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This is to certify that the
dissertation entitled

UNDERSTANDING MEANING AND LIFE SATISFACTION IN

RECREATIONAL FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS

presented by
Angela M. Fifer

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for the

Ph.D. degree in KinesioiggL

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Major Professor’s Signature

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UNDERSTANDING MEANING AND LIFE SATISFACTION IN RECREATIONAL
FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS

By

Angela M. F ifer

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to:
Michigan State University
in partial fulﬁllments of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
KinesioIogy

2010

 

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ABSTRACT

UNDERSTANDING MEANING AND LIFE SATISFACTION IN RECREATIONAL
FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS

By

Angela Marie Fifer

The marathon race has recently become a worldwide phenomenon for recreational
exercisers of all ages, running pace, and body types. Participation of recreational runners
in marathons has dramatically increased over the last 20 years (Trappe, 2007). Females in
particular have made an impact on the marathon by increased participation and dramatic
improvements in ﬁnishing time (Burfoot, 2007). Little research has been completed on
the speciﬁc motivational factors of life meaning and fulﬁllment. The purpose of the
present study was to understand how marathon running provides personal meaning and
life satisfaction to recreational female runners. Furthermore, understanding reasons why
runners participate in marathons despite knowing the physical pain and psychological
anguish associated with running long distances were explored.

Phase one of the study included the collection of demographic, running history,
and Motivation Orientations of Marathoners Survey (MOMS; Masters et al., 1993) data
for 137 male and female runners. Descriptive statistics were calculated for all measures.
Of particular importance to the current study was the life meaning subscale, which had a
minimum score of 7.00, a maximum of 45.00, and a mean of 22.94 (SD = 10.58). Males
and females did not differ on mean scores for the life meaning subscale (p = .223).

Phase two of the current research entailed in-depth interviews of 12 female

recreational marathon runners, who scored high on the life meaning subscale of the

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MOMS during phase one. An inductive content analysis of the interviews yielded 1,235
meaning units, which collapsed into 112 lower-order themes, 23 hi gher-order themes, and
four global themes. The global themes included motives to run, barriers that threaten
motivation to run, strategies to maintain motivation in running, and life meaning gained
through running.

While the present study provides further evidence of previously identiﬁed motives
to run marathons, new insights on how running provides life meaning and life satisfaction
to participants was also discovered. Characteristics providing meaning included
discovering one’s capability of running, developing a mastery-oriented approach, ﬁnding
’ inspiration, creating a sense of self, experiencing positive feelings through running, and
forming a relationship with running. Participants had to ﬁnd meaning in marathon
running, but once they did running became an important piece of who they are. With
persistence, discipline, and commitment, running long distances can be an enjoyable

experience throughout ones entire life.

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to all past, present, and future runners. May you always ﬁnd

your way back to the pavement.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This dissertation would not have been possible without the help of my advisor and
mentor Dr. Dan Gould. Thank you Dan for pushing me when I needed pushed and
helping me to ﬁnish. Thank you to the rest of my committee members, Dr. Marty Ewing,
Dr. Crystal Branta, and Dr. Marsha Carolan, for your support and feedback. There were
many times I came to each of you needing academic or emotional support and each of
you were always ready to give a needed hug.

I also want to thank my mentors that were part of my journey somewhere along
the way. Thank you to Dr. David Conroy for inspiring my interest in research. The years
I spent in the Sport Psychology laboratory will stay with me always. To Dr. David
Yukelson for keeping me in check and giving me hope of someday having his job. Dr.
Lenny Wiersma for helping to shape me into the researcher, practitioner, and person that
I am today. And to Dr. Ken Ravizza who has taught me to understand myself before I can
understand others.

I would not be ﬁnishing my PhD without the support of my family. Mom and dad,
you supported me through my entire academic career always encouraging me to follow
my heart. Even though it took ten years, I did it and now I get to live my dream everyday.
Thank you to Emily, Zachary, and Jonathan for being supportive siblings and
understanding when I could not come home or had to do work instead of have fun.

I also owe many thanks to my classmates and friends that have been by my side
throughout the journey of graduate school. Thank you to Tracy Carrington for being my

consulting and running partner. Your encouragement helped me become the runner I am

today and inspired my study. Thank you to Sarah Carson for being my checks and
balances. I never knew coding could be so much fun. Beyond your academic support,
your friendship was an integral piece to my happiness and success. Thank you to Sheila
Kelly for being an understanding roommate through the good times and the challenges of
comps, proposal, and job search. You have always been there for me when I needed a
ﬁend. And ﬁnally thank you to Eric Bean. Eric, you have been the most important
person in my life for the past six years of graduate school. Together we are better
students, researchers, consultants, and people. Thank you for sharing this journey with

me. Someday we will both see all of our dreams come true.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... ix
Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Meaning through sport and physical activity .............................................. 10
2.2 Life satisfaction and fulﬁllment through physical activity and sport ......... 19
2.3 Motivation of marathon runners ................................................................. 23
2.3a Motivations of marathon runners ....................................................... 27
2.3b Mood related to marathon running .................................................... 36
2.30 Coping strategies of marathon runners .............................................. 39
2.3d Exercise addiction in marathon runners ............................................. 45
2.3e Gender differences in the psychological components of marathon
running ................................................................................................ 47
2.4 Summary and need for the present study .................................................... 48
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................... 50
3.1 Phase I: MOMS survey ............................................................................... 50
3.1a Participants ......................................................................................... 50
3.1b Measurement ................................................................................... 51
3.1c Procedures .......................................................................................... 5 2
3.1d Data analysis ...................................................................................... 52
3.2 Phase II ....................................................................................................... 53
3.2a Participants ......................................................................................... 53
3.2b Measurement ...................................................................................... 54
3.2c Procedures .......................................................................................... 55
3.2d Data analysis ...................................................................................... 57
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................... 63
4.1 Phase I ......................................................................................................... 63
4.2 Phase II ....................................................................................................... 65
4.2a Motives to run .................................................................................... 72
4.2b Barriers that threaten motivation to run ............................................. 96
4.20 Strategies to maintain motivation in running ..................................... 100
4.2d Life meaning gained through running ............................................... 108
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................... 130
5.1 Motivation to run marathons ....................................................................... 131
5.2 Barriers that threaten motivation to run ...................................................... 135
5.3 Coping strategies to overcome barriers ...................................................... 136
5.4 Life meaning gained through marathon running ........................................ 138
5.5 Grounded theory approach .......................................................................... 145

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5.6 Limitations and future research recommendations ..................................... 146

APPENDICES ................................................................................

149

A Demographics and running history questionnaires ........................... 149

B MOMS ................................................................................ 150

C Informed consents .................................................................. 153

D Interview guide ............................................................................................ 156
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 158

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 Demographic data comparing male and female runners in Phase 1 .......... 51
Table 4.1 Motivations of Marathoners Scale results for all runners in Phase 1 ........ 64

Table 4.2 Hierarchical organization of global, higher-order, and lower-order themes
for female runners in phase 2 ..................................................................................... 66

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Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

For most of my life I have been driven for success. I was a high level gymnast, involved in
research as an undergraduate student, and presently work with athletes as a sport
psychology consultant helping them achieve performance excellence. While I have been
involved in several high achievement domains, since the completion of my competitive
gymnastic experience, I have not always felt ﬁdﬁlled. Following my sport experience I
became a recreational runner to stay in shape and be active. I began to really enjoy
running and decided to run a marathon. By doing so I felt fulﬁlled again in a new way. I
once again had something that I could put energy and eﬂort into a physical task, with no
limits on how far, how fast, and how often I could run. I could compete with myself to
push those limits further and further. This experience has been so powerful for me I
wanted to talk with other women who have become recreational runners to understand
their experience and see if they felt the same way. As an academic and sport psychology
scholar, my questions are broader than motivation to participate in marathon running.
What really intrigues me is if and how running makes an individual feel whole or self-
actualized. Therefore, the purpose of this study is not just utilitarian in nature, but to
explore if and how running makes life more fulfilling, meaningful, and actualized.

During a critical time to promote physical activity in the United States, an
interesting subgroup of exercisers exists. While many people struggle to complete the
recommended amount, type, duration, and intensity of physical activity, marathon
runners go above and beyond by exercising ﬁve to six days per week, for 40 minutes to
over three hours in duration at a vigorous intensity. While some of these individuals are
highly competitive athletes, others are training and exercising for their own reasons, at a
recreational level.

Marathon runners are an interesting subgroup of recreational athletes because of
the long months of training required and the grueling pain of the race itself. Marathon

runners must train for months before each race, and such training requires complete

adherence. Understanding the motivations and experiences of marathon runners, or

“super adherers”, has potential to provide a greater understanding of exercise adherence
for other individuals who struggle with exercise adherence (Masters, Ogles, & Jolton,
1993). Other exercisers could learn from the speciﬁc motives of marathoners that help
them to continue running despite physical, emotional, and psychological roadblocks.
Marathon runners are also a group of interest because of the importance placed on the
race event itself. Completing a marathon for many is viewed as a life goal, consistent
with earning a degree, having a child, or getting a job. Finally, the number of recreational
participants has dramatically increased (Burfoot, 2007; Trappe, 2007), as median
ﬁnishing times have also increased (Masters, Ogles, & J olton, 1993).

Female runners are an even more fascinating subgroup, as they have only been
officially running the marathon since 1980 and are just over 11 minutes off the men’s
record (www.marathonguidecom). The impact that female runners have had in the
marathon event can be seen in women’s only races, such as the San Francisco Nike
Women’s Marathon, the New York City MORE marathon for women over 40, and the
large percentage of 'women participants in the 1998 San Diego Marathon (55%; Jenkins,
1998). A need exists within the literature to focus on female marathon runners, as the
majority of previous research has either focused solely on males or a disproportionate
number of males to females (Deaner, 2006; Masters & Ogles, 1998; Ogles & Masters,
2000; Pierce, McGowan, & Lyon, 1993).

Motivation is clearly important for anyone considering training for and
completing a marathon. While the goal of most exercise programs is to adhere to the
program, lose weight, and increase ﬁtness, health, and wellness, marathon runners

commit to a four-to-six month training program, building from low mileage up to 40-90

miles per week. Understanding the motives behind such extreme exercisers may offer
important recommendations to help novice exercisers adhere to their program and also
strive to reach their potential within that program. Sources of motivation speciﬁc to
marathon runners have been identiﬁed and include health and weight control, goal
achievement, affiliation, and psychological well-being (Masters et al., 1993). The
Motivations of Marathoners Scale (MOMS; Masters et al., 1993) is based on those four
broad motives for running and include nine subscales of life meaning, self-esteem,
psychological coping, personal goal achievement, competition, recognition, afﬁliation,
health orientation, and weight concern.

Masters and colleagues (1995) completed a study assessing the level of experience
of marathon runners and motivation orientations. A sample of 472 marathon runners were
divided into three groups based on level of experience including the rookie group (ﬁrst
marathon), mid-level (two-three marathons), and the veterans (three or more marathons)
and completed the MOMS (Masters et al., 1993). Two factors emerged from a
discriminant function analysis. Factor 1 (Marathon Identity) explained 65.8 percent of
the variance and included competition, recognition, and health subscales. Function 2
(Internal Focus) explained 34.2 percent of the variance and included running and
personal performance variables. The veteran group highly identiﬁed with the Marathon
Identity factor, mid-level runners were most motivated to improve on their ﬁrst marathon
time and factored mostly into the Internal Focus factor, and the rookie group was more
concerned with health and weight, self-esteem, and goal achievement variables,

representative of the Internal Focus factor. The study did much to identify psychological

explanations of running and also showed that those motives were related to level of
experience.

In a cluster analysis study using the MOMS scale, data from 1,519 male and
female runners coalesced into ﬁve clusters of motivational proﬁles (Ogles & Masters,
2003). Each cluster was named based on the running characteristics represented. The ﬁrst
cluster was called running enthusiasts, who were characterized as older, completing more
marathons, more likely to run another marathon, and were primarily female. Lifestyle
managers were runners more likely to train alone at a slower pace, trained less miles, and
were typically female. Personal goal achievers were typically younger males who trained
more miles. Personal accomplishers were mostly males, and ﬁnally, competitive
achievers were characterized as younger, faster, males, who train more, and often twice a
day. Interestingly, for all clusters health and esteem motives were more important than
social or competition motives.

Despite the increased number of female participants today and decreasing times of
women racers, research has not focused on the experience of the marathon for women
speciﬁcally. Some researchers included women or conducted gender analyses. Leedy
(2000) found gender differences in motivation to be significantly different. Women had
higher scores of commitment for both stress relief and training adherence than men.
Ogles, Masters, and Scott (1995) also described gender differences in commitment to
running, potentially resulting from pressure and time constraints women typically face if
they have children and/or a career. Yates (1991) also identiﬁed women to be more
committed to their running program, because of their competing roles in family, work,

leisure time, and running. Women who lack commitment typically dropout of running

 

because they do not have the time to dedicate to training and racing, while fulﬁlling their
other commitments. Because of small sample sizes of women in the studies that did
include both genders, accurate comparisons between males and females were challenging
to make. Future research needs to focus speciﬁcally on the women who participate in
training and racing, while juggling other commitments to understand their motives and
experiences.

While previous research has focused on general motivations for running
marathons (Clough, Sheperd, & Maughan, 1989; Crandall, 1980), few studies have
explored motivational differences between subgroups (i.e., age, gender). For instance,
Johnsgard (1985a, 1985b) studied older adults’ retrospective motives to run when they
were younger, and Ogles and Masters (2000) investigated motives of older adult males.
The current research will extend the literature by investigating the speciﬁc motives of
women runners, because they are an understudied population of runners. The research is
intended to help females gain a greater understanding of what running means to their
identity and how they are motivated to continue running. Furthermore, the results may
provide information for running groups, clubs, and coaches to help motivate runners
through times of amotivation or fear of a new distance or offer helpful strategies to
overcome barriers to running.

