[Ill : .0 it!!! £55153... 19:51:: 31.1..fiioenl‘l... 2 I he“... 1R9.” {1! . :A§?.I.. III. ’7 -v\: “Mm. “m ' WRARY Mlcmgan State University t; r .-.o This is to certify that the dissertation entitled FEMINIST IDENTITY’S CONTRIBUTION TO WELL-BEING AMONG BLACK AND WHITE COLLEGE STUDENTS presented by JULIETTE CAROLINE REDERSTORFF has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD. degree in Psychologx Major Professor’s Signature / - - - - - - - - - C - — c - - - —--.- o---—------a---- o o--.-u-I o - n a - o-I---l-l-o-0-I-I-I-I-l-l-l--c-I-C-|-C-I --- o - u o n . a . u n n n n n u PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 5/08 K:IProiIAco&Pres/CIRCIDateDue.indd F EMINIST IDENTITY’S CONTRIBUTION TO WELL-BEING AMONG BLACK AND WHITE COLLEGE STUDENTS By Juliette Caroline Rederstorff A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 2007 ABSTRACT F EMINIST IDENTITY’S CONTRIBUTION TO WELL-BEING AMONG BLACK AND WHITE COLLEGE STUDENTS by Juliette Caroline Rederstorff The present study considers Feminist Identity among college women as a protective factor against mental health difficulties. Two hundred fifty-six White women and 99 Black women were surveyed about their Feminist Identity and drinking behavior, psychological well-being, Satisfaction with Life, grades, and class attendance. Multiple regressions were used to analyze the data. Although it has been theorized that Feminist Identity is a five-factor model, the present study found that a two-factor model adequately described the data. Based on previous literature, it was predicted that the relationship between Feminist Identity and measures of mental health would be moderated by race. Additionally, it was predicted that shame would partially mediate the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being. Although no formal moderating effect for race was found, some differing results for Black and White women emerged. For Black women, adding Feminist Identity to the model explained a significant portion of variance for Satisfaction with Life (p<.01) and Alcohol Consumption (p<.05), such that greater Feminist Identity was associated with greater Satisfaction with Life and less Alcohol Consumption. For White women, adding Feminist Identity to the model explained a significant portion of variance (p<.05) for Clinical Symptoms, such that greater Feminist Identity was associated with lower Clinical Symptoms. Additionally, there was some evidence that shame partially mediated the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being for Black women. Specifically, it was found that the guilt scale of the Test of Self-Conscious Affect-3 was a partial mediator for Satisfaction with Life (p<.01). Finally, the present study examined correlates of Feminist Identity. Correlations suggested that Feminist Identity Total was correlated with both experience of sexually harassing events (r=.33, p<.01) and the felt impact of the sexually harassing events (r=.42, p<.01). Additionally, participation in woman-centered organizations (e. g., sororities, women’s professional organizations) was correlated with feminist identity (r=.16, p<.01). The contribution of this work to our understanding of Feminist Identity is discussed. In loving memory of my grandmother, Anne Jandura. She was a strong and intelligent woman who knew the value of education. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank a number of people who, through their support and guidance, made this dissertation possible. First I would like to thank my dissertation chairperson, Dr. Bert Karon. Dr. Karen’s willingness to meet with me and discuss ideas helped give shape to my dissertation. However, above all, he believed in me when I needed it most. I will forever be grateful for this gift. I would also like to thank my other committee members: Dr. Bob Caldwell for his constructive comments throughout the dissertation process, Dr. NiCole Buchanan for her helpful insights into feminism and issues pertaining to women of color, and Dr. Vincent Hoffman for his encouragement and contribution of a unique perspective. I would also like to thank my friends for their academic and personal support. I would especially like to acknowledge Erika and MaiMai for their willingness to answer any question at any time. I would also like to thank Diane for her warm encouragement. Thanks also to Emmett and Ella for their special brand of support. Lastly, I would like to thank my family who has supported me in every way imaginable. Their unfailing love and encouragement has helped me achieve my dreams. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................. viii LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................. x INTRODUCTION .............................................................................. 1 Identity ................................................................................... 2 Feminist Identity ........................................................................ 3 Women in College ..................................................................... 9 How Feminist Identity May Facilitate Well-Being in College .................... 10 Shame .................................................................................... 11 The Protective Value of Feminist Identity .......................................... 13 Race and Feminist Identity ............................................................ 14 Additional Factors Influencing Well-Being ........................................... 16 Contributions of the Present Study ................................................... 18 Contributions to Clinical Psychology ................................................ 20 HYPOTHESES .................................................................................. 21 METHOD ......................................................................................... 24 Subjects .................................................................................. 24 Measures ................................................................................. 24 Demographic Information .................................................... 24 Feminist Identity and Centrality ............................................. 25 Experience of Racist Events and Racial-Gender Centrality ............. 26 Belief About Likelihood of Discrimination ................................ 27 Psychological Well-Being ................................................... 27 Academic Functioning ......................................................... 28 Participation in Women-Centered Activities .............................. 29 Experience of Sexist Events .................................................. 29 Shame and Self-Blaming ..................................................... 29 Self-Concept Clarity .......................................................... 30 Big Five Personality Traits .......... 31 Procedures ............................................................................... 31 Analyses ................................................................................. 32 Control Variables .............................................................. 32 Feminist Identity Variables ................................................... 32 Tests of the Hypotheses ............................................................... 33 Additional Analyses .................................................................... 36 RESULTS ........................................................................................ 37 vi Tests of the Hypotheses ............................................................... 37 Hypothesis 1 ................................................................... 41 Hypothesis 2 ................................................................... 52 Hypothesis 3 ................................................................... 59 Hypothesis 4 ................................................................... 62 Hypothesis 5 ................................................................... 67 Hypothesis 6 .................................................................... 67 Hypothesis 7 ................................................................... 67 DISCUSSION .................................................................................... 71 Two-Factor Analysis ................................................................... 71 Well—Being and Feminist Identity .................................................... 72 Race and Feminist Identity ............................................................ 73 Shame and Feminist Identity ......................................................... 73 Centrality of Womanhood and Feminist Identity .................................. 74 Belief that One Will be Discriminated Against and Feminist Identity .......... 74 Additional Correlates and Feminist Identity ........................................ 75 Additional Findings .................................................................... 75 Implications ............................................................................. 76 Limitations .............................................................................. 77 Directions for Future Research ....................................................... 79 Conclusions .............................................................................. 80 APPENDIX ...................................................................................... 82 BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................. 121 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Variables for All Participants ................................................................................... 39 Table 2. Component Matrix for Factor Analysis of Feminist Identity Dimensions ................................................................................................................... 40 Table 3. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Hypothesis 1 for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average ..................................................................................... 43 Table 4. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Hypothesis 1 for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption. . . . . . . . 44 Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Variables for Black Women ..................................................................................... 46 Table 6. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Variables for White Women ................................................................................... 47 Table 7. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average for Feminist Identity Total for Hypothesis 1 for Black Women ............................... 48 Table 8. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption for Feminist Identity Total for Hypothesis 1 for Black Women ..................................................... 49 Table 9. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average for Feminist Identity Total for Hypothesis 1 for White Women ................................ 50 Table 10. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption for Feminist Identity Total For Hypothesis 1 for White Women .......................................................... 51 Table 11. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Passive Acceptance for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average for Hypothesis 2 .................................................. 53 Table 12. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Passive Acceptance for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption for Hypothesis 2 .................................................................................. 54 viii Table 13. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average for the Passive Acceptance (PA) dimension of Feminist Identity for Black Women for Hypothesis 2 ................................................................................. 55 Table 14. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption for the Passive Acceptance (PA) dimension of Feminist Identity for Black Women for Hypothesis Table 15. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average for the Passive Acceptance (PA) dimension of Feminist Identity for White Women for Hypothesis 2. . . .. ..................................................................................................... 57 Table 16. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption for the Passive Acceptance (PA) dimension of Feminist Identity for White Women for Hypothesis 2 .............................................................................................................. 58 Table 17. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Variables for Black Participants for Shame Scales and Feminist Identity Total ........................ 60 Table 18. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Satisfaction with Life for Black Women for Hypothesis 3 ................... 61 Table 19. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Clinical Symptoms, Satisfaction With Life, and Grade Point Average for Feminist Identity Total for the Three-Way Interaction ...................................... 63 Table 20. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses for Variables Predicting Class Attendance and Alcohol Consumption for Feminist Identity Total for the Three-Way Interaction .................................................................. 65 Table 21. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Likelihood Variables for Black Participants ............................................................... 69 Table 22. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Likelihood Variables for Black Participants ............................................................... 70 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure l. Depiction of Interaction Between Race and Feminist Identity for Satisfaction With Life ........................................................................... 45 INTRODUCTION Although attending college can be a great opportunity, students also face a number of challenges and adjustments during the college years. For example, most students have more freedom and more responsibilities than ever before. As a result of this newfound independence, students are likely, on at least a few occasions, to experience the real-world consequences of their actions. Students must work to form connections and friendships in a new social environment with new peer pressures. Students find college coursework to be far more demanding than high school coursework. Unarguably, students face challenges on many fronts in their lives (Kadison & DiGeronimo, 2004). The present study considers Feminist Identity, which as elaborated below, is a central component of women’s overall identity. Specifically, this study examines whether endorsing attitudes consistent with the later stages of Feminist Identity serves as a protective factor for White college women, as measured by psychosocial and academic outcomes. It also will examine whether the reverse is true for Black women. The modest body of related literature suggests that a more advanced level of Feminist Identity may shield women from negative outcomes in response to some stressors, particularly those directly related to gender, such as sexual harassment (Moradi & Subich, 2002, Fischer & Good, 1994). However, there is some evidence that this trend does not hold true for all women, specifically Black women (Rederstorff, Buchanan, & Settles, 2007). This study will examine whether a similar trend extends to coping with college-related stressors. Typically, college is not considered to be a primarily gender-related stressor; however, as the dynamics of privilege and oppression permeate almost all human social interactions, Feminist Identity is a relevant consideration in this investigation. Identity Identity is a stable, consistent, and reliable sense of self and what one stands for in the world. It integrates one’s meaning to oneself and one’s meaning to others. Identity is also a way of preserving the continuity of the self, linking the past to the present (Josselson, 1987). A number of prominent psychological theorists have suggested that personal identity is created by the synthesis of psychological development and personal and societal relationships. One of the most well-known theories of development is Erik Erikson’s (1959/1980) theory. In his theory of psychosocial development, Erikson described identity as a sense of self that can be attained through examination of and commitment to adult roles in society. As such, he described how adolescents must successfully resolve the conflict of “identity versus identity diffusion” in order to have healthy psychological development (Erikson, 1959/ 1980). It has been said that adolescents undergo a second separation-individuation process (the first occurs during infancy) that results in identity reorganization (Blos, 1967). However, this assessment of adolescent development is somewhat controversial, as feminist scholars have argued that, for women, the focus is on connection rather than separation (Josselson, 1987). The concept of connection is essential to the work of Carol Gilligan, who also examined the relationship between societal roles and identity. Her work suggests that societal expectations of submission and inferiority “silence” preadolescent girls. That is, they sacrifice their own “voice” in order to maintain relationships. A major consequence of this tactic is that it hinders the development of a healthy sense of self (Gilligan, 1982). The present study will examine Feminist Identity, which is a specific, although pervasive, type of identity that occurs for girls and women. The theory of Feminist Identity describes how women conceptualize societal treatment and how they relate to both men and women. Feminist Identity Feminist Identity can be considered an integral part of every woman’s process of identity formation—whether they consider themselves to be “feminists” or not. As will be elaborated below, the model of Feminist Identity utilized here describes women who hold feminist ideals as well