to the detriment of the majority of fellow planning
officials. They also were able to do so because their authoritative power
sanctioned the loyalty and support of their followers who, hopefully, may have
found it difficult to question the malaise of administrative inefficiency. The
ability of senior administrators to design decision making mechanisms that mean
one thing, yet are perceived to be different by different people, is a form of an
administrative iron curtain. While the essence of the political model is to keep
the senior planning official in power indefinitely, the essence of autocracy is
insecurity. The power base of the former is in the ability to brilliantly control
planning participants through the processes of dominant coalitions (within the
governance structures) while that of the latter is in the ability to systematically
eliminate the influence, regardless of its creativity and foresight, of the person
and coalitions viewed as detrimental to the dominance of the regime. The major
goal of the college of the former chief planner was to teach students; that of the
latter was to serve the community.

Lall and Lall (1979) have argued that autocratic leadership is poor human
relations. The leader uses reward to motivate subordinates. Members of the
organization do not have the opportunity to participate and exchange ideas.
Expertise and all potential are subdued. Workers are manipulated to accomplish
the goals of the leader.

The two authors continue to say that autocracy is a defense mechanism

that arises with feelings of insecurity, inferiority, and incompetence, uncertainty

157

and indecision. The authors summarized Kimball Wiles and John Lovell and
said that a group which is led by an autocratic leader is characterized by

Intense competition, lack of acceptance of all members, buck passing,

avoidance of responsibility, unwillingness to cooperate, aggression

among members and toward persons outside the group, irritability, and a

decrease in work when the supervisor is absent. A group with a

benevolent autocrat for an official leader loses initiative, shows

regression to childlike dependence, becomes increasingly submissive,
does not continue individual development, and cannot accept added

responsibility easily (page 96).

In reference to autocratic leadership in community college governance
structures, Zoglin (1976) says that the leader’s insecurity and arrogance is
viewed with “Suspicion, disdain, and tolerance by collegiate and university
power groups” (page vii).

Contrary to autocratic behaviors nurtured by the consensual and
democratic leader develop power within the group for participation in planning,
goal setting, and group opinion or decision making. Because the power base of
the democratic and consensual leader as viewed in Colleges A and C, is broader
than that of the insecure autocrat, democratic leadership “enhances worker
morale, motivation, productivity, and goal achievement” (Lall and Lall, page
96).

With progressive development of community colleges from the periods
of evolution and expansion, community college leaders were parochial. During
the period of their crystallized consolidation (comprehensiveness), a new

generation of their managers (planners) emerged. These were entitled ‘minority

services, community services, public relations, business and industry services,

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and women’s resources” (Editor, New Directions for Communig Colleges.
1983, page 2). Through the planning processes of their institutions, these
minority managers (planners) have managed to considerably assert their
leadership on the institutions and their respective communities. Although the
impact of their leadership has largely been perceived to be educational, its
influence on the strategic forces has had far reaching political, economic, social,
technological, and cultural implications. By so doing, community colleges play
a constructive role of mobilizing forces with the disadvantaged classes of
society, which collectively develop strength and power for articulating their
needs at the higher echelons of more powerful societal structures. When their
needs are effectively orchestrated, the governance structures of the more
powerful and higher levels liberalize their mechanisms for the reverse flow of
information and resources which the colleges and communities utilize for

adaptability and change.

RATIONALITY AND CHANGE

Rationality, as a philosophy of life, cannot be limited to mere
argumentative reasoning, but by extension, it can be viewed as a value-laden
process of intellectual, autonomy, and existentialist philosophy governed by
moral conceptions of a cosmopolitan, industrial, bureaucratic, and democratic
order. Characteristic of western culture, whether rationality is formal or
substantive, value—oriented or purposive, rational action is ethically based on

principles of conviction and responsibility.

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In other words, to act or plan rationally does not necessarily underrate
rationally and philosophically oriented economic, political, ethical, erotic, or
aesthetic ideal, all of which emanate from ideas about human nature. These
ideas are empirical and normative.

The use of rationality (reason) per se should not be restricted to its
anthropological sense. Rationality’s utility should be extended to include its
moral, logical, and scientific perspectives. When rationality is carried on in such
philosophically interpretive and practical ways, it becomes a form of education
that can be used to preserve the real humanity, independence, and dignity and
integrity.

Within the community college setting of the four colleges, responses,
observations, and interpretations of rational planning approaches were
reminiscent of the decision making activities of the wider rational and
democratic society (fabric) in the west and other societies. In other words,
rationality is not confined to the planning leadership in the four institutions
alone, it is a cultural and philosophical statement deeply embedded in people’s
lives, values, and norms.

Rationality is reflective critical thinking. Consistent reflective and
critical thought does not only empower the rational thinker, but such thinking
and reflective power liberates the thinker. If the thinker expresses
himself/herself critically and powerfully, critical drinking or rationality may be
interpreted as a form of revolutionary thought. Rational, critical, and

revolutionary thought is a form of elite cultural imperialism. Since community

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colleges are not elitist institutions, their leaders (planners) could not afford to
encourage the utilization of critical and reflective rational thought commonly
used in universities with which, Chaffee, the proponent of rationality, was
familiar. The less emphasis placed on the use of rationality in community
colleges is, therefore, justifiable.

Although 37.5% of the planners in College D formed the largest group
which (see Table 4.35) used the rational model, 78.75% of the planners in the
same college indicated that they used other models (bureaucratic = 18.85%;
compromise = 13.5%; consensus = 25%; conflict resolution (debate) =12.5%).
What this meant was that the majority of planners in College D used models
different than the rational model alone. Then since the rational model was not, in
totality, the most popular, it was unlikely to be the most suitable planning model
in College D. Therefore, it is evidently clear that five, rather than one, planning
model(s) were perceived to be individually and collectively used to make
management decisions in College D.

Again, in the context of Table 4.35, the majority of planners in Colleges
A, B, and C indicated that they used consensual planning method. Percentage-
wise, College A had 10% of responses for organized anarchy, 20% for
compromise, 10% for rational, 45% for consensus, 10% for conflict resolution
and 5% for the bureaucratic model. Consensus was dominantly used in College
A. But it was not the only decision making model. Other models, though less
frequently used, were also used. Together, their total percentage was 55%.

Individually, they were less dominant. Collectively, the models were eclectically

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useful in their contributions to decision making in the college. The same
argument could be applicable to Colleges B and C in which consensus was
thought or perceived to be the dominant decision making model.

Consensus was collective opinion of the planners in Colleges A, B and C.
The planners in each college formed a planning system. Each member within the
planning system (group) participated in the discussions related to suggestions,
arguments, issues, values, policies, procedures, and resources of planning the
community colleges. The discussions were ratified by a vote, or a collective yes,
or a general common feeling of accord. The purpose of such collective
agreement was to effect given purposes, goals, or objectives. In this case, the
consensus was not only collective responsibility, but it was also purposive in
nature. Collective and purposive responsibility in decision making was
participatory management and collective wisdom. Such collective and
consensual wisdom was not the monopoly of the four community colleges alone,
but it is inherent, superior, and democratic human behavior that makes it possible
for human beings to solve crucial administrative and management problems in
organizational and institutional settings. In other words, within the context of the
four colleges, the utilization of consensus was a miniature reflection of its wider
use in the political and socioeconomic fabric.

Both the rational and consensus models were perceived to be the best
decision making models in the four community colleges. Even though the two
models are not the only ones used in the diverse, pluralistic, and class-conscious

capitalistic environment. Of the six models, consensus was perceived to be

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predominantly best in Colleges A, B and C and second best in College D; while
the rational model was the best in College D only and the second best in

Colleges B and C.

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES

Goals of the Colleges A, B and D were relatively comprehensive, well
structured, and integrated into the planning structure of each institution and its
policy (mission statement) (see Appendices A, B, C, and D). The goals and
objectives articulated matters related to fiscal and physical management, human
resources, image of the institutions, student, curricula and instructional
development, community and marketing issues, and long-range rather than
strategic planning. In spite of their general similarities in composition, the goals
of these three colleges differ radically in organization, content, and morphology
(word formation and structure).

The goals of College C were uniquely different from those of Colleges A,
B and D. First, the mission statement was composed of one sentence, printed on
one and one—half lines and contained only 17 words. Unlike the mission
statements of Colleges A, B, and C, College C’s mission statement was too brief
to be clear. It did not explain the reason for the existence of the college. The
reason for its being and the place of its history were not explained. It was vague
and unsatisfactory.

The general goals of College C were observed. They articulated

curricula, instruction, and community service matters. The college’s more

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specific goals were related to admissions, financial aid, receptionist secretary to
director of student services, campus programs and activities/visitations, student
records, veterans, registration supervisor of staff work study, nursing, liberal arts,
counseling and academic advisement, testing, business, secretarial and
cosmetology, professional development, vocational and technical education
C.O.P.E., placement and career library.

These goals for College C were formulated by deans and directors of the
college and formed part and parcel of the management reports and plans data-
corpus, which were used to give directions for institutional operations. Because
they look like general objectives, rather than goals, per se, they needed to be
reconstructed and made more general, strategic, and diverse, rather than tactical
and operational per se. The institution was the only one which did not have
objectives either in the major planning documents of the institutions, structure of
its mission and goals, and/or management plans and reports. The objectives of
Colleges A, B and D were general and qualitative rather than specific,
quantitative and measurable.

In Colleges A and B, total goals were realized well. The degree with
which they were realized in C and D was very well (Table 4.39). Goals were
realized either well or very well because of three reasons. In the socialization
process, individual planners were made knowledgeable and accepting of the
institutional goals and values through formal and informal familiarization during

campus business meeting times or during retreats respectively. The result of

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such familiarization of goals to planners was a shift of individual’s personal
goals toward those of the organization.

Secondly, the process of accommodation of common goals was used.
The accommodation process occurred when management adjusted organizational
goals to be consistent with individual (personal) goals. This approach enabled
planners to integrate personal and institutional goals.

Thirdly, in the differential process, individual planners and the
institutions compromised on goals so that more important goals of both parties
could be attained. To make the goal integration process more achievable,
institutions needed to incorporate the concepts of institutional compliance and
control.

Since goals were, and are, generally arranged in the context of a means-
end basis, they required decisions about the means (resources) with which they
would be attained. An attempt was made to provide the means which were also
sub-goals. Through this process, the structure of goals was tabulated. As with
institutional climate, decision making style, and decision making process and
structures, the goal structure could vary from one hierarchical level to another in
each institution; hence, the basis for compliance. Of the ten goals that were
ranked for their importance in the four community colleges, three (teaching,
maintaining academic standards, and economic) were ranked first in each of the

three subsets into which they were categorized.

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SUMMARY

Chapter IV was an analysis of data described with the use of tables and
interpretive commentary. The major reason for data analysis was in accordance
with the purpose of the study. Implicit in the purpose was an attempt to
articulate the need for planning in the community colleges. This need for
planning in colleges has arisen with the public outcry that the colleges have lost
their identity and purposes. Since the identity and purposes are the raison d’étre
will mean that they have no existence, the analysis displayed evidences of
planning characteristics whose long-term and apparent strategic manifestations
proved the authenticity of the colleges’ purposes. However, since each of the
four colleges exists in a different environment, the purposes of each college were
slightly different from others; and similarly, the planning structures and styles of
each were different.

Because the institutions operated during the period of decline rather than
one of growth, and since the turbulence (demographic changes, unstable
economic growth, intense and variable competition for faculty, students, funds,
acquisition of high-tech skills in areas of technology transfer, robotics, computer
literacy, etc.) of the environment, the need for planning more realistically
(strategically) was imperative.

The planning procedures and processes of each college were formalized
and their planning environments were periodically monitored with institutionally
designed offices, groups of persons, or committees, to sensitize the threatening

reality of the internal and external environments. Once the nature of the strategic

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environment was understood, college planners became more informed to make
decisions. Decisions were made by senior planning officials and delegated to
lower officials for implementation and evaluation. The structure of governance
and style of leadership of each institution determined who the decision makers
would be, what kind of decisions were to be made, and who their irnplementers
and evaluators would be. Overall, the quality of the social and academic
atmosphere reflected the manner in which decisions were made and

implemented.

REFLECTIONS
Comparison between Business Management and Education

In the industrialize world, business, industry, and government collaborate
in making decisions regarding the invention, use, and transfer of technology. In
the U.S., business and industry dominate the manner in which technological
innovations and skills are nurtured and made marketable. Business and industry,
which are successful models of industrial capitalism in the west, have become
classic examples for emulation by other institutions including education. In this
scenario, community colleges and higher education in general, have dramatically
been force by strategic forces to translate and reform their missions in order to be
molded by the whims of businessmen and industrialists who influence
institutional decision makers regarding which technological commodity they can
buy and use for training people to master the skills which the commodity is

marketable for.