Thus, while initial research on marathon running has identiﬁed major motives for
running and identiﬁed some interesting experience and gender differences, more research
is needed to verify these initial results. A gap exists in the literature related to how
running provides meaning and satisfaction to one’s life. Finally, while personal meaning

has been identiﬁed as one of a number of motives for running, it has not been explored in

'44

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depth about how meaning develops, relates to other motives, and potentially changes over
time.

The purpose of the current research is to understand how marathon running
provides personal meaning and life satisfaction to recreational female runners.
Furthermore, the study is designed to assess why these runners participate in marathons
despite knowing the physical pain and psychological anguish associated with running
long distances? The present two-phase study aims at answering the following research
questions:

(1) how does running create personal life meaning for recreational female runners?

(2 ) how do recreational female marathon runners ﬁnd life satisfaction in running?

(3) what are the motivations behind why female recreational runners train and complete
marathons and do they differ ﬁ'om their male counterparts?

(4) is part of the motivation for female recreational marathon runners to discover personal
meaning and have greater satisfaction in their lives?

In reviewing the current and past literatures related to understanding the experience of
female recreational marathon runners, the present review will focus on: (a) ﬁnding
meaning through sport and physical activity, (b) increasing life fulﬁllment and
satisfaction through sport and physical activity participation, (c), motivation speciﬁc to

marathon runners, (d) and future research directions.

Chapter II

LITERATURE REVIEW

During a critical time to promote physical activity in the United States, an
interesting subgroup of exercisers exists. While many people struggle to complete the
recommended amount, type, duration, and intensity of physical activity, marathon
runners go above and beyond by exercising ﬁve to six days per week, for 40 minutes to
over three hours in duration at a vigorous intensity. While some of these individuals are
highly competitive athletes, others are training and exercising for their own reasons, at a
recreational level.

Marathon runners are an interesting subgroup of recreational athletes because of
the long months of training required and the grueling pain of the race itself.
Understanding the motivations and experiences of marathon runners has potential to
provide a greater understanding of adherence for all exercisers. Speciﬁcally, marathon
runners have not only determined how to continue an exercise program, but also how to
increase their intensity and duration to extremely high levels. Such rigorous training is
required in preparation for a marathon race, that these runners may provide a model for
“super-adherence” (Masters, Ogles, & Jolton, 1993). Another reason the study of
marathon runners is important is because participation in the race is often seen as an
important life event, on par with completing a degree, having a child, or getting a job
(Burfoot, 2007). Finally, since the beginning of the modern marathon in the Olympics in
1908, marathon participant numbers have dramatically increased (Burfoot, 2007; Trappe,

2007). The high number of total marathon entries across all races is not an increase in

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elite, competitive racers, but rather a growing interest of recreational participants. Over
the last 20 years, the median ﬁnishing time has increased by 50 minutes, ﬁrrther
indicating the dramatic increase in recreational participants (Masters, Ogles, & J olton,
1993)

The marathon race dates back to 490 BC. when the Greek soldier Pheidippides
ran from Marathon, Athens, Greece, to deliver the message of victory over the Persians
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathon). The historical accuracy of the account may not
be exact; however, ﬁom this story the modern marathon was born. During the ﬁrst
Olympic Games held in 1896 in Athens, Greece, the original distance and route ran by
Pheidippides was completed for the marathon race. This course entailed a 24.85 mile
(40,000 meters) run from the Marathon Bridge to Olympic stadium in Athens. The
marathon at the 1908 Olympics in London, England was changed to 26.2 miles for the
race to ﬁnish in front of the royal family’s viewing box. The distance of 26.2 miles was
then established as the ofﬁcial marathon distance and has been maintained ever since.

Women have not always been allowed to run the marathon race, as it was once
believed that women could not physically complete the distance (Burfoot, 2007). The
ﬁrst recorded marathon run by a female dated back to the 1923 Comrades ultra marathon
in South Africa. Frances Hayward ran the 90 kilometer (55.9 mile) uphill race in
11:35:00. Female distance running halted for many years until American women began
forcing their way into races. Forty-three years later, in 1966, Roberta Gibb was the ﬁrst
woman to run the Boston marathon (Pate & O’Neill, 2007). Although her time was not
ofﬁcial because she disguised herself as a man and jumped in the race from the bushes,

she ﬁnished in 3:21:40. Katherine Switzer was the ﬁrst woman to ofﬁcially register, as K.

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Switzer, the following year. Race ofﬁcials tried to stop her from running once they
realized she was a female, but she ran and ﬁnished in 4:20:00. By the late 19705, females
were regularly running the Boston marathon, during which Joan Benoit Samuelson won
the race in 1979 and again in 1983. The ﬁrst women’s Olympic marathon was ﬁnally run
in 1984, where Joan Benoit Samuelson of the United States won the gold medal in
2:24:52 (www.marathonguidecom). Paula Radcliffe of Great Britain currently holds the
world record for the women’s marathon with a time of 2:15: 25.

Women marathon runners have shown a remarkable and dramatic decrease in
running times from the earliest ofﬁcial time of 4:20:00 in 1980 to 2:15:25 set in 2003
(www.marathonguide.com). Men have had a more consistent trend over the last 30 years
with world record times ranging from 2:10:10 set by Bill Rogers from the US. in 1976 to
2:03:59 set by Haile Gebrselassie of Ethiopia in 2008. Statistically, the best male
performances in the marathon have decreased approximately 2.5%, while the best female
performances a dramatic 14.5% (Burfoot, 2007). The gender gap between the world’s
elite runners is now only 11 minutes and 26 seconds. The impact that female runners
have had in the marathon event is not only impressive and noteworthy, but also invites
researchers to question and understand the experience of marathon running for females.

Since the increase in popularity of the marathon race for recreational athletes,
sport psychology researchers have investigated sources of motivation including health
and weight control, goal achievement, afﬁliation, and psychological well-being (Masters,
et al., 1993). However, there is a lack of research in understanding how becoming a
marathon runner affects one’s personal meaning and life fulﬁllment. The purpose of the

current research is to understand how marathon running provides personal meaning and

life satisfaction to recreational female runners. Furthermore, why do these runners
participate in marathons despite knowing the physical pain and psychological anguish
associated with running long distances? The present study aims at answering a number
of questions. First, how does running create personal life meaning for recreational female
runners? Second, how do recreational female marathon runners ﬁnd life satisfaction in
running? Third, what are the motivations behind why female recreational runners train
and complete marathons? And, ﬁnally, is part of the motivation for female recreational
marathon runners to discover personal meaning and have greater satisfaction in their
lives? In reviewing the current and past literatures related to understanding the experience
of female recreational marathon runners, the present review will focus on: (a) meaning
through sport and physical activity, (b) life satisfaction and fulﬁllment through sport and
physical activity and sport, (c) motivation of marathon runners, (d) summary and need for
the present study.
Meaning Through Sport and Physical Activity

Pondering the concept of meaning provokes many existential questions such as
“What is the meaning of life?” and “what does meaning actually mean?” Understanding
meaning is a deeply personal and individualistic process that most people wish not to
discuss. “A search for meaning in life involves an acceptance of the meaninglessness and
meaningfulness of life and an obligation towards oneself to make amends for what is
meaningless” (V entegodt, Merrick, & Andersen, 2003, p. 1034). While it is important to
understand the concept of meaning, the study of meaning is challenging because of the
personal risk to one’s self-worth in discovering the authenticity of the meaning in one’s

life. Furthermore, meaning is not a stable construct as meaning can be quickly lost.

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Psychologists, philosophers, and psychiatrists have proposed various theories
about the concept of life meaning. While many theories exist, two speciﬁc theories will
be discussed with particular importance for the present research. One theorist, Snyder
(1997), discussed meaning as it relates to one’s perception of control. Human beings have
a need to feel in control of both themselves and their environments. Life meaning then is
found by effectively managing and controlling their lives in order to achieve their life
goals. Viktor Frankl (1972, 1984) offered a different perspective on meaning based on his
experience as a Nazi concentration camp survivor. F rankl’s therapeutic doctrine of
logotherapy is centered around ﬁnding meaning in life. F rankl argues that one of the most
innate human motivations is to search and discover meaning in one’s own life. Yet,
human beings often express concern or even despair based on their perception of the
worth of their lives, which Frankl denoted as an “existential distress”. Furthermore,
humans today experience an “existential vacuum” surrounding the perception that the
universe lacks meaning. Logotherapy is the means to help individuals realize they are the
only people responsible for controlling the meaning in their lives. Humans must search
for meaning during all times in their lives, even through suffering. Frankl provided
personal examples of ﬁnding meaning in human suffering while living in the Nazi
concentration camps.

While many differing theories and deﬁnitions exist on meaning, the majority share
two commonalities including the view that life meaning is a general assessment about
one’s own life and that individuals who ﬁnd meaning in their lives typically suffer less
from negative emotions and are at a lower risk of clinical health concerns (F eldman &

Snyder, 2005; Yalom, 1980). Meaning in life then, was linked with psychological health

11

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and increased quality of life (Debats, 1996; 1999, Zika & Chamberlain, 1992).
Consequently, Battista and Almond (1973) identiﬁed four major issues regarding
meaning such that (a) most people are committed to seeking some concept of the
meaning of life in a positive manner, (b) the conceptof meaning then frames the goals in
which people view their lives, (c) their life becomes a mission to fulﬁlling the meaning
they identiﬁed, and (d) people ﬁnally experience a sense of fulﬁllment and signiﬁcance
as they strive and ﬁnd such meaning.

Another important concept related to meaning is hope. Snyder and colleagues
(1991) deﬁned hope as, “a cognitive set that is based on a reciprocally-derived sense of
successful agency (goal-directed determination) and pathways (planning to meet goals)”
(p. 571). Empirical evidence has suggested hope is related to academic and athletic
success, improved mental and physical health, and more adaptive coping (Dufault &
Martocchio, 1985; Lange, 1978; Snyder, 2002; Snyder, Feldrnan, Shorey, & Rand, 2002).
There is an intuitive link between hope and meaning based on the goal-directed nature of
both concepts. From an empirical standpoint, F eldrnan and Snyder (2005) found hope to
be conceptualized as a factor in the broader concept of life meaning. Hope and meaning
were further associated with depression and anxiety scales. In their study of 139 college
students, it was found that individuals with low levels of hope and meaning were more
likely to be depressed and anxious and individuals with high levels of hope and meaning
were not related to depression, were less anxious, and placed a greater emphasis on
achieving their goals.

Whether considering theoretical, empirical, or intuitive perspectives, meaning is a

vitally important concept to human existence. Meaning can be found or enhanced by

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various sources. Researchers (Feldman & Snyder, 2005; Debats, 1996) have found
signiﬁcant relationships to be consistently the most important source of meaning. Other
sources such as health (physical and mental), self-actualization, achieving tangible goals,
and talents provide sources of meaning. Also, experiencing quality of well-being,
enjoying life, and being involved in leisure activities and sports offer many people
sources of meaning in their lives.

Meaning is an important philosophical construct to understand as related to the
speciﬁc domains of physical activity and sport participation. Goal-oriented movement in
sport and physical activity provide sathletes with a subjective experience (Metheny,
1968; Slusher, 1967). Metheny (1968) described the process of ﬁnding meaning in
movement as,

No form is innately meaningful, in and of itself; neither is any conception of its
organizational pattern innately meaningful. Rather, this conception becomes
meaningful to us as we seize upon it, take it into ourselves, and become involved with
it. This feeling of involvement is a symptom of what the idea means to us, or how we
ﬁnd it meaningﬁrl or signiﬁcant (p. 5).
This quote describes how most movement in itself is not inherently meaningful, but
rather the performer or the observer must associate personal meaning with such
movement.

In Greek mythology, the story of Sisyphus was one of ﬁnding meaning in
movement (Metheny, 1968). Sisyphus was a mortal man who upon discovering the
meaning of life from the gods was condemned to an eternity of pushing a rock up a hill,

only to have that rock roll back down to the bottom. In order to deal with his eternal

punishment, each time Sisyphus pushed the rock up the hill he focused on a different

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movement pattern. The meaning that Sisyphus found in pushing the rock made his
punishment bearable and one could even contend he found happiness in his task.

Finding meaning in movement goes back to the beginning of mankind, humans
formed patterns of movement that could be personally interpreted, yet independently the
movements were virtually meaningless (Metheny, 1968). The meaning, then, is found in
the connotations the movement may represent. Such movements started out as a means of
communication and entertainment. Dance was utilized to please the gods, ask for rain,
and celebrate good fortune.

Another form of movement created was in the form of a task that one would try to
improve on with each attempt. For instance, one might pick up a stick and throw the stick
as far as he can, trying each time to outperform the last. This task represented early forms
of j avelin throwing. As more people became interested in the task, the performers
developed rules such as everyone must start at this line, the sticks must be similar in
length and weight. Metheny (1968) discussed the early forms of sport to be experiences
of self in a fully motivated, integrated, and functioning form of human experience. These
experiences helped people to understand themselves, recreate themselves, and cope with
their lives.

Sport has been a meaningﬁrl activity since the times of ancient Greece. Greek
warriors would “stand naked before the gods” (Metheny, 1968, p. 65) and demonstrate
their talents and abilities without excuses, or the protection of false pretenses. Three
thousand years ago the Greek warriors participated in ﬁrneral games, which honored dead
soldiers and reafﬁrmed new life (Caldcleugh, 1870). While the funeral games were

violent and destructive, the warriors who participated wanted a fair chance to

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demonstrate their competence and abilities (Metheny, 1968). A code of ethics for the
games was developed that focused on honor, human dignity, and honesty. The funeral
games eventually developed into the Olympic Games, which represented a celebration of
global peace as all ﬁghting between the Greek and Romans would cease for the duration
of the games. The Olympic events were governed by a code of rules, of which penalties
for breaking the rules within each sport were employed.