as those who do not. Further, it is important to note that it is not necessary to identify as a feminist to hold beliefs consistent with feminism. In one study, Liss and colleagues (Liss, O’Connor, Morosky, & Crawford, 2001) found that in a sample of 233 college women, holding beliefs consistent with feminist ideology only partially predicted who would identify themselves as a feminist. It is notable that in the Liss et a1. sample, a greater number of women identified with feminist ideals than self- identified as feminists. Similarly, Zucker (2004) described “nonfeminist liberal egalitarianism,” where women rejected the social label “feminist”, but accepted many of the beliefs of feminism. A lens through which one can understand the relevance of Feminist Identity development to women is that of social privilege versus social oppression. Social privilege is when a particular group benefits from privileges which are granted to them as a birthright, and not because of intelligence, ability, or personal merit. In contrast, social oppression exists when a group is deprived or discriminated against due to their attributes (Black & Stone, 2005; Greene 2003). The following example will illustrate the general concept: In the United States, a person who is light-skinned holds a position of social advantage, or privilege. S/he might be more likely than a darker skinned person to be offered a job or a home loan. S/he might be treated with greater respect and politeness at a restaurant. In contrast, a person who is dark-skinned is in a position of social disadvantage (oppression) and may be less likely to be offered a job or a loan, and may not be afforded appropriate courtesy by restaurant staff. There are countless other dichotomies of privilege and oppression (e. g., wealthy/poor, attractive/unattractive). Of course, the one most relevant to the present discussion is the position of social advantage for men and the position of social disadvantage for women. Numerous recent studies have supported the notion that women continue to experience oppression in modern society. Women continue to earn about 76% of the salary that men earn (US. Bureau of the Census, 2001). Further, research suggests that the salary difference is not an artifact of type of job or career breaks for childcare, which are common explanations offered to explain the discrepancy (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997). It is also notable that women are more likely than men to be laid off (Greenhouse, 1984) or fired (Kleinman, 1988), but they are less likely to be promoted (Kleinman, 1991). Nationally, there are 15.5 million men living in poverty, compared to 20.3 million women (Bishaw & Stern, 2006). Further, 28.3% of households with only a women heading the family (no male partner) fall below the poverty level. In contrast, for men living without women, the rate is 13.5% (Bishaw & Stern, 2006). We also must consider violence against women. Estimates suggest that over half of the female clients who seek counseling have experienced interpersonal violence in a close relationship (Walker, 1994) and one in four women will be raped during her lifetime (Lonsway & Fitzgerald, 1994). The “feminism” that is of interest in the present study is more than simply the wearing of a label or the identification of discrimination. Here a multifaceted, developmental concept of feminism is considered. This conceptualization of feminism involves both acknowledging and taking action against gender-based discrimination. Specifically, the present study will consider Downing and Roush’s (1985) five-stage model of Feminist Identity Development (FID). The authors outlined five stages in their F ID model: Passive Acceptance (PA), Revelation (R), embeddedness-emanation (EE), synthesis (S), and active commitment (AC) (see Downing and Roush, 1985). These stages identify a progression in which women move from accepting sexism and gender stereotypes, to questioning gender inequity, then reacting strongly to gender-based oppression, and finally, developing an integrated, positive Feminist Identity. Although the initial conceptualization of F ID described distinct, sequential stages of development, the authors also acknowledged that a linear model could never fully capture the fluid and recursive process of identity development (Downing & Roush, 1985). In general, the F ID literature has been sensitive to this dilemma, with authors typically focusing analyses on subscale scores for each stage rather than categorizing the participant into a single, overall stage (e.g., Fischer & Good, 1994 , Fischer & Good, 2004;Witte & Sherman, 2002). In this way, F ID stages often have been conceptualized as different dimensions of an entire Feminist Identity, or variations in attitudes toward a number of gender issues rather than a series of discreet stages. In light of the current body of F ID literature, the present paper advocates the multidimensional perspective to describe F ID and hereafter we will refer to dimensions of F ID rather than stages of F ID (Hyde, 2002). I will now elaborate on each of the dimensions of F ID. By definition, women high on the Passive Acceptance (PA) dimension espouse sexist and gender stereotyped attitudes (Downing & Roush, 1985), which has also received empirical support (e. g., Fischer & Good, 1994; Mahalik, Morray, Coonerty- F emiano, Ludlow, Slattery, & Smiler, 2005; Rickard, 1990). For example, higher PA has been associated with conformity to traditional feminine norms, in particular those pertaining to homemaking, childcare, and marriage (Mahalik et al., 2005). Women high on the PA dimension also regard men as more competent than women, as demonstrated by Rickard (1990), who found that PA women rated artwork attributed to male artists more positively than artwork attributed to female artists. Correspondingly, more egalitarian gender role beliefs have been associated with lower PA scores (Fischer & Good, 1994), indicating that as women endorse greater equality between men and women (a key component of Feminist Identity) they are less likely to identify with PA values. PA has also been related to judging oneself by external standards, inhibition of self- expression in interpersonal relationships to avoid conflict, and resentment when presenting a compliant self (Witte & Sherman, 2002). In sum, the research literature has provided compelling support for the theoretical connection between PA and gender stereotyped attitudes. Women who score high on the Revelation dimension (R) notice gender oppression and become angered by it. This anger may manifest itself as disdain for men. Additionally, they may feel guilt for their participation in traditional gender roles. It has been theorized that women with higher scores on the R dimension may experience feelings of a loss of identity as they simultaneously hold conflicting feelings. On one hand, they renounce feminine characteristics while valuing women, on the other they prize masculine characteristics while devaluing men (Rickard 1990). It is thought that either a positive (e.g., taking a women’s studies class) or negative (e.g., being denied a promotion) events prompt women to endorse ideals consistent with the R dimension (Downing & Roush, 1985). Research describing R and the later dimensions of F ID is much less common than research describing the PA dimension. However, in research conducted by Henderson-King and Stewart ( 1997), the R dimension was related to warmer feelings about feminism, cooler feelings about men, more discontent about social power distribution, and greater sensitivity to sexism. These empirical findings are theoretically consistent. The Embeddedness-Emanation (EE) dimension was originally conceptualized in two phases. In the first phase, women immerse themselves in women’s culture and spend time with other women, forming close relationships with them. They also uncritically accept feminist ideology. Women in the first part of EB are not as rejecting toward men as the R women are, but are still somewhat cautious in their interactions with them. In the second part of EB, women become more relativistic and less rigid. They recognize differing viewpoints, although they may still consider women’s views to be superior to those of men (Downing & Roush, 1985). Women high on the Synthesis (S) dimension are considered to “transcend traditional gender roles.” They integrate feminism with their own unique personalities. Their views of men and life in general become more flexible and they are able to evaluate men individually rather than as a group (Downing & Roush, 1985). In the aforementioned Henderson-King and Stewart (1997) study, S scores were related to warmer feelings about feminism and greater endorsement of feminist perspectives on social issues. It is notable that the scores were not related to cooler feelings about men. Women high in Active Commitment (AC) identify themselves as feminists and work for social change to promote equality and eliminate oppression. Men are seen as equal, but different from women (Downing & Roush, 1985). It has been argued that this dimension is simply a behavioral manifestation of the synthesis stage and not a stage in its own right (e.g., Rickard, 1989). Further, it is thought that few women reach this stage (Downing & Roush, 1985). As may be apparent, there is less research on the later dimensions of Feminist Identity (i.e., R, EE, S, AC). As such, it is more difficult to make differentiated predictions about the individual later dimensions. Due to this, some researchers have simply combined the dimensions in analyses. It should be noted that the present study will analyze the dimensions separately in order to begin to create a more detailed literature on the dimensions. As stated above, the theory of Feminist Identity development suggests that women endorse more feminist ideals after pivotal gender—related experiences, such as taking a women’s studies course or experiencing work-related gender discrimination. The college years provide an excellent forum for studying the occurrence of the different dimensions, as women experience many of these occurrences for the first time at this point in their life. For example, many women will take a women’s studies course for the first time in college. Women may become members of organizations such as the Society of Women Engineers or volunteer at a women’s shelter. College women live together in community in dorms or sororities. Unfortunately, the opportunity for negative gender- based experiences is high as well. Women report experiencing unequal treatment in classroom settings (Worell & Remer, 2003). Further, sexual assault on college campuses is a notable risk. Research suggests that more than half of college women experience sexual victimization, such as sexual harassment and sexual assault (Koss, Gidycz, & Wisniewski, 1987). This number includes 20-25% of women who experience rape during their college careers (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000). In sum, the college years are filled with experiences that may promote Feminist Identity development. The present study will utilize a cross-sectional approach in order to better understand how events during the college years influence Feminist Identity. Women in college The typical student begins their college education when they are l8-years-old (Tinto 1994), thus they are in their late adolescent years as they cope with the challenges and stressors associated with college life. On one hand, G. Stanley Hall’s famous description of adolescence as a time of Storm and Stress (1904) has not been supported by modern research. Research suggests that adolescence is not necessarily a time of distress or conflict for many adolescents (Amett, 2002). This is not to say that adolescence is a time of complete tranquility. There are certainly challenges associated with this phase of life. Amett (2002) argues for a modified version of the Storm and Stress description of adolescence in which some degree of storm and stress exists in the form of conflict with parents, mood disruptions, and risk-taking behavior. These challenges may pose threats to well-being during the college years. Currently the number of women participating in higher education exceeds the number of men and they are less likely than men to drop out of college before completion (Eagle & Carroll, 1988). Although these facts seem to paint a positive picture of women’s success in college, differences appear when one considers the differences between the college careers of men and women. For example, when considering the potential earning power of majors that women choose, they are less lucrative than the majors of men (Worell & Remer, 2003). Women also report (negative) differential treatment in classroom settings (Worell & Remer, 2003). Additionally, a number of psychosocial risks exist for college women, such as date rape (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997). It has been suggested that experiencing such a major life stressor may decrease one’s ability to function academically and potentially lead to school withdrawal (Kadison & DiGeronimo, 2004; Kirkland, 1994). How Feminist Identity may facilitate well-being in college Thinking broadly, identity is useful because it allows one to experience a continuity of self over time. As such, some of the protective value of Feminist Identity may lie in the fact that it provides a stable identity for a college student when other identities are in flux. For example, the student may no longer be an athlete, no longer be among the best students, or no longer be actively playing the role of a daughter. Literature on self-concept clarity (discussed further below) highlights the value of having a defined self-concept. However, the present research argues that Feminist Identity is uniquely adaptive and it is valuable not simply because it is an identity, but because it is Feminist Identity. Feminist Identity is a unique conceptualization of identity in that, according to theory, the 10 identity helps extemalize blame rather than absorbing shame. If a woman can acknowledge that unfair treatment is based in societal oppression, she does not need to feel that she as an individual is to blame (Bronstein, 1997). Of course, this refers to unfair treatment, and not to the use of projective defenses. It should be noted that the idea that greater Feminist Identity is linked to reduced shame will be tested empirically as part of the present study. Shame Erik Erikson has provided one of psychology’s most recognizable descriptions of shame through his description of the “Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt” stage of development. Essentially, Erikson argued that when parents are over-controlling or under-controlling the young child (approximately age 2) feels shamed and doubts his or her ability to control impulses. On the other hand, when parents allow appropriate opportunities for exploration and mastery, the child is able to develop a sense of self- confidence and autonomy (Erikson, 1964). These themes of control, self-confidence, autonomy, and mastery are integral to modern theories of shame and psychological outcomes. Shame has been described as an emotion in response to a negative evaluation of the self (Freeman & Strean, 1986; Harper & Hoopes, 1990; Kaufman, 2002). Shame is found in families and individuals of all backgrounds, ages, and ethnicities (F ossum & Mason, 1986); however the role of shame in women’s psychological composition is considered to be uniquely important. Shame is a powerful emotion which makes a person wish to hide the self (Morris, 1971). In the words of F ossum and Mason (1996), shame refers to “humiliation so painful, embarrassment so deep and a sense of being so 11 completely diminished that one feels that he or she will disappear into a pile of ashes. Shame involves the entire self and self-worth of a human being.” Empirical research suggests that women experience greater levels of shame than men do (Tangney & Dearing, 2002). It is thought that this gender difference is grounded in differences in the socialization of males and females. For example, women tend to place value on the well-being of interpersonal relationships (e. g., see Gilligan, 1982; Miller, 1986). Shame is a relationally-driven emotion in which one feels badly for how his/her behaviors will be perceived by others. This relational component makes shame a prominent emotion for women. Additionally, women and girls are taught to use internalizing defenses in response to anger or anxiety-producing situations. Therefore, after violating standards of behavior, they may be likely to question their self-worth (Lewis, 1971). It is important to recognize that, although they often co-occur, shame and guilt are distinct. When people recognize that their behavior has violated a personally meaningful standard, they feel guilty for it. Although excessive guilt is not desirable, in moderation, guilt can be healthy and facilitate interpersonal relationships by prompting changes in behavior (Harper & Hoopes, 1990). In contrast, shame is a much more diffuse emotion that involves a negative evaluation of the self, rather than simply an evaluation of a behavior (Harper & Hoopes, 1990). The role of shame in psychopathology has been clearly suggested in previous literature. Shame is a focus on the global self and therefore is likely to involve internal, stable, and global attributions (Tangney & Dearing, 2002). However, it should be noted that the influence of shame is more than simply depressogenic attributional style. In 12 research by Tangney and colleagues (Tangney et al., 1992), the magnitude of correlations indicated that these were related, but distinct constructs. Nonetheless, a number of studies have linked shame to problems such as depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem (Allan & Goss, 1994; Harder & Lewis, 1987; Harder, Cutler, & Rockart, 1992; Tangney, 1995; Tangney & Dearing, 2002; Tangney, Burggraf, & Wagner, 1995). The relationship between shame and Feminist Identity is less clear than the relationship between shame and mental health problems. Theory suggests that Feminist Identity allows one to deflect blame and in doing so, reduce shame (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997). Although