167

This relationship between business/industry on the one hand and
education on the other has influenced the three institutions to productively plan,
while keeping the needs of each other in mind. This type of planning is a form
of institutional psychological reciprocity. Since business, industrial and
educational institutions are economically viewed as large-scale organizations,
“certain operational similarities are transferable. These include defining
purposes and objectives, organizing a work force, selecting managers, motivating
the work force, and contributing and measuring work results” (Millett, 1975,
page 221). The three institutional sectors are also dramatically opposed in the
character, quality, and quantity of the goals and objectives, the structure and
roles of personnel, and the nature of motivation which not only irnpels the
workers to produce and the students to learn, but also shows how that motivation
contributes to quantitatively and qualitatively measureable results in the
economic versus the learning environments.

The degrees of similarities and differences between business/industrial
versus educational planners (managers) have their basic points of cleavages in
the goals/objectives of production. In spite of these points of divergence, these
sectarian institutions are partners in education and economics. This relationship
forces colleges and universities to design their curriculum, facilities, and
instructional methodologies and objectives for the purpose of accommodating
the needs of business and industry. Hence education has become, is, and will
continue to be, a service and consumer industry which is heavily dependent on

the genius of industrial capitalism. Such a heavily dependent institution can

168

hardly find it reasonably convenient to be ethically and rationally accountable.
Institutional accountability is jeopardized in areas of autonomy (relative
institutional independence from unnecessary external influences), goals and
objectives of learning, and collective bargaining (in which the academic
community -— faculty, behaves like organized labor in industrial and business
settings).

Only well informed and highly cultivated academic managers will be able
to identify the needs of learners versus those of business and industry, integrate
them, and plan more intelligently for their institutions. The institutions need to
emphasize the paramount and essence of human and intellectual values over
material culture. By doing so, they will encourage their students to integrate
what is valuable and what is valueless in their academic, vocational,
professional, and life pursuits. Hence, institutions will be practically involved in
teaching students how to plan better for their future.

Consensually and rationally planned and managed institutions are
organizations which change themselves and their settings. Institutions which
change themselves and contribute to the change in their environment are
dynamic because they contribute to institutional and societal growth and
development. The fact that innovative solutions can be accepted for change, and
since that change cannot be effected without a general consensus implies that
rationality must be collectivized.

If the political, bureaucratic, compromise, and anarchical models can be

liberalized by being collectively or consensually rationalized, the rationalization

169

of the models would become the eclectic collectivization of consensual
rationality or eclectic consensual rationality. Eclectic consensual rationality may
sound or appear to be complex and sophisticated conceptually. In reality,
eclectic consensual rationality could turn out to be strategically simple because it
could be applied at any time or place for the purpose of meeting specific
situations, needs, and circumstances. In this case, the model could not only be
simple, but it could also be the ideal form of eclectic strategic consensual
rationality (strategic planning) whose perceptions were disproportionately
indicated in Table 4.35.

There are three advantages of using a model in an organization. First, a
model is a verified and validated reference system. Second, a model achieves
credibility when sufficient support emerges with respect to each area of
evaluation. Third, a decision making model can help to organize thinking and
display it for systematic scrutiny or review. Any constructed and good model
should be used in such a way that it can minimize the possibility of undesirable

side effects.

170

APPENDICES

171

1 APPENDIX A

MISSIONS, GOALS, and LONG-RANGE
STRATEGY

172

Section 2

Mission and Philosophy Statement

On January 9, 1978, the Board of Trustees adapted a policy related to the
Annual Planning Session. That policy specifically states that among the Agenda
items will be a review of the College Mission Statement.

The current Mission and Philosophy Statement was adopted in two parts.
The Mission and Philosophy was revised on May 13, 1985. The related
objectives were adopted on June 14, 1982. A copy of the current Mission and
Philosophy and Objectives follows for review of the Board as deemed
appropriate.

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MISSION AND PHILOSOPHY

Community College shall promote the educational, economic and cultural
advancement of the total community within the College service area.

The College shall offer educational experience designed to promote the
optimum development of potential throughout each student’s lifetime; further the
College shall provide career education that reflects both individual aspirations
and community needs.

The College welcomes people of all ages fi'om various racial, national,
language, religious, economic and social backgrounds.

The College shall actively involve individuals and groups in its programs
of instructions, cultural activities, guidance, library services and student
activities.

Through the free and open exchange of ideas, the College shall provide
intellectual experiences which add meaning, scope, richness and interest to the
life of the community.

The College shall provide educational opportunity, services and facilities
to accomplish the mission of the College through the responsible management of
its financial and personnel resources.

Revised 5/ 1 3/ 85
OBJECTIVES
Objectives related to the mission of Jackson Commrmity College have
been developed and recognized over the years. Those objectives with the
highest priority are:

1. Providing the first two years of instruction for students who wish to transfer
college credit and pursue their education in other institutions.

2. Providing instruction in a variety of careers to the level required for
responsible employment.

Other objectives for the College are:

3. Providing instruction toward, and encouragement of, individual growth in
reading, writing, listening and speaking, to the end that students of Jackson
Community College contribute their best to society as fully literate men and
women.

4. Contributing to and developing the cultural and intellectual life of the
community.

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INTRODUCTION TO 1986-89 INSTITUTIONAL GOALS

This section of the goals report sets forth 12 institutional goals for the 3-

year period 1986-89. These institutional goals serve as a guideline for the
administration to focus attention and major efforts during the next three years.

The 1986-89 institutional goals have been developed to be consistent

with and supported by a set of commonly shared values. These values emerged
over several years, and involved appraisal of our collective past and legacy, as
well as efforts to define and shape our collective future. The values derived to a
basic set of four statements as follows:

1.

Quality first, last, always. It is imperative that whatever we undertake to
do, or whatever programs we offer, our work must be of the highest quality.
This quality can be assessed (a) in relationship to other higher education
institutions, (b) by students in relationship to services and education
received, and (c) by individual faculty and staff applying their personal
standard of excellence to what they do. Quality cannot be compromised. If
we cannot do something with excellence, we will not do it.

. A caring, personalize approach. Our interactions with students and with

each other and with our community must demonstrate that we care about
people as individuals. Our decisions are guided by this value, rather than by
an abstract philosophy or a rigid policy or past practices. Without
compromising the essential qualities of historical values of higher education,
our relationships, decisions, and actions demonstrate that we care.

We are on the leading edge of the future. Just tracking the educational
needs or demands of the community is not enough; we must lead that
community. Our programs are designed to prepare students to succeed in
the world of tomorrow. We prepare students using the latest in technology,
both mechanical and instructional. We should also apply this value to our
own work, using the most modern methods available.

A broad definition of education, and a narrow focus on our mission. We
accept the idea that living is learning; the two are inseparable. Yet we know
that we cannot be all things for all people. Such a strategy would so dilute
our resources that we would be able to do nothing well.

We must select those things that we can do well that can provide the
greatest possible benefit to our students and our community; and we must
select the efforts we will pursue from a broadened perspective of what
education is and should be.

Each of the institutional goals is supported by at least one of the four
values and is in congruence with the College Mission Statement, philosophy
and general objectives.

Following these introductory remarks, a set of basic assumptions
regarding the College environment and operations in presented. These
assumptions underline and serve as a basis for the final section of this report
which is a statement of each individual institutional goal during the next
three years.

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1986—89 INSTITUTIONAL GOALS

The Institutional Goals for Jackson community College for the years 1986-89 are to:

GOAL 1

Continue our efforts toward instructional excellence by assisting the faculty to
build on its outstanding reputation through acquiring new knowledge and new skills
which meet today’s changing demands. Implementation of the cores curriculum will
be completed. Emphasis is also required on curriculum development, including career
and transfer-oriented high technology programs; library support; and equipment in the
instructional programs.

Our goal in all instructionally-related elements is to strive for excellence which
requires a constant effort to improve and remain current with changing societal trends
and needs. The goodwill and confidence enjoyed by the College has been the result of
providing high quality, meaningful instruction and services to residents of our
community. It is absolutely critical that we, as an institution, continue to be in the
forefront of change in order that our students are prepared for today and tomorrow’s
world in which we live,

1986-87 Objectives

a. Complete final implementation of the core curriculum, encouraging team teaching
and other creative approaches to delivery of this essential education.

b. Develop or implement associate degrees in Fire Science Technology and Laser
Optics Technology, a one-year certificate program in Wellness Instructional
Leadership, and courses and in-service programs for corrections, fire, police and
security personnel.

c. Expand the recognition that writing and thinking skills (Writing Across the
Curriculum) must be taught in all elements of the curriculum.

d. Assure that the business curriculum in the Prison Program is revised in concert
with the revision on the main campus, revise the Landscape/Floriculture Program
and expand library services in all program areas.

e. Secure funding and implement a microcomputer-based Learning Resource Center
in Walker Hall, which will be used primarily by students in the Language and
Literature Department, but open to students in all courses.

f. Support and expand the effective use of mutual mentoring, team-teaching, in-

service opportunities, and the use of computers in instructional activities amount
members of the faculty.

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g. Evaluate the operation of the academic extension sites; improve communication
with the centers and other operations as indicated.

h. Create a Community Research Center, managed by full-time faculty members, to
undertake both institutional and community research as a self-sustaining activity
center.

GOAL 2

Improve the coordination of that segment of instruction to which supplemental faculty
are assigned. The targeted activities include the recruitment, selection, development
and evaluation of part-time faculty and the integration of these instructors into
academic department activities.

While much has been done to develop and provide new programs to support
supplemental faculty, coordination of these activities and increased efforts in the areas
of recruitment, selection, development of instructional skills and evaluation are still
needed.

1986-89 Objectives

a. Extend support services to supplemental instructors by assigning office space for
those still without it, providing building clerk assistance in the evening,
developing mutual mentoring and team-teaching opportunities with full-time
faculty, and expanding departmental in-service programs available to all
instructors.

b. Review and update course syllabi to provide more detailed information and
assistance to supplemental instructors, thereby assuring more consistency in course
offerings.

c. Develop a comprehensive records system that will include assignments, pay
records, and evaluations for each supplemental instructor.

(1. Continue to improve recruitment, selection and in-service training of supplemental
in the Prison Program and at academic extension sites.

GOAL 3

Continue to focus training programs at a broad range of economic development

activities which allow out work force and employers to remain or become competitive
in the marketplace.

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With the current reduction of unemployment, greater focus must now be placed on
sustaining and improving the community’s economic base which sustains and creates
jobs. Training and retaining will remain essential elements of our responsibility, but
must focus on the employed who need new skills as well as those sill unemployed
who need assistance in regaining employment.

1986-89 Objectives

a. Offer training programs for auto suppliers, entrepreneurs and personnel in retail
management, and manufacturing technologies, and develop job-specific training
packages designed for the unemployed and underemployed in the tri-county area.

b. Complete the renovation of the Incubator and more appropriate CBS staff into it;
open the Incubator for occupancy,

c. Expand the Living Well Program to organizations in Hillsdale and Lenawee
counties.

GOAL 4

Strengthen and extend programs of assessment, placement, instruction, support
services and follow-up to students. Broaden the involvement of faculty and staff to
assure that students will have the necessary basic skills and competencies before
attempting coursework that assumes those competencies.

Programs in each of the above have been created and are now in place. WE need now

to begin expanding access and creating a stronger internal base of support through

greater involvement of faculty and staff.

1986-89 Objectives

3. Extend the reach and effectiveness of the Developmental Education Program
involving more instructors in course placement activities and in the Learning to

Learn Program; cross-validate the course placement tests with ASSET.

b. Continue to build the Personalized Admissions concept by consolidating and
expanding services throughout Student Services.

c. Extend the development and tutorial services currently available on the main
campus to all College prison Program sites.

(1. Maintain an 80% job placement rate in J T1 Training Programs.

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e. Extend the services of MESA (Microcomputer Evaluation and Screening
Assessment) to other College departments and into business/industrial/govemment
sectors.

GOAL 5

Analyze problems of student attrition and develop programs to improve
opportunities for student success and retention.

Student attrition is caused by many factors; some legitimate and unavoidable and
some due to dissatisfaction with the College or other reasons that we have some ability
to address. By better understanding why students drop out of classes or do not
continue at J CC, we can develop strategies that address those problems that can and
should be resolved.

1986-87 Objectives:

a. Develop a marketing plan for student retention, including the collection and
analysis of admissions and student data.

b. Develop a faculty-advising program for students with declared educational goals
and incentives for faculty to personalize instruction.

0. Expand the student referral system so that, wherever students turn for help, they
will be properly referred, and their referrals will be followed so as to insure that
every reasonable assistance is given.