Exercise or recreational sport involvement also serves as a source of meaning for
many people. The form of exercise itself can be described as an organization of
movements, during which the performance of such movements will produce desirable
physical and psychological effects (Metheny, 1968). While such desirable effects provide
a motivation to participate, the movement pattern itself can be viewed by participants as
boring, difﬁcult, and exhausting. Furthermore, while exercise can produce a gratifying
image of self-improvement, such improvement brings to the forefront the reality of how
far one needs to improve to achieve their goals, thus invoking feelings of inadequacy.
However, individuals who push through the monotony, pain, and fatigue of exercise may
experience themselves at the utmost of their capabilities and potential. Based on this
subjective and intrinsic experience, individuals also experience feelings of self-
actualization (Maslow, 1965; Metheny, 1968). Finally, many exercise participants have
an innate drive that compels them to try to outperform their last experience or perform
better than their opponent (Metheny, 1968). This drive also keeps the participant
motivated to participate in the exercise activity.

In regards to girls and women speciﬁcally, little has been written in terms of

gender differences in ﬁnding meaning in sport. Yet, Metheny (1968) stated that both

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work and sport could be potential sources of meaning for women, the domains they
invest themselves in reﬂect on their own deﬁnitions of the feminine image that ﬁts within
the social acceptance of feminine roles deﬁned by society.

Maslow’s'(1968) concept of peak experience is one of particular interest regarding
meaning. In terms of Maslow’s (1968) hierarchy of needs, individuals reaching self-
actualization typically have had a peak experience. Peak experience was deﬁned as,
“moments of highest happiness or fulﬁllment” (p. 45). The peak experience ﬁts into
Maslow’s (1968) hierarchy of needs at the highest level of self-actualization.
Characteristics of peak experience included a larger link with the universe as a whole,
total attention to the task, perception of the world as independent from themselves and
humans in general, supremely rich perception, relatively ego-transcending or egoless,
intrinsic, self-validating, and self-justifying, disorientation of time and space.
Furthermore, peak experiences are viewed as only good or desirable, evoke emotions of
wonder, awe, and humility, where all dichotomies or conﬂicts are resolved. Finally, when
peaking most people experience a momentary loss of fear, anxiety, and inhibition and
instead have an openness to the experience. The person becomes completely him/herself,
where he/she is ﬂee to experience with a lack of effort and doubt to ultimately enjoy
something previously thought of as impossible. Moments of peak experience can be
viewed as one’s happiest, most thrilling, fulﬁlled, mature, and healthiest moments of
his/her life.

Maslow’s (1959) early arguments on peak experience indicated only people who
have attained self-actualization have the capacity to achieve a peak experience. Later

evidence, however, suggested that every human may be capable of attaining a peak

16

experience (Maslow, 1968; Wuthnow, 1978). Wuthnow (1978) conducted a large-scale
study of 1,000 people who were asked if they ever had “contact with something holy or
sacre ”, experienced “the beauty of nature in a deeply moving way”, or had a feeling
they were “in harmony with the universe” (p. 61). Wuthnow found only 12 percent who
had not achieved a peak experience in one of the three aforementioned ways.
Furthermore, based on a small subsample of interviewed participants, Wuthnow
discovered peak experiences were obtained in extremely various and sometimes random
manners. Some people were in the presence of great beauty (e. g., the Grand Canyon),
while others were driving, alone in nature, or meditating. While most people are capable
of having a peak experience, research has indicated that self-actualized people have the
capacity for achieving more frequent and intense peak experiences (Maslow, 1968;
Wuthnow, 1978).

Ravizza (1977) replicated Maslow’s (1968) research on peak experience to
characterize the subjective nature of the peak experience in sport. Ravizza (1977)
interviewed 20 athletes ﬁom a variety of team and individual sports, across recreational,
university, and Olympic levels, about their “greatest moment” in sport. Participants
described their greatest moments to be unique, involuntary, short-lived, and one of total
perfection. The athletes described themselves as feeling pleasant, estatic, totally
immersed, and self-validated. While the majority of results paralleled Maslow’s (1968)
original research on peak experience, some differences regarding sport emerged.
Athlete’s reported total focus and a narrow attentional ﬁeld. Furthermore, athlete’s
described a loss of consciousness of their thoughts, perceptions, and feelings, rather than

the cognitive or reﬂective nature of peak experiences in other domains.

17

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While peak experiences do not happen often for the majority of people and
athletes, the state of ﬂow can be achieved slightly more regularly. Flow can be deﬁned as
“a state of consciousness where one becomes totally absorbed in what one is doing, to the
exclusion of all other thoughts and emotions” (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999, p. 5).
Flow states can be reached in a multitude of different domains including physical
activity, sport, dance, music, or work to name a few. Various characteristics have been
identiﬁed to be inherent to the ﬂow experience. In terms of sport or physical activity
speciﬁcally, ﬂow states are typically characterized by a balance between challenge and
skills, the merging of action and awareness, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, total
concentration on the task, sense of control, loss of self-consciousness, transformation of
time (faster or slower). Finally, most people who have experienced ﬂow states described
them as autotelic, or intrinsically motivating, where an enjoyment is experienced solely
from the act of the task itself.

A plethora of research has been done on the topic of ﬂow, with speciﬁc attention
to athletes reaching states of ﬂow (Jackson, 1992, 1995, 1996; Kimiccik & Stein, 1992;
Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Furthermore, research has been done on
investigating ﬂow states in physical activity (Csikszentrnihalyi & LeFevre, 1989; Jackson
& Eklund, 2002; Jones, Hollenhorst, Pema, & Selin, 2000). In a study by Sparkes and
Partington (2003), a narrative practice approach was utilized in a case study of a
collegiate white water rapids team. The narrative practice approach highlighted what and
how the participants experienced ﬂow, in a personally meaningful manner. For example,
one athlete identiﬁed her ﬂow experience to be characterized by “paddling like a god” (p.

311). Another athlete discussed his focus during performance to be, “You just felt

18

extremely focused, just totally, with exactly what you’re doing. You know exactly what
you’re doing and you can respond. I don’t think I’ve ever raised myself up to that level of
concentration before or since” (p. 310). Such method may be useful in exploring how
sport and exercise experiences help individuals to ﬁnd meaning in their lives.

In conclusion, meaning is an important concept to study in relation to an
individual’s participation in sport and exercise. Finding meaning can lead one to peak
experiences and ﬂow states. The domains of exercise and sport can provide a vehicle for
many individuals to ﬁnd meaning and further achieve heightened experiences. A lack of
research in the area of meaning, coupled with the importance of understanding meaning,
calls for future research to help athletes and exercisers in particular to ﬁnd meaning in
their participation. Furthermore, such research could also help individuals who struggle
with adhering to an exercise program to ﬁnd meaning in their participation.

Life Satisfaction and Fulﬁllment through Physical Activity and Sport

The concept of meaning is directly linked to life satisfaction. Researchers have
found that those who ﬁnd meaning in their lives experience a greater level of life
satisfaction (Zika & Chamberlain, 1992). Life satisfaction, however, appears different
from life meaning because one can be satisﬁed with negative aspects of his/her life and
the lack of meaning. Instead of trying to change one’s life and ﬁnd meaning, the
individual instead adapts to his/her environment and functions within the meaningless
situation (V entegodt et al., 2003). For example, a man could be completely miserable
with his job but unwilling to change professions. Instead he adapts to the misery of his
job and becomes content with the lack of meaning he is receiving. Most people are fairly

satisﬁed with their lives. However, these individuals are usually less satisﬁed than their

19

actual state of well-being would suggest (Ventegodt et al., 2003). Being satisﬁed is the
self-understanding that life is as it should be (Ventegodt et al., 2003). Such an
understanding is both a mental state (i.e., happiness, positive outlook) and a cognitive
entity (i.e., thinking that one is satisﬁed).

Looking more in depth at Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, brieﬂy mentioned in the
previous section as related to peak experience, one of the highest levels of needs includes
life satisfaction. Abraham Maslow (1959, 1968, 1971) attempted to explain human
motivation in terms of what speciﬁcally energizes, directs, and sustains the efforts of
human behavior. His conclusion was that all humans have various needs to be fulﬁlled,
which once ﬁrlﬁlled the individual can advance to discovering higher levels of meaning
in his/her life. The most basic human needs included physiological (hunger, thirst,
comfort), safety and security (free of danger), a sense of belongingness and love
(acceptance and affiliation), and self-esteem needs (competence). The next level of needs
included both cognitive (knowing, understanding) and aesthetic (appreciation for beauty
and symmetry) needs. The ﬁrst two levels of needs must be met for a person to reach
self-actualization or ﬁnd self-fulﬁllment and reach their potential. Self-actualized people
typically are problem-focused, have a genuine appreciation for life, are concerned about
their personal growth, and have the ability to attain peak experiences. A ﬁnal level of
self-transcendence included the ability to move beyond one’s ego and instead help others
to discover self-actualization (Maslow, 1971).

Maslow (1965, 1968) described achieving self-actualization as an intrinsic
learning process consisting of “little accessions accumulated one by one” (1965, p. 115).

Growing toward self-actualization included characteristics of selﬂessness and total

20

 

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absorption, making progression rather than regression choices, understanding the self as a
being, choosing honesty, making better choices, daring to be oneself, the awareness of
peak experiences, and opening oneself to be oneself. Self-actualization then is about
pondering challenging questions about philosophy, religion, and the meaning of life. Self-
actualization is the process of striving to be the absolute best one can be. Maslow (1968)
argued that everyone has the capability of reaching self—actualization, but many people
are not willing to make the choices needed to be actualized. Instead people choose to be
selﬁsh, make regression decisions, are dishonest, conform to others, lack awareness, and
are not willing to understand their defenses.

The concept of self-actualization is one that directly relates to life satisfaction.
Can a person be satisﬁed without achieving or striving for self-actualization? According
to the deﬁnition of life satisfaction, people can be satisﬁed without reaching their
potential if they do not wish to change their behaviors (V entegodt et al., 2003). Many
people are then satisﬁed with not reaching actualization then because they have given up
on achieving more and become complacent with what they already have. While
satisfaction does not necessarily advance one in the positive direction, for the related
concept of quality of life, directionality is important.

Another construct impacting psychological health, well-being, and life satisfaction
is the ﬁrlﬁllment of needs. Needs produce a psychological intensity that inﬂuence and
direct a person’s behaviors. Several need theories exist describing what needs are and
how people strive to fulﬁll those needs impacts behaviors. Hull (1943) studied needs
from a physiological approach} identifying innate basic needs for food, water, and sex.

When needs are unfulﬁlled, individuals shift into a drive state in search for the

21

satisfaction of such needs. Once the needs were met individuals become satisﬁed and
healthy. Limitations of Hull’s work included a lack of evidence of physiological needs
being met in play or leisure activities. Another popular need theory is that of Murray
(1 93 8) who addressed the psychological needs rather than physiological needs. Rather
than innately present, Murray perceives needs to be acquired,

A need is a construct (a convenient ﬁction or hypothetical concept) that stands for

a force (the physico-chemical nature of which is unknown) in the brain region, a

force that organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation, and action in

such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation

. (p. 123-124).

According to Murray, anything that motivates action to occur, including psychologically,
qualiﬁes as a need. The striving to fulﬁll such needs does not necessarily produce
homeostasis or health and satisfaction, rather social norms, power, and afﬁliation may be
fulﬁlled. The theory is ﬂawed, however, because the deﬁnition of needs is too broad
indicating that nearly anything could be described as a need. Finally, self-determination
theory (SDT) provides more recent focus on three basic psychological needs of
competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 1980, 1985, 1991, 2000). SDT
will be discussed in depth during a later section.

Life satisfaction is an important concept to study because of the inexplicit link to
self-worth. While people can be satisﬁed with the lack of meaning they have or falling
short of their potential, most people strive to ﬁnd fulﬁllment in their lives. Needs are an
important part of becoming satisﬁed with life, during which physiological and

psychological needs must be met. The following section will discuss motivation and

several theories of motivation relevant to the present investigation.

22

Motivation of Marathon Runners

Motivation is an important concept in every domain, as most people are striving to
achieve some goal. The goal may be to participate in some endeavor, to improve, or to
become the best. In the speciﬁc domains of sport and exercise, the processes of striving
for goals are clearly depicted through personal records, team championships, and
improved health via weight loss and increased activity. While many exercisers strive to
adhere to their exercise programs, marathon runners strive to push themselves harder,
further, and faster with each training run. Understanding the motives behind such
exercisers may offer important suggestions to help novice exercisers to not only adhere to
a program but also learn to strive ﬁtrther within that program. Before investigating
motivation in the speciﬁc subgroup of marathon runners, an understanding of what
motivation is and key motivational theories will be presented; however, an in-depth
review is beyond the SCOpe of this study.

William James (1890) described human behavior to be comprised of conscious
voluntary behaviors and unconscious, primitive, and habitual behaviors. Within James’
theory, human action then is driven by a combination of those volatile and instinctual
behaviors. For example, one may understand the physical and psychological beneﬁts of
exercise and want to start an exercise program, but may have unconscious insecurities
and fears about not having the ability or capability to adhere to an exercise program.
While the postulations of William James are dated, many theories of motivation today
reﬂect some of James’ original ideas. Over 30 theories of motivation exist today, and

even more deﬁnitions of the concept have been forwarded (Ford, 1992).