this idea is theoretically appealing, it has not been empirically validated to date. The present study will attempt to fill this gap in the literature. The protective value of Feminist Identity The protective value of Feminist Identity is supported by empirical findings that demonstrate that although women who consider themselves to be feminists report experiencing more sexist events and appraise these events as more upsetting, their mental health is less damaged by the events compared to non—feminists who experience similar events (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997). Additionally, a number of studies have linked Feminist Identity and psychological well-being. For example, in a study of 244 women of varying ages and backgrounds, women who scored higher on more advanced dimensions of Feminist Identity reported higher levels of psychological well-being (Saunders & Kashubeck-West, 2006). Feminism and feminist beliefs have been linked with more healthy self-esteem (Ossana, Helms, and Leonard, 1992; Weitz, 1982) and higher levels of self-confidence and assertiveness (Ossana et al., 1992; Stake & Rose, 1994; Weitz, 1982). Simple exposure to feminist beliefs through a women’s studies 13 course or feminist-consciousness raising group has been associated with higher self- esteem (Ossana et al., 1992) and lower depression (Weitz, 1982). Additionally, research suggests that we evaluate ourselves partially by group membership and therefore how we see our group influences how we see ourselves (Meyers, 1996). Further, we tend to have a positively biased view of groups to which we belong (Meyers, 1996). Therefore, holding a more positive view of women in addition to viewing oneself as being a part of women as a group can be protective. The idea that social group membership influences self-concept is particularly relevant to women, who are more likely than men to have a self-concept grounded in relationships and connections to others (Gecas & Burke, 1995). Race and Feminist Identity An important caveat to the abovementioned protective value of Feminist Identity, is that a limited amount of research has suggested that F ID does not function in the same protective manner for all races. For example, in a study by Rederstorff, Buchanan, and Settles (2007) traditional gender attitudes were measured among sexually harassed Black and White women. Results suggested that less traditional gender attitudes (i.e., more feminist attitudes) buffered the negative effects of sexual harassment for White women, while the same attitudes exacerbated its negative effects for Black women. One explanation for this surprising finding is that for Black women, feminist, non-traditional gender attitudes may indicate a greater awareness of inequity among different groups in society. The awareness of gender-related issues may also result in increased consciousness about race-related difficulties and oppression. In fact, previous research has suggested that greater awareness of gender-based discrimination is correlated with 14 greater awareness of racial discrimination (Gay & Tate, 1998). Further, this awareness, known as double-consciousness, may lead to greater awareness of oppression due to the intersection of race and gender (i.e., being a Black woman, rather than being only Black or only a woman; Gay & Tate, 1998). For Black women, sexual harassment may increase feelings of being personally targeted and at risk of additional harassment, which may lead to the observed negative effect on psychological well-being. The differing results for White women can be explained by the fact that they are not part of a visible, racial minority and therefore are not likely to experience the same double-consciousness. Therefore, White women with more feminist attitudes may be able to attribute harassing experiences to gender-based societal injustices and, in doing so, protect themselves from some of the negative consequences of sexual harassment. In other words, Black women may have been harmed by their awareness of sexism and racism and the belief that they personally are the victims of this type of combined oppression. The literature on this matter is very minimal. However, there is limited support for the notion that awareness of the potential for racism can negatively impact an individual. One example is the phenomenon of stereotype threat in which the awareness of a negative stereotype of a group to which one belongs adversely influences the individual’s performance (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Steele, 1997). It is believed that anxiety about personally confirming a negative stereotype about one’s group results in underperformance. This effect has been replicated in a-number of studies (e.g., Brown & Day, 2006; Brown & Fine], 2003; Gonzales, Blanton, &Williams, 2002; Spencer, Steele, Quinn, 1999; Steele & Aronson, 1995; Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002). 15 Further, for F 1D to be protective, it must be a central identity. Identity centrality emerges from the fact that individuals simultaneously experience multiple identities (Harter, 2001) but these identities are not necessarily of equal importance. In the case of Feminist Identity, if a woman scores at a higher level of Feminist Identity, but being a feminist is not an important identity for her, FID may not have a protective effect. This is perhaps one reason that F ID does not function as a protective factor for all races in the above-mentioned Rederstorff and colleagues study (Rederstorff et al., 2007). One explanation proposed by the authors was that being a woman was not as central an identity as the identity of being a Black woman for the Black women in the sample. As such, there were additional dynamics of oppression operating during harassment experiences. This interpretation is supported by a small, but burgeoning literature (Gay & Tate, 1998; Settles, 2006). For example, in Gay and Tate’s study (1998) Black women were asked to rate their feelings on a number of issues that were relevant to both women and Black people. Such items included Louis Farrakhan and his million-man march, Clarence Thomas, and OJ. Simpson. Correlations differed depending on whether the woman strongly identified with being a woman, being Black, or both. A second example is the work of Settles (2006) in which quantitative analyses suggested that the Black- woman identity was more important than the individual identities of Black person and woman. Additional factors influencing well-being In addition to level of Feminist Identity, other variables may influence college functioning. Let us now consider the correlation between personality variables and psychological well-being. The Big Five model is currently the dominant l6 conceptualization of normal-range personality traits (F under, 2001). The Big Five traits include: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness (to experience), Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness (Costa & McCrae, 1985). Empirical literature supports the relationship between several Big Five traits and mental health. For example, in a study of college students, Extraversion was correlated with lower rates of psychological symptoms including: obsessiveness, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, phobic anxiety, paranoid ideation, and psychosis. Further, Emotional Stability (considered to be the polar opposite of Neuroticism) was correlated with lower levels of somatization, interpersonal sensitivity, depression, anxiety, hostility, and paranoid ideation (Smith & Snell, 1996). Additionally, in a nationally representative sample of 3032 adults Conscientiousness was associated with a significantly reduced likelihood of mental and physical disorders. On the other hand, Neuroticism was related to an increased likelihood of mental and physical disorders (Goodwin & Friedman, 2006). Self-concept clarity (SCC) refers to the extent to which the contents of an individual’s self-concept (e.g., perceived personal attributes) are clearly and confidently defined, internally consistent, and temporally stable. These beliefs do not need to be accurate and therefore self-concept clarity does not imply self-knowledge or self- awareness. SCC is distinct from self-esteem, as SCC is primarily a cognitive process, while self-esteem is primarily an affective process (Chang, 2001). A number of studies have related SCC to measures of positive mental health. For example, research has suggested that SCC is related to higher levels of self—esteem (Constantino, Wilson, Horowitz, & Pinel, 2006; Story, 2004) and lower levels of depression, perceived stress, and distress from interpersonal functioning (Constantino et al., 2006). SCC has been 17 correlated with measures of psychological adjustment (Bigler, Neimeyer, & Brown, 2001) and positive coping styles (Smith, Wethington, & Zhan, 1996). Finally, SCC has been shown to mediate the relationship between life stress and depression among adolescents (Chang, 2001). It is believed that Feminist Identity will contribute to positive adaptation above and beyond other personality variables known to be associated with psychological well- being. Therefore, the present study will examine and control for self-concept clarity and the Big Five personality traits. Contributions of the present stuafv It is expected that the present study will provide an important contribution to the psychological literature by asking questions and utilizing research methodology consistent with feminist ideals. In her 2005 presidential address at the Society for the Psychology of Women (Division 35 of the American Psychological Association), Nancy Baker suggested that a major goal of modern feminist psychological research is to challenge the acceptance of research that utilizes biological differences (e.g., sex, race, etc.) as an “explanatory locus for differences among pe0ple” (p. 5, Baker, 2006). In other words, she argues that research should not only seek to describe sex differences, but rather it also should consider the societal influences which shape women’s development, mental health, and functioning in the world. The present study contributes to the goal of expanding our understanding of societal influences on the lives of women. Rather than comparing college women to college men, the present study examines the unique socioemotional pressures which face these women. 18 Further, as the participants in this study are college women, the study naturally brings up questions pertaining to women’s success in higher education. Specifically, the present study addresses whether Feminist Identity is associated with success in college. Completion of higher education undoubtedly has implications for an individual’s future earning power and, by extension, power in society. That is, financial resources both ensure access to goods and services (e.g., transportation and health care) and promote unquantifiable increases in respect (e.g., faster resolution of legal complaints, deference to one’s opinion at meetings). Issues pertaining to empowerment of women in society are integral to the work of feminist psychology. In addition to the important social contributions of this research, a number of research questions, which have not been previously addressed, are asked. Previous work has suggested that Feminist Identity plays a role in coping with stressors specifically related to sexual discrimination (e.g., Fischer & Good, 1994; Moradi & Subich, 2002a ), but whether F ID provides a more general buffering effect, has not yet been tested. This study will also investigate the concept of identity centrality as it relates to F ID. Previous studies have hinted that feminist ideals must be central to a woman's identity for them to be protective (Rederstorff et al., 2007), but no study to date has directly explored this relationship. Further, this study will examine the role of race in the protective value of feminist identification, extending the results of Rederstorff et a1. (2007). In addition, this study examined the role of shame in the protective value of Feminist Identity. The present study examined how belief that one will be discriminated against relates to Feminist Identity and outcomes for Black women. Although theoretically appealing, this idea has not been directly tested in previous work. Finally, the present study provided 19 rich data for a number of exploratory analyses (e.g., differences among dimensions) which will lay the groundwork for future investigations on Feminist Identity. Contributions to clinical psychology In addition to the study’s general contributions, there are a number of study contributions which advance the-research and practice of clinical psychology. For example, the present study provides insight into the issues facing college women. Approximately 9.9e12.7% of students seek mental health counseling services during the college years (Gallagher, 2004). Through a better description of Feminist Identity, the present study can assist therapists in understanding potentially important issues that shape the worldview of college women. The present study also examines potential racial dissimilarities, an important area of understanding in modern clinical psychology. In addition, the present study examines shame, which has been shown to play an important role in mental health issues (Allan & Goss, 1994; Harder & Lewis, 1987; Harder, Cutler, & Rockart, 1992; Tangney, 1995; Tangney & Dearing, 2002; Tangney, Burggraf, & Wagner, 1995). 20 l. 2. HYPOTHESES It is hypothesized that higher levels of Feminist Identity are related to psychological well-being in college. Further, it is hypothesized that the direction of this relationship will be moderated by race. ~ a. White women with more advanced feminist identities will exhibit greater well-being. White women who have higher scores on the R, EE, S, AC scales will have scores indicating higher levels on measures of psychological well-being, academic fisnctioning, and Satisfaction with Life than women who do not have high scores on these scales. For Black women, the relationship between F [D and outcomes will be the inverse of the relationship for White women. That is, Black women with more developed feminist identities will exhibit less well-being. Specifically, Black women who have higher scores on the R, EE, S, or AC scales will have scores indicating lower levels of psychological well- being, academic functioning, and Satisfaction with Life than women who do not have high scores on these scales. It is hypothesized that lower levels of Feminist Identity (as measured by higher scores on the passive acceptance scale, PA) will be related to well-being. Further, it is hypothesized that the relationship between Passive Acceptance of sexism (PA) and well-being is moderated by race. a. White women with high PA scores will exhibit less well-being than White women with low PA scores. 21 b. Black women with high PA scores will exhibit greater well-being than Black women with low PA scores. . The relationship between Feminist Identity and predicted outcomes for White women is partially explained, or mediated, by shame. In order for the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being (predicted for White women) to exist, the identity of being a woman must be a central part of the participant’s identity. In other words, the relationship between higher scores on the R, EE, S, and AC scales and well-being scores will be moderated by centrality of womanhood scores. . The identity centrality of womanhood is predicted to be lower for Black women than for White women. Therefore, it is predicted that when centrality is controlled for, the relationship between race and outcomes will be weaker, although still existent. Further, it is predicted that Black women will report a higher level of racial-gender centrality than centrality of womanhood. . The relationship between Feminist Identity and outcomes for Black women is partially mediated by belief that one will be discriminated against. The relationship between these variables for White women is unknown and therefore analyses will be exploratory. It is hypothesized that experiences of sexually harassing/assaultive behavior will be correlated with greater Feminist Identity development. It is also hypothesized that, for Black women, the belief that one will be discriminated against for gender is correlated with the belief that one will be discriminated against for race. 22 Further, it is hypothesized that participation in women-centered events will be correlated with greater Feminist Identity development. 