(1. Continue to work with the Department of Corrections to alleviate the problem of
student withdrawal caused by prison resident movement.

Goal 6

Offer current staff training in the marketing process which will encourage employees
to begin recognizing themselves as responsible for marketing for the College. Create
a consistent image for the institution, prioritizing target markets and develop and
implement marketing plans for those targets.

The concept of marketing is focused on service to our students and community. Each
employee has a direct responsibility to assure that this happens. By looking at those
we serve in segments rather than as a total community, we can better understand needs
and develop responsive programs. This, in turn, establishes the College as a
community resource that provides important and meaningful service.

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1986-87 Objectives

a.

Continue the In-Service Marketing Training Program to train all staff by the end of
1986-87. Begin Advanced Training for some personnel.

Continue to work on the prioritized target markets (minorities and adult
populations); develop targeted mailing lists and a system for updating.

Develop academic department marketing plans that are supported by the chairs and
directors.

Through the Marketing Department develop an internal newsletter, identification
manual, and institutional research capability (in cooperation with the Community
Research Center).

Encourage faculty involvement in the Cascades Academic Games and in new and
continuing contacts with all area high schools.

GOAL 7

Pursue funding sufficient to maintain at least the present quality of our physical
facilities and equipment, renovate the William N. Atkinson Library, and catch up on
necessary repairs and maintenance.

Continue attempts to find necessary funds to deal with deferred maintenance and
renovation needs. Funding must either be obtained from new revenue sources or taken
from the general operating budget. Failure to do this will result in deteriorating
facilities causing significantly greater expenditure demands at a later point.

1986-87 Objectives

a.

Seek funding from the State of Michigan through the allocation for deferred
maintenance and capital renewal with the top priority for library renovation and
replacement of the air conditioning unit in Whiting Hall.

To acquire new quick copy equipment for the Print Shop, which will reduce the

load on the convenience copiers, located in each building. In addition, replace the
current College press to provide for more efficient, better quality production.

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GOAL 8

Initiate planning for replacement of the DEC 20 mainframe and improve systems
for an increasing number of computer users.

Current administrative projections suggest that our DEC 20 mainframe should be
replaced in 1990-91. While this date is not firm, the computer and software will be
ten years old by that time and significantly outdated. We need to begin planning now
for a smooth transition and a clear understanding of what king of replacement is
needed.

We also are rapidity expanding our base of computer users. Therefore, we need to
look for ways of improving our processes to assist them in becoming competent and
intelligent computer users.

1986-87 Objectives

a. Begin the initial stage of a management information system, which combines
mainframe and small computer operations.

b. Seek to improve utilization of small computer systems and computerized other
operations throughout the institution, as appropriate

GOAL 9

Maintain and extend close positive relationships with broad segments of the College
service area, in recognition of the College’s interdependence with its local
constituencies.

Much has been done to build relationships with the many segments of the community.
Attention now needs to turn to broadening beyond the existing involvement to new
and different constituencies.

1986-87 Objectives

a. Encourage faculty and staff participation in service clubs, professional
organizations and area agency boards.

b. Encourage and assist both faculty and students to be active recruiters of students
fi'om the area high schools.

c. Extend the use of advisory committees in non-traditional areas.

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(1. Significant efforts to maintain and extend close positive relationships with broad
segments of the college service area will be developed to include more behind-the-
scenes educational theatre experiences and opportunities for students and other lay
persons to come into contact with performing artists.

GOAL10

Continue refinements of a staff development program that provides for diversification
of opportunities for all employees. Begin to systematize the staff development
activities and assess the need for a staff development coordinator.

We are in a world of rapid change that demands much of our faculty and staff. To be
effective we must not only change, but also change early and be prepared to assist
others in out society to learn and understand new information, new techniques and
new skills.

Program and opportunities for out staff to gain these abilities are increasingly
important. We must build upon our existing efforts to both systematize our activities
and diversity the types of staff development efforts and we support. As demands in
this area continue to expand, we must also begin consideration of establishing a
position to plan, coordinate, and evaluate the staff development activities.

1986-87 Objectives

3. Select faculty leaders to serve as coordinators of a series of in-house faculty
development programs, such as colloquies, seminars, and workshops.

b. Conduct and report a faculty audit under the auspices of AAHE.

c. Conduct an internal student to begin systematizing the current staff development
activities by employee category.

(1. Based on the staff development study, determine if there is need for a more
formalized staff assignment responsible for this activity.

GOALll

Improve internal communication and expand involvement of faculty and staff in the
decision making process.

182

The recent North Central Accreditation self study indicated a need for better
communication with faculty and staff and greater utilization of their expertise and
knowledge in the decision making process. As we attempt to build a greater sense of
individual responsibility for the College, communication and involvement are key
ingredients.

1986-87 Objections

a. Continue to develop the decision-making role of the department chairs and
academic program directors as a group. This effort will involve a retreat and more
fi'equent interaction within this group.

b. Implement an in-house electronic bulletin board and eventual electronic (tele-)
conference project using a microcomputer.

c. Hold periodic all-faculty meetings to solicit recommendations of topics of
contemporary debate. Encourage department chairs to do likewise on at least a
monthly basis.

(1. Host colloquies for faculty and students on topics of importance to the College and
community; expand the Two People Talking Program.

e. Improve communication between Prison and main campus faculty and staff to
ensure that Prison Program personnel feel confident of their membership in the
College family.

f. Initiate a Classified/Technical Council, which meets once a month for information
dissemination and input fimctions.

GOAL 12

Continue to improve financial planning procedures in order to better utilize the
available funds and develop strategies to broaden the financial base of the College.

Without a millage increase we continue to struggle with a problem of increasing and
changing demands and inadequate funding. Financial planning is important in any
system; it is critical for those of us facing financial exigency.

Planning will assist us in better utilizing existing funds, identifying areas of greatest
need and highest priority, and determining possible new revenue sources.

1986-87 Objectives

a. Provide training for all department chairs and eventually all faculty in grants-
manship, and provide support for grant proposal preparation.

183

. Re-secure and expand MJ OB Grant Funding; secure available firnding used Title
111 J TPA grants; re-secure grants for the Center for Small Business.

We will continue to seek means to maximum returns on invested firnds.

. Plans are to place the entire budget building and departmental daily budget
interaction on-line with the mainframe computer.

Efforts will be made to improve financial planning and evaluation of revenue and
expenses relating to individual and series events in order to better utilize the
available funds and the financial base for cultural programming. A plan to
establish reasonable levels for annual contributions is underway to help offset
rapidly escalating production expenses.

Request increased millage at a level sufficient to:

1. Cope with maintenance and equipment replacement costs.

2. Reduce tuition rates.

3. Assure the ability to sustain existing programs at a high level and build new
programs needed by the community.

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APRIL 22, 1986

8:30 am.
9:00 am.
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Section 4
Section 5
Section 6
Section 7
Section 8
Section 9
Section 10

Section 11

Section 12
Section 13
Section 14
Section 15
Section 16

Section 17

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

ANNUAL PLANNING SESSION
Room A-214
AGENDA
Continental Breakfast

Call to Order - Chairman Potter
Introduction

Mission and Philosophy Statement
1985-86 Activities and Annual Report
North Central Association Report
1985 Employment Report
Scholarship Report

Drama Department Report
Outstanding Faculty Award
Downtown Center Report

Long Range Planning/Budget
Tuition/Fee Discussion

a. Application Fee

b. In-District Tuition Policy

c. Visa/Mastercard Services
Millage Discussion

1986-89 Goals

Administrative Compensation Plan
MCC Risk Management Authority
Print Shop/Paper Copying Equipment

Other

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STRATEGIC PLANNING
EXTERNAL FACTORS AND INFLUCENCES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LOCAL STATE NATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY 1, 2, 3, 26, 28 2, 3, 26, 28 2, 3
MARKET 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 5, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13,
11,12, 13, 14, 15, 12, 13,14,15, 16, 14
16,17,18,19, 28, 17,18, 28, 29
29
ECONOMIC 8, 9, 10, 12, 18, 20, 8, 9, 10, 12, 20, 21, 12, 20, 21
21, 22, 26 22, 26
HUMAN 1, 16, 23, 24, 25, 28, 23, 24, 25, 28, 29 23, 24, 25
RESOURCES 29, 30
PHYSICAL l, 26, 27, 28 26, 28
PLANT
PROGRAM 2, 3, 7, 11, 19, 26, 2, 3, 7, 28, 29 2, 3, 29

 

28, 29

 

 

 

1. What effect will a “multiple site” market response have on our technical

equipment and faculty requirements?

2. In responding to future technical training needs, we must offer programs that meet
more than basic needs. We must look at developing a total learning package.

3. How do we stay in touch with new technology directions in order to be as close as

possible to the “front end of change”?

4. Can our present market support continued improvement in enrollment headcount?

5. The nation, state, and region are experiencing a rapidly shrinking middle class.
What effect will that have on job-upgrade program?

189

 

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

What institutions or organizations might we expect to offer competitive services in
our market area?

How should we modify our market presentation and programs, to appeal to people
with previous post secondary education, which does not meet future, needs?

What effect will tax’ revision laws have on business spending for training and
development?

What regional market effect will the Yen/Dollar issue have on automobile parts
suppliers?

As the US. automobile industry undergoes a massive re-structuring, what will be
the likely effect on future tax distribution from the state?

In what ways should J .C.C. pursue the literacy upgrading of the workforce? Who
else might we expect to pursue that market opportunity?

Department of Defense spending reductions will place many more workers on the
unemployment lists.

With the next federal administration, we can expect to see a re-focusing toward
social service spending.

As the “seniors” market expands we can expect to see a more structured approach
to leisure time activities.

We can expect thrusts into our market areas from other major educational
institutions (U -M, MSU) as their traditional markets level off or diminish.

In order to service the adult workers you must take the service to their geographic
locations, in most instances.

Statewide demographics indicate a declining 18-year-old age group. How long is
that trend projected to last?

The prison transfer program is causing significant service delivery problems for
us. We will need to constantly re-assess the cost/value of those programs due to
that student transfer process.

A large number of our businesses and institutions, which make up our client base
have not clearly identified their training needs. Should we assemble an institution-

wide assessment team?

Is there a clear correlation between fluctuations in the economy and enrollment
headcount?

190

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

What would be the effect on J .C.C. if our customers hold at current spending

levels for major capital decisions, and are concurrently faced with a tax increase in
FY 1988-89?

Can we anticipate any changes in state firnding priorities over the next 3-5 years?
They have been generous to education. Will that continue, or will emphasis shift
back to social programs?

How will projected teacher shortages impact us? In which areas will we
experience shortages? What must we do to satisfy our requirements.

If our projected retirements materialize (40% by 1991/1992), where will the
replacements come from?

Will we tend to become a transitory institution (hiring young employees on the
more) or should we concentrate on older, more settled workers?

How, and from what source, will we obtain the vast amount of dollars for the
capital spending required to support a growing, highly technical, training
environment?

What are the various implications of our alternatives for addressing the local issue
of accessibility? What additional requirements will we confront in attempting to
provide in-plant training and/or service a downtown center?

What will be our major obstacles to sustaining a high level of quality control
through the coming period of rapid growth? What can we do to deal effectively
with that issue?

In order to deliver the necessary product to many of our market segments, we must
help that customer to understand that some remedial skills upgrading will be
mandated.

What will be the collective bargaining impact of a rapidly expanding off-campus
training system?

191

APPENDIX B

MISSION, GOALS, AND LONG RANGE
STRATEGY

192

MISSON

The educational philosophy of Lake Michigan College is founded on the belief that
education is for all who wish to develop their potential. It is fundamental that a
community college assist in meeting the educational, vocational, cultural and
recreational needs of the community it serves. This involves a three-fold obligation.

0 To provide for the educational aspirations, needs and expectations of the
individual student and the community;

0 To provide for the vocational needs and desires of the individual and the
community; and

0 To provide for the cultural interests and recreational needs of the individual, and
thus contribute to the development of effective citizens.

193

GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 1986—87

OFF CAMPUS

Develop a broad scope of programs through the Institute for Business and Industry
that are targeted at South County businesses and organizations

Continue to expand course offerings at the South Campus and Van Buren Skills
Center

Expand the Early College program with area high schools
Review program offerings at Off-Campus Learning Centers

COMMUNITY OUTREACH

Expand the number of Continuing Education and Community Service programs
offered to the public, as well as programs through the Institute Business and
Industry

Continue and expand the update series

Host a College-wide open house

Expand the activities of LMC Alumni Association

Provide resource persons to address high school and community groups

FACILITIES

Develop a plan for firture facilities needs of the College

Create a plan for the beautification of College classroom and conidors
Review the campus sign system

Enhance campus appearance through landscaping and painting

FISCAL DEVELOPMENT

Aggressively pursue outside funding fi'om federal, state, local, and private sources
to support College programs.