23

Broadly deﬁned, motivation can be described as the direction, intensity, and
regulation of one’s effort (Ford, 1992; Roberts, 2001; Sage, 1977). Furthermore,
motivation theorists attempt to explain striving toward, avoiding, or lacking of
achievement behavior. Achievement behavior can be described as the behavioral effort
and intensity to push forward through challenging tasks (Murray, 1938). Furthermore,
achievement motivation deals with the pride associated with participating in sport or
exercise domains and achieving one’s goals. Determinants of achievement behavior also
exist and include dispositions of approach or avoidance, expectancies, values of success
or failure, and cognitive appraisals of success and failure (Roberts, 1992, 2001). Thus,
motivation describes an internal drive to participate in areas in which one could
potentially experience success or failure. Such drive can be caused by either intrinsic
(e.g., interest, passion for the activity, or feeling of ﬁrlﬁllment) or extrinsic factors (e.g.,
to win, attain a reward, or outperform others). Understanding the process of motivation
includes the understanding that motivation qualities exist within a person, are directed
toward future events, and have some degree of evaluation within the process.
Furthermore, how these personal qualities combine with the environmental situations that
an individual experiences are important. The interaction of such qualities then produces
the drive to approach or avoid certain tasks.

Achievement motivation provides a sound rationale for the drive or motivation for
individuals to participate in performance oriented activities where their success will be
evaluated. Another way to examine the achievement motivation of long distance runners
is Eccles’ expectancy-value theory (Eccles et al., 1983). Previously, theorists have argued

that choice, persistence, and performance can be explained by how much a person values

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thatlactivity and their beliefs of success they will have in that activity (Atkinson, 1964).
Furthermore, Vroom (1964) stated, in the original expectancy-value theory, that behavior
is a function of people’s beliefs that they can successfully perform the desired behavior,
the perception that certain outcomes are contingent upon the successful performance of
the behavior, and the judgment that the performance-contingent outcomes are valued.
More speciﬁcally, whether someone behaves in an esteem-building way (performing well
in an athletic, intellectual, or social situation) depends on individuals’ expectations that
they will perform the behavior, belief that behavior leads to certain outcomes, and value
placed on that outcome (Brockner, Wiesenfeld, & Raskas, 1993). Eccles’ and colleagues
(1983) contend that there is a subjective task, values an individual assigns to that task in
terms of attainment, intrinsic worth, and utility, and costs to seeking out such task.
Running then could be a subjective task that runners themselves must put value into and
decide if the value is worth the perceived costs of completing the activity. Therefore, it is
critical to understand the value of running in a person’s life and their perceptions of
competence in their ability to successfully complete the distance they wish to achieve.
Self-determination theory contends that all humans are motivated to fulﬁll three
basic needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Thus, the desire to experience being
good at something independently controls our efforts and the possibility of being
accepted by others. In turn, fulﬁlling these needs manifest into three types of motivation.
These include intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation. Deci (1971) described intrinsic
motivation as feelings of satisfaction obtained from the act of participating in the
behavior or in the behavior itself. An example of intrinsic motivation would be someone

who runs for the sake of running. Extrinsic motivation, however, is one’s striving to

25

 

 

participate or attain a goal contingent on a desired outcome. An extrinsic motivated
runner may participate to win medals, receive race t—shirts, or improve his/her physical
appearance. Furthermore, amotivation is the complete absence of motivation. An
amotivated individual would not have any motivation to go for a run nor would the act of
running motivate a person to continue running. SDT provides a need-based theoretical
approach assessing motivation based on the fulﬁllment of basic needs whether the source
is internal or external.

In summary, then, need achievement based theories explain why, at times, people
both approach and avoid situations where their performance will be evaluated, hold
certain expectancies for success, place differing values on the activity in which they are
performing, and strive for the fulﬁllment of basic human needs. Whether one is
motivated to achieve in a particular situation is dependent on the interaction of personal
and situational factors. These include such factors as individual motives to approach
success and avoid failure dispositions, expectancies for success and failure, task
difECulty, value of the activity, and need fulﬁllment. Situational factors include the
importance of a particular game, environmental barriers faced, and whether or not one is
competing against themselves or others. Given almost 40 years of research on
achievement motivation, it is clear that these variables play a role in sport participation
and achievement striving. Hence, they should be involved in decisions to train and
compete in the marathon by recreational runners.

In the ﬁeld of Sport and Exercise Psychology the concept of motivation has been
widely studied, as reﬂected by a Sport Discus literature search yielding over 4,000 books

and articles on motivation and sport. Motivation has also been studied speciﬁc to distance

26

running and marathon runners to a wide degree. Over 70 books and articles have been
written over the last 40 years on the speciﬁc group of marathon runners and their motives
to complete the 26.2 mile distance. The following review will discuss motivations of
runners in general and marathon runners in particular, mood in distance runners, coping
strategies runners use, age, and gender.

Motivations of Marathon Runners

Research on the motives of marathon runners is relatively recent, dating back only
to 1981. Given the relatively large amount of research on motivation of marathon
runners, it is important and useful to brieﬂy discuss the research on motives for running
in general, regardless of the speciﬁc distance. Thus, before reviewing the literature
speciﬁc to the motives of marathon runners, a few key studies on motives for runners will
be discussed and summarized.

Early researchers in the area of motivation in running have discovered basic
motives that help explain why people exercise in general, and more speciﬁcally why
people run. Researchers identiﬁed physical and mental ﬁtness, enjoyment, and self-
respect as the primary motives for runners. More speciﬁcally, Camarack and Martens
(1979) were two of the ﬁrst researchers to explore motives for running. Investigators
designed a survey that assessed reasons for running, outcomes of running, commitment to
running, and training practices. It was found that while runners understand the health
beneﬁts of running, their primary motives focused on psychological reasons for running
such as mental ﬁtness, enjoyment, and self-respect. In another study, J ohnsgéird (l 98 5a)

collected data on 574 male and 149 female readers of a popular running magazine.

27

Readers were asked why they became runners and why they continue to run. Participants
identiﬁed physical ﬁtness and weight control to be their primary motives.

Three primary factors have been identiﬁed by multiple researchers to be motives
to run marathons including goal attainment, involvement with others, and psychological
well-being (Curtis & McTeer, 1981; Summers, Sargent, Levey, & Murry, 1982). The ﬁrst
researchers to study motivation in marathon runners were Curtis and McTeer (1981), who
asked 740 marathon runners why they chose to complete the marathon rather than other
shorter races. Runners identiﬁed three primary reasons including goal attainment (77%),
inﬂuence of others (20%), and psychological well-being (19%). While the runners all
were aware of the health beneﬁts of running, such reasons including ﬁtness and weight
loss were not listed as motivating factors. This outcome makes some sense given the
general running research ﬁndings that more experienced runners shift from physical to
psychological motives with experience and one would expect most people who run
marathons to have already become committed to running in some form. Moreover, this
inaugural study on the motives for marathon runners provided valuable information to
beginning to understand the population of marathon runners.

Another early group of researchers to study marathon runners was Summers and
colleagues (1982). They were interested in motivational changes experienced by ﬁrst
time marathoners. Three hundred sixty-three marathon runners completed open-ended
questions assessing training, attitudes about running, motives to participate in a second
marathon, and cognitive strategies utilized when running. While all runners identiﬁed a
variety of reasons for their initial interest in completing a marathon (i.e., exercise and

ﬁtness, achieve a personal goal), all of the ﬁrst time runners who identiﬁed Wanting to

28

complete a second marathon race were interested in running a faster time. Furthermore,
most runners were interested in goal achievement and testing their personal worth ﬁrst,
and then mentioned health and others’ inﬂuence. While interesting, the study results must
be viewed with some caution because their measures were not formally validated.
Furthermore, understanding why runners continue their participation was only brieﬂy
mentioned.

A second study of motivation in marathon runners was conducted by Barrel] and
colleagues (1989). Qualitative in-depth interviews were completed with 24 marathon
runners on the topic of how they became committed to marathon running. The research
team found marathon running to be a long-term process that included periods of
challenges with little emphasis on results, as many of their initial motives to participate
included becoming healthy, improving their ﬁtness, and losing weight. However, through
this process runners also gained a sense of freedom from running, enjoyed the challenge,
experienced race success, and attained a state of relaxation, in addition to the health
beneﬁts. Furthermore, 17 of the participants’ spouses were also interviewed. The spouses
reﬂected on the total family commitment marathon running becomes and how they
became a source of social support for their running partner.

As researchers learned more about the motives speciﬁc to marathon runners, they
discovered that motives to run evolve over time. In a follow-up study by J ohnsgard
(1985b), runners'over the age of 50 were recruited and asked the same two questions.
While ﬁtness was again the number one reason for running, a shift in motivation
occurred. Runners started running primarily for ﬁtness and weight control reasons and as

they continued their involvement shifted to more psychological explanations for their

29

continuation of running Furthermore, in a study conducted by Okwumabua and
colleagues ( 1987), masters runners (age 40 and up) completed questionnaires assessing
the psychological aspects of running. The results provided ﬁrrther support for a shift in
motives ﬁom physiological-based motives when individuals began to psychological
motives. For example, psychological goals included developing cognitive strategies such
as focusing on aspects of running at the beginning of the race, but allowing themselves to
get distracted during the race. While the early studies on runners were important to the
literature as they provided basic information about motives for running and documented a
shift in motives over the length of running involvement, none of the studies targeted
marathon runners per se. The studies also did not use validated and reliable measures or
have large sample sizes.

Measurement of motives for marathon runners was also a point of interest to
multiple researchers (Masters & Lambert, 1989; Masters, Ogles, & Jolton, 1993). In an
attempt to develop a measurement tool speciﬁc to the motivation of marathon runners,
Masters and Lambert (1989) created an exploratory instrument, Master’s Reasons for
Running a Marathon Scale (consisting of 29 reasons for running a marathon) and
administered it to 30 male and 18 female runners. The factor analysis results yielded
eight possible factors including both cognitive (e. g., associative and dissociative
strategies) and performance-related variables (e. g., competition with self, competition
with others). The instrument was an improvement over previously utilized measures that
had not demonstrated validity or reliability; however, only correlational data relating to

associative and dissociative strategies were presented instead of tested psychometric

30

properties concerning validity and reliability of the measure. The sample size was also
inadequate for the factor analysis that was conducted.

In 1993, Masters and colleagues made a second attempt at developing an
instrument when they created the Motivations of Marathoners Scale (MOMS). The scale
is based on four broad motives for running including, psychological, physical, social, and
achievement objectives. Nine more speciﬁc subscales were created within the four broad
categories including life meaning, self-esteem, and psychological coping (psychological),
personal goal achievement and competition (achievement), recognition and afﬁliation
(social), and health orientation and weight concern (physical). In total, 96-items were
developed to assess the nine subscales of motivation in marathon runners. The measure
was validated in a sample of 482 marathon runners. Cronbach’s alpha results were
calculated and items under or = .60 were deleted (40 items), leaving the ﬁnal scale to
include 56-items, with reliability coefficients ranging from or = 80-92. Reliability tests
were also completed with 180 of the previous participants. Replication over time was
achieved based on R results ranging ﬁ'om .71 to .90.

The MOMS scale was developed to stimulate additional research in the area of
motivation in marathon runners, which was successful based on the dozen studies
subsequently completed using the MOMS. Understanding why recreational and
competitive exercisers participate in the marathon race will add to the theoretical and
practical literature base. Furthermore, understanding the motives of marathon runners
could help increase adherence to other exercise programs for individuals who struggle
with continuing their participation. While utilizing the MOMS with a recreational

p0pulation will provide a greater understanding of the motives of marathon runners,

31

studying each motive more in depth would provide the greatest level of understanding.
The life meaning subscale is of particular interest because of the impact that ﬁnding
meaning has on one’s life. Previous research on meaning in general has indicated
individuals who ﬁnd meaning in their lives typically experience less negative emotions,
lower risk for clinical health factors (F eldman & Snyder, 2005; Yalom, 1980), and
greater psychological health and increased quality of life (Debats, 1996; Zika &
Chamberlain, 1992). A review of the MOMS literature is presented next.

A study investigating how MOMS results change with the level of marathon
experience was completed by Masters and Ogles (1995), utilizing a sample of 472
marathon runners completing one of three marathons in the Midwest. Three groups were
created based on the runners’ level of experience including, the rookie group (ﬁrst
marathon), mid-level (two-three marathons), and the veterans (three or more marathons).
Participants completed a demographic questionnaire assessing their level of training,
performance, and experience, as well as the MOMS (Masters et al., 1993). Using a one-
way MANOVA, participants differed on the MOMS motives based on their level of
experience. A discriminant function was also conducted and found two variables
explaining 100 percent of the variance. Function I explained 65 .8 percent and was
labeled Marathon Identity because of the high loadings from afﬁliation variables of
competition, recognition, and health subscales. Function 2 explained the additional 34.2
percent of the variance and was labeled Internal Focus because of high loadings on
running technique and personal performance variables. In relation to the three experience
levels, the veteran group highly identiﬁed with the Marathon Identity factor, reﬂecting

high scores in the social identity, recognition, afﬁliation, health, and competition

32

variables. Mid-level runners were most motivated to improve on their ﬁrst marathon time
and factored mostly into the Internal Focus factor. Finally, the rookie group was more
concerned with health and weight, self—esteem, and goal achievement variables, also
representative of the Internal Focus factor. The study provided additional evidence for an
increased focus on psychological variables and was signiﬁcantly related to level of
experience.

Using the MOMS scale, Ogles and Masters (2003) identiﬁed ﬁve clusters of
motivational proﬁles characterizing 1,519 marathon runners based on MANOVA and
cluster solution results. Running enthusiasts identiﬁed all nine MOMS motives and were
characterized as older, completing more marathons, more likely to run another marathon,
and primarily female. Lifestyle managers identiﬁed goal achievement, self-esteem, health
orientation, psychological coping, weight concerns, and life meaning. These individuals
were more likely to train alone, ran slower races, trained less miles, and were typically
female. Personal goal achievers only identiﬁed personal goal achievement motives and
were typically younger, males, who trained more miles. Personal accomplishers scored
average on most of the variables including goal achievement, self-esteem, and health
orientation, and were mostly males. Finally, competitive achievers identiﬁed goal
achievement, self-esteem, health orientation, competition, and life meaning. Runners
were characterized as younger, faster, males, who train more, and often twice a day.
Interestingly, for all clusters health and esteem motives were more important than social
or competition motives.