23 METHOD Subjects Participants include 99 Black women and 256 White women who were students at Michigan State University. Participants were recruited by three methods. The majority of subjects (n=320) were recruited through the psychology subject pool, where students were given course credit for their participation in research. Additional Black subjects (n=5) were recruited through emails sent to minority-focused clubs and organizations. As an incentive, these subjects were entered into a raffle for $100. Finally, additional Black subjects (n=30) were recruited to fill out the survey at the Student Union building for a cash payment of $10. Participants were largely fiilltime students (98.1%) and were distributed among year in school as follows: 50.4% first year, 25.4% second year, 11.8% third year, 7.0% fourth year, and 5.1% beyond fourth year. Socioeconomically, participants were distributed as follows (by yearly parental income) 9.6% below $25,000, 16.3% $25,001- 50,000, 18.3% $50,001-75,000, 26.2% $75,000-100,000, and 27.3% over $100,000. .Measures Demographic information. The following demographic information was collected by asking the participant: participant age, participant year in school, parental college attendance, family income, percent of tuition paid by participant, percent of tuition paid by participant’s parents, major, religion, sexual orientation, siblings, marital status, and parental marital status. Participants also were asked to indicate their racial makeup, marking all descriptors that are appropriate (Asian, Black/African descent, East 24 Indian, Latina/Hispanic, Middle Eastern, Native American, Pacific Islander, White/Caucasian, Other). Participants were then asked to indicate whether they consider themselves to be either “a person of color” or a “white person.” Participants were coded as Black if they indicated Black/African descent as part of their make-up and indicated that they considered themselves to be a person of color. A copy of all items administered can be found at the end of this document. Feminist Identity and centrality. Feminist Identity was measured by the Feminist Identity Composite (FIC; Fischer, Tokar, Mergl, Good, Hill, & Blum, 2000), which measures Feminist Identity according to Downing and Roush’s (1985) conceptualization of Feminist Identity development. The F 1C is a 33-item scale that was derived by combining items from the Feminist Identity Development Scale (F IDS; Bargad & Hyde, 1991) and Feminist Identity Scale (F IS; Rickard, 1987) to create a psychometrically superior scale. The combined scale has good internal consistency, a weakness of previous measures. The scale assesses identification with the following identity dimensions: passive acceptance, revelation, embeddedness emanation, synthesis, and active commitment. Alpha scores ranged from .68 to .86 for Feminist Identity dimensions in the standardization studies. Further, in a sample with a wide age range and student and non-student participants the measure demonstrated convergent, discriminant and factorial validity (Fischer et al., 2000). Participants rate statements on a 5-point scale ranging from not at all (1) to extremely (5) characteristic of themselves. Sample items include, “I want to work to improve women’s status (active commitrnent),” “1 am proud to be a competent woman (synthesis),” “1 am interested in women writers (embeddedness emanation),” “Gradually, 1 am beginning to see just how 25 Se Oil Sa pet hat Ell CK}? uni 35hr sexist society really is (revelation),” and, “I like being a traditional female (passive acceptance)” Appropriate items were summed to create scale scores. Identity centrality of womanhood was measured by an 8-item scale adapted from Sellers and colleagues (1997), as in Settles (2004). Participants rate the personal importance of being a woman and their sense of belongingness to a community of women on a seven point Likert-type scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Sample items include, “Overall, being a woman has very little to do with how I feel about myself (reverse scored),” and “I have a strong sense of belonging to women as a group of people.” Items were summed to create a scale score. In the Settles study (2004), the scale had an alpha level of .79. Experience of racist events and racial-gender centrality. The Schedule of Racist Events (SRE; Klonoff & Landrine, 1996) asks participants to rate how often they have experienced specific racist events and how distressing the event was. First, participants are presented with questions of the form, “How many times have you been treated unfairly by your employer, boss, or supervisors because you are a person of color?” and asked to indicate frequency from 1 (never) to 6 (almost all of the time). The participants are then asked, “How stressfirl was this for you?” and asked to rate their response on a 1 (not at all) to 6 (extremely) scale. In this study, the version of the scale that asks about events in the past year (recent) will be used. Additionally, wording will be changed from the original to refer to being a “person of color” rather than “Black,” as to include the multiple races surveyed here. Internal reliability for the recent racist events scale was or: .95. This scale will only be given to participants of color. The scale yields two scores 26 UC) lil flu (frequency of experiences, how distressing the events were) which are created by summing the appropriate items. Racial-gender centrality will be measured by an 8-item scale adapted from Sellers and colleagues (1997). Participants rate the personal importance of being either “a White woman” or “a woman of color” and their sense of belongingness to a female racial community on a seven point Likert-type scale from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). Based on the participant’s answers to initial survey questions, she will be given either the “White women” or “woman of color” version of the survey. Sample items include, “Overall, being a White woman (a woman of color) has very little to do with how I feel about myself (reverse scored),” and “I have a strong sense of belonging to White women (women of color) as a group of people.” In the Sellers and colleagues study, the instrument was specifically geared toward African American participants and gender was not specified. Sellers et al. reported alpha was .75. In the present study, this instrument was administered after the instrument measuring gender centrality alone. Items were summed to arrive at a score for the scale. Belief about likelihood of discrimination. All participants were asked to rate the likelihood that they will be discriminated against for their personal characteristics, for their race, and for their gender. Each of these three items was rated on a Likert-type scale from 1 (unlikely) to 7 (certain). Psychological well—being. An abbreviated version of the Brief Symptom Inventory (B81) was used to assess clinical symptomology (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1983; Derogatis & Spencer, 1982). The BSI is a 31-item self-report scale designed to measure the frequency of a variety of clinical symptoms and complaints within the past 27 week (e.g., “faintness or dizziness,” “feeling lonely,” “feeling fearful”) on a 5-point scale that ranged from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely). Items are summed to arrive at a scale score. The BSI measures symptoms related to depression, anxiety, somatization, phobic anxiety, and paranoid ideation. The BSI has strong convergent and predictive validity in both nonclinical and clinical populations and high internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha . .7l-.85) (Derogatis, 1993; Derogatis & Spencer, 1982). Additionally, participants were surveyed about their alcohol consumption in the past week using the Timeline F ollow-Back method (TLF B; Sobell & Sobell, 1992). The participants will simply be asked how many drinks they consumed in the past week (1 drink = 12 oz bottle of beer, 5 oz glass of wine, 1 shot of liquor). Number of drinks is totaled and used as a score for the measure. This method has been found to be a highly reliable technique for measuring alcohol consumption, with test-retest reliabilities ranging from 87-97 among college populations (Sobell & Sobell, 1992). The Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985) is a S-item scale measuring perceptions of general satisfaction with life (e.g., “I am satisfied with my life,” “If 1 could live my life over, 1 would change almost nothing”). Participants rated how they feel about their lives in general by endorsing items on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A sum of the items was calculated to produce a life satisfaction score, where higher numbers indicate more Satisfaction with Life. Diener et a1. (1985) found that the items have high internal consistency (or = .87) and a two-month test-retest correlation coefficient of .82. Academic Functioning. Academic functioning was measured by asking the participant to estimate her overall grade point average in high school and during college. 28 spar hBVl 3553 Con hou' flour supe t06| you? mud; rehal EXpej aPPrc She was asked to report her ACT scores, typical class attendance, and estimated time spent studying, socializing, and at work (for pay). Participation in woman-centered activities. Participants were asked whether they have participated in the following activities: a sorority, a women’s athletic team, a sexual assault awareness program, a women’s professional organization (like Women in Computing or Society of Women Engineers), or other woman-centered activity. This item was scored dichotomously: participated or did not participate. Experiences of sexist events. The Schedule of Sexist Events (SSE; Klonoff & Landrine, 1995) asks participants to rate how often they have experienced specific sexist events and how distressing the event was. First, participants are presented with questions of the form, “How many times have you been treated unfairly by your employer, boss, or supervisors because you are a woman?” and asked to indicate frequency from 1 (never) to 6 (almost all of the time). The participants are then asked, “How stressful was this for you?” and asked to rate their response on a 1 (not at all) to 6 (extremely) scale. In this study, the version of the scale that asks about events in the past year was used. Internal reliability for this scale is reported as (F90. The scale yields two scores (frequency of experiences, how distressing the events were) which are created by summing the appropriate items. Shame and self-blaming. Shame was measured using the Intemalized Shame Scale (ISS; Cook, 1990). This self-report measure contains 30 items measuring internalized levels of shame. Items are rated on a five-point Likert-type scale from never (1) to almost always (5), with higher scores indicating greater internalized shame. Sample items include, “I feel like 1 am never quite good enough” and “I feel somehow 29 01 pt. llll up 1111 C12 Kat Ill; left out.” Items were summed to arrive at a scale score. Reliability for this measure among college students is high (a = .94). The Test of Self-Conscious Affect-3 short form (TOSCA-3; Tangney, Dearing, Wagner, & Gramzow, 2000) was used to assess extemalization of blame (the opposite of self-blaming) and proneness to shame and guilt. The TOSCA-3 short form also measures detachment-unconcern, however, this is not a focus of the present study. The TOSCA-3 short form consists of 11 scenarios (for example, You make plans to meet a friend for lunch. At 5 o’clock, you realize you stood him up) followed by four or five responses. The participant is asked to rate how likely it is that they would experience each response on a five-point Likert-type scale from not likely (1) to very likely (5). As an example, the possible responses given for the scenario above are: You would think: “I’m inconsiderate;” You would think: “Well, they’ll understand;” You would try to make it up to him as soon as possible; You would think: “My boss distracted me just before lunch.” Appropriate items were summed to create scale scores. Reliabilities range from .70—.88 for the subscales used in the present study. Self-concept clarity. Self-concept clarity was measured by the Self-Concept Clarity scale (SCC) developed by Campbell and colleagues (Campbell, Trapnell, Heine, Katz, Lavallee, & Lehman, 1996). The scale consists of 12 items rated on a five-point Likert-type scale from strongly disagree (I) to strongly agree (5). Items are summed to arrive at a scale score. Sample items include, “My beliefs about myself often conflict with one another (reverse scored),” and, “In general, I have a clear sense of who I am and what I am.” Scale reliability in previous work was acceptable ((1 = .86). 30 Big Five personality traits. The Big Five personality traits were measured by a 20-item, short version of the lntemational Personality Item Pool—Five-Factor Model measure (Mini-IPIP; Donnellan, Oswald, Baird, & Lucas, 2006). The instrument contains four items per Big Five trait that are rated on a five-point Likert scale from “not like me” to “like me.” Sample items include, “Am the life of the party,” and, “Sympathize with others’ feelings.” Appropriate items were summed to create scale scores. In the validation study, subscale reliability ranged from .65 to .77. Big Five personality traits are included here as control variables. They are included in order to demonstrate that observed relationships between Feminist Identity and outcome variables is not due to general personality traits. Procedures All of the-measures were administered online via surveymonkeycom, a widely used online survey administration resource. Participants were recruited by three methods. The majority of subjects (n=320) were recruited through the psychology subject pool, where students were given course credit for their participation in research. Additional Black subjects (n=5) were recruited through emails sent to minority-focused clubs and organizations. As an incentive, these subjects were entered into a raffle for $100. Finally, additional Black subjects (n=30) were recruited to fill out the survey at the Student Union building for a cash payment of $ 1 0. Subjects consented to participation online by reading the consent form and then typing their name, date, and email address. After completion of the survey, a debriefing screen appeared. This screen had contact information for the university counseling center, academic assistance, and the study investigators. 31 Analyses Control Variables. Variables which have a theoretical connection to both Feminist Identity (independent variable) and well-being (outcome variables) were entered as control variables. As previously discussed, the Big Five personality traits have been associated with well-being variables (e.g., Goodwin & Friedman, 2006; Smith & Snell, 1.996). Although no empirical research exists relating the Big Five to Feminist Identity, it is reasonable to expect that these personality variables might be related to identity. Additionally, Self Concept Clarity (SCC) has been associated with well-being variables (e.g., Bigler et al., 2001; Chang, 2001; Constantino et al., 2006; Smith et al., 1996; Story, 2004). The association between SCC and Feminist Identity is also theoretically appealing, as clarity of self-conceptualization by definition seems to be related to a more developed identity. Finally, year in college was entered as a control. College is believed to provide the perfect enviromnent for the development of Feminist Identity, as it creates the opportunity for both positive (e. g., women’s studies courses) and negative (e.g. sexual assault) gender-based experiences. Thus it stands to reason that the more years a student has been in college, the more gender-based experiences she will experience. Further, year in college may be related to well-being, as students who experience extreme personal or academic difficulty may either withdraw or be dismissed from school. This phenomenon would result in a lower number of older students experiencing difficulty. Feminist Identity Variables. First, correlations among variables were examined. The correlations suggested that feminist identity may be better understood as one dimension describing lack of identification with feminist values (i.e., Passive Acceptance) and one dimension describing identification with feminist values (i.e., 32 Revelation, Embeddedness-Emanation, Synthesis, and Active Commitment). A secondary factor analysis confirmed that there were two factors (see Table 2). Therefore, the hypotheses were tested using two feminist identity variables: Passive Acceptance and Feminist Identity Total (a sum of the other four scales). Tests of the hypotheses Hypothesis 1 tested the direct effect of higher Feminist Identity on well-being. Feminist Identity was measured by the sum of four different subscales of the Feminist Identity: R, EE, S, and AC. Well-being was measured by five different scales: 881 total, Satisfaction with Life, estimated GPA, class attendance, and alcohol consumption. Each set of regressions consisted of regressions with Feminist Identity as the predictor variable and each of the five well-being variables as the outcome variable. Control variables were determined as described above. Secondly, the hypothesis was tested that the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being is moderated by race. In the first step of the regression, the controls were entered (see above). In the second step of the regression, the independent variable was entered (Feminist Identity). In the next step, race was entered. In the next step, the two way interaction term was entered: race x Feminist Identity. Race was dummy coded as a dichotomous variable (Black/White). Hypothesis 2 tested the relationship between lower Feminist Identity (higher scores on the PA scale) and well-being. Feminist Identity was measured by scores on the PA subscale of the Feminist Identity Composite. Well-being was measured by five different scales: BSI total, Satisfaction with Life, estimated GPA, class attendance, and” alcohol consumption. Each set of regressions consisted of five regressions with Feminist Identity as the predictor variable and each of the five well-being variables as the outcome 33 variable. Control variables were determined as described above. Secondly, the hypothesis was tested that the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being is moderated by race. In the first step of the regression, the controls were he entered (see above). In the second step of the regression, the independent variable was entered (PA score). In the third step, race was entered. In the fourth step, the two-way interaction term was entered: race x PA. Race will be dummy coded. For hypothesis 3, it was predicted that the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being (predicted for White women) is partially mediated by lower levels of shame. To test this, first, it must be shown that Feminist Identity is correlated with well-being. This was tested above. Next, it must be established that Feminist Identity is correlated with the potential mediator (lower levels of shame). To test this, a correlation was run between the two variables. Next, the mediator must be shown to affect the outcome variables. To test this, the control variables were entered into step one (see above). The independent (Feminist Identity) variable was entered into step two. Level of shame (as measured by the ISS, TOSCA-self—blaming, TOSCA-shame and guilt) was entered into step three. Results would suggest that shame is a partial mediator if step three in the regression explains a significant amount of variance. For hypothesis 4 it was predicted that the relationship among Feminist Identity, centrality of womanhood, and. outcomes for White women and Black women is described by a three-way interaction. Well-being was