Complete the organization of the LMC Educational Fund, Inc.

Computerize the College budget process

Develop systems to accurately measure program costs versus revenue generated

STUDENT DEVELOPMENT

Continue the development of cooperative programs with area high schools
Create a Skill Enhancement Center
Establish an Honors College

194

Develop a Tutoring Center
Establish a Career Assessment Center

MARKETING

Continue to promote the college through news releases, direct mail, and
advertising in appropriate media

Enhance systems to follow-up with identified prospective students

Expand the variety of college publications available to prospective students

INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAMS

Implement the Associate in Fine Arts Degree
Develop a Media Center
Review academic programs and implement changes or additions where necessary

Determine instructional equipment needs and research all available funding
sources

STRATEGIES TO INFLUENCE GOVERNMENTAL ACTIVITIES THAT
AFFECT THE COLLEGE

Interact with governmental agencies and attempt to influence policies which affect
community colleges

Meet with legislative committees, legislators, and other governmental officials to
influence legislation, including appropriations for community colleges

Work with MCCA staff to develop positions and strategies for influencing
legislation

195

LONG RANGE PLAN INTRODUCTION

Looking back and looking ahead... that is, indeed, the juncture Lake Michigan
College experiences at this point in its history.

In 1946, forty years ago, the College operating as Benton Harbor J rmior
College, opened its doors for the first time. Sixty-one students enrolled that fall,
taking classes that would prepare them to transfer to a four-year college. This fall,
approximately 1,200 new students will enroll at Lake Michigan College. They will
join some 2,500 others already enrolled as firll- or part-time students in the over 100
academic and certificate programs offered at the College. Another 1,500 individuals
will participate in a variety of non-credit seminars and activities provided by LMC.
Moreover, some 70,000 people will attend some kind of event held at the Community
Center.

Clearly, the College has come along way in 40 years. There is, nonetheless, a
great deal more to be done i_f the College is to maintain and develop its role as the
primary provider of post-secondary education in the area it serves.

What Lake Michigan College has been and is. . ..is a matter of record. What it
becomes is a matter of definition, and that definition can be determined by the
community at large, the student body, the Board of Trustees, the faculty, the
administration, and the staff. Each of these component parts brings a distinct area of
concern to the definition of role at the College. These concerns coupled with the
College’s mission provide a mandate for the institution in the years ahead. Moreover,
the basic philosophical premise inherent in the comprehensive community college
speaks to a wide variety of interests open access, community needs for education
and training, intellectual and cultural development.

In the years ahead, Lake Michigan College faces numerous challenges: How
do we prepare students for the wide range of opportunities offered by a changing work
force and society? How do we improve students’ preparation for college? How do we
improve the success ratio for our students? How do we meet the educational needs of
an increasingly diverse student population? How do we build greater student
involvement in the community college experience? How do we improve assessment
of student and institutional performance? How do we motivate faculty and reward
them for improving student education? How do we carry out more sharply defined
institutional missions? How do we continue to serve the broader community of which
we are a part? These are the questions with which we are confrOnted.

In an effort to address these questions, the College staff and the Board of
Trustees have embarked on a planning process, on that provides specific strategies and
at the same time affords flexibility for change. There are urgent priorities, to be sure
issues related to community and economic development, student literacy, staff
development, fiscal resources, to mention a few. These challenges have provided
much of the impetus for the strategic planning process.

It should be clearly understood that this document is a planning tool. It must
not be constructed as necessarily complete, nor must it be perceived as final. Rather,
this document provides a beginning for planned change within the institution. Given
that framework, all the component parts can help to create and define Lake Michigan
College.

196

EXTERNAL & INTERNAL FORCES

Though Lake Michigan College is a force in itself, we must recognize that most
often our action is a result from forces both inside and outside the College.
Consequently it is imperative that during our planning process, we understand
those forces.

Each constituent group has a different agenda for Lake Michigan College. If as a
College we are not only to succeed, but prosper, it is imperative that we respond to
each group.

To fully appreciate the scope and variety of constituent groups that impact, and are
impacted by Lake Michigan College, we have developed the following list.

INFLUENTIAL EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL
FORCES WHICH AFFECT THE COLLEGE

EXTERNAL FORCES

Accrediting agencies

Alumni

Business and industry
Community

Colleges and Universities (4-year)
Federal government

High schools

Local government

Media

Private foundations

Shadow educational institutions
State government

EXTERNAL FORCES

Accrediting agencies

They can exercise control

They can offer analysis

They in a sense, certify and validate

They enhance regulation

Their accreditation gives students confidence

197

INTERNAL FORCES

Administration
Board of Trustees
Faculty

Physical Plant
Students

Their accreditation assures transferability of courses
They influence change

They help maintain or limit standards

They influence planning for the future

Alumni

They are a marketing service

They are a source of funds

They are carriers of and advertisers for the College reputation

They send their children to this College

They can provide jobs for students

They can sponsor and support fund-raising events

They can be a connection between the College and the world outside the College
They are strong supporters of the College

Business and industry

They provide advisory committee members

They have high expectations of the College

They provide cooperative education for students

They contribute to the College

They provide jobs

They provide instructors with special skills

They donate gifts-in-kind

Their needs become the impetus from changes is the College curriculum
They can compete in that they have educational or training programs
They sponsor apprenticeship programs

They create the need for the College to become a part of economic development
They seek services from the College

Community

Of course the community as an entity does not do or demand or provide what follows:
individuals or institutions in the community do. This is how these following
statements should be interpreted. We use the term communig to define it totally or to
define any part of it.

It provides the base for millage

How it is perceived as a place to live influences what kind of people live in it
How it values education determines its support for education

It is the source of most of the students

198

It provides employment

It supports cultural activities

It creates a need for credit and non-credit activities

It shapes College activities when it is responding to various community needs
It has an idea of what a College should be

It has neighborhoods with recogrrizably different character which provide
assistance or create needs which the College can respond to

Federal government

The federal government influences the College in many ways:

It provides student financial aid

It provides federal grants

There are federal regulations such as those which affect affirrnative action, safety
standards, HEGIS reports and the like

Budget decisions affect dispensation of federal dollars to the state and directly to
the College; decisions about where money will be directed , sciences, arts,
vocational education (Perkins Act), occupations, handicapped, minorities and so
on

The state of the economy often is manipulated by the federal government
Interest rates are affected by the federal government

Four-year Transfer Institutions (Colleges and Universities
(4-year))

They verify our two-year transfer curriculum

They enter into articulation agreements

They compete with the College for students

They provide consultants

They offer courses especially designed for College needs

They compete for state and federal dollars

They enter into consortiums for the College and work in other cooperative ways
They use College facilities

High schools

They are a major source of our students

We enter into occupational education articulation agreements
Early college students are in high school when they attend here
We hold classes in high school buildings

We share resources with them

199

0 We depend upon them to prepare students for college; how ell they do this affects
our teaching
They are a source of part-time instruction for evening and weekends
We recruit their scholars, athletes, musicians and artists

0 Their counselor’s and teachers’ opinions of the College can affect their
recommending this college to their students

Hospitals

0 We need their facilities for our nursing, radiology technology and other Health
Division students

Local government

Local government affects the College in several ways that are obvious and direct but
not always in the fore.

Certain federal and state grant amounts and methods of distribution

Varieties of bond issues

Zoning

Police and fire department activities

Building codes

Collection of taxes and arrangements to modify them for attracting new enterprises
Affirmative action enforcement

Tax allocation

Assessment of property

Law enforcement

Parks and recreation

Media: Radio, Television, and Print

The media have a powerful influence, both direct and indirect, upon the College,
mainly in creating awareness of and forming public Opinion about the College. The
broadcasting and print media:

Promote College activities

Criticize College activities

Analyze College activities

Give support to planned College activities

Are a means for advertising College activities

Are a marketing tool

200

Private foundations

The College has had many occasions to go to private foundations to gain assistance in
worthwhile projects, the beginning and continuance Of which would not so readily
occur where there no foundations.

Shadow educational institutions (non-accredited, store-front
enterprises)

They compete for students
They affect the reputation of legitimate colleges
They fi'ustrate students who leave them and want to transfer credits to this College

They create the need for regulations which also can affect the freedom of
legitimate colleges

INTERNAL FORCES

Administration

It sets internal working policies and guidelines for the College

It is the advocate for students and faculty with the Board and the community
It is responsible for budgeting and oversight

It is responsible for internal and external communication including lobbying
It is responsible for evaluating programs and people

Board of Trustees

0 Sets policy for the College and District
0 Receives and acts upon recommendations from the College administration
0 Is supportive of the College and its outreach into the community

Faculty Members

0 They are responsible for quality teaching
0 Their loyalty contributes to stability and excellence
0 They are the first level guidance for students

201

They provide continuity for curriculums and extra curricular activities

They are the role models for students

They can provide good will when Off the campus

They are central to the quality of education

They are valuable resources for research, committee work, in-service, and other
College duties

The mixture of seasoned and new faculty creates a positive, dynamic team
Their morale affects the quality of the College

Physical Plant

Is an important factor in creating an image Of the College

Maintenance and utility costs are a significant portion of the budget

The environment of the rooms and halls affect faculty and student performance
The total campus space is valuable and how it is used affects students and faculty
alike as well as affecting the budget

Space planning must occur for expansion, decline and change

Campus aesthetics affects the image of the College

Students

Clearly, meeting student needs is the major purpose on the College.

Whether intelligent or not so intelligent, motivated or not so motivated, serious or
less than serious, students are a constant challenge to instructors and staff
Heterogeneous students require a variety of teaching and learning environments.
A majority of students’ work schedules affect the College class schedules
Students demand quality services for their money

Some students require foundation courses

Student satisfaction is significant

Students recruit other students

Admittedly, there are more items for this forces-chart than are listed here.
Nevertheless, any long range or even short range planning must recognize and take
into account this environment of influences which surrounds the College and the
environment of influences within the College itself.

202

THE COMMUNITY
Board of Trustees

 

Representation guidelines
Office of the President

College Relations Human Resources
0 Grants office
0 Athletics
0 Foundation
0 Marketing and public

relations
Instruction 3] Student & Community
Servrces Services

0 Liberal Arts and
General Studies

0 Occupational studies

0 Extension Centers

Student Services
Library & Learning
resources
Community Services
Continuing Education
Institute for Business
& Industry

0 Staff Development

 

 

Administrative Services

Comptroller Finance & Information Auxiliary Services
Services
0 Accounting services 0 Research & planning 0 Food management &
0 College investments 0 Computer conference services
programming 0 Physical plant
0 Federal and state 0 Contracted services

reporting
0 Business office
Financial Planning

203

APPENDIX C

MISSION AND GOALS

204

MSSION and GOALS

Mission:

The main purpose of Montcalm Community College is to meet the educational
needs of the area citizens.

Educational Goals:
Montcahn Community College subscribes fully to the following institutional goals:

1. To provide Opportunity for vocational and technical study leading to occupational
competence for the new learner and for the person desiring retraining or upgrading
skills.

2. To provide opportunity for liberal arts, science and technical study at the freshman
and sophomore levels transferable to other colleges and universities and acceptable
toward a baccalaureate degree.

3. To provide Opportunity for general education and developmental coursework for
those who study primarily to become more knowledgeable to skills in an area of
interests.

4. To provide assistance for all students through educational counseling, guidance
and placement services.

5. To provide a center and resources for community services (educational,
recreational, cultural, and economic development).

6. To provide an opportunity for organized activities to promote social skills and
responsible citizenship.

7. To provide educational leadership through the promotion of cooperation between
area organizations, institutions, businesses and industries.

The goals of Montcahn Community College set forth above have been formulated as
guidelines for developing a community of learning to enrich the lives of the
participants through social involvement and practical and theoretical studies.

These stated goals are a mandate to the staff and trustees to continue reviewing and
updating Of the college’s academic programs, developing an appropriate institutional
plan and insuring that the opportunity for education is available to the people served
by the College.

Revised 3/1/85

205

APPENDIX D

MISSION, GOALS
AND
LONG-RANGE STRATEGY

206

MISSION STATEMENT:

Recognizing that the learning, wisdom and skill of the citizens of a free society are
essential to keep it fee, the College offers its resources to foster learning, wisdom and
skill in arts, sciences and occupational education. Recognizing that different persons
see their lives and educational needs differently, the College has an Open door policy
and attempts to offer courses and programs which will satisfy different needs. The
College has a strong commitment to serve those with special needs, whether majority
or minority, advantaged or disadvantaged, men or women, handicappers or not. The
College Offers courses and programs for:

1.

2.