Another MOMS study was conducted by Havenar and Lochbaum (2007) with 106

ﬁrst time marathon runners. The participants included 72 females and 34 males.

33

Furthermore, 31 people completed the training and race, while 75 stopped training prior
to the race. The MOMS scale was utilized along with two questions, “how many miles a
week do you currently run” and “how long have you been running”. Researchers found
marathon ﬁnishers to be more motivated by social factors and weight concerns than
dropout runners. Interestingly, 70 percent of the sample dropped out of the marathon
race, which is an adherence rate comparable to general exercisers (United States
Department of Health and Human Services, 2000). The high dropout rate makes intuitive
sense based on other exercisers as well as the difﬁcult training regimen and potential for
injury; however, the increasingly high number of participants indicates many runners
keep running long distances. More speciﬁc data on why runners dropped out of the race
would be important in future studies. Other limitations included not asking participants
their desired weight loss goals and a disproportionate number of females in the study.
The MOMS measure was validated based on a higher proportion of male runners than
females, which could poorly generalize to female runners.

Other non-MOMS research also helps us understand motivation for running.
Santamaria and Furst (1994) completed a study assessing the attributional styles of long
distance competitive runners during their most and least successful races. Using the
attribution theory (Weiner, 1979), the three causal dimensions of locus of causality,
controllability, and stability were assessed using the Causal Dimension Scale (CDS-II;
McAuley, Rejeski, & Russel, 1985). Thirty-eight junior college, Division I, or post-
graduate level runners were asked to complete the survey and reﬂect back on their most
and least successful races of their running careers. ANOVA results reﬂected signiﬁcant

differences between attributions of causality (more successful race associated to internal

34

causality) and control-personal controllability (more in control during successful races)
dimensions. No signiﬁcant differences were found for the stability dimension and
control-extemal controllability dimensions. Based on these ﬁndings, researchers
indicated a potential self—serving bias to be in effect in that athletes were happy to discuss
their most successful performances but more reluctant to describe their least successﬁrl
performances, which served to protect their ego (Gill, 1980). The runners experienced a
conﬁdence boost from successful races because they attributed their performance to be
within their control and caused by internal factors. Races that did not go well on the other
hand, were perceived to be caused by external factors outside of their control. The non-
sigrriﬁcant results may have been affected by the retrospective nature of the study,
indicating that stability and control—external dimensions may have been forgotten over
time. However, the study is important because it shows that reasons individuals use to
explain the competitive successes and failures inﬂuence their motivation. The
weaknesses of the study included a small sample size and the retrospective approach to
answering the survey items. Future studies could assess a similar relationship looking
across the last competitive season with a larger sample of competitive athletes.

Within the motivation in marathon runner’s literature, several studies have
speciﬁcally investigated marathon ﬁnishers and those who drop out pre-race (Clough,
Shepherd, & Maughan, 1989; Havenar & Lochbaum, 2007). Clough and colleagues
(1989) studied 489 male marathon race ﬁnishers and 559 male runners who registered for
the race but did not end up running the race (non-fmishers). Study participants completed
a questionnaire following the race and another 12-months prior to the race. The

researchers found a signiﬁcant difference between ﬁnishers and non-ﬁnishers in training

35

distances. Finishers were more likely to want to run another marathon and follow through
on that goal within a 12-month period. Both groups stated similar reasons for starting to
run including to improve ﬁtness, to improve health, or to take part in a marathon, as well
as reasons for running the marathon race including for personal satisfaction, to set a
challenge, and for the experience itself. Both beneﬁts and negatives were also identiﬁed
including physical health, overall well-being, and personal insight into one’s capabilities,
and problems of injury, decreased time with family, and social lives effected,
respectively. Finally, it was important to understand why race entrants did not participate.
Reasons included injury, lack of training, illness, and a few mentioned lack of interest.
While the study included a large sample size, psychometric properties of the
questionnaire were not assessed. Furthermore, the study was limited to perceptions of
male runners only.

In summary, although somewhat limited in scope, initial research on motivation
for marathon running showed that people have multiple motives for participating in
marathon races. The most widely utilized scale was the MOMS (Masters et al., 1993)
which identiﬁes eight different motives for participating. Researchers have also found
that the motives that drive runners’ initial involvement (physical reasons such as weight
loss and health interest) seem to differ from the motives that sustain involvement
including goal achievement, social interaction, and life meaning.

Mood Related to Marathon Running

A well known link exists between exercise and the reduction of depression and

other negative mood states (Kostrubala, 1977). Research also exists on the role of

marathon running in reducing depression (Gondola & Tuckrnan, 1982; Lane, 2001; Lane,

36

Lane, & Firth, 2002; Morgan, 1978; Morgan & Pollock, 1977; Wilson, Morley, & Bird,
1980). Kostrubala (1977) found running to be an effective therapy treatment to
depression, as runners often experience an altered state known as the “runner’s high”.
Additional research by Morgan (1978) indicated elite and world-class
marathoners to be less tense and happier than non-runners, as per scores on the Proﬁle of
Mood States (POMS) measure. Runners experienced less tension, depression, fatigue,
and confusion, as well as greater vigor, characterized by the iceberg proﬁle. Wilson and
colleagues (1980) found both marathoners and joggers to have lower ratings of
depression, anger, and confusion, and greater scores on vigor compared to non-
exercisers. Marathoners were signiﬁcantly different from joggers on depression, anger,
confusion, and vigor. Gondola and Tuckrnan (1982) found male and female marathon
runners to have less tension, fatigue, depression, and conﬁrsion than same-aged non-
runners. Furthermore, the researchers indicated similar relationships for both elite and
average recreational runners. Finally, research exists on endorphins and mood changes in
long—distance running (Markoff, Ryan, & Young, 1982) and shows runners to have
decreased tension-anxiety and anger-hostility during and post-run compared to pre-run.
Further research on marathon running and mood exists incorporating the
additional variable of performance (Lane, 2001; Lane et al., 2002). Previous researchers
have demonstrated a relationship exists between successful performance and positive
mood (Biddle & Hill, 1991; Hall & Terry, 1995). In his ﬁrst study, Lane (2001)
examined the relationship between depression and mood with pre-race performance
expectations. Participants included 188 male runners competing in race distances of 10K,

six miles, and marathon. Pre-competition mood was measured by the POMS-A (Terry,

37

Lane, Lane, & Keohane, 1999) and performance expectations assessed by the Pre-Race
Questionnaire (PRQ; Jones, Swain, & Cale, 1990). Runners were then split into one of
two groups based on their depression subscale scores, a depressed group and non-
depressed group. Researchers found signiﬁcant differences between the depressed and
non-depressed groups on POMS-A and PRQ scores. The depressed group identiﬁed
higher anger, tension, conﬁrsion, fatigue, and PRQ scores, and lower vigor than the non-
depressed group. Further, the relationship between mood and performance expectations
yielded higher perceived readiness, vigor, and lower anger in the non-depressed group.
Finally, the depressed group experienced lower perceived readiness and vigor, and higher
anger, confusion, and fatigue compared with the non-depressed group. While the study
was theory-driven and measured one hour prior to competition, limitations still existed in
using self-report measures and not accounting for situational factors inﬂuencing mood
during the time of completing the survey.

While post-exercise mood is typically positive, post-performance mood may be
contingent on the performance success (Berger & Motl, 2000). Participants in a study by
Berger and Motl (2000) were 195 ten-mile competitive runners. Mood was measured
using the Brunel University Mood Scale (previously POMS-A; Terry et al., 1999) and
again based on the depression subscale score, depressed and not-depressed groups were
created. An overall signiﬁcant difference emerged between the depressed and not-
depressed groups on the mood inventory subscales. Depressed mood individuals scored
signiﬁcantly higher on anger, confusion, fatigue, and tension, as well as lower on vigor
items. Furthermore, low performance satisfaction was related to depressed mood scores.

Multiple regression analyses assessing the relationship between performance satisfaction

38

and mood scores yielded only one percent of variance explained for the non-depressed
group. The depressed group scores predicted 27.5 percent of the variance. Depressed
mood appears to be a potential moderator between performance expectation and mood
scores.

Based on previous research, there is a clear relationship between marathon
running and reduced depression, tension, anxiety, fatigue, and anger. The relationship is
further explained by the additional factor of performance. Successful performances
typically produce positive feelings following the performance. Finally, depressed mood
may be a moderator between the relationship of performance and mood. These results
may have implications for the present study because the enhancement of positive mood
from running would logically link to one’s motives to run and the personal meaning
received from running.

Coping Strategies of Marathon Runners

Athletes across sports utilize many different types of coping strategies during
competition and training to get through tough work-outs, pain, and fear or anxiety.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) deﬁned coping as, “constantly changing cognitive and
behavioral efforts to manage speciﬁc external and/or internal demands that are appraised
as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (p. 141). Based on their model,
Lazarus and Folkman assumed that coping and emotional responses change based on the
perceived stress of the situation. Morgan and Pollock (1977) studied the coping strategies
speciﬁc to long distance runners and found two main cognitive strategies utilized,
association and dissociation. Associative strategies referred to the runner increasing their

awareness of their bodies and how their bodies felt, while dissociative strategies were a

39

purposeful detatchment from the body and sensory feedback. Researchers discovered that
more elite runners utilized associative coping strategies because the heightened
awareness was important to push themselves to their maximal potential without getting
injured. Recreational runners, however, typically utilized dissociative methods in order to
distract themselves ﬁ'om the pain and anguish that goes along with pushing oneself to
new distances (Rejeski & Kenney, 1987).

Many studies exist on cognitive c0ping strategies of association and dissociation
with runners (Morgan, Horstrnan, Cymerman, & Stokes, 1983; Weinberg, 1985;
Weinberg, Smith, Jackson, & Gould, 1984). Weinberg and colleagues (1984) identiﬁed
most athletes utilize both strategies to be effective during endurance performances.
However, Brewer and Buman (2006) found elite athletes typically use association
strategies and non-elite athletes dissociative. Furthermore, studies have been done
investigating the type of cognitive strategy with injury risk. Runners using a dissociation
strategy may be more susceptible to injury because they do not attend to the sensory
information from the body (pain) (Morgan & Pollock, 1977; Schomer, 1987). Finally,
some researchers have argued recreational athletes use dissociation strategies in training
but association strategies while racing (Masters & Lambert, 1989; Summers, Sargent,
Levey, & Murray, 1982). More recent studies have identiﬁed that most runners use both
dissociative and associative strategies to cope with pain during running. Buman and
colleagues (2008) investigated the potential relationships among competitive level and
cognitive coping strategies, as well as the impact of coping strategy on injury.

Masters and Ogles (1998) presented ﬁndings related to association and

dissociation coping strategies and injury in marathon runners, speciﬁcally testing the

40

accuracy of the dissociation-injury hypothesis (Morgan & Pollock, 1977). In the ﬁrst
study, 127 recreational marathon runners completed the marathon and training thoughts
(Okwumabua, Meyers, & Santille, 1987) instrument, the injury checklist (Centers for
Disease Control, 1988), and the MOMS (Masters et al., 1993). Participants identiﬁed
using dissociation coping strategies 61 percent of the time during training, but only 32
percent of the actual marathon race. Furthermore, 25 percent experienced one injury
during training for the previous year, and 37 percent experienced more than one running-
related injury. Of these injuries, 35.4 percent of runners went to a doctor and 72.8 percent
decreased or took a break from their training due to the injury. Dissociation scores in
particular correlated with past performance, future running goals, and motivation
variables, yielding a characterization of slower runners, less enthusiasm for training after
the race, and less motivation by competition or personal goal attainment. Researchers
also found associative coping strategies to offer a greater risk of becoming injured
because runners were associating with the sensory feedback of pain but failing to
recognize the pain as aversive or leading to injury. This study did not support the
dissociation-injury hypothesis previously identiﬁed by Morgan and Pollock (1977), but
was limited by self-report and not collecting physiological data.

In a study by Ogles and colleagues (1993), cognitive strategies and motivations
were investigated in relation to absorption, fantasy style, and dissociative experiences.
Participants included 104 male and 27 female marathon runners completing a battery of
questionnaires. The results indicated 52.9 percent of races and 28.8 percent of training
runs to be an associative or internal coping strategy. Dissociation was found 10.1 percent

of races and 45.9 percent of training time, which were consistent with previous research.

41

Furthermore, researchers found positive constructive daydreaming to be negatively
related to association and positively related to dissociation. Some runners identiﬁed
running itself as a stress management technique to deal with problems, this technique was
also more likely to occur for those dissociating. Motives for running, including life
meaning, were also more likely to dissociate to external stimuli following a training run.
The runners who were motivated by life meaning and psychological coping typically
utilized dissociative strategies, imaginal processes, and absorption to get through training
runs. Finally, those motivated by life meaning experienced greater bliss while running,
felt more whole, or felt a part of nature during their dissociative experiences. These
factors, characteristic of runners using dissociative strategies, were extremely meariingﬁrl
to recreational runners who sometimes grew bored of the mundane training. The study,
however, was limited by a potential self-selection bias, small sample size, and weak
instrumentation for measures of absorption. '

Campen and Roberts (2001) found runners to utilize a variety of cognitive and
behavior coping styles. Marathon runners in their study were able to use both behavior
and cognitive efforts to accomplish their task goals. Utilizing personal resources of
attention on cognitive activations to accomplish task-oriented running goals helped
runners to avoid external stimuli and distractions, as well as fears and anxiety about not
accomplishing their race goals. Another study by Buman and colleagues (2008) was
conducted to understand the experiences and coping processes of recreational runners
“hitting the wall”. Hitting the wall was deﬁned as, “. . .the point where glycogen supplies
have been exhausted and energy has been converted from fat” (Stevinson & Biddle,

1998, p. 229). Forty male and 17 female recreational marathon runners completed a web-

42

based set of open-ended questions. Higher order themes of affective, behavioral,
cognitive, motivational, and physiological dimensions emerged from questions on the
characteristics of hitting the wall, knowing when you have hit the wall, and coping
mechanisms for after hitting the wall. Coping strategies identiﬁed included association,
dissociation, mental framing, race goal renegotiation, relaxation, self-talk, visualization,
mental refrarning, and willpower. Emotional coping responses of emotional regulation
and social support were also identiﬁed. Finally, 30 percent of participants indicated they
did not have an effective coping strategy to deal with hitting the wall. The study was
extremely limited by not conducting face-to-face interviews where the researcher could
probe responses that were unclear or needed more details. However, it was evident that
recreational runners use a large range of coping strategies to deal with the pain and
anguish of hitting the wall.