measured by five different scales: BSI total, Satisfaction with Life, estimated GPA, class attendance, and alcohol consumption and analyses were run separately for each of them. To test the hypothesis, the control variables (year in school, Big Five, SCC) were entered into step one. Next, Feminist 34 Identity, centrality, and race were each entered into a step. Race was dummy coded. Next, the two way interaction terms were entered in their own steps: centrality x Feminist Identity, centrality x race, race x Feminist Identity. Finally, the three-way interaction term was entered: race x centrality x Feminist Identity. The slope of the regression line was calculated for high (+1 SD) and low (-1 SD) levels of centrality for each race and regression lines were plotted in order to understand the nature of significant interactions. Hypothesis 5 predicted that Black women would have lower levels of centrality of womanhood than White women. This was tested using a between-groups t-test. Further, it was predicted that Black women would report a higher level of racial-gender centrality than centrality of womanhood. This also was tested using a within-groups t-test. For hypothesis 6, it was predicted that the relationship between Feminist Identity and outcomes for Black women is partially mediated by the belief that one will be discriminated against. To test this, first, it must be shown that Feminist Identity was correlated with well-being. This was tested above. Next, it must be established that Feminist Identity was correlated with the potential mediator (the belief that one will be discriminated against). To test this, a-correlat-ion was run between the two variables. Next, the mediator must be shown to affect the outcome variables. To test this, the control variables were entered into step one (see above). The independent (Feminist Identity) variable, was entered into step two. Belief that one will be discriminated against was entered into step three. Results would suggest that belief that one will be discriminated against is a partial mediator if step three in the regression explains a significant amount of variance. The analysis was run three times, once with each 35 likelihood variable (belief that one will be discriminated against in general, for race, for gender). Hypothesis 7, that sexually harassing/assaultive events is correlated with greater ‘ levels of Feminist Identity, was tested using correlations. Additionally, the hypothesis that for Black women, reports of racially harassing events will be correlated with reports of sexually harassing events was tested using correlations. Additional Analyses. Several additional exploratory analyses were conducted in order to describe relationships that have not been adequately addressed in previous literature. In particular, exploratory analyses examined whether shame functions as a mediating variable between Feminist Identity and outcomes for Black women. Multiple regressions were used. 36 RESULTS Tests of Hypotheses Table 1 displays the correlations, means, standard deviations, and internal consistency reliability estimates for the variables used in hypothesis 1. Race was correlated with four feminist identity scales (R, EE, S, and AC), such that being Black was associated with higher levels of feminist identity. Race was related to class attendance, drinking, Satisfaction with Life, and estimated grade point average, such that being Black was associated with lower class attendance, lower drinking, less Satisfaction with Life, and lower estimated grade point average. Feminist identity variables had a number of significant positive intercorrelations: PA was correlated with R, R was correlated with EB, S, and AC, EE was correlated with S and AC, and S was correlated with AC. These correlations are logical, as they suggest that different dimensions of feminist identity are positively related. The Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) was correlated with PA and R scores, such that higher scores on these feminism scales were related to greater symptomatology. This correlation is logical because PA is a dimension of feminism where the woman denies sexism, potentially leading to poorer mental health. R is a dimension of feminism where the woman is angry at the injustices in the world, therefore it is possible that this unrest would be associated with worse mental health outcomes. The BS1 was also inversely associated with class attendance, Satisfaction with Life, and estimated GPA, such that higher symptoms were associated with poorer class attendance, less Satisfaction with Life, and lower estimated GPA. Drinking was inversely correlated with class attendance. Surprisingly, Satisfaction with Life was 37 positively associated with PA, S, and drinking. Estimated GPA was inversely correlated with PA, R, EE, AC, and BSI total, and positively correlated with class attendance, drinking, and Satisfaction with Life. ' The strong, positive intercorrelations among the different dimensions of feminist identity were notable. The correlations suggested that feminist identity may be better understood as one dimension describing lack of identification with feminist values (i.e., Passive Acceptance) and one dimension describing identification with feminist values (i.e., Revelation, Embeddedness-Emanation, Synthesis, and Active Commitment). A secondary factor analysis confirmed that there were two factors (see Table 2). Therefore, the following hypotheses was tested using two feminist identity variables: Passive Acceptance and Feminist Identity Total. 38 .I.\~\s {\s, .\\.\\»-\ \\\ .xs »\ .a...\.\\»\.\~...\ .kaa .\\\\.. .’.\\s»\\\~\.v.\.\«s. ~.\. s\\\\\,~\\\.. ..o.\\~§.\\\~\._.»\\\...\\~\.\\\~\.I. ..o.\\\...s\—. .\ .J\a\s~\ av}... 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It was expected that Passive Acceptance (PA) would be predictive of poorer psychological well-being. This relationship was expected to be moderated by participant race such that, for White women, higher PA scores predict lower well-being scores, while for Black women, higher feminist identity scores will predict greater well- being scores. To address this question, hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted using SPSS 11, in which the PA variable predicted various indicators of well- being (BSI total, Satisfaction with Life, estimated GPA, class attendance, and alcohol consumption) while controlling for self-concept clarity, the Big Five personality traits, and year in school. Control variables were entered into the regression first, followed by the independent variables (Passive Acceptance, race), and lastly the two-way interaction term was entered: (race x Passive Acceptance). Race was dummy coded as a dichotomous variable (Black/White). Results can be found in tables 11-12. No significant interactions were found. In order to further explore racial differences, results were then run separately for Black and White women. Results suggested that for Black women, for Satisfaction with Life, adding PA to the model explained a significant portion of the variance (p<.Ol) such that PA was associated with greater Satisfaction with Life. Results suggested that for White women, for GPA, adding PA to the model explained a significant portion of the variance (p<.05), such that higher PA was associated with lower GPA. Additionally, for Satisfaction With Life, adding PA to the model explained a significant portion of the variance (p<.01) in the opposite of the predicted direction (higher PA scores were associated with greater Satisfaction with Life). 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For hypothesis 3, it was predicted that the relationship between feminist identity and well-being (predicted for White women) is partially mediated by lower levels of shame. Since hypothesis 1 did not have any results in the predicted direction for White women, this hypothesis could not be tested. However, exploratory analyses were conducted using data from Black women. First, correlations were run between Feminist Identity Total and Shame variables. Results can be found in table 17. Only TOSCA-guilt was significant and therefore only this variable will be tested in the following analysis. Next, control variables were entered into step one, TOSCA-guilt was entered into step two, and Feminist Identity Total was entered into step three. Results suggested that guilt was a partial mediator for Satisfaction with Life (p<.01). Results can be found in table 18. 59 Table 17. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Variables for Black Participants for Shame Scales and Feminist Identity Total 1.188 (:5) 2. Shame .38** (.61) 3. Guilt -.05 .26* (.47) 4. Intemalizing -.38 -.86** -.63** (.70) 5. F1 total -.13 .21 .27* -.35 (.85) Mean 61.74 25.72 41.78 32.76 94.10 SD 21.03 7.32 6.93 8.14 12.66 Note: Correlations appear below the diagonal, and coefficient alphas are presented in parentheses along the diagonal. ISS=1ntema1ized Shame Scale, FI Tota1=F eminist Identity Total. *p< .05 **p<.01 6O Table 18. Summary of Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analyses/0r Variables Predicting Satisfaction with Life for Black Women for Hypothesis 3 Satisfaction with Life Variable AR2 3(9) SE 8 Step 1 .25 Year in school —1.23 (-.26) .59 Self Concept Clarity .03 (.04) .09 Agreeableness -.03 (-.01) .29 Extroversion .46 (.30) .19 Conscientiousness .49 (.29) .23 Neuroticism -.ll (-.05) .26 Intellect/Imagination -.25 (-.1 1) .29 Step 2 .01 Guilt .11(.11) .12 Step 3 .11 Feminist Identity Total .17 (.34) .06 61 Hypothesis 4. For hypothesis 4 it was predicted that the relationship among feminist identity, centrality of womanhood, and outcomes for White women and Black women would be described by a three-way interaction. To test the hypothesis, the control variables (year in school, Big Five, SCC) and independent variables (Feminist Identity Total, centrality, and race) were entered into step one. Race was dummy coded. In the second step, the two way interaction terms were entered: centrality x Feminist Identity Total, centrality x race, race x Feminist Identity Total. In the third step, the three-way interaction term was entered: race x centrality x Feminist Identity Total. Results can be found in tables 19-20. 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Gog oo. 52-5 8.- 53 8.- 53 8. oo. oo. 5. co. oo. oo. oo. we. of No. :nl8. :3 8. 8.: 8. 55.: 8. ARVV 3.- oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. Efi 8:53 Ease-5 x Bad x 3:38:00 wQBm .E 2580”— x 3:85:00 5 mam 5:53 8:880» x 85m 5 52m 88 x 528550 magm 33 8802 £582 552m 8888 .8 038 66 Hypothesis 5. Hypothesis 5 predicted that Black women would have lower levels of centrality of womanhood than White women. This was tested using a between-groups t- test. Groups differed significantly (p<.Ol); however, not in the expected direction (White m=36. 16, SD=7.01; Black m=38.55, SD=7.47). For both Black and White women, there was a significant correlation (p<.01) between Feminist Identity Total and Centrality (r=.29, r=.42, respectively). Further, it was predicted that Black women would report a higher level of racial-gender centrality than centrality of womanhood. This was tested using a within-groups t-test. There was a significant difference between variables (p<.01) in the expected direction (racial-gender centrality m=40.51, SD=9.65). Hypothesis 6. For hypothesis 6, it was predicted that the relationship between feminist identity and outcomes for Black women would be partially mediated by the belief that one will be discriminated against. The correlation between feminist identity and the potential mediator (the belief that one will be discriminated against) was examined. No significant correlations were found. Results can be found in table 21. Hypothesis 7. Hypothesis 7, that sexually harassing/assaultive events would be correlated with greater levels of feminist identity, was tested using correlations. Correlations suggested that Feminist Identity Total was correlated with both experience of sexually harassing events (r=.33, p<.01) and the felt impact of the sexually harassing events (r=.42, p<.01). Next, the hypothesis that for Black women, reports of racially harassing events will be correlated with reports of sexually harassing events was tested using correlations. Results suggested that experience of sexually harassing events and the felt impact of sexually harassing events were correlated with experience of racially harassing events and the felt impact of racially harassing events (all p<.01). See table 22. 67 Additionally, for all participants, participation in woman-centered organizations (e. g., sororities, women’s professional organizations) was correlated with feminist identity (r=.16,p<.01). 68 Table 21. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Likelihood Variables for Black Participants l. 2 3. 4 l. Feminist identity total 2. Likelihood will be discriminated for .11 personal characteristics 3. Likelihood will be discriminated for race .08 .29** 4. Likelihood will be discriminated for .06 .25* .76** gender Mean 94.10 3.28 5.67 5.14 SD 12.66 1.77 1.41 1.61 Note: Correlations appear below the diagonal. *p<.05 ** p <.01 69 Table 22. Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations among Likelihood Variables for Black Participants 1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Racist Events Experienced (.86) 2. Racist Events Felt Experience .79** (.92) 3. Sexist Events Experienced .56** .53** (.89) 4. Sexist Events Felt Experience .52** .75 ** .76** (.93) Mean 40.73 48.18 46.67 55.41 SD 11.72 20.67 12.64 22.32 Note: Correlations appear below the diagonal and coefficient alphas are presented in parentheses along the diagonal. *p<.05 ** p <01 70 DISCUSSION The present study examined the relationship between Feminist Identity and well- being for Black and White women. It examined potential interactions between race and Feminist Identity. It also examined the role of shame in the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being. Finally, it examined how centrality of womanhood differed by race. T wo-factor analysis Previous work has suggested that the concept of Feminist Identity is best understood as a dimensional theory rather than a stage theory (e.g., Fischer & Good, 1994; Fischer & Good, 2004;Witte & Sherman, 2002). Therefore, the present study was developed using a dimensional conception of Feminist Identity. However, one key finding of the present study was that there were a number of strong, positive intercorrelations among the Feminist Identity variables. This intercorrelation suggested that the Feminist Identity variables are not independent of one another. Secondary factor analysis confirmed that there were two factors: Passive Acceptance (consisting of the Passive Acceptance dimension) and Feminist Identity total (consisting of the Revelation, Embeddedness-Emanation, Synthesis, and Active Commitment dimensions). In the present study, subsequent analyses were run using this two-factor conceptualization. What are the implications of a two factor model for the study of Feminist Identity? One possible interpretation is that the multiple dimensions described in the theory of Feminist Identity development are unnecessary and categorizing women by degree of Feminist Identity is sufficient. Previous research has utilized a simplified 71 conceptualization of feminism and achieved meaningful results. For example, Rederstorff et al. (2007) used scores on the Macho scale (a scale of traditional gender attitudes) as a measure of feminism and found meaningfiil results, as described in the introduction section of this document. Well-being and Feminist Identity In the present study, a number of important findings arose from the analysis of the two factors describing Feminist Identity. For Black women, in regression analyses with Satisfaction with Life and Alcohol Consumption as the outcome measures, addition of the Feminist Identity total variable did explain a significant portion of variance, such that greater Feminist Identity was associated with greater Satisfaction with Life and lower alcohol consumption. Additionally, for White women, for Grade Point Average (GPA), adding Passive Acceptance to the model explained a significant portion of the variance, such that Passive Acceptance was associated with lower GPA. These findings support the association between Feminist Identity and well-being. This research is consistent with previous research suggesting the association between Feminist Identity and well- being (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997; Ossana et al., 1992; Saunders & Kashubeck-West, 2006; Stake & Rose, 1994; Weitz, 1982). One unexpected finding was that in a regression for Satisfaction With Life, for both Black and White women, adding PA explained a significant portion of the variance in the opposite of the predicted direction. That is, higher PA scores were associated with greater Satisfaction with Life. One explanation for this finding is that Satisfaction With Life is a straightforward measure that asks participants to rate their general level of contentment with their life. An individual who is not aware of discrimination in the 72 W1 11E W world may have a more accepting worldview and therefore be more likely to endorse greater Satisfaction with Life. An additional explanation is that this finding may describe women who have had little gender-related conflict in their life. Therefore, they have never had their worldview confronted and thus report greater Satisfaction with Life. Another unexpected finding was that the effect for clinical symptoms for White women was in the opposite of the expected direction. That is, Feminist Identity was associated with increased rather than decreased clinical symptoms. A plausible explanation for this finding is that the awareness of discrimination and injustice leads to greater distress. Race and Feminist Identity Although there were some differences between Black and White women in hypothesis 1, regression analyses did not suggest that race moderated the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being. It is notable that, tests for hypothesis 1 suggested that Feminist Identity was associated with well-being for Black women. This result contradicts the hypothesized relationship