Students —- both occupational and liberal arts — who wish to transfer to four-year
institutions

Students who wish to earn a one- or two-year certificate or degree but may not
intend to transfer

Students who need developmental studies to help them develop basic skills to
succeed in regular college courses

Students who wish to train for new skills needed in their trade or profession or
who wish to enter other trades or professions

Students who are interested in learning for its own worth, in exploring new ideas,
in broadening their outlook

Students who are interested in non-credit activities for personal growth

Students who can take advantage of college classes while the are still in high
school

Students who can benefit from new and non-traditional kinds of learning
experiences

Students who can avail themselves of media courses outside the college classroom

. Students and apprentices, joumeymen and employees-in—training taking classes

which meet the requirements agreed upon by the Division of Apprenticeship and
Training, United State Department of Labor and participating companies.

The College offers services in connection with its educational mission and provides:

PPPT‘

9‘

Personal academic and career counseling and advising

Financial help in direct aid, loans and scholarships

Tutorial services and remedial workshops

A comprehensive student activity program including intramural and intercollegiate
athletics, a school newspaper, a theatre, a literary magazine and other clubs and
organizations

Offices and personnel to help maintain an active alumni association and College
Foundation

Cafeterias, study areas, libraries and recreational areas

A job placement office

207

Moreover, the College promotes and offers cultural and recreational as well as
academic activities for the community that supports it. Therefore it serves the
community by:

1. Sponsoring cultural events such as lecture series, stage plays, musical
performances, art shows and other activities similar in nature

2. Offering consultant and training services

3. Taking leadership in bringing about equality of opportunity and elimination of
discrimination

4. Cooperating with business and industry and other agencies and institutions in
economic development

5. Providing facilities for health clubs and other recreational activities

6. Maintaining close ties with community-based organizations, businesses and
professional groups

7. Cooperating with other higher educational institutions.

To operate and maintain this institution demands a conscientious and binding intent by
the faculty and staff to strive for continuous excellence. This intention is strengthened
through the College Development Office, through the Instructional Council’s
continuous evaluation of courses and academic offerings, through combined efforts of
faculty, staff and students in the College Forum, Junior College Foundation, and
through all the College councils and committees. The pursuit Of excellence is the
force that gives this College a measure of distinction.

Furthermore, those responsible for budgeting and spending the money allocated to

support the College are pledged to gain the greatest possible education benefit from
every dollar designated for that purpose.

208

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GRAND RAPIDS JUNIOR COLLEGE
LONG RANGE PLANNING MODEL 1985-90

The Long Range Planning Model illustrates a dynamic process, born of the need
to provide an opportunity for full participation in planning the future of the
College. The plan is a set of goals developed from year-long data gathering and
analysis. The steps in the model include: Developing the plan, approval of the
plan, implementation of the plan, annual review and beginning the next planning

process.

Each step will be equally important in making the plan a living, working
document. This first plan and subsequent implementation process will provide
us with a fiamework for developing future plans. The process has been an
opportunity for the College family to look at itself more closely. Not everyone
will agree on every goal or strategy, but few will disagree with the need for the

College to look ahead and chart our collective course.

218

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1986—91 LONG RANGE PLAN

A. ADMINISTRATION

l.

2.

3.

5"

To continue to improve the College operational procedures to better execute
the mission of the College.

To institutionalize problem solving as opposed to labor adversarial approaches
in collective bargaining.

To develop strategies to improve the ongoing relationship between the
functions of the College and the District.

To increase involvement of administration and faculty in all facets of College
life.

To improve the College’s competitive position in higher education.

To implement the long range plan and continue the long range planning
process.

B. CURRICULUM

1.
2.

To develop a College-wide systematic, periodic review of curriculums.
To develop curriculum programs appropriate to community needs.

C. FACILITIES

1. To continue to update the campus “master plan” on a bi-annual basis.

2. To provide for renovation and maintenance of existing facilities.

3. To improve aesthetics and create “green areas” around the campus.

4. To provide ample parking for day, night and weekend students, staff and for
special events.

D. FACULTY

1. To continue to hire and employ competent, experienced, scholarly and
professional full- and part-time faculty following affirmative action policies.

2. To encourage faculty to provide input into the ongoing efforts to address
material, facility and resource needs of the College to provide quality
instruction for all students.

3. To increase faculty involvement in the development of a more relevant and
innovative curriculum through improved instructional methods.

4. To involve faculty and administration in the on-going implementation of a
comprehensive program for staff development.

5. To increase faculty/administrative cooperative efforts to deal with enrollment

changes and to better position the college for changing student target markets.

220

. FINANCE

1. To assure continued financial vitality through resource development and
systematic determination or priorities for allocation of funds — both general
operating and capital outlay.

. GOVERNANCE

1. To clearly define the inter-relationships between the College’s and District’s
executive officers.
2. To create a plan of governance which looks to the future.

. OTHER STAFF
1. To increase involvement of staff, other than administration and faculty in
College life.

. OUTREACH: ALUMNI/FOUNDATIONAL/COMMUNITY

1. To make the Alumni Association a more active and effective outreach arm of
the College.

2. To increase the assets of the Foundation to enhance scholarship and staff
development.

3. To make the College a more important force in cultural, recreational and
educational affairs in the community.

STUDENTS

1. To encourage and support students to reach their career and personal goals
and/or to graduate.

2. To provide necessary space and resources to help students meet their academic
and social needs.

3. To work to increase the amount of all student financial aid (scholarships,
grants, loans, student employment).

4. To improve the image of the College in the community (students, parents,
community and high school staffs).

5. To recruit and enroll students of all populations with various needs.

221

INFLUENTIAL EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FORCES WHICH AFFECT
THE COLLEGE

Of course Grand Rapids Junior College does not exist in a vacuum. It is certainly
affected by many forces, some of them readily identified, some not so readily
identified and some, if one does not think about them for a while, not even recognized.

Some of the forces are more immediate then others. Some work from the outside of
the College; some work from the inside. Some are legal some are extralegal. Some
are expected and accepted; some are unexpected at times and some may be considered
unacceptable. When the College does its planning either for the short or long term, the
influence, degree of influence, kind of influence, directness or in-directness of the
influence, whether it is controllable, whether it might be beneficial or detrimental and
other qualities of the influence must be reckoned with. Not to do so could result in
planning which goes awry.

During the planning session on March 1 and 2, 1985, more than forth faculty and staff
members combined their minds to identify forces which affect the College. The paper
is a more organized statement than the wall chart which was the result of that working
session.

One taking a cursory glance at the list will realize immediately that some of these
forces are of great importance like the State government with its lawmaking bodies
and courts, bureaus and agencies: The Board of Education; the four-year institutions to
which students transfer; and the media which report on and perhaps often interpret
what occurs at the College, while others would seem to be of lesser importance.

Thus, taking more than a cursory glance, one might gain a clearer understanding of
how the “institutions” on the list affect the College. If we examine the listed entities
one by one, we can see how they do affect the College. This has been done in
somewhat telegrammatic fashion using the suggestions that emanated fi'om the
planning group during the thought session.

External Forces (alpha) Internal Forces (alpha)

Accrediting Agencies Administration
Alumni Board of Education
Business and industry Faculty
Community Faculty Association Foundation
Federal Government Physical Plant
Four-year transfer institutions Students

High schools

Hospitals

K-12 Affairs

Local government

Media

Private foundations

Public institutions

Shadow educational Institutions
State government

222

EXTERNAL FORCES

Accrediting Agencies

Alumni

The can exercise control

They can offer analysis

They, in a sense, certify and validate

They enhance regulation

Their accreditation gives students confidence

Their accreditation assures transferability of courses
They influence change

They help maintain or limit standards

They influence planning for the future

We consider alumni to be an external influence. Although their office is on the
campus and an alumni director is employed by the College they are not an entity
within the College

They are a marketing service

They are a source of funds

They are carriers of and advertisers for the College reputation

They send their children to this College

They can provide jobs for students

They can sponsor and support fund-raising events

They are a connection between the College and the world outside the
College

They are strong supporters of the College

Business and Industry Advisory

They provide advisory committee members

They have high expectations of the College

They provide cooperative education for students

The contribute to the College Foundation

They provide jobs

They provide instructors with special skills

They donate gifts other than money

Their needs become the impetus for changes in the College curriculum
The can compete in that they have educational or training programs
They sponsor apprenticeship programs

They create the need for the College to become a part of economic
development

223

They seek services from the College

Community

Of course the community as an entity does not do or demand or provide what follows:
individuals or institutions in the community do. That is how these following
statements should be interpreted. We use the term community to define it totally or to
define any part of it.

It provides the base for millage

It creates the need to have different tuition rates for residents and non-
residents.

How it is perceived as a place to live influences what kind of people live in
it

It is the source of most of the-students

It provides employment

It supports cultural activities

It provides transportation

It creates a need for credit and non-credit activities

It shapes College activities when it is responding to various community
needs

It shapes College activities when it is responding to various community
needs

It has an idea of what a College should be

It has neighborhoods with recognizably different character which provide
assistance or create needs which the College can respond to

The downtown development enhances the College; the presence of the
College enhances the downtown development

Federal Government

The federal government influences the College in many ways:

It provides student financial aid

It provides federal grants

There are federal regulations such as those which affect affirmative action,
safety standards, HEGIS reports and the like

Budget decisions affect dispensation of federal dollars to the state and
directly to the College; decisions about where money will be directed,
sciences, arts, vocational education (Perkins Act), occupations,
handicapped, minorities and so on

The state of the economy often is manipulated by the federal government
Interest rates are affected by the federal government

224

Four-year transfer institutions

They verify our two-year transfer curriculum

They enter into articulation agreements

They compete with the College for students

They provide consultants

They offer courses especially designed for College needs

They compete for state and federal dollars

They enter into consortiums with the College and work in other
cooperative ways

They use College facilities

High schools

They are the major source of our students

We enter into occupational education articulation agreements through K-
MAP

Early college students are in high school when they attend her

We hold classes in high school buildings

We share resources with them

We depend upon them to prepare students for college: how well they do
this affects our teaching

Their faculty ofien are promoted to teach at this College

They are a source of part-time instruction for evening and weekends

We recruit their scholars, athletes, musicians and artists

We use their auditoriums

Their counselors’ option of the College can affect their recommending this
College to their students.

Hospitals

We need their facilities for our nursing, radiology technology and other
Health Division students

K-12 Affairs

Since the College is a part of the Grand Rapids Public School System, it is
directly and indirectly affected by the K-12 district. One could view this influence as
both external and internal. It is external because the K-12 part of the District is not
part of the College; but it is more than a K-12 district. It is a K-12 and College
District, and the College is the top level of that district.

225

All of this may seem obvious, but it is profitable to isolate the influences of the
district. There may be a stronger word that influence : control.

Although the College has functions similar to those listed here, ultimate
controls reside with the Board of Education and district offices under the
Superintendent’s authority: not the College President’s authority. The
recommendations of the College administration about important matters carry
heavy weight but may be accepted or rejected by the Superintendent even before
the Board of Education reviews them.

IT IS THE DISTRICT

Personnel office which keeps records of personnel and ultimately
recommends employment, accepts retirement, grants leaves and establishes
personnel policies

Business office with controls the budget and fiscal staff of the College
Affirmative action offices which sets district guidelines

Media services which serve the College

Purchasing office which approves purchases

Operational support services office which controls maintenance,
renovation, grounds, energy policies and the like

Fiscal and fiscal services office which controls budget and accounting
payroll, retirement, accounts payable and receivable, facilities planning and
other activities

This is not a complete list but give a picture of how the College is controlled by

the District.

Local government

The city and county governments have control over the College in several ways that
are obvious and direct but not always in the fore. Among other things, the city
controls or cooperates in:

Parking and traffic flow

Certain federal and state grant amounts and methods of distribution
Varieties of bond issues and sales

Zoning

Police and fire department activities

Building codes

Downtown development

226

0 Collection of taxes and arrangements to ameliorate them for attracting new
enterprises

- Affirmative action enforcement
0 Tax allocation
0 Assessment of property
0 Criminal justice
0 Parks and recreation
Media

The media have a powerful influence, both direct and indirect, upon the College,
mainly in creating awareness of and forming public opinion about the College.
The broadcasting and print media:
0 Promote college activities
Criticize college activities
Analyze college activities
Give support to planned College activities
Are a means for advertising College activities
Are a marketing tool

Private foundations

The College has had many occasions to go to private foundations such as Dyer-
Ives, the Grand Rapids Foundation, the Steelcase Foundation and the Wege
Foundation to gain assistance in worthwhile projects, the beginning and
continuance of which would not so readily occur were there no foundations.

Public institutions (public library, art museum, Ford
museum, etc.)