Emotional coping (e. g., emotional regulation and social support) is also relevant
to discuss related to dealing with injury. In an autoethnography, Collinson (2005) detailed
the emotional experience of a knee injury from both the author and her running partner.
Emotions were described as “self-feelings, an embodied form of consciousness” (p. 222).
Both runners experienced a “fall from grace” when they became injured, as running was
an integral part of what they did day to day and their self-identity. Emotions such as
anxiety, fear, doubt, despair, disappointment, anger, and blame where expressed by both
runners as they had to limit their running activity because of the injury. Coping strategies
were utilized together and the social support provided an additional strategy to gain the

momentum needed to recover ﬁ'om the injuries. While the study was conducted with only

43

two participants and autoethnographic in nature, the results provided important
implications for runners to lean on their social support network during a time of injury.
Finally, marathon runners can experience emotional experiences during a run
because of the distance, the energy and effort, and potential to experience pain, injury,
and psychological distress. Schiiler and Langens (2007) conducted a two-phase study on
psychological crisis experienced in marathon runners and the coping mechanism of self-
verbalization. In Study 1, researchers were interested in identifying a psychological crisis
and its consequences on performance. Participants included 129 marathon runners (88
male, 41 female), who completed a pre-race and post—race battery of questionnaires.
Based on indicators of psychological crisis including impulse of disengagement, thoughts
about the costs of goal strivings, and the beneﬁts of goal disengagement, the results
indicated psychological crisis was greatest at the 30 kilometer mark. Experiencing a
psychological crisis negatively impacted race performance, leading to a slower time.
Finally, runners experiencing a more severe psychological crisis had a slower time than
those experiencing a small psychological crisis. In Study 2 researchers tested the effects
of a self-regulation strategy of self-verbalizations to get through the crisis. Participants
were 110 (91 male, 19 female) marathon runners assigned to either an experimental
condition (i.e., received a questionnaire with self-verbalizing instructions) or a control
condition (i.e., did not receive a self-verbalizing instruction sheet). Based on the control
group results, Study 1 was replicated. A signiﬁcant difference emerged between
participants in the experimental and control groups for those experiencing a severe
psychological crisis. Participants who read about self-verbalizations were able to calm

themselves down during the race and ﬁnish with a faster time than those participants who

44

did not read about self-verbalizations. While this study has great implications for
recreational runners to learn self-verbalizing and self-regulation strategies, the study was
limited by a small sample size, disproportionately male sample, and retrospective self—
reported identiﬁcation of a psychological crisis.

Marathon runners of all levels and intensities utilize coping strategies to deal with
the physical and psychological stress experienced in marathon training and running.
Cognitive strategies have been frequently studied and include both associative and
dissociative coping resources. While researchers disagree on which is more effective for
performance and injury prevention, most marathoners utilize both strategies.
Furthermore, runners also utilized emotional coping to deal with injury and often
psychological or physiological crisis. Future research is needed to understand the concept
of psychological crisis and identify intervention strategies to give runners self-regulation
techniques could be widely useful to running groups. Furthermore, it would be interestin g
to learn how c0ping with crises inherent in marathoning (e.g., pain, injury) relates to
personal meaning. On one hand, having excellent coping strategies may allow
participants to derive more pleasure and meaning. On the other hand, overcoming
obstacles may contribute to feelings of meaning.

Exercise Addiction in Marathon Runners

To most people, any type, intensity, and duration of exercise are important to
maintain physical and psychological health. However, some researchers have become
interested in whether or not marathon running is more of an addiction (Horton & Mack,
2000; Leedy, 2000; Pierce, McGowan, & Lynn, 1993). Addiction to running has been

characterized as both positive including psychological strength, increased life

'45

 

satisfaction, and the attainment of a euphoric state (Byme & Byme, 1993; Glasser, 1976;
Sachs & Pargman, 1979; Summers, Sargeant, Levey, & Murray, 1982) or negative state
including anxiety or guilt about missing a run, maintaining exercise during severe pain or
threatening health conditions, and the prioritization of running ahead of other activities
such as work, family, and social commitments (Chan & Grossman, 1988; Conboy, 1994;
Morgan, 1979).

Pierce and colleagues (1993) found a relationship between exercise addiction,
distances raced, and miles trained. Participants were 137 male runners who participated
in races of varying lengths (i.e., ultramarathon trail runners, marathoners, 5K runners, and
non-competitive runners). The researchers found ultramarathoners and marathoners
scored signiﬁcantly higher on exercise addiction measures than 5K and non-competitive
runners. Ultrarnarathoners scored signiﬁcantly higher than marathoners on the exercise
addiction measures as well. Furthermore, runners with higher scores on exercise
addiction competed in longer races and trained higher miles, consistent with the
habituation effect, indicating running has become habit for the individual (Lyons &
Cromey, 1989; Sachs, 1981). While the study provided a cross-sectional picture of long
distance runners, several limitations exist including a male only participant pool and self-
report measures.

A study by Leedy (2000) was conducted to gain a better understanding of the
commitment of long distance runners, to understand whether a positive or negative
addiction is present. Participants were recruited from a race exposition and included non-
runners (n = 37) and runners (n = 239), competing in the 5K, 10K, marathon relay, half

marathon, and ﬁrll marathon. Nearly half of the participants were female (43.9%), but

46

more males were participating in the marathon and more females in the shorter races.
Two general factors of commitment emerged in the results, including running for stress
relief and adherence to training schedule. Female runners had higher scores in the stress
relief factor compared to males. Half and full marathoners also had higher scores on
stress relief. Females also had higher scores on the adherence to training factor, as well as
half and full marathoners". An interaction also was signiﬁcant for gender and race
distance. Therefore, anxiety and stress relief are common reasons to run long distances,
which provided support of the negative running addiction hypothesis as deﬁned by
coping with life stressors and maintaining training in spite of obstacles. Additionally,
researchers found high levels of commitment to running to be associated with health and
ﬁtness motives and positive mental traits. Mood change is an important factor not
assessed in this study, and one that needs to be investigated further in relation to exercise
addiction. Furthermore, while coping with life stressors was correlated with anxiety trait
scores, the inference that running increases anxiety cannot be made.
Gender Diﬂerences in the Psychological Components of Marathon Running

While many women today run the marathon race, previous research has focused
on experiences of male runners (Deaner, 2006; Masters & Ogles, 1998; Ogles & Masters,
2000; Pierce et al., 1993). Today several races for only women exist including the San
Francisco Nike Women’s Marathon and the New York City Women’s Marathon. During
the 1998 San Diego Marathon, 55 percent of all race entrants were women (Jenkins,
1998). Despite the increased number of female participants today and decreasing times of
women racers, research has not focused on the experience of the marathon for women

speciﬁcally. Because of small sample sizes of women in the studies that include both

47

genders, accurate comparisons between males and females are challenging to make.
Leedy (2000) had nearly equal male and female participants. Gender differences in
motivations were signiﬁcant; women had higher scores of commitment for both stress
relief and training adherence. Ogles, Masters, and Scott (1995) also described gender
differences in commitment potentially resulting from pressure and time constraints
women typically face if they have children and/or a career. Yates (1991) also identiﬁed
women to be more committed to their running program, because of their competing roles.
Women who lack commitment typically dropout of running because theydo not have the
time to dedicate to training and racing, while fulﬁlling their other commitments. Future
research needs to focus on the women who do participate in training and racing, while
juggling other commitments to understand their motives and experiences.
Summary and Need for the Present Study

In summary, millions of people today participate in the marathon race. While an
extensive body of literature exists on motivation and motivation in marathon runners
speciﬁcally, little is understood about why certain runners are motivated by certain
factors. Forinstance, life meaning and life satisfaction are subscales in the MOMS
measure, but no research exists on what aspects of long distance running in particular
provide life meaning and/or satisfaction. While most runners initiate their training for
health and ﬁtness reasons, those that continue running marathons often maintain
motivation through other factors and processes including life meaning, personal
satisfaction, goal attainment, competition, and social aspects. Why is it that some runners
attain life meaning and satisfaction, concepts that are inextricably linked to one’s self—

worth, and other runners continue participating for the competition of running? Is it

48

possible to understand the “super-adherence” exercisers and provide new motivation
strategies to sedentary individuals that struggle with sticking to their exercise program?
Future research on long distance runners needs to uncover in-depth the factors speciﬁc to
developing life meaning and satisfaction.

Furthermore, while extensive research has been done on the motivations of male
marathon runners, little information exists on how the experience differs for females.
Females are running just as many marathons and almost as fast as male runners today.
Understanding how females commit to the challenge and time of marathon training and
racing would be helpful to other women that struggle with motivation to exercise.
Speciﬁcally, because most women today are not only taking care of their families but
also have a career, how do females ﬁnd the motivation to train and complete marathons?
» How does running create personal life meaning and satisfaction for these women? And

furthermore, do women run marathon speciﬁcally to ﬁnd a greater life meaning and

satisfaction?

49

Chapter III

METHODS

The present study was conducted in two separate phases. Phase one assessed male
and female runners on the motivation behind why they run. The purpose of Phase 1 was
twofold. First, phase one replicated previous research on the motives of marathoners
using both a male and female runner sample. Secondly, the results of the motives for
running scale identiﬁed female runners who scored particularly high in the life meaning
subscale. Phase 2 of the study then focused on a qualitative approach to how marathon

running provided meaning for recreational female marathoners.

Phase I : MOMS Survey

Participants

Participants were 137 male (N = 44) and female (N = 93) marathoners age 19-75
years (M = 41.62, SD = 1 1.28). The majority of participants were married (N = 95; I
70.0%), while 29 where single (22.1%), 11 were divorced (7.9%) and 2 did not report
(3%). Furthermore most runners had children (N = 94, 67.1%) and 43 (30.1%) reported
not having children. Many participants played a variety of high school sports (N = 100,
71.4%), while 37 (26.4%) did not play high school sports (the remaining 4% did not
report high school sport involvement). Few participants played college sports (N = 26,

19.0%), while 111 (81%) did not play sport in college. Table 1 displays participant

demographics and compares male and female runners.

50

Table 1

Participant Demographics by Gender

 

 

Demographic variable Males Females

Participants 44 93

Age range (years) 19-60 22-75
Married ' 30 66
A Single 1 1 19

Divorced 4 7
Children 29 65
High school sports 31 70
College sports 1 6 12
Measurement

Running history. Basic demographic information was collected including age,
occupation, marital status, number of children, and previous sport involvement.
Furthermore questions assessing their running history were also included, such as, “how
long have you been running, what types of races and how many races have you
completed, what are your best ﬁnishing times, how many days per week do you train,
120W man y miles do you run per week, what is your running pace, do you run with a
partner or alone, and do you participate in any other activities?” The full demographics

questionnaire was included in Appendix A.

51

Motivations of marathoners scale (MOMS; Masters et al., 1993). The MOMS
likert-scale measure contained 56 items across four broad dimensions (i.e., psychological,
physical, achievement, and social), characterizing nine subscales of motivation for
running (i.e., life meaning, psychological coping, self-esteem, health orientation, weight
concern, competition, personal goal achievement, recognition, and afﬁliation). '
Participants rated themselves on each item ﬁ'om 1 (not a reason) to 7 (most important
reason). Using a sample of 712 runners, Masters et al., (1993) presented adequate internal
consistency data ranging from a = .80 - .93, and content, construct, and factorial validity

of the scales, and test-retest data ranging from .71 to .90. The ﬁll] measure was included

in Appendix B.

Procedures
Consent to use human subjects was granted from the Institutional Review Board

(IRB). Participants were recruited from a local running club. The study was advertised in
a local running store, on the running store’s website, and in the running club’s weekly
newsletter. While the primary group of interest for Phase 2 of the study was females,
demographic, running history, and MOMS data were collected for both males and
females to provide a between groups comparison. Interested runners consented to
participating in the study and proceeded to complete the battery of questionnaires online
via survey monkey. The approved informed consent can be found in Appendix C.

Data Analysis
Phase 1 of the study was primarily descriptive in nature assessing the

characteristics and motives speciﬁc to male and female runners. MOMS subscales and

standardized subscale scores were computed. Descriptive statistics were analyzed for

52

demographic questions, running history, and MOMS subscales. Further, an Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to assess mean differences between males and

females on the life meaning subscale, where gender was the independent variable and life
meaning was the dependent variable. The hypothesis was that females would have higher

life meaning subscales than males.