among variables. This finding also contradicts previous findings, which suggested that for White women Feminist Identity is adaptive, but for Black women it is not (Rederstorff et al., 2007). However, it should be noted that the previous findings specifically examined a buffering effect for sexually harassed women and their responses to that experience. This unique situation may explain the inconsistent findings. Perhaps the direct affront to a woman’s identity as a woman brings out a stronger effect that can be identified through survey research. Shame and Feminist Identity 73 ti. I3 CC CC be It was also hypothesized that shame would be a partial mediator between Feminist Identity and well-being. Results suggested that, for Black women, shame was a partial mediator (using the TOSCA-guilt scale) for Satisfaction with Life. Results were not significant for other shame scales. This finding provides some support for the hypothesis. One implication of this finding is that Feminist Identity contributes to well- being by reducing guilt. This finding empirically supports theory which suggests that Feminist Identity allows one to reduce blame and in doing so, reduce shame/guilt (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997). Centrality of womanhood and Feminist Identity For hypothesis 4, it was predicted that the relationship among Feminist Identity, centrality of womanhood, and outcomes for White women and Black women would be described by a three-way interaction. This hypothesisfailed to be supported. Hypothesis 5 predicted that Black women would have lower levels of centrality of womanhood than White women. Although groups differed significantly, the difference was not in the predicted direction. Black women had higher centrality of womanhood than White women. One explanation for this surprising finding may be that the Black participants differ from the White participants with regard to characteristics other than race. For example, consider that Black students attend college at a lower rate than White students (1 1% and 14%, respectively; Reynolds, 2004). Black women who do attend college are likely to be uniquely resilient, perhaps more so than White women who attend college. It is possible that part of that resilience is related to their conceptualization of being a woman. Perhaps Black women who attend college have a stronger sense of 74 themselves as a woman and this allows them to overcome adversity. This possibility must be further researched. Black women reported greater levels of racial-gender centrality than centrality of womanhood. This finding is consistent with previous research suggesting that the identity of Black woman is more central to Black women than the identity of woman alone (Gay & Tate, 1998; Settles, 2006). Belief that one will be discriminated against and Feminist Identity For hypothesis 6, it was predicted that the relationship between Feminist Identity and outcomes for Black women would be partially mediated by the belief that one will be discriminated against. This hypothesis was not supported. Although grounded in ideas from previous literature, this hypothesis has not been tested directly in previous work. As such, it is difficult to determine whether this finding is anomalous or not. Future work must consider this issue. Additional correlates with Feminist Identity Hypothesis 7, that sexually harassing/assaultive events would be correlated with greater levels of Feminist Identity, was supported. Correlations suggested that Feminist Identity was correlated with both experience of sexually harassing events and the felt impact of the sexually harassing event. This is consistent with previous research that suggested that women who consider themselves to be feminists report experiencing more sexist events and appraise these events as more upsetting (Landrine & Klonoff, 1997). Additionally, the hypothesis that for Black women, reports of racially harassing events would be correlated with reports of sexually harassing events was supported. This is consistent with previous research that has suggested that greater awareness of gender- 75 based discrimination is correlated with greater awareness of racial discrimination (Gay & Tate, 1998). Results suggested that experience and felt impact of sexually harassing events were correlated with experience and felt impact of racially harassing events. Additionally, participation in woman-centered organizations (e. g., sororities, women’s professional organizations) was correlated with Feminist Identity. These findings are meaningful because they suggest attributes of women with more developed feminist identities. Additional findings It is of interest that there were a number of main effects for race in this sample. Greater Satisfaction with Life, higher GPA, and higher Alcohol Consumption were associated with White race. It is also notable that Black women had a highermean for the Feminist Identity Total, indicating higher levels of feminism. These findings highlight differences between the two populations used in this study. Implications There are a number of implications from the findings of this study. First, the finding that there were two central dimensions, rather than five, might imply that for feminism to be associated with well-being a woman need only identify with some feminist values. It perhaps does not matter if she identifies with numerous feminist values or more sophisticated feminist ideals. Simply the presence of feminist values is sufficient. This implication must be further researched. Specifically, it would be of value to identify the mechanism through which a slight identification with Feminist Identity is protective. One explanation, explored below, is that a reduction in shame associated with Feminist Identity leads to positive outcomes. A second possible 76 explanation is that even a small identification with feminist values leads to feelings of security associated with being united with a larger group. Secondly, although from the present study we cannot infer directionality, findings suggest that women who have a more developed Feminist Identity experience greater well-being. Future research must work to determine directionality of this relationship in order to understand applications of this finding. One possibility is that the acceptance of feminist ideals can improve well-being. If this possibility is valid, it could have applications in psychotherapeutic settings. Therapists could encourage clients to embrace feminist ideals in order to improve their well-being. This approach is consistent with consciousness-raising, one of the central tenets of feminist psychotherapy (Worell & Remer, 2003). Third, it was found that the guilt scale mediated the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being (for Black women). This finding has practical applications. For example, in a psychotherapeutic setting, a therapist might encourage the adoption of feminist values in order to reduce shame/guilt, something which is associated with numerous types of psychopathology. It is notable that it was the guilt scale specifically that was a partial mediator between Feminist Identity and clinical symptoms. Guilt differs from shame in that guilt is a reaction to violating a personally meaningful standard of behavior. Guilt can be either appropriate and healthy or excessive and detrimental. Future studies must work to determine whether the proneness to guilt observed here is healthy guilt or not. Limitations 77 One surprising finding of the present study was that there were actually two factors rather than five. However, it should be noted that the multiple dimensions of Feminist Identity may still have clinical utility in spite of the possibility that they are aspects of one underlying dimension. The present findings may simply suggest a measurement problem rather than a conceptual one. That is, perhaps the multiple dimensions of Feminist Identity exist but are not apparent with this population and this survey measure. Progression through the stages of Feminist Identity has been observed in the clinical literature (Rederstorff & Levendosky, 2007). A nuanced description of a client’s orientation toward feminism may provide a richer understanding of the individual and in doing so help facilitate the psychotherapeutic process. Finally, the present study predicted fairly nonspecific outcomes (e. g. clinical symptoms, Satisfaction with Life). It is possible that research using more specific outcomes would find that the different levels of Feminist Identity are meaningful. It is somewhat surprising that the findings presented here did not more strongly confirm hypothesis 1 (i.e., Feminist Identity is related to well-being). That is, it is surprising that the regressions for most measures of well-being did not produce significant results. One possible explanation is that other measures of functioning would better capture the differences between women who have a developed Feminist Identity and those who do not. For example, functioning in relationships is an area that could be affected by Feminist Identity. One weakness in the test of the hypothesis pertaining to likelihood of discrimination (hypothesis 6) was that the measure of belief that one will be discriminated against was a single item. It seems likely that this single did not capture 78 the complexity of the construct. Future research should work to develop instruments to better assess this issue. One limitation of the present research is that due to the cross-sectional design, it is not possible to make causal statements about Feminist Identity. That is, it is unclear whether Feminist Identity causes greater well-being or whether greater well-being increases Feminist Identity. Future research could adopt a longitudinal design in order to better understand this dynamic. An additional characteristic of the present study was that it surveyed college students, a very specific population. Although this study produced valuable information about college women, it is unclear how the results will generalize to other populations of women. Further, this population may have resulted in a restriction of range with regard to Feminist Identity. Due to the age and somewhat limited life experiences of college students, it is possible that some effects were not observable. Further, the present study relied completely on self-report measures that were largely multiple choice. Future research might incorporate independent measures of well-being and academic functioning. For example, grades could be obtained from academic records. Further, interview methods might be incorporated in order to address the complexities of Feminist Identity. Directions for future research There are several important directions for future research. First, longitudinal research should be undertaken in order to clarify whether Feminist Identity is a causative factor in well-being. Further, longitudinal research can help clarify if there are benefits of Feminist Identity which are not apparent until later. For example, perhaps women who 79 begin college with a strong sense of Feminist Identity are more likely to complete college. Second, the trends observed here should be examined with other ages and races to see if they are. consistent. The college years are a very specific time of life and it is likely that the unique characteristics of this age group would influence the outcome of studies such as this one. Further, it is unknown how groups other than Black and White women will behave with regard to Feminist Identity. As certain differences emerged between Black and White women, it seems possible that other racial differences exist. Third, the finding that a two-factor model was more useful than the possibility should be examined that it does not matter if a women identifies with numerous feminist values or more sophisticated feminist ideals, but simply the presence of some feminist values is sufficient. Future research must work to clearly describe how much identification with feminist values is sufficient and whether there are any essential beliefs which must be endorsed. Future research also can be helpful in determining the role of guilt in the relationship between Feminist Identity and well—being for both Black and White women. The present research has suggested that guilt is a mediator; however, it is still unknown whether this refers to healthy guilt or excessive guilt. Finally, future research should further investigate the differences between Black and White women. The present study found some different trends for the races in hypothesis 1; however, no formal moderating effect was found. This suggests that there may be an effect for race that is not adequately uncovered by this research. Conclusions 80 The present study suggested several meaningful findings with regard to Feminist Identity. First, it suggested that using a two-dimensional approach was more appropriate than using a multi-dimensional approach. Additionally, for Black women, Feminist Identity is associated with greater Satisfaction with Life and lower alcohol consumption. Further, for both Black and White women Passive Acceptance was related to lesser well- being. However, it is notable that Passive Acceptance was also positively related to greater Satisfaction with Life. An additional finding was that for Black women, guilt partially mediated the relationship between Feminist Identity and well-being. Additionally, Black women had greater centrality of womanhood than White women. Black women also had greater racial-gender centrality than centrality of womanhood. Finally, Feminist Identity was correlated with experiences of sexual harassment/assault and participation in woman-centered activities. There were several implications of the present study. First, a two-factor approach may adequately describe Feminist Identity. Second, women who have a more developed Feminist Identities experience greater well-being. Third, for Black women, guilt partially mediates the relationship between Feminist Identity and outcome. This suggests that one of the reasons that Feminist Identity may be adaptive is that a more developed Feminist Identity is associated with a reduction of guilt. It is hoped that the present investigation has advanced the study of Feminist Identity, such that we can better understand this meaningful aspect of women’s experience. 81 APPENDIX 82 Women’s College Experiences Survey: Informed Consent Agreement 1. The purpose of this study is to help researchers at MSU find out about the attitudes and experiences of first year college women. This research is important because the transition to college is very difficult and each year a number of students have difficulty adjusting. We hope to better understand what helps some students do well in spite of the challenges. 2. You are being asked to participate in a study in which you will be asked about different aspects of your life, including your relationships, thoughts and feelings, and experiences at school and in the community. 3. Your participation in this study today will require approximately 45 minutes of your time to complete an online questionnaire. 4. You will be asked to report some personal information about your feelings, thoughts, and experiences. At times answering these questions may make you feel slightly uncomfortable. On the other hand, you may find it interesting to answer the questions. 5. Several steps are being taken to make sure that your answers will stay private. Your answers to the questionnaire will only be accessible with a unique password, known only to the primary researcher. Your name and email address will only be used to identify your survey to the researchers. Your privacy will be protected to the maximum extent allowable by law. 6. Only group results and NOT results about you will be reported in scientific journals or at scientific meetings. 7. Your participation is completely voluntary and you may withdraw from the study at any time. You have the right not to answer any item on the questionnaire that you do not wish to answer. However, all of your answers are valuable to this study. There is no penalty for withdrawing at any time. 8. You will receive 2 psychology subject pool credits for your participation in today’s survey. If you are not enrolled in the subject pool, you will be entered into a drawing for $100. 9. If you have any questions about this study, please contact the responsible investigator, Bertram Karon, Ph.D. (mail: 1 10 Psychology Building, East Lansing, MI 48824; phone: 355-2159; email: karon@msu.edu). You may contact the him anonymously. if you wish. F urther. if you have any questions or concerns regarding your rights as a study participant, or are dissatisfied at any time with any aspect of this study, you may contact - anonymously, if you wish - Peter Vasilenko, Ph.D., Director of the Human Subject Protection Programs at Michigan State University (phone: (517) 355-2180; fax: (517) 432-4503; email: irb@msu.edu; mail: 202 Olds Hall, East Lansing, MI 48824.) I have read the consent form and agree to participate in the project. (completing your name, email, and the date serves as your signature) 1. Last Name, First name 2. Email Address 3. Date 83 ackuround Information 2. B 4. What year are you in school? 0 1St year 0 2nd year 0 3rd year 0 4’h year past 4’11 year O 5. What gender are you? 0 Male 0 Female 6. What is your age? 7. What was your high school GPA? 8. What is your current overall MSU GPA? 9. What was your total ACT score? 3. Racial Back round 10. How would you describe your race/ethnicity? Please mark all that apply. Asian Black/African descent East Indian Latina/Hispanic Middle Eastern Native American Pacific Islander White/Caucasian Other OOOOOOOOO ooooo ooo§ 00000 0003 Are you a fiJll-time student? Are you a first time college student? Did you transfer here from another college or university (either 2-year or 4-year)? Did your mother (or mother-figure) attend college? If so, did she graduate? Did your father (or father-figure) attend college? i If so, did he graduate? Are you the first person in your family to go to college? 84 12. What is your parents’ (guardians’) annual income? 