Although their influence upon the College is not always immediate or heavy, their
existence allows the College to use their resources and cooperate with them in
activities which benefit the College.
0 They provide lecture halls
They provide display space
They provide for student volunteers and independent study
They are nearby and accessible to students
They provide historical and cultural resources for faculty and students
They engage in cooperative exchange
They enhance the quality of the community
They present cultural and historical shows or showings

227

Shadow educational Institutions (non-accredited, store-front

enterprises)
0 They compete for students .
0 They affect the reputation of legitimate colleges

0 They fi'ustrate students who leave them and want to transfer credits to this
College

0 They create the need for regulations which also can affect the freedom of
legitimate colleges

228

INTERNAL FORCES

Administration

We use the word administration here as a generic term to refer to all of the members of
the group. As the administration leads, so goes the College. A dynamic, creative,
insightful, forward-looking , democratic team of administrators creates the ethos or
fundamental character and spirit of the College. The administrators also must work
cooperatively with the individual and collective faculty, and is the one unit which can
make long-range planning and implementation of the plan a reality.
0 It sets internal working policies and guidelines for the College
0 It is the advocate for students and faculty with the Board and the
community
0 It is responsible for budgeting and oversight
o It is responsible for internal and external communication including
lobbying
o It is responsible for evaluating programs and people

Board of Education

Sets policy for the College and District

Receives and acts upon recommendations through its Community

Relations-Junior College Committee and Finance Committee

Is supportive of the College and its outreach into the community
0 Provides operating millage for the College

The College has some independence. It has independence or internal control (to a
great degree) over
Curriculum
Financial aid
Scheduling of classes
Assignment of instructors’ teaching schedules
Admissions
Support services
Shaping of the budget
Graduation requirements
Degrees offered
0 Publications
This is not a complete list, nor, is it without the realm of possibility that toward any of
the listed arenas authority over and above the College policies or practices.

229

Faculty

Faculty

They are responsible for quality teaching

Their loyalty contributes to stability and excellence

They are the first level guidance for students

They provide continuity for curriculums and extra cunicular activities
They are role models for students

They provide good will when off the campus

They can become worse than they are, “burned out”

The can become better than they are, “inspired”

They are responsible for the quality of education

They are valuable resources for research, committee work, in-service, and
other College duties

The mixture of seasoned and new faculty creates a positive, dynamic team
They can become state in methodology and lose ground in knowledge of
subject matter

Their salary is the largest cost item in the budget

Their morale affects the quality of the College

Association Foundation

The Faculty Association has power vested in it by the State, Public Act 379,

1975. The

Association affects the College is several ways:

It negotiates the collective bargaining agreement with the Board of
Education

It monitors compliance with this agreement

It is the agency for filing faculty grievance

It is the agency for cooperating in interpretation of the agreement when
misunderstanding or disputes arise

It is the agency which both creates and resists changes in the agreement
It is the agency for holding faculty members to professional, ethical
standards

It is the agency which assists the administration to meet crises which need
faculty support

Physical Plant

Is one very important factor in creating an image of the College
Maintenance and utility costs are a significant portion of the budget

The environment of the rooms and halls affect faculty and student
performance

The total campus space is valuable and how it is used affects students and
faculty alike as well as affecting the budget

230

0 Space planning must occur for both expansion, decline and change
0 Campus aesthetics affects the image of the College

Students

The College mission statement amply states the range of courses and support services
offered to accommodate the various kinds of students and their multiple needs.
Clearly, meeting student needs is the major purpose of the College.

0 Whether intelligent or not so intelligent, motivated or not so motivated,
serious or less than serious, students are a constant challenge to instructors
and staff
Many of today’s students lack a clear sense of purpose
Heterogeneous students require a variety of teaching and learning
environments
A majority of students’ work schedules affect the College class schedule
Students demand quality services for their money
Some students require foundation courses
Student satisfaction is significant
Students recruit other students

Admittedly, there are more items for this forces-chart than are listed here.
Nevertheless,- any long-range or even short-range planning must recognize and take
into account this environment of influences which surrounds the College and the
environment of influences within the College itself.

231

APPENDIX E

INTERVIEW QUESITONNAIRE

232

PRELIMINARY ITEMS TO REVIEW BEFORE

Thanks

Voluntary

Describe Project

Abstract

Question

No Evaluation

Decline to

Respond

Confidentiality

Time

Tape Recorder

10.

BEGINNING

Thank you so and so for agreeing to participate in this
interview.

Am I correct in assuming that participation on your part is
entirely voluntary?

I hope you realize that you have, together with other
selected members, been anticipating my interviewing you.

Would you like to have an abstract of the proposal for this
research study?

(Give abstract)

Are there any questions you have about the study and the
procedures we are following?

Please keep in mind that the study is descriptive and
analytic, but not evaluative. It is not a critique of the
organization, leadership style, and decision making
procedures of the college.

Please remember that you are free to decline to respond at
your convenience. You may discontinue the interview at
any time you desire to do so.

All responses will be confidential. Please not that you are
free to articulate sensitive issues whose items must be
treated with strictest confidentiality.

I expect this interview to take about 45 minutes. Does
that present any problem to you?

Oftentimes, I do not use a tape recorder, but today I do

need to use it for the importance of the information I am

looking for.

a. Would you object to my using a tape recorder?

b. Eventually, I will destroy this tape after transferring
important points of information to paper.

233

INTERVIEW QUATIONNAIRE

INSTRUCTIONS

Respondents are senior college administrators, deans, and directors. However,
remember this: your participation in answering this questionnaire effectively is not
only scientifically important, but also indispensable. Please give your responses
(answers) which will show your honest judgment. It you are not sure, please make an

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

estimate.

1. INTRODUCTORY DATA

A. My college position or designation is: and the
name of my college is

B. What is the total college budget in millions of dollars per year
10 20 30 40 50 6O 70 over 70

C. The college has campuses in (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) locations

D. The total enrollment for all campuses is

E. The total number of students in transfer programs is

F. The total number of undergraduate doing vocational programs is

G. The total institutional instructional funds collected in millions of dollars are _

H. The total institutional maintenance (repair) funds allocated for buildings, etc,
are of dollars.

I. The total funds used for institutional research are thousands of dollars.

J. How often do the administrative officers of your college meet, as an
administrative decision making group to discuss the goals, objectives, and
developments of the college?

_Daily _Weekly _Monthly _Quarterly _Yearly
_ Only when needed
K. What are the general responsibilities of your Board of Trustees (check as many

as apply):
_Planning _Approving Courses _Making Decisions _Making Policy

*Please note that planning may include budgeting, programming, controlling,
directing, leading and evaluating).

234

 

 

 

 

L. In one year, how many hours do you estimate the Board of Planning agency of
the college spends in planing?
II. FORMAL PLANNING IS APPLIED IN LIGHT OF ARTICULATED
COLLEGE GOALS
A. Does your college use formal planning procedures? Yes No_
B. Give one example showing how your college uses the formal planning process
(e. g., using goals and objectives).
C. Formalized planning is (please choose only one):
an excellent way of planning
a good way of planning
a fair way of planning
a poor way of planning
D. F ormalizing planning is controlled by a specialized group, e.g.
E. Who contributes to the setting of college goals and objectives (Please choose
as many as apply).
F. Does your college use the idea of “Management by Objectives?
Yes No Don’t know_
G. Has your college developed according to its goals and objectives?
Yes No Don’t know_
If you answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ please explain:
III. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
A. The economic, social, political, religious, and demographic trends are
environmental conditions. Which influence the operations of the college?
Does your college prepare studies to analyze the effect of these trends on it?
yes no
B. If yes, how are these studies prepared (you may check more than one item):

__ an internal (college) way of monitoring trends
_ a college research task

_ written minutes of newsletters

__ other

 

235

If no, how are administrators, professors, and staff kept informed about the
trends?

 

Check the word or words which mostly influence the attitudes of top college
administrators (officials) to manage the college (you may check more than one
item):

Politics ethnicity

students faculty (staff)

government external agency

political elite superintendent of education

economic trends academic goals and standards (academic)
other (Please specify)

The persons(s) or office at my college who or which prepares environmental
studies for analysis is (you may check more than one):

president

vice president

senior academic officer

office of student affairs

director of institutional research

public relations office

college planning and management office

registrar

other

 

The sources of information used for analyzing studies of the environment are
(check those which apply)

Teachers union or association

Occasionally directed college research

expertise of consultants

superintendent of education

local government studies

independent (external agencies)

professional groups

institutes of education (U. of M. or MSU, for example)

other

 

Does the Program of Environmental Studies help your college develop more
reliable and valid goals and objectives

yes no Don’t know

Which of the following trends are evaluated by a unit in your college?
economic social

236

political cultural

Does continuous evaluation of economic, social, political, and cultural
influences on the college help it to reformulate short- and long- range plans?
Please provide a short explanation.

 

IV. COLLEGE GOALS

Role of Master Plan in college planning affairs: Please rank—order them from
1-8. Please check those conditions, which influenced the creation of the
college’s Master plan.

Condition

_Overwhelming knowledge explosion after the 19603

_Increasing costs and reduced budgets

_Size of campus enrollment

_Extemal (government or agency) support organization

_Student interests in programmatic areas

_Articulated national planning

_Interdisciplinary nature of many courses

_Development of suitable manpower for Michigan and the USA

Please rank order (from 1-4) for the major goals of the college as indicated in
Br - B3
B1 _ teaching

__ Community service
_ Training Manpower

B2 __ Politically inclined
_ Culturally oriented
_ Economically attuned
_ Socially geared

237

B3

To maintain academic standards
_To produce the elite

_To liberate the poor
__ Other

C1 does your college have a clear criterion for appointing personnel for
specific administrative positions (please check one)
yes no

C2 If the answer is no, explain why you think so

C3 Does your college have a clear criteria for appointing personnel for

specific instructional positions?
yes no

C4 If the answer is no, explain why you think so.

C5 If your answer for C1 and C2 are yes, indicate by checking the words
below, which are related to appointing both administrative and instructions
faculty.

recruitment

selection

hired (employed)
training, retraining, and faculty development
promotion on Merit
promotion on academic performance
promotion on other grounds e. g.
security, tenure (permanent employment)
salary increases

other

 

 

 

Please write T for True and F for False for the following:
Our college has specific (clear budget goals and objectives
Our college tries to allocate fimds by using a list of priorities
Our college is familiar with such management techniques as PPBS,
MBO, XBB, MIS, ID, EDUCOM, and uses them
Our college makes faculty or staff size changes (adjustments)
Our college eliminates some academic courses and departments
Other, please list

Write T or F against each statement as follows:
1. Our department has clear course goals and objectives
2. Our faculty applies and uses course priorities
3. Our faculty consolidates courses

238

Our faculty eliminated courses

Our faculty reorganizes courses

Our faculty has a limited number of courses and objectives

Our faculty has a specific criteria for measuring and maintaining
course quality.

These goals and objective (have changed) over the last 10-15 years.
9. Please describe the criteria for maintaining course quality

>395”?

9°

 

10. Please describe the criteria for measuring course quality

 

11. The main reason(s) for elimination, consolidation, reorganization or
creation of new courses (Please explain)

 

 

12. The techniques (approaches, etc) that are used to monitor the
attainment of goals and objectives in out college are:

 

 

V. DECISION MAKING AS A PLANNING PROCESS

Please check the best answer for each of the numbers 1-7

1.

Internal problems and issues are identified by:

a. analysis
b. consultation
c. individual reaction

Crucial facts and relationships are determined by:

a. analysis
b. experience
c. action effects

Participants are selected for decision making (planning) on the basis of their

a. expertise

b statesmanship
c. position

(1. other e.g.,

 

The locus of consultation is (please check)
a. narrow
b. wide

239

The degree to which analytical information is used is:
a. high

b. medium

c. low

How are priorities developed for decision making?
goal ranking

top administrators

negotiation

with faculty input

other

999??

 

The most typical decision making style is (please check all which apply):
organized anarchy (accident)

compromise

reasoning

consensus

conflict resolution (public debate)

bureaucratic orders, commands, and requests

wpapga

Has the decision making process of the central administration changed in the
last three years (please check one)?

yes no don’t know

CONCLUSIONS

1.

What procedure is instituted when goals and objectives of the college are not
being realized?

 

In general, how well are the college goals realized (please circle one)?
Very well

Well

Not very well

Poorly

Very poorly

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION

Please put a check in flont of used instructional techniques in your college
(university).

240

run

r'r‘P‘qo

PB 5.”