Phase 2: Qualitative Interviews on Personal Meaning in Running

Participants
In order to better understand how marathon running provides personal meaning

and life satisfaction to recreational female runners, a qualitative semi-structured interview
approach was used. Qualitative research designs typically provide an in-depth analysis of
a small number of participants selected purposefully (Patton, 2002). Based on this
premise, 12 adult female marathon runners were interviewed. The runners were selected
based on their scores on the meaning subscale of the MOMS survey. More speciﬁcally,
participants in phase two (N = 12) scored an average 29.83 on the life meaning scale (SD .
= 7.93), compared to the average of all females (N = 93) of 22.18 (SD = 10.68).

Looking at the demographics of participants in phase two of the current study, the
mean age of participants was 42.83 (SD = 8.11; minimum = 33, maximum = 59). Most
participants were married (N = 10), one of which was on her second marriage, while two
women were single. Furthermore, the majority also had one to three children (N = 9),
with three women not having children. Seven participants competed in high school sports
and two also competed in college sports.

Participants also completed the running history questionnaire during phase one of

the study. On average, participants had been running for 12.83 years (SD = 11.57;

53

minimum = 4, maximum = 39) and had completed an average of 2.83 marathons (SD =
1.70; minimum = 1, maximum = 6). The range of participant’s personal record ﬁnishing
times for the marathon was 3:55 to 5:59. Runners trained 4.67 days per week (SD = 0.89;
minimum = 3, maximum 6), completing on average 14.0 miles per week (SD = 12.07;
minimum 6, maximum 44), at a pace ranging from eight minute miles to 14 minute miles.
All participants completed races of various distances including 5K (M = 60.13), 10K (M
= 11.33), and half marathons (M = 8.5). Many runners completed other distances
including 8K (N: 1), 10 mile (N = 3), 25K (N = 1), triathlon (N= 1), duathlon (N = 1),
and an ultramarathon (N = 1).

Participants were selected based on the criteria that they were female, over age
18, were self-deﬁned as recreational runners, and scored high on the life meaning scale.
Only female runners were utilized in the study in order to understand the speciﬁc
challenges of female runners. Female runners were also of interest because they may
have unique motives to initiate and continue marathon running, as well as different
personal meaning and life satisfaction attained from running than male runners. A runner
qualiﬁed to be recreational as long as she was not sponsored by running clubs and did not
regularly receive monetary rewards for participating in races. All running speeds and race ,
ﬁnishing times qualiﬁed females to participate in the study. All participants had

completed at least one marathon and had ﬁrture plans of completing subsequent

marathons.

Measurement

A semi-structured, inductive qualitative approach was utilized to study the

CXperlences of meaning, life satisfaction, and motivation in female recreational marathon

54

 

runners. Because demographic and running history were already collected, additional
demographics were not necessary. Prior to the interview, an ethnographic approach was
used as'an ice breaker, during which participants were asked to bring pictures
representative of why they run to the interview (Marshall & Rossman, 2006). Nine of the
participants volunteered to complete the ethnographic portion of the study and either took
pictures with their personal digital camera and emailed them to the primary investigator
or brought pictures taken previously to the interview. Incorporating an ethnographic
portion to the study allowed participants to gain comfort with the interviewer and
provided talking points in terms of how they view running as meaningful.

Participants were interviewed following a general interview guide approach and
semi-structured questions. The researcher asked participants similar questions but had
ﬂexibility to probe speciﬁc issues as they emerged for each participant. The interview
guide contained broad open-ended questions about what got them into running, what their
experience as a runner has been like, why they chose the marathon race, and what
motivates them to continue training and running marathons. Speciﬁc probe questions

asked to clarify and attain a deeper level of discussion. The interview guide was included

. in Appendix D.

Procedures

Participants were selected based on the selection criteria they completed during

phase one of the study. Interested participants were then contacted by telephone,
explained the purpose of the study, and asked to voluntarily participate. If the runner was
willing to participate, a scheduled day and time for the interview was arranged. Runners

who also wished to participate in the ethnographic portion of the study were asked to take

55

or ﬁnd pictures prior to the interview and either bring or email the pictures to the primary
investigator. Interviews were conducted face to face in a quiet interview room, a
participant’s home, or a quiet restaurant if requested. Two participants completed phone
interviews due to being unable to meet in person.

The interview process began with participants reading and signing an informed
consent approved by the university Institutional Review Board (IRB) speciﬁc to phase
two of the study. Individuals participating in phone interviews were mailed an informed
consent form and a self-addressed stamped envelope to return the form to the primary
investigator. Both participants who completed phone interviews returned the consent
prior to the interview. Participants were also asked to consent to allow the primary
investigator to utilize their audiotapes during teaching presentations. The approved
informed consent can be found in Appendix C. Participants reviewed their demographics
questionnaire completed during phase one for accuracy and updated information. Next,
the interviewer displayed the photos the participant took or brought and asked her to
describe how each picture is representative of her running experience. Then, through a
series of open-ended questions participants discussed their experiences as a runner, why
they complete long distance races, and how running has impacted their lives. Interviews
took between 40 and 75 minutes. Conﬁdentiality was assured for all participants and any
information they disclosed by assigning numbers to each participant. All interviews were
audio taped to record the verbal responses of participants. Interviews were then

transcribed verbatim and identiﬁed only with the participant number.

56

Data Analysis

Qualitative research methodology is a process of data interpretation free from
quantiﬁcation and statistical analysis. Rather, qualitative research is the process by which
researchers gain an understanding of an unknown area or problem or obtain rich and
detailed information about a phenomenon (Patton, 2002). The three major components of
qualitative research include the data gathered, the procedures used to interpret and

_ organize the data, and ﬁnally, the written or verbal report that presents the data and
procedures to the intended audience (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Many different types of
qualitative methods exist including: biography/life history, phenomenology, grounded
theory, ethnography, case study, archival analysis, and visual analysis. This particular
study utilized biographical/life history information, ethnography, and interview methods.
Furthermore, qualitative queries can be useful to create, describe, or provide rationale for
theory. Theory can be deﬁned as “a set of well-developed concepts related through
statements of relationship, which together constitute an integrated framework that can be

used to explain or predict phenomena” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998; p. 15). Grounded theory

methodology is one method of qualitative research that allows the data to describe,

create, and adapt theory.
Grounded theory methodology (GTM) was developed by sociologists Glaser and

Strauss (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) as a means to move beyond the basic theoretical

frameworks of the time and begin to deve10p new and more appropriate theories

grounded in the data of new research questions. Although seemingly simplistic, GTM is
an extremely complex process, complicated by differing ideas and interpretations from

the originators (Glaser and Strauss) in proceeding publications. The working deﬁnition of

57

 

GTM is “theory derived from data, systematically gathered and analyzed through the
research process” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998; p.12). The researcher typically does not
conduct the study within a pre-existing theoretical framework, but rather the theory
emerges ﬁom the data itself, while other researchers utilize GTM to elaborate and extend
existing theories. Building theory from data allows the researcher some degree of
freedom and creativity to portray the reality of what the data are saying by asking thought
provoking questions, assigning unique names to categories, and then hierarchically
organizing the raw data. GTM provides researchers with a set of procedures to code and
organize data in the most representative fashion, while also allowing the researcher
ﬂexibility and creativity to analyze the data most appropriately.

Grounded theory methodology is also a unique aspect of qualitative research that
is complementary to quantitative research methods. The process of conceptualizing
research ideas and formulating research questions is what leads the scientist to the most
appropriate methodology, rather than choosing the method one likes best to answer all
questions. Therefore, there is integration between qualitative and quantitative research
that should be supplementary and complementary, meaning sometimes to best answer a
question one must rely on both analytical approaches (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). For
example, a qualitative study utilizing GTM approach may produce a new theoretical
framework for parent behavior in youth sports. However, in order to discover the
prevalence of these behaviors and make generalizations, a researcher may need to
conduct additional quantitative studies to build upon the theory and potential hypotheses.
Finally, more qualitative inquires may be conducted to clarify and provide depth to the

generalizations learned in earlier studies. Furthermore, because GTM is a purposefully

58

explanatory process of multivariate nonstatistical procedures, government funding
agencies may be more likely to fund projects using this methodology (LaRossa, 2005).

One commonly used and widely recognized data analysis procedure for
qualitative methodology is the three-phase model by Strauss and Corbin (1998), which
includes open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. In the current study, the process
of coding started with microanalysis, which was a line-by-line detailed analysis that
identiﬁed initial categories and possible relationships among the categories. The
microanalysis took into account the data, the researchers’ interpretation of the data, and
the interaction that took place between the researcher and the data. Such interaction may
not typically be objective, despite researchers’ best efforts, because their knowledge and
experiences were what drew the researcher to the particular question in the ﬁrst place.
Microanalysis could also be viewed as a “pre-coding” to Open or axial coding processes,
where the researcher takes a ﬁrst glimpse at particular paragraphs of interest or intrigue.
The primary investigator completed the pre-coding by reading through and making notes
in the margins of all participant transcripts.

Next researchers utilized open coding, which is the process of opening the data
and breaking it down into discrete parts or meaning units to be compared and organized.
Strauss and Corbin (1998) relate open coding with the development of concepts or
categories made up of the interrelated discrete parts. In order to build a theory, the
researcher must identify speciﬁc concepts that together are representative of the
phenomenon of interest, deﬁne categories that organize related concepts, and ﬁnally

develop categories in terms of their speciﬁc properties and dimensions. The end product

59

then, is a hierarchical organization of the many discrete parts into clusters of interrelated
discrete parts, which are then further organized into general or more global themes.

Glaser (1978) originally identiﬁed the procedural process of open coding within
the concept-indicatormodel, during which there is constant-comparison of the indicators
in each concept. An indicator, or meaning unit, is the discrete part or unique idea
separated out from other parts of the data. The concept, or lower-order theme, then is the
name which describes the cluster in which the related indicators are organized. For each
concept, researchers were looking to reach theoretical saturation, during which the
optimal number of indicators for each concept was found, producing a well- grounded
concept. Next, the concepts identiﬁed were similarly organized based on the
interrelationship with one another into categories, or higher-order themes (LaRossa,
2005). Microanalysis was also used throughout the process of open coding, as it is a ﬂuid
process which is constantly changing.

After the researcher completed the open coding process, the axial coding began,
or the intense analysis of one category (higher-order theme) (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).
Strauss and Corbin also described axial coding as “relating categories to their
subcategories” (p. 123). Subcategories are the characteristics of each category, the when,
where, why, who, how, and with what consequence to the actual category. Furthermore,
Glaser (1978) identiﬁed six Cs as distinctive features of axial coding which include:
causes, contexts, contingencies, consequences, covariances, and conditions to the process
of analysis. The six Cs remind the researchers that coding is a ﬂuid process where they

are always asking questions of the data to eventually develop hypotheses or propositions

to understand the relationships among the variables.

60

III

 

The ﬁnal phase of coding was selective coding, which in short is a selection of the
' most meaningful and compelling “story” of the data. Where quantitative research looks to
tests signiﬁcance, qualitative methodology employs selective coding. More speciﬁcally,
the researcher identiﬁed a core concept (higher-order theme) ﬁom all of the generated
concepts (higher-order themes) that was most theoretically saturated and relevant to the
research questions (LaRossa, 2005). The key criterion for selective coding is for a core
category (higher-order theme) to have “clear and grabbing implications for formal

theory” (Glaser, 1978; p. 95-96). Selective coding does not mean one category (higher-

. order theme) only must be selected; rather the major categories can be integrated to form
a theoretical schema and eventually the theory itself (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). During
this research phase, reﬁnement of the theory also occurred, in which extra categories and
poorly saturated categories were removed. The poorly developed categories have the
potential of reaching saturation with the collection of more data. The researcher collected
data until the point of saturation was met.

In order to complete the GTM process, the researcher utilized an excel
spreadsheet containing the raw data and meaning units. The axial coding process was
completed by organizing the raw data and corresponding meaning units into lower-order
and higher-order theme clusters. Finally during the selective coding phase, higher-order
themes were further analyzed to piece together the “story” of motivation and life meaning
in recreational female marathoners. The story emerged in four global theme sections. A
secondary researcher was utilized to strengthen trustworthiness of the study results. The
secondary researcher independently coded one third of all original transcripts. Both

researchers met and discussed the independently coded transcripts until congruence was

61

 

433-.-

reached. During the axial coding process, again both researchers analyzed the data
independently before meeting to discuss the data. Once congruence was reached, the
primary investigator ﬁnalized the selective coding process, which was checked for

accuracy by the secondary researcher.

62

Chapter IV

RESULTS

Phase I

Participants completed a running history questionnaire. It was found that on
average, participants had been running for 12.97 years (SD = 11.17, minimum 1 year,
maximum 44 years) and completed 5.02 marathons (SD = 9.50, minimum 1, maximum
95). Runners also completed races at other distances including 5K3, lOKs, and half
marathons. Some runners also identiﬁed completing ﬁve milers, 8K3, 10 milers, 25Ks,
duathlons, triatlrlons, ultra marathons, adventure races, and relay runs. Participants
trained on average 4.39 (SD = 1.19) days per week. While most runners participated in
other physical activities (N = 103, 74.6%), 35 (25.4%) did not. Other activities included
swimming, biking, weight training, yoga, group exercise classes, golf, and tennis.

During phase I of the current study, 137 recreational marathon runners completed
the MOMS scale (Masters, et al., 1993). The MOMS consists of nine subscales including,
life meaning, psychological coping, self-esteem, health orientation, weight concern,
personal goal achievement, competition, recognition, and afﬁliation. Subscale scores
were computed by summing the items contributing to each subscale. Furthermore
standardized subscales were computed by dividing the mean of each subscale by the
number of items characterizing that subscale. Descriptive statistics are presented in Table
2, and included minimum and maximum scores, mean (M), standard deviation (SD), and
standardized means (Ms). Comparing the standardized mean scores allowed for a further

analysis of the MOMS motives. Health orientation (M 5: 4.86, SD = 9.02) was the most

63

important motive, followed by personal goal achievement (M5 = 4.54, SD = 7.52), and A
self-esteem (MS: 4.33, SD = 11.13). The life meaning subscale fell within the bottom
three motives (MS = 3.27, SD = 10.78).