0 Less than $25,000 0 $25,001-$50,000 0 $50,001-$75,000 0 $75,001-$100,000 0 Over $100,000 100% 75% 50% How much of your tuition do your 0 O 0 parents (guardians) pay? How much of your tuition do your 0 O O personally pay? (This includes taking out loans in your own name.) 14. What is your major? 25% 0% O O O O 15. How many times have you changed your major since you have been at MSU? 16. Estimate your class attendance for a typical semester. 100% 90% 75% 50% 25% 0% 000000 17. Each day, how much time do you spend studying? Less than 1 hour 1-2 hrs 3-4 hrs 5-6 hrs Over 6 hrs 00000 18. Each week, how much time do you spend at a job or working for money? Not employed Less than 5 hrs 5-10 hrs 10-15 hrs 15-20 hrs 20-25 hrs 25-30 hrs 30-35 hrs over 35 hrs OOOOOOOOO 85 19. On a typical weekend (Friday night-Sunday night) how many hours do you spend socializing and /or partying? Not employed Less than 5 hrs 5-10 hrs 10-15 hrs 15-20 hrs 20-25 hrs 25-30 hrs OOOOOOOO over 35 hrs 20. Each day during a typical week (Monday-Thursday) how many hours do you spend socializing? Less than 1-2 hrs 3—4 hrs 5-6 hrs 7-8 hrs 000000 21. What is your Agnostic Atheist Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Christian: Hindu Jewish OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Other 22. On a scale of 1. Not Religious 1 hour Over 8 hrs religion? Buddhist/Taoist Baptist Dutch Reform Eastern Orthodox Episcopal LDS (Mormon) Lutheran Methodist Nondenominational Presbyterian Roman Catholic Unitarian/Universalist Other Muslim/Islam 1-7, how religious do you consider yourself to be? 3 4 5 6 O O O O O O 86 7. Very Religious O 23. If the above does not adequately describe your religion, please elaborate on your religious preferences here. 24. What is your sexual orientation? 0 Heterosexual (straight) O Homosexual (gay or lesbian) O Bisexual O Other 25. How many serious romantic relationships have you been in? 26. Are you in a romantic relationship currently? 0 yes 0 no 27. How many older sisters do you have? How many younger sisters? How many older brothers do you have? How many younger brothers? 28. Single Married or Separated Divorced Re- Widow- Other Partnered married ed What is your O O O O O O O marital status? What is your 0 O O O O O O mother’s (or mother-figure) current marital status? What is your O O O O O O O father’s (or father- figure) current marital status? ‘ 87 29. Do you belong to any of the following organizations? Check all that apply: Sorority Women’s athletic team Sexual assault awareness program Women’s professional organization (like Women in Computing or Society of Women Engineers) . Other woman-centered organization (please specify) O 0000 30. Have you ever taken a women’s studies course? 0 yes 0 no 31. Do you plan to take a women’s studies course in the future? 0 Yes 0 no 6. Centrality 32. Rate each item from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Strongly Disagree Agree 1. Overall, being a woman has very O O O O O O 0 little to do with how I feel about myself. 2. In general, being a woman is an O O O O O O O important part of my self-image. 3. My destiny is tied to the destiny 0 O O O O O O l of other women. \ 4. Being a woman is unimportant to O O O O O O O my sense of what kind of person I am. 5. I have a strong sense of O O O O O O O belonging to women as a group of eople. 6. I have a strong sense of O O O O O O O attachment to women. 7. Being a woman is an important 0 O O O O O O fifiection of who I am. 8. Being a woman is not a major O O O O O O O fictor in my social relationships. 88 33. How likely is it that you will be discriminated against for 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unlikely Certain 1. your personal 0 O O O O O 0 characteristics 2. your race 0 O O O O O O 3. your gender 0 O O O O O O 34. Briefly list a key event that happened each day this week. This will be used only to help you remember the past week, so write down events that are significant to you. It does not matter if the event would be memorable to others. Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri Sat 35. How many drinks have you had to drink in the past week? (1 drink = 12 oz bottle of beer, 5 oz glass of wine, 1 shot of liquor) Sun Mon Tues Wed Thurs Fri { Sat 89 um— 36. For each question below, circle the number to the right that best fits your opinion on the importance of the issue. Use the scale above to match your opinion. Not at Not very No Somewhat Extremely all opinion 1. One thing I especially like 0 O O O 0 about being a woman is that men will offer me their seat on a crowded bus or open doors for me because I am a woman. 2. I feel angry when I think 0 O O O 0 about the way I am treated by men and boys. 3. I am willing to make certain O O O O 0 sacrifices to effect change in this society in order to create a nonsexist, peaceful place where all people have equal opportunities. 4. It is very satisfying to me to O O O O 0 be able to use my talents and skills in my work in the women’s movement. 5. I enjoy the pride and self 0 O O 0 0 assurance that comes from being a strong female. 6. On some level, my 0 O O O Q motivation for almost every activity I engage in is my desire for an egalitarian world. 7. I owe it not only to women 0 O O O 0 but to all people to work for greater opportunity and equality for all. 8. I am very committed to a O O O 0 0 cause that I believe contributes to a more fair and just world for all people. 9. I care very deeply about men 0 O O 0 O and women having equal w_opportunities in all respects. 10. I am interested in women 0 O O O O artlSts_ 90 1 l. I think it’s lucky that women aren’t expected to do some of the more dangerous jobs that men are expected to do, like construction work or race car driving. 12. I choose my “causes” carefully to work for greater equality of all people. 13. I am very interested in women musicians. 14. I don’t see much point in questioning the general expectation that men should be masculine and women should be feminine. 15. In my interactions with men, I am always looking for ways I may be discriminated against because I am female. 16. I never realized until recently that I have experienced oppression and discrimination as a woman in society. 17. I feel like I have blended my female attributes with my unique personal qualities. 18. I am proud to be a competent woman. 19. I think that men and women had it better in the 1950’s when married women were housewives and their husbands supported them. 20. I have incorporated what is female and feminine into my own unifle personality. 21. I feel that I am a very powerful and effective spokesperson for the women’s issues I am concerned with right now. 91 22. As I have grown in my beliefs I have realized that it is more important to value women . as individuals than as members of a larger group of women. 23. Gradually, I am beginning to see just how sexist society really is. 24. I want to work to improve women’s status. 25. Men receive many advantages in society and because of this are against equality for women. 26. I feel like I have been duped into believing society’s perceptions of me as a woman. 27. My female friends are like me in that we are all angry at men and the ways that we have been treated as women. 28. Regretfully, I can see ways in which I have perpetuated sexist attitudes in the past. 29. I am very interested in women’s studies. 30. I like being a traditional female. 31. If I were married to a man and my husband was offered a job in another state, it would be my obligation to move in support of his career. 32. I think that most women will feel most fulfilled by being a wife and a mother. 33. I am very interested in women writers. 92 l LEMeen different aspects of my e 37. For each question below, circle the number to the right that best fits your opinion on the importance of the issue. Use the scale above to match your opinion. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Strongly Disagree Slightly Neither Slightly Agree Strongly Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 1. In most ways, my 0 O O O O O 0 life is close to my ideal. 2. The conditions of O O O O O O O my life are excellent. 3. I am satisfied with O O O O O O O my life. 4. So far I’ve gotten O O O O O O O the things that I want in life. 5. If I could live my 0 O O O O O 0 life over I would change almost nothing. Not at Not No Somewhat Extremely all very opinion 1. My beliefs about myself often 0 O O O O conflict with one another. 2. On one day I might have one 0 O O O 0 opinion of myself and on another day I might have a different 0 inion. 3. I spend a lot of time wondering O O O O 0 about what kind of person I really (pm. i 4. Sometimes I feel that I am not O O O O 0 really the person that I appear to be. 5. When I think about the kind of O O O O 0 person I have been in the past, I’m .31 sure what I was really like. 6. I seldom experience conflict 0 O O O O rsonality. 93 7. Sometimes I think I know other 0 O O O 0 people better than I know myself. 8. My beliefs about myself seem O O O O O to charge very frequently. 9. If I were asked to describe my 0 O O O O personality, my description might end up being different from one day to another day. 10. Even if I wanted to, I don’t 0 O O O ' 0 think that I could tell someone what I am really like. 11. In general, I have a clear sense 0 O O O O of who I am and what I am. 12. It is often hard for me to make 0 O O O 0 up my mind about things because I don’t really know what 1 want. _ 39. How well does each statement describe you? 1-not 2 3 4 5-like like me me 1. Am the life of the party. 0 O O O O 2. Sympathize with others’ 0 O O O O feelings 3. Get chores done right away. 0 O O O O 4. Have frequent mood swings. O O O O O 5. Have a vivid imagination. O O O O O 6. Don’t talk a lot. 0 O O O O 7. Am not interested in other 0 O O O O eople’s problems. . 8. Often forget to put things back 0 O O O O in their prpper place. - 9. Am relaxed most of the time. 0 O O O O 10. Am not interested in abstract 0 O - O O 0 ideas. 1 1. Talk to a lot of different 0 O O O O eople at parties. 12. Feel others’ emotions. O O O O O 13. Like order. O O O O O 14. Get upset easily. 0 O O O O 15. Have difficulty understanding 0 O O O O _abstract ideas. U6. Keep in the background. 0 O O O O 94 17. Am not really interested in others. 18. Make a mess of things. 19. Seldom feel blue. 20. Do not have a good imagination. _ 40. For each question below, mark the number to the right that best fits YOUR OPINION on the importance of the issue. 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 0 000 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly strongly agree disagree 1. Discrimination against women is no 0 O O O O O 0 longer a problem in the United States. 2. Women often miss out on good jobs O O O O O O 0 due to sexual discrimination. 3. It is rare to see women treated in a O O O O O O O sexist manner on television. 4. On average, people treat men and O O O O O O 0 women in our society equally. 5.Society has reached the point where O O O O O O 0 women and men have equal opportunities for achievement. 6. It is easy to understand the anger of women’s groups in the United States. 7. It is easy to understand why 0 O O O O O 0 women’s groups are still concerned about societal limitations of women’s opportunities. 8. Over the past few years, the O O O O O O 0 government and news media have been showing more concern about the treatment of women than is warranted by women’s actual experiences. O O O O O O O 95 41. Below is a list of statements describing feelings or experiences that you may have from time to time or that are familiar to you because you have had these feelings and experiences for a long time. Most of these statements describe feelings and experiences that are generally painful or negative in some way. Some people will seldom or never have had many of these feelings. Everyone has had some of these feelings at some time, but if you find that these statements describe the way you feel a good deal of the time, it can be painful just reading them. Try to be as honest as you can in responding. Read each statement carefully and mark the number that indicates the frequency with which you find yourself experiencing what is described in the statement. Do not omit any item. never seldom Some- frequently Almost times always 1. I feel like I am never quite good 0 O O O O enough. 2. I feel somehow left out. 0 O O O O 3. I think that people look down on me. O O O O O 4. All in all, I am inclined to feel that l O O O O 0 am a success. 5. I scold myself and put myself down. 0 O O O O 6. I feel insecure about others’ opinions O O O O O of me. 7. Compared to other people, I feel like 0 O O O O I somehow never measure up. 8. I see myself as being very small and O O O O O insignificant. 9. I feel I have much to be proud of. O O O O O 10. I feel intensely inadequate and full 0 O O O O of self-doubt. 11. I feel as if 1 am somehow defective O O O O O as a person, like there is something basically wrong with me. 12. When I compare myself to others I O O O O 0 am just not as important. 13. I have an overpowering fear that my O O O O O faults will be revealed in front of others. 14. I feel I have a number of good 0 O O O O ualities. 15. I see myself striving for perfection O O O O O only to continually fall short. 96 16. I think others are able to see my 0 O O O O defects. 17. I could beat myself over the head 0 O O O O with a club when I make a mistake. 18. On the whole, I am satisfied with O O O O O myself. 19. I would like to shrink away when I O O O O 0 make a mistake. 20. I replay painful events over and O O O O 0 over in my mind until I am overwhelmed. 21. I feel I am a person of worth at least 0 O O O O on an equal plane with others. 22. At times I feel like 1 will break into 0 O O O O a thousand pieces. 23. I feel as if I have lost control over 0 O O O O my body functions and my feelings. 24. Sometimes I feel no bigger than a O O O O O pea. 25, At times I feel so exposed that I O O O O 0 wish the earth would open up and swallow me. 26. I have this painful gap within me O O O O O that I have not been able to fill. 27. I feel empty and unfulfilled. O O O O O 28. I take a positive attitude toward 0 O O O O myself. 29. My loneliness is more like O O O O O emptiness. 30. I always feel like there is something 0 O O O 0 missing. l4. TOSCA-3 Below are situations that people are likely to encounter in day-to-day life, followed by several common reactions to those situations. As you read each scenario, try to imagine yourself in that situation. Then indicate how likely you would be to react in each of the ways described. We ask you to rate all responses because people may feel or react more than one way to the same situation, or they may react different ways at different times. 42. FOR EXAMPLE: You wake up early one Saturday morning. It is cold and rainy outside. 97 1 -not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would telephone a friend to O O O O O catch & on news. b. You would take the extra time to O O O O 0 read the paper c. You would feel disappointed that it’s 0 O O O O raining. <1. You would wonder why you woke O O O O 0 up so early. In the above example, I’ve rated all of the answers by marking a number. I marked “1” for answer A because I wouldn’t want t wake a friend very early on a Saturday moming- so it’s not at all likely that I would do that. I marked “5” for answer B because I almost always read the paper if I have time in the morning (very likely). I marked “3” for answer C because for me it’s about half and half. Sometimes I would be disappointed about the rain and sometimes I wouldn’t —it would depend on what I had planned. And I marked a “4” for answer D because I would probably wonder why I had awakened so early. Please do not skip any items-rate all responses. 43. You make plans to meet a friend for lunch. At 5 o’clock, you realize you stood him up. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think: “I’m 0 O O O O inconsiderate.” b. You would think: “Well, my friend 0 O O O 0 will understand.” c. You would try to make it up to your 0 O O O 0 friend as soon as possible. (I. You would think: “My boss O O O O O distracted me just before lunch.” 44. You break something at work and then hide it. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think: “This is making 0 O O O 0 me anxious. I need to either fix it or get someone else to.” b. You would think about quitting. O O O O O c. You would think: “A lot of things 0 O O O O aren’t made very well these days.” d. You would think: “It was only an O O O O O accident.” 98 45. At work, you wait until the last minute to plan a project, and it turns out badly. l-not 2 3 4 5- very likely likely a. You would feel incompetent. O O O O O b. You would think: “There are never 0 O O O O enough hours in the day.” c. You would feel: I deserve to be 0 O O O O reprimanded.” (I. You would think, “What’s done is O O O O O donef’ 46. You make a mistake at work and find out a co-worker is blamed for the error. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think the company did 0 O O O 0 not like the coworker. b. You would think: Life is not fair.” 0 O O O O c. You would keep quiet and avoid the O O O O O coworker. (1. You would feel unhappy and eager O O O O O to correct the situation. 47. While playing around, you throw a ball and it hits your friend in the face. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would feel inadequate that you O O O O 0 can’t even throw a ball. b. You would think maybe your friend 0 O O O 0 needs more practice at catching. c. You would think: “It was just an O O O O O accident.” (I. You would apologize and make sure 0 O O O 0 your friend feels better. 48. You are driving down the road and you hit a small animal. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think that the animal 0 O O O O shouldn’t have been on the road. b. You would think: “I’m terrible.” O O O O O c. You would feel, “Well, it was an O O O O O accident.” (I. You’d feel bad you hadn’t been O O O O 0 more alert driving down the road. 49. You walk out of an exam thinking you did extremely well. Then you find out you did poorly. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think: “Well, it’s just a O O O O 0 test.” b. You would think: “The instructor 0 O O O 0 doesn’t like me.” C. You would think: “I should have 0 O O O 0 studied harder.” d. You would feel stupid. 