.0

lecture
lecture-discussion

seminar
learning contracts

question methods
independent study

discussion
tutorials
advising
group-discussion

use of TV, cassette, radio, overhead projectors
use of computer

role-playing
case study

brain storming
current event or research

handouts
guided inquiry

241

APPENDIX F

HUMAN SUBJECTS DOCUMENT

242

Michigan State University

1612 C Spartan Village
East Lansing, MI 48823
December 16, 1986

TO: The President’s Cabinet Members
Grand Rapids, Lake Michigan, Jackson and
Montcalm Community Colleges

Ref: Protection of Human Subjects for Research
Dear Sir/Madam:

As you already have known through your President, Vice President, and/or my direct
communication with all of you in your cabinet session, I have decided to include you
in my sample for data collection on comparative perceptions of administrative leaders
(planners) of colleges in college (Institution) planning. The major reason for including
you in this important study is because many people in your community and college
can count on you as a planner and college leader (president, vice president, dean or
director). In addition, I also value your leadership expertise, experience, and wisdom
which I would like to know by seeking your support, responses, and cooperation.

The attached document is my interview-questionnaire designed to keep your identity
anonymous to ensure your maximum protection against all potential physical,
psychological, social, legal, and economic risks or harm. Further still, a letter will be
used to symbolize the designation of your college position (rank) when analyzing the
data. As you can see, these procedures will enable me to handle the information more
confidentially to the extent that your security will be 100% guaranteed.

Evidently, this research is a descriptive and an analytic project. The main purpose for
carrying it out is not only to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the rational and
other management models in higher education, but it is also to make an attempt to
explain how, when, and why strategic planning is an imperative management
philosophy of our times and to decide not to use it is to commit academic and
institutional suicide. Living in a world of scarce resources, diverse needs, and an
uncertain future requires that institutional planners manage their academic
environments more and more strategically. A planning model which places emphasis
on strategic or effective institutional management will be consistent with the purposes
of this inquiry. After completing the study, I will furnish your college president with a
copy for your interests.

When giving your responses, you have the freedom to participate or not to participate.

In addition, you may choose to discontinue giving your responses at your
convenience. Such a personal choice is without recrimination. If you feel that it is

243

reasonable to participate in this worthy project, please sign both letters. Keep a copy
for your records and give me the other copy.

Finally may I let you know that for purposes of effectively satisfying the requirements
of the study’s design, I sincerely seek your permission and support for taping our
interview.

Thank you very much.

Sincerely yours,

Meshack Sagini
PhD. Candidate for College and University Administration

Signature of respondent

 

Designation

 

Date

 

244

APPENDIX G

PLANNING MODELS: THE
CHALLENGES OF STRATEGIC
IMPERATIVES IN HIGHER EDUCATION

This chapter was published after the dissertation was received by MSU in 1987.

Planning Models: The challenge of Strategic Imperatives in Higher Education,
Meshack M. Sagini, Lansing Community College, Michigan.

Published in Community/Junior College, 15:71-85, 1991

Copyright © 1991 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation

245

APPENDIX G

PLANNING MODELS: THE CHALLENGES
OF STRATEGIC IMPERATIVES IN HIGHER
EDUCATION

A sample of 42 top administrators and middle-level planners in four
community colleges was identified and selected on the basis of informed opinion.
They were selected from a population of 60 administrators. These planners were
administrators who were surveyed, interviewed, and selectively tape recorded for data
collection on rational and strategic decision making. The data were analyzed with the
use of ethnographic and nonparametric procedures. With the use of satisfactory
evidentiary warrant, it was concluded that two rural colleges (A and C) used different
planning models as compared to those used by urban institutions, namely B and D. A
and C used the consensus model, while B and D applied the autocracy and rational

models, respectively.

THE PROBLEM

This research sought to establish whether or not planning (management)
models existed in four different Michigan community colleges as perceived by
college planners. Whether the colleges’ planning models existed or not was not only
scientifically an unverified fact, but this unverified fact needed to be investigated,
documented, and verified on the basis of rational and strategic planning theories. The

investigation articulated new multi-decision-making approaches to college

246

governance, management, and leadership. The decision making approaches (planning
models) that the research investigated included rational, bureaucratic, consensus,
political, organized anarchy, and compromise.

While the intention of the researcher was to make an exploratory attempt in
delving into management technicalities of his major field of study (higher education),
the specific purpose of his research was to find out if administrative structures,
principle characteristics of planning participants, planning parameters, planning
procedures, planning products, and strategic planning were effectively developed,
implemented, and evaluated consistent with formally established institutional
missions, and whether the missions were ratified and operationalized with the use of
rationality, compromise, and other cybernetic models (Bimbuam, 1989).

The investigated colleges are among the 29 public two-year institutions in the
state of Michigan. The author conducted scheduled and unstructured interviews.
Through interviewing processes of members of the “Administrative Councils” in
college A , “President’s Cabinet” in colleges A, B, and D, as well as the
“Administrative Committee” in college C, data were collected by conducting on-site
interviews and selectively tape recording some of them. The survey instrument was
designed to obtain basic data from the respondents. The data were also collected by
examining available institutional planning documents, and by interviewing the
planners about institutional demographics, formalized planning, strategic planning
and decision making, and the degree of effectiveness of the institutions’ planning

systems. As it was designed, the author examined and assessed the relationship

247

between planning by the officials of the four colleges and their execution of their

plans.

RESULTS

With the use of descriptive statistics, substantive analysis, and interpretive
commentary, striking and conclusive observations were made and learned. In relation
to institutional demographics, the trustees of college B spent only 10 hours a year to
plan for their college. This time was viewed to be insufficient for stimulating
synergistic interaction between the Board of Trustees and other governance
representatives of the college community. Generally, the board of each college
ratified the mission and allocated the amount of resource expenditures. The amount
each college spent depended on how it addressed its distinctive mission and the
structural and numerical size of each institution.

Strategically, whenever planners of the four colleges used the planning
models to monitor the impact of environmental trends on colleges, they became more
sensitive to economic rather than to political, social, cultural, and technical
influences. This indicated that people were more perceptually receptive and sensitive
to economic trends because these trends greatly influenced their lives more than other
trends.

Specific individuals in institutional units were assigned the responsibility of
preparing studies for environmental scanning, analysis, and articulation. These
studies concerned external and internal environments of colleges. Although each

college used different sources for information on environmental analysis, once

248

analyzed, the data at hand enabled planners to be more informed on institutionally
related management concerns. Based on factual evidence that was analytically
extrapolated from the usage of the multi-decision making models, all planners were
essentially long-range, rather than strategic, planners. In essence, long-range
planning is modified duplication of past planning traditions and practices and their
institutionalized craving for cosmetic improvements aimed at maintaining the status
quo. Contrary to this view, strategic planning denotatively connotes visionary,
scientific, philosophical and adaptive participatory management that results in
synergistic change. Because all planners were long-range, rather than strategic
planners, the effectiveness with which they articulated their management and
institutional concerns reflected that they were excellent as opposed to exceptional
planners. Institutional processes employed for data collection and environmental
monitoring included assessments conducted by selected faculty members, local
government studies, studies of professional consultants, and summaries given through
presidential briefings. Whenever the environment had been relatively analyzed, it
became easier for planners to make more informed institutional decisions.

In reference to college goals, all planners in various divisions and departments
integrated prioritized objectives in the context of institutional funds, programs,
personnel and mission. With the exception of college B, colleges A, C, and D had
developed according to their state goals and objectives. The reasons which made
college B not to develop accordingly were based on planners’ perceptual differences

in the application of one major planning model.

249

Although senior community college faculties were tenured, senior
administrators were not. Each college had unwritten criteria for appointing personnel
into instructional and administrative positions. Faculty and staff changes and
reorganization of courses and programs were made on the basis of changes in
enrollments, student interest, program quality, and market demand. Infrequently,
academic courses and departments were discontinued whenever funding and
enrollment opportunities dwindled. These cuts in funding, programs, departments,
and faculty were manifestations of retrenchment whose causes were largely attributed
to inflation, stagflation, and mismanagement. In period of economic recession, the
influence of these characteristics of retrenchment become increasingly more highly
pronounced because there is less economic growth, less circular glow, less investment
and exchange, and therefore, less funding.

In all the four colleges, teaching, economic viability, and academic standards
were the most highly cherished institutional goals. Planners who formulated goals
and participated in decision making were selected for their expertise rather than
position or statesmanship. The locus of consultation was wide as opposed to narrow.
In general, planners in colleges A and C were more democratic in their decision
making than planners in colleges B and D. As described in this paper, several
explanations have been advanced to explain this phenomenon. In conclusion, and on
the basis of evidence, the best planning model of the colleges was consensual
rationality (consensus-rational). This analytically conceptualized model enabled
college planners to operationally rationalize the validity and authenticity of their

governance, management, and leadership styles.

250

In a strategic and rational environment, policy is a product of strategic forces
in which the planning models act as “shock absorbers”. Strategic force is the process
through which external and internal factors of the institution are integrated to produce
strategic responses. Because all types of decisions are made with the use of models,
and because such decisions are made in complex rather than simple, demanding
rather than relaxed, difficult rather than easy, and sometimes hostile rather than
humane, environments, these decision making models were used interchangeably to
enhance stable institutional adaptability to problems of change and internal
governance.

In this study, the author used procedural values to investigate the processes
and structure of internal governance. The criteria which were used for investigation
included such terms as participating, administrative efficiency, expertise, rationality,
formality, planning model, effectiveness, mission, goals, roles (positions or ranks)
and others. Such terms formed a logical and substantive criteria of structure which
was applied to study the problem(s) of institutional design as viewed from a strategic
viewpoint.

Substantively, the criteria of data collection and analysis were used to assess
the functions of planners (college administrators), norms and values of institutions
(e. g., standards, planning models, goals, objectives, and missions), and institutional
procedures which included planning techniques. The utilization of institutional
(planning) firnctions and norms were used as Values which included planning
techniques. The utilization of institutional (planning) functions and norms were used

as values which reflected institutional culture whose maintenance was regulated by

251

those who played various planning roles in light of prescribed institutional rules
defined as rights and obligations. The planning processes were affected through
normatively established institutional governance structures. The structures used a
variety of planning models to make institutional decisions. The consensus and
rational models were more commonly used than the organized anarchy, compromise,
conflict resolution, and bureaucratic models. The fact that all these models were
administratively used reflected not only the degree of freedom with which planners
expressed themselves, but that these expressions were reflections of institutional
willingness to accommodate flexibility in decision making mechanisms.

Although the consensus and rational models were more dominantly being
used than others, the decision making styles of the four colleges were amenable to
eclectic consensual rationality. These institutional governance structures that utilized
a variety rather than a uniformity of decision making models were viewed as a form
of educational architecture.

The institutional existence and utilization of a variety, rather than a uniformity
of governance structure(s) and planning model(s), did not only show the presence of
class struggle (conflict of interests) latent in hierarchical institutional settings, which
used the models to resolve conflict and make decisions, but that conflict of interest
was reminiscent of situations which arose from institutional desire for career and
professional paths, technological advances, social class, the ideology of individual
self-determination (autonomy), and the status of the community colleges themselves.

Because the conflict of interests were, indirectly or directly, impacted on by strategic

252

forces, what happened daily in these institutions, and perhaps in many other higher
education institutions, mirrored, in miniature, the wider workings of the cultural
social fabric.

In relation to students, and even as Clark (1976) had also observed in practice,
a democratic society rationally uses planning models to limit and block culturally
instilled goals and the approaches needed to “reflect the resentment and modify the
disappointment of those whom opportunity is denied” (page 15) to subject them to
bad jobs. Viewed from this perspective, the major firnction of the community college
then was to cool the aspirations of students and temper their frustrations through
gradual accumulation of evidence based on tests, course grades, teacher
recommendations, and the advice of counselors. Cumulative evidence from these
sources convinced students to make decisions that influenced them to get two-year
vocational and terminal degrees instead of making decisions on transfer to four-ear
educational institutions. As scholarly evidence has shown, fewer students from each
of the four colleges transferred to four-year institutions. By inference, this evidence
showed that society limits and blocks culturally instilled goals of the majority of
students whose social mobility is considered ispo facto, undesirable.

Each of the four institutions was viewed as a formal and politically organized
social structure or subsystem. The structure involved an element of clearly defined
patterns of activity in which a series of actions were functionally related to the
purposes of each institution. There was a series of integrated offices (positions),
characterized by a hierarchy of statuses which had obligations and privileges. The

obligations and privileges (rights) were defined by limited and specific rules.

253

Positions were awarded on the basis of proven competence and responsibility. Each
planner in each office had authority which was a form of power used for directing,
organizing, planning, coordinating, and controlling specific institutional functions.
The authority was derived from acknowledged status in performing the functions. In
other words, authoritative power used for integrating these management and
leadership firnctions did not rest in the person, it rested in the office. Planning actions
occurred within the framework of pre-existing institutional rules, regulations, norms,
and values whose cognitive, social, and cultural biases were ratified through the use
of the six decision making models. The planning actions were related to the purposes
(mission, goals, and objectives) of each institution. The purposes (parameters) were
defined, implemented, and subjected to periodic evaluations.