0 O O O O 50. While out with a group of friends, you make fun of a friend who is not there. 1-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think: It was all in fun; 0 O O O 0 it’s harmless.” b. You would feel small. . .like a rat. 0 O O O O c. You would think that perhaps that O O O O 0 friend should have been there to defend him/herself. d. You would apologize and talk 0 O O O 0 about that person’s good points. 51. You make a big mistake on an important project at work. People were depending on you and your boss criticizes you. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think your boss should 0 O O O 0 have been more clear about what was expected of Lou. b. You would feel like you want to O O O O 0 hide. c. You would think: “I should have 0 O O O O recognized the problem and done a better job.” (I. You would think: “Well, nobody’s O O O O 0 perfect.” 100 52. You are taking care of your friend’s dog while your friend is on vacation, and the dog runs away. l-not 2 3 4 5-very likely likely a. You would think: “I am 0 O O O O irresponsible and incompetent.” b. You would think your friend must 0 O O O 0 not take very good care of the dog or it wouldn’t have run away. 0. You would vow to be more careful O O O O 0 next time. (1. You would think that your friend 0 O O O 0 could just get a new dog. 53. You attend a coworker’s housewarming party and you spill red wine on a new cream-colored carpet, but you think no one notices. l-not 2 3 4 5—very likely likely a. You would think your coworker O O O O 0 should have expected some accidents at such a big party. b. You would stay late to help clean 0 O O O 0 up the stain after the party. c. You would wish that you were 0 O O O O anywhere but at the party. (I. You would wonder why your 0 O O O O coworker chose to serve red wine - with the new light carpet. 15. BSI 54. During the past seven days, including today, how much have you been distressed or bothered by... 0 l 2 3 4 not at all a little bit moderately quite a extremely bit 1. Nervousness or shakiness inside O O O O O 2. F aintness or dizziness O O O O O 3. Feeling others are to blame for O O O O O most of your troubles. 4. Pains in heart or chest O O O O O 5. Feeling afraid in open spaces or on O O O O O lOl the streets 6. Thoughts of ending your life 7. Feeling that most people cannot be trusted 8. Suddenly scared for no reason 9. Hot or cold spells 10. Feeling so restless you couldn’t sit still 11. Feeling fearful 12.Nausea or gaset stomach 13. Feeling that you are watched or talked about by others 14. Feeling afraid to travel on buses, subways, or trains 15. Trouble getting your breath 16. Feeling lonely 17. Having to avoid certain things, places or activities because they frighten you 000 0 GOO 000 GO 000 0 GOO 000 GO 000 0 GOO 000 GO 000 0 GOO 000 GO 000 0 GOO 000 CO 18. Numbness or tingling in parts of yourbody 19. Feeling hopeless about the future 20. Feeling weak in parts of your body 21. Feeling tense or keyed up 22. Feeling uneasy in crowds, such as shopping or at a movie 23. Spells of terror or panic 24. Feeling nervous when you are left alone 25. Others not giving you proper credit for your achievements 26. Feeling no interest in things 27. Feelings of worthlessness 28. Feeling that people will take advantage of you if you let them. 000 O OO 00 OO 0 000 O OO 00 OO 0 000 O CO CO OO 0 000 O 00 00 OO 0 000 O CO OO 00 O 102 l6. SSE-R Please think carefully about your life over the past year as you answer the questions below. Please consider the past year of your life using these rules: Circle 1 = If the event has NEVER happened to you. Circle 2 = If the event has happened once in a while (Less than 10% of the time) Circle 3 = If the event has happened sometimes ( 10-25% of the time) Circle 4 = If the event has happened a lot (26-49% of the time) Circle 5 = If the event has happened most of the time (50%-70% of the time) Circle 6 = If the event has happened almost all of the time Then rate how stressfill having this happen to you was on a scale from 1 = not stressful at all to 6 = extremely stressfiil. 55. How many times have you been treated unfairly by teachers or professors because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 56. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely l7. SSE-R 57. How many times have you been treated unfairly by your employer, boss, or supervisors because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 58. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all O 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 103 18. SSE-R 59. How many times have you been treated unfairly by your coworkers, fellow students, or colleagues because you are a woman? 0 Never 0 Once in a while 0 Sometimes O A lot 0 Most of the time 60. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 61. How many times have you been treated unfairly by people in service jobs (store clerks, waiters, bartenders, waitresses, bank tellers, mechanics, and others) because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 62. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 20. SSE-R 63. How many times have you been treated unfairly by strangers because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time OOOOOO 104 64. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely _ 65. How many times have you been treated unfairly by people in helping jobs (by doctors, nurses, psychiatrists, case workers, dentists, school counselors, therapists, pediatricians, school principals, gynecologists, and others) because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 66. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 22. SSE-R 67. How many times have you been treated unfairly by neighbors because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 68. How stressful was this for you? O Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 OS 0 Extremely 105 69. How many times have you been treated unfairly by your boyfriend, husband, or other important man in your life because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time OOOOOO 70. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 71. How many times were you denied a raise, a promotion, tenure, a good assignment, a job, or other such thing at work that you deserved because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 72. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 73. How many times were you treated unfairly by your family because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 74. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 106 75. How many times have people made inappropriate or unwanted sexual advances to you because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 76. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 77. How many times have people failed to show you the respect that you deserve because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 78. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 28. SSE-R 79. How many times have you wanted to tell someone off for being sexist? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 80. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 107 _ 81. How many times have you been really angry about something sexist that was done to you? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 82. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely _ 83. How many times were you forced to take drastic steps (such as filing a grievance, filing a lawsuit, quitting your job, moving away, and other actions) to deal with some sexist thing that was done to you? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 84. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely _ 85. How many times have you been called a sexist name like bitch, cunt, chick, or other names? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 86. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 108 32. SSE-R 87. How many times have you gotten into an argument or fight about something sexist that was done or said to you or done to somebody else? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 88. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 33. SSE-R 89. How many times have you been made fun of, picked on, pushed, shoved, hit or threatened with harm because you are a woman? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 90. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely 34. SSE—R 91. How many times have you heard people making sexist jokes or degrading sexual jokes? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time OOOOOO 109 92. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely _ 93. How different would your life be now if you HAD NOT BEEN treated in a sexist and unfair way in the last year? The same A little different Different in a few ways Different in a lot of ways Different in most ways Totally different 94. If you had to decide, would you describe yourself as a person of color or a white person? 0 person of color 0 white person m— OOOOOO 95. Rate each item from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 strongly strongly agree disagree 1. Overall, being a woman of color has very O O O O O O 0 little to do with how I feel about myself. 2. In general, being a woman of color is an O O O O O O 0 important part of my self-image. 3. My destiny is tied to the destiny of other 0 O O O O O O women of color. 4. Being a woman of color is unimportant to O O O O O O O my sense of what kind of person I am. 5. 1 have a strong sense of belonging to women 0 O O O O O O of color as a group. 6. I have a strong sense of attachment to O O O O O O 0 women of color. 7. Being a woman of color is an important O O O O O O O reflection of who I am. 8. Being a woman of color is not a major factor 0 O O O O O O in mLsocial relationships. 110 Please think carefully about your life over the past year as you answer the questions below. Please consider the past year of your life using these rules: Circle 1 = If the event has NEVER happened to you. Circle 2 = If the event has happened once in a while (Less than 10% of the time) Circle 3 = If the event has happened sometimes (IO-25% of the time) Circle 4 = If the event has happened a lot (26-49% of the time) Circle 5 = If the event has happened most of the time (50%-70% of the time) Circle 6 = If the event has happened almost all of the time Then rate how stressful having this happen to you was on a scale from 1 = not stressful at all to 6 = extremely stressfiJl. 96. How many times have you been treated unfairly by teachers or professors because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 56. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely _ 98. How many times have you been treated unfairly by your employer, boss, or supervisors because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time 00000 99. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 111 MLSRE 100. How many times have you been treated unfairly by your coworkers, fellow students, or colleagues because you are a person of color? 0 Never 0 Once in a while 0 Sometimes O A lot 0 Most of the time 101. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 4LSRE 102. How many times have you been treated unfairly by people in service jobs (store clerks, waiters, bartenders, waitresses, bank tellers, mechanics and others) because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 103. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 4LSRE 104. How many times have you been treated unfairly by strangers because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time OOOOOO 112 105. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely _ 106. How many times have you been treated unfairly by people in helping jobs (by doctors, nurses, psychiatrists, case workers, dentists, school counselors, therapists, pediatricians, school principals, gynecologists, and others) because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 58. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely ms:— 108. How many times have you been treated unfairly by neighbors because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 58. How stressful was this for you? O Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 113 110. How many times have you been treated unfairly by your boyfriend, husband, or other important man in your life because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 111. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 112. How many times were you denied a raise, a promotion, tenure, a good assignment, a job, or other such thing at work that you deserved because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 113. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 114. How many times were you treated unfairly by your family because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 58. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 114 116. How many times have people made inappropriate or unwanted sexual advances to you because you are a person of color? 0 O O O O O 117. How stressful was this for you? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 118. How many times have people failed to show you the respect that you deserve because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 119. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 50. SRE 120. How many times have you wanted to tell someone off for being racist? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 121. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 115 122. How many times have you been really angry about something racist that was done to you? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 123. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 124. How many times were you forced to take drastic steps (such as filing a grievance, filing a lawsuit, quitting your job, moving away, and other actions) to deal with some racist thing that was done to you? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 125. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely 53. SRE 126. How many times have you been called a racist name like nigger, coon, jungle bunny or other names? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time OOOOOO 116 127. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely BEE— 128. How many times have you gotten into an argument or fight about something racist that was done or said to you or done to somebody else? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 129. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 05 0 Extremely _ 130. How many times have you been made fun of, picked on, pushed, shoved, hit or threatened with hard because you are a person of color? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time 000000 131. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all O 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely mm— 132. How many times have you heard people making racist jokes or degrading racial jokes? Never Once in a while Sometimes A lot Most of the time Almost all of the time OOOOOO 117 _ 133. How stressful was this for you? 0 Not at all 0 2 O 3 O 4 O 5 0 Extremely _ 134. How different would your life be now if you HAD NOT BEEN treated in a racist and unfair way in the last year? O The same 0 A little different 0 Different in a few ways 0 Different in a lot of ways 0 Different in most ways 0 Totally different 135. Rate each item from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (7). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Overall, being a White woman has very little to do Strongly strongly with how I feel about myself. disagree agree 2. In general, being a White woman is an O O O O O O 0 important part of my self-image. 3. My destiny is tied to the destiny of other 0 O O O O O 0 White women. 4. Being a White woman is unimportant to my O O O O O O 0 sense of what kind of person I am. 5. I have a strong sense of belonging to White O O O O O O 0 women as a group. 6. I have a strong sense of attachment to White O O O O O O 0 women. 7. Being a White woman is an important 0 O O O O O O reflection of who I am. 8. Being a White woman is not a major factor 0 O O O O O O in my social relationships. 118 59. Feminist 136. Are you a feminist? 0 Yes 0 No 60. Comments 137. This is your opportunity to make comments on this survey. You do not have to write anything. 119 61. chriefing Thank you for your participation in today’s survey. If you have any concerns arising from your participation in this study, you are encouraged to contact Juliette Rederstorff, M.A. (redersto@msu.edu) or Bertram Karon, Ph.D. (355-2159) in the Department of Psychology. You should also feel free to contact the university Institutional Review Board (IRB) at 355-2180. If you have concerns about your mental health and/or adjustment to college, you are encouraged to contact the university Counseling Center. Any student registered for one or more credits is eligible for a consultation appointment. As resources permit, additional services and/or referrals may be provided. Counseling services are generally available on an appointment basis. Call the Counseling Center to check available times, 355-8270 (TTY 353-7278). Academic resources are also available. The Learning Resources Center (LRC) is a self- paced individualized learning center that offers assistance to MSU students who want to improve their academic performance. Its goal is to help students develop the strategies and techniques necessary to become successful students. The LRC uses three units to deliver its services: a professional staff located in the main office (202 Bessey Hall; 355- 2363), an interactive learning lab (204 Bessey Hall), and evening tutoring services housed in residence halls (Classroom 2 Wilson 256-5165; G30 Hubbard 256-5164; or 1448 Brody 256—5166). This survey is designed to examine attitudes about feminist identity development (FID) and how FID might help women adapt to the changes associated with the first year in college. FID describes a process in which a woman’s attitude changes from the belief that sexism is not an issue in her life to the belief that it is. If you are interested in learning more about F ID, you might read the initial publication on this topic: Downing, N.E. & Roush, KL. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. 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