The structure of each institution rested on the formalized bureaucratic
organizational theory rather than on the human relations and strategic management
theories. Within that kind of bureaucratic order, management (planning) activities
were instituted scientifically. Responsibility for designing and formulating
institutional goals and objectives, determining the scope of worker’s job description,
place of work, and job specification, evaluating performance, distributing rewards
and penalties, and hiring and dismissing rested with the chief planning officers within

the central administration.

254

CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND AUTOCRACY: THE CONSENSUAL
DILEMMA

On the basis of each governance structure in the four colleges, the control
system was a set of processes and techniques designed to increase the probability that
people would behave in ways that led to the achievement of institutional goals. The
intent of the control system was not to control people’s behavior per se, but to
influence them to act and make decisions that were consistent with institutional goals.
The factors that influence the effective application of institutional goals was size and
structure of each college, technology, environment, and dominant structure coalitions.
With respect to the colleges, and in reference to evidence, college planners indicated
that their dominant decision making model was consensus for A, B and C (see Table
1). Ironically, these observations of the colleges were not consistent with the
testimony of the chief planning officials in colleges A and B. The chief planning
official in college A very brilliantly used the political model to orchestrate the
decision making mechanisms in his institution whose decision making structure was
based on four power groups, the inner cabinet, the President’s cabinet, the vice
president’s council, and the administrative council. College A’s senior planning
officer influenced the structural design of these power groups and used the political
model to influence the strongest coalitions to support his policies (institutional
policies) and make, implement, and evaluate decisions.

The reasons which appeared to account for his success in using the political
model (conflict resolution) were largely based on his thorough understanding of the
American political process, the lot of the community college, and the gamut of the

strategic environment. In addition, this chief planning officer’s ability to remain

255

open, rather than closed, enabled the power groups and resultant coalitions to
perceive institutional reality, as interpreted by the chief planning official, to be open,
free, democratic, and therefore, beneficial and acceptable to them.

The inner cabinet was made of the president and some loyal and trusted
members of the cabinet. The vice president’s council was made up of four vice
presidents only; the cabinet was made up of the president, vice presidents, three deans
and four directors; and the administrative council, which was composed of 35 people,
was made of the cabinet and divisional chairpersons. It was evidently clear that most
decisions made at the higher levels of administrative authority were not known or
were not certain to those in lower echelons of the administrative structure. What this
implied was that planners at the lower ranks were not seriously involved in
participatory (strategic) decision making forums of the college’s power groups.

Unlike college A, college B’s senior planning official used the autocratic
decision making model. The structure of internal governance (power groups) in
college B was composed of the inner cabinet (made up of the president, three women,
and one man who was invited occasionally); cabinet (made up of seven people,
including the president, two vice presidents, and four directors); expanded cabinet
(made up of cabinet and four deans who were only invited to attend cabinet meetings
occasionally); and, finally, the annual off-campus retreat in which all planners and
faculty met informally for the articulation of long-range goals and policy decisions of
the college.

The senior planning official in college B succeeded in making decisions for

the college by utilizing the several coalitions of interests reminiscent in the internal

256

institutional governance structures (power groups). Ironically, although 41 .2% of the
respondents(largest percentage, Table 1) indicated that the planning model for college
B was consensus, the chief planning officer believed that it was autocratic (Mulder,
personal interview, 3-16-87). Autocracy is a “government in which one person
possesses unlimited power” (Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionjag, 1979, page 75).
This autocratic decision making model, as it was perceived, may have been used to
eliminate faculty and deans from the decision making process of the college. If the
issue of elimination was true, then college B’s management strategy was less
participatory, less healthy for institutional operations, and unhealthy for strategic
planning purposes.

For both college A and B, as has been mentioned earlier, large percentages of
the responses from planners showed that the consensus, as a planning model, was
more dominantly used than other models. However, evidence based on close scrutiny
of the chief institutional planners in the two colleges argue to the contrary. College
A’s chief planner used the political model (conflict resolution) while his college B
counterpart was an autocrat. Paradoxically, other senior and middle level planners in
Colleges A and B were not able to determine the nature of models their colleges used
in their governance structures. The chief planning officials of institution A and B
were so acute in political acumen that they designed governance structures that
worked for their own interests and concerns to the detriment of the majority of fellow
planning officials. They also were able to do so because their authoritative power
sanctioned the loyalty and support of their followers who, hopefully, may have found

it difficult to question the malaise of administrative inefficiency. The ability of senior

257

administrators to design decision making mechanisms that mean one thing yet are
perceived to be different by different people is a form of administrative irony. While
the essence of the political model employs conflict resolution to keep the senior
planning official in power indefinitely, the essence of autocracy is insecurity. The
power base of the former is in the ability to brilliantly control planning participants
through the process of dominant coalitions (within the governance structures), that of
the latter is in the ability to systematically eliminate the influence, regardless of its
creativity and foresight, of the person and coalitions viewed as detrimental to the
dominance of the regime. The major goal of the college of the former chief planner
was to teach students that of the latter was to serve the community.

Lall and Lall (1979) have argued that autocratic leadership is poor human
relations. The leader uses reward to motivate subordinates. Members of the
organization do not have the opportunity to participate and exchange ideas.
Expertise and all potential are subdued. Workers are manipulated to accomplish
the goals of the leader.

The two authors continue to say that autocracy is a defense mechanism
that arises with feelings of insecurity, inferiority, and incompetence, uncertainty
and indecision. The authors summarized Kimball Wiles and John Lovell and
said that a group which is led by an autocratic leader is characterized by

Intense competition, lack of acceptance of all members, buck passing,

avoidance of responsibility, unwillingness to cooperate, aggression

among members and toward persons outside the group, irritability, and a

decrease in work when the supervisor is absent. A group with a

benevolent autocrat for an official leader loses initiative, shows

regression to childlike dependence, becomes increasingly submissive,

does not continue individual development, cannot accept added
responsibility easily (page 96).

258

In reference to autocratic leadership in community college governance
structures, the leader’s insecurity and arrogance is viewed with “Suspicion,
disdain, and tolerance by collegiate and university power groups”.

Contrary to autocratic behavior, the behaviors nurtured by the consensual
and democratic leader develop power within the group for participating in
planning, goal setting, and group opinion or decision making. Because the
power base for the democratic and consensual leader as viewed in colleges A and
C (see Table 1) is broader than that of the insecure autocrat, democratic
leadership enhances worker morale, motivation, productivity, and goal
achievement (Lall and Lall 1979). Overall, the utilization of consensual
leadership style for internal governance and management enabled colleges A, C
and D to achieve their goals while college B, for obvious reasons, did not and
could not use its planning model to strengthen the board’s involvement in

dynamic decision making mechanisms.

RATIONALITY AND CONSENSUS

Rationality, as a philosophy of life, cannot be limited to mere
argumentative reasoning, but by extension, it can be viewed as a value-laden
process of intellectual, autonomy, and existentialist philosophy governed by
moral conceptions of a cosmopolitan, industrial, bureaucratic, and democratic

order. Characteristic of western culture, whether rationality is formal or

259

substantive, value-oriented or purposive, rational action is ethically based on
principles of conviction and responsibility.

In other words, to act or plan rationally does not necessarily underrate
rationally and philosophically oriented economic, political, ethical, erotic, or
aesthetic ideas although, all of the ideas emanate from and are about human
nature; these ideas are empirical and normative.

The use of rationality (reason) per se should not be restricted to its
anthropological sense. Rationality’s utility should be extended to include its
moral, logical, and scientific perspectives. When rationality is integratively
carried on in such philosophically interpretive and practical ways, it becomes a
form of education which can be used to preserve the institutional humanity,
independence, dignity and integrity of organizations.

Within the community college setting of the four colleges, responses,
observations, and interpretations of rational planning approaches were
reminiscent of the decision making activities of the wider rational and
democratic social fabric in the west and other societies. In other words,
rationality’s use is not confined to the planning leadership in the four institutions
alone, it is a cultural and philosophical statement deeply embedded in people’s
lives, values, and norms, and organizational beliefs.

Rationality is reflective critical thinking. Consistent reflective and
critical thought does not only empower the rational thinker, but such thinking
and reflective power liberates the thinker. If the thinker expresses themselves

critically and powerfully, critical thinking or rationality may be interpreted as a

260

form of revolutionary thought. Rational, critical, and revolutionary thought is a
form of elite cultural imperialism. Since community colleges are not elitist
institutions, their leaders (planners) could not afford to encourage the utilization
of critical and reflective rational thought commonly used in universities with
which, such scholars as Chaffee (1983), the proponent of rationality, are familiar.
The less emphasis placed on the use of rationality in community colleges is,
therefore, justifiable.

Although 37.5% of the planners in College D formed the largest group
which (see Table 1) used the rational model, 68.75% of the planners in the same
college indicated that they used other models (bureaucratic = 18.75%;
compromise = 12.5%; consensus = 25%; conflict resolution (debate) =12.5%).
What this meant was that the majority of planners in College D used different
models other than the rational model. Then, since the rational model was not, in
totality, the most popular, it was unlikely to be the most suitable planning model
in College D. Therefore, it is evidently clear that five, rather than one model
were individually and collectively perceived to be used to make management
decisions in College D.

Again, in the context of Table 1, the majority of planners in Colleges A,
B, and C indicated that they planned consensually. Percentage-wise, College A
bad 10% of responses for organized anarchy, 20% for compromise, 10% for
rational, 45% for consensus, 10% for conflict resolution and 5% for the
bureaucratic model. Consensus was dominantly used in College A. But it was

not the only employed decision making model. Other models, though less

261

frequently used, were anyway. Together, their total percentage was 55%.
Individually, they were less dominant. Collectively, the models were eclectically
useful in their contributions to decision making in the college. The same
argument could be applicable to Colleges B and C in which consensus was
thought or perceived to be the dominant decision making model.

Consensus was collective opinion of the planners in Colleges A, B and C.
The planners in each college formed a plam1ing system. Each member within the
planning system (group) participated in the discussions related to suggestions,
arguments, issues, values, policies, procedures, and resources of planning the
community colleges. The discussions were ratified by a vote, or a collective yes,
or a general common feeling of accord. The purpose of such collective
agreement was to affect given purposes, goals, or objectives. In this case, the
consensus was not only collective responsibility, but it was also purposive in
nature. Collective and purposive responsibility in decision making was
participatory management and collective wisdom. Such collective and
consensual wisdom was not the monopoly of the four community colleges alone,
but it is inherent, procedural, and democratic human behavior that makes it
possible for human beings to solve crucial administrative and management
problems in organizational and institutional settings. In other words, within the
context of the four colleges, the utilization of consensus was a miniature
reflection of what happens in the wider political and socioeconomic fabric.

Both the rational and consensus models were perceived to be the best

decision making models in the four community colleges; however, the two

262

models are not the only ones used in the diverse, pluralistic, and class-conscious
capitalistic environment. Of the six models, consensus was perceived to be
predominately used in colleges A, B and C and second best in college D; the
rational model was the best in college D only and the second best in colleges B
and C.

In conclusion, both rational and consensus models were perceived to be
more dominantly used than the other decision making models in the four
colleges. The former was predominantly used in college D, and the latter is
colleges A, B, and C. In spite of their (models) obvious implications for
research, teaching, and planning, three central themes emerged from the analysis
of these institutionally oriented models. First, evidence indicated that the
colleges used all the six planning models selectively rather than collectively,
institutionally, or departmentally. They used the models fi'equently to articulate
long-range traditional planning techniques in the absence of strategic planning
imperatives. Second, because of the complexity, unpredictability, and
uncertainty of the strategic environment, two rural institutions ( A and C) used
different planning models as compared to those used by urban institutions (B and
D). Finally, all planners, as individuals, preferred using all the six planning
models to using just one or two. Hence, for the purpose of effectively addressing
their missions, management, and leadership styles for adaptability and changes,
the use of eclectic consensual rationality was more strongly articulated than the

use of single decision making models. Though lacking synergistic and strategic

263

significance, the analytic utilization of eclectic consensual rationality (cybernetic

paradigms) was not without reliable and scientific canons of validity.

264

Table l , The most typical decision making model (responses)

Planner(s) Vice Dean Percentages

a
Others

CN

Total by
Rank

0
0

Rank

 

NOTE:Othera means Registrar, Director or Comptroller

O — Organized Anarchy
CM — Compromise

R - Rational (reasoning)
CN — Consensus (collegial)
CO — Conflict Resolution
B - Bureaucratic

Percentages were approximated due to rounding.

 

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