Table 2

Motivations of Marathoners Scale

 

 

Subscale Minimum Maximum Mean (M) Standard Standardized
Deviation (SD) Mean (M5)
Life Meaning 7.0 45.0 22.94 10.78 3.27
Psychological Coping 9.0 61.0 30.34 14.92 3.37
Selesteem 8.0 54.0 34.61 11.13 4.33
Health Orientation 6.0 42.0 29.17 9.02 4.86
Weight Control 4.0 28.0 15.05 6.71 3.76
Goal Achievement 6.0 40.0 27.22 7.52 4.54
Competition 4.0 25.0 9.32 5.13 2.33
Recognition 6.0 34.0 14.38 7.89 2.40
Afﬁliation 6.0 39.0 20.70 8.63 3.45

The life meaning subscale was of particular interest to the present study. The
subscale had a minimum of 7.00 and a maximum of 45.00, with a mean of 22.94 (SD =
10.58). Because females were the p0pulation studied during phase two, a gender
comparison between means of the life meaning scale was conducted. Females produced a
mean 0f22.18 (SD = 10.51) and males 24.55 (SD = 10.68). A one-way ANOVA was

conducted to determine if the means were signiﬁcantly different. The results indicated

64

that males and females were not signiﬁcantly different on their motives of life meaning
F(1,130)=1.50,p = .223.

Phase II

The interview process began with an ethnographic photo analysis. The photos
were taken and brought by participants to describe what running meant to them. The
ethnographic portion of the interview was utilized as an ice-breaker for the interviewee to
become more comfortable speaking about their experiences as a runner with the
interviewer. Participants brought in photos of themselves running, running ﬁiends, races
they completed, family, scenery that was important to them, and objects, such as medals,
jackets, and running shoes. Photograph results were not included in this study as the
photos would break conﬁdentiality.

The inductive content analysis of the interview transcriptions yielded 1,235
meaning units, which collapsed into 113 lower-order themes, 24 higher-order themes, and
four global themes. The global themes included motives to run, barriers that threaten
motivation to run, strategies to maintain motivation in running, and life meaning gained

through running. A table of the hierarchical organization is presented in Table 3.

65

 

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Motives to Run

Participants were asked to identify what motivates them to run in general and why
they chose the marathon distance in particular. All participants identiﬁed multiple
motives that explain how they sustain the drive to run long distances, more speciﬁcally to
train and complete marathons. Eleven higher-order themes ﬁt in the global theme and I
included being motivated to run for the pride of accomplishing challenges, to accomplish
future running goals, training and racing characteristics, for health and ﬁtness, for
physical appearance, for the social opportunity, to train with others, to give and receive
support from others, for peaceful time, to relieve life stress, and to connect with the
outside world. .

Motivation to Run for the Pride of Accomplishing Challenges

All participants explained part of their motivation to run marathons came from the
feeling of accomplishing something challenging. More speciﬁcally, six lower-order
themes characterize the category including, running for the challenge, having a sense of
accomplishment, ﬁnding pride in accomplishment, valuing the importance of
accomplishing a goal, and marking symbols of achievement.

Running for a challenge. Participants discussed how one motive to run marathons
is the challenge of training and racing. One participant summarized challenge of rumring,
as, “Because it was hard, it was hard to do. It was a challenge and I love a challenge.”
Beyond the difﬁculty of running itself is the challenge to ﬁt together all of the pieces to
succeed in a race. One participant stated, “putting the pieces together to make it work.

That’s one of the fun things about running, the nutrition, the hydration, the training, the

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mental, the energy, the asthma, you’ve got to get them all working for you.” Another
runner spoke of selecting tough races for the purpose of challenging herself. She said,

I feel it can be very challenging, but I love the challenge of it. So, I try for me,

besides the daily run, I try for me to pick different events that I think are not going

to be possible for me. And then I try them. And if I succeed, wonderful, if I don’t
then I try again.
The runners knew that not every run was going to go smoothly, but the challenge of
getting out the door everyday and pushing through the training run for accomplishment of
challenging goals was a motivating factor.

Sense of accomplishment. The female runners who participated in this study all
spoke of the sense of accomplishment that training and racing gives them. Runners earn
this sense of accomplishment from completing races, but also completing the daily runs.
One runner explained,

I think it’s the sense of accomplishment when I’m done. Although it can be a

horrible run and I don’t want to be out there, it’s awful, every step is horrible, but

once I’m done its just that sense of accomplishment that ok I’ve overcome that
horrible run and I’m good.
For this runner, even if the run itself was difﬁcult, the feeling of accomplishment after the
run was an important motive.

Pride of accomplishment. Runners also discussed the feeling of pride they get
after accomplishing a run. One runner felt this pride after long runs and said, “It was just
wow, I did this! You know, I don’t know, you feel like such a real athlete after that long
weekend training run.” Another runner discussed how proud she felt after ﬁnishing her

ﬁrst marathon. She shared, “There it is, the greatest moment of my life possibly. Like

that’s mine forever and ever, nothing can take that away, I did it. That’s, I own it, it’s

’73

mine, every step.” For her the accomplishment of ﬁnishing a marathon is something she
will never forget.

Importance of accomplishing a goal. While participants experienced a sense of
accomplishment as a runner in general, all participants set speciﬁc goals to strive to
accomplish. One runner simply stated, “doing something, making a plan, setting a goal,
and following through. That’s what means a lot to me at this point.” Another runner set a
speciﬁc goal of qualifying for the Boston marathon and pursued the goal until she
accomplished it. She said, “And after four attempts of um, three other attempts to qualify,
last fall I ﬁnally qualiﬁed for Boston.”

Symbols of achievement. Runners also discussed how awards and t-shirts were
symbolic of their accomplishments. One runner said, “Those are all my medals. It means
achievement to me.” Another runner talked about how the medal was symbolic of why
she runs marathons, “Because you don’t know until you do it, you don’t know until that
medal is placed around your neck about why, why people do it.” One participant who had
qualiﬁed and run the Boston marathon talked about how she earned the right to purchase
the Boston marathon jacket and how symbolic that jacket was to her achievement. She
stated, “This is just my dream come true. That was the day before getting our pictures
taken. And the most important was my jacket, had to buy the jacket.”

Motivation to Run to Accomplish Future Running Goals

All participants were motivated to accomplish future running goals. Future goals
of participants included qualifying to run in the Boston marathon, wanting to achieve
outcome-oriented goals, staying healthy to continue running, continuing to run long

distances, and continuing to run throughout life.

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Qualz’jjzing for Boston is a future goal. Three participants identiﬁed qualifying to
run in the Boston marathon as a future goal. One participant was inspired by an older co-
worker who qualiﬁed,

I have a former co-worker that she made Boston several times but um, yeah she is

I think in her late 503 now. And still out there, so you know if I can be like

[name], yeah maybe. So, I think that’s one of my goals.

Another participant talked about qualifying for Boston as a dream goal that could take a
long time to accomplish.

Boston marathon baby! I may have to be 97 before they let me run, but I dream of

that moment, I do, it pumps me up. I think about, sometimes I fanaticize being on

that course. And I’ve been to Boston, I’ve gone actually down the route, I’ve
deﬁnitely watched you tube videos of races from different years. Um, yeah that’s
the big awesome goal. . .I’m just, I’m very excited to one day share that course
with all those very awesome people that have come before me.

Motivated to achieve outcome—oriented goals. Two participants identiﬁed wanting
to achieve outcome goals in running. One participant was focused on being competitive
with her running partners. She stated, “Well, if my training partners keep running, it’s a
little bit the competitiveness. If you’re going to keep going, I’m not going to slow down
and I know she feels the same way. And that would reﬂect that I’m weaker.” Another
participant set a future goal to win a race. She said, “I would like to win, win a race...And
if I can win a race that would be great.” Other participants explained that beating other
runners is not a goal for them.

Staying healthy to continue running is a future goal. Two runners identiﬁed future
goals revolving around their health as a runner. One participant wanted to run the Boston
marathon again and train for an ultra marathon when she is injury-free.

I would like to get back to being healthy so I can start training in December for,

I’d like to run Boston next April, and run it healthy. . . So, but I really truly would
like to get healthy this year and run Boston, and then after that next summer I’d

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like to try an ultra...But I would like to now run it where I’m healthy and be just a
little more competitive with it and see how I can do on the hills and train
differently here.

Continuing to run long distances is a future goal. Most runners wanted to
continue running long distance races in the future. Some wanted to continue running
marathons, while others found half marathons or distance relay races to be a better
distance for them. One participant discussed how runners continue to try to improve on
their training and speed in subsequent races. She said, “I mean you know how runners
are, they always think back and they’re like I could have done this differently, I could
have done that. I’ve already thought that through. I mean I would like to get a little
faster.”

Running is a lifelong activity. All but one participant discussed how they hope
running will be a lifelong activity. One participant described her future as a runner by
saying, “As long as my knees hold up, and the rest of me holds up, and I have the time
I’ll do this. And I don’t think I’ll ever stop. I might go down to the half, just for time
sakes.” Another runner explained that while she will slow down with age, she wants to
keep running as long as she can.

I want to continue as long as I can put my shoes on and go out and run. Will I be

fast? No, unrealistic. And that’s ok. Will I slow down? Yes, and I realize that. But

I see other people out there, men and women, that are running in like their 703.

That gives me inspiration, I think that is just so amazing. And I think there is

going to be a bigger group, like say my generation, there’s a lot of people that are

my age that are into running, and I think we’re going to see my generation

running into their 508, or 60s, or 705.

One runner had knee surgery and may nOt be able to continue running marathons.

However, running will still be an activity that she is actively involved with. She stated,

Although I’m not as active as a participant in running, I think I’m always going to
be around it because I’ve had such fond memories. It was a real enjoyable thing to

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do and I don’t want to lose ties with everything that, that sense of accomplishment
I’ve gotten from things that I’ve done before.

Motivated to Run by Training and Racing Characteristics

Another motivating factor for the female marathon runners interviewed was
adhering to training programs and the race experience itself. Lower-order themes
characterizing training and race characteristics include training preparation for racing,
commitment to a training program, race frequency, and running is a convenient activity.

T raining preparation for racing. The purpose of following a marathon training
program is to be prepared to complete the 26.2 mile distance. All participants discussed
the importance of completing the training in order to ﬁnish the race. One participant

stated,

I go back to if I’m training for a race, like I’m doing now with the half marathon,

I’m like ok, I know this is tough. But if I want to be able to ﬁnish the race and

have a decent time, I need to put in my training. That motivates me too.
Another participant discussed how the reward for training hard is being able to have a
good race. She said, “I really worked for this so I’m going to do my best. You know
rather than yeah I woke up in the morning and kind of gutted it out.”

Commitment to a training program. All participants discussed the importance of
being committed to their training program in order to run their best. The commitment
helped each runner to ﬁnd the motivation needed to check off every training run. One
runner explained,

They [running group] ﬁrst gave me a training calendar, they say you do the

mileage you will ﬁnish the marathon. And I was like, ok. I mean I was dedicated

to that. I didn’t miss a single anything. There was one, like I had to stop part way

through because I couldn’t do it. It was like a 10 miler or something in 90-degree
heat. The next day I was like ok, I’ve got to try again, check that off.

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Another runner talked about her commitment to training as a lifestyle change. She said,
“It was such a personal accomplishment. And I wasn’t all about speed, I was about
building up an endurance, building up my ﬁtness level, making changes in my nutrition.
So I went about it the right way.”

Race frequency. Some runners talked about being motivated by consistently
running races. One participant enjoys racing once a month. She said, “I think just setting
myself up to have a run every month and just know during the [busy time at work] it’s
not going to happen.” Another participant tries to race various distances every weekend.
She explained her race frequency as, “every weekend. During spring, summer, and fall.
Winter, I may do just a few, like your Jingle Bell run and a special around the holidays.
But usually from here until fall, every weekend. I love it, I love it.”

Running is a convenient activity. Running is an activity that requires very little
equipment, just a pair of good running shoes and a road on which to run. More
speciﬁcally, one runner said,

And the only way I could ﬁnd to get that, I mean I could go to aerobics one day

and I could do all of that, but it just seems like there’s; you can always put your

shoes on and go. And it doesn’t matter where you are, you don’t need a class, you
don’t need anything else, and I like, I like that.

Another participant explained how running was a better option than other team activities.
I think that’s what’s so nice about it, because maybe if I had stuck with the
volleyball or something, how are you going to get, unless you are with a league or
whatever, and that gets hard with your family and your work life, how do you
schedule that? So, yeah that’s what I liked about running.

Motivated to Run for Health

All of the runners identiﬁed health and ﬁtness as an important motive to why they

run. Lower-order themes associated with the health and ﬁtness category included: run to

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maintain personal health, to stay healthy for family, to meet ﬁtness needs, to participate
in a physical activity, to maintain ﬁtness momentum, for the enjoyment of the physical
nature of running, to overcome family health history, and because running encourages
healthy eating.

Run to maintain personal health. All of the participants discussed running for
overall health and wellness beneﬁts. One participant commented on how running helped
her to feel healthier and stronger compared to other women her age. She said, “I think
where I’m at in my life, you know I’m 46, I think I’m a lot healthier and a lot stronger
than a lot of people out there. And for me that makes me feel good.”

Other women discussed how running helped them to bounce back from illness or
pregnancy quicker than if they had not been running. For example, one runner said after
her pregnancy, “the health beneﬁts, I can kind of see my feet. After being pregnant I can
see my feet again, I am pleased that I can look down and see my feet.”

Finally, the women interviewed really enjoyed that running offers a combination
of health and wellness beneﬁts at the same time. One runner said, “I’m staying in shape
and that’s very important to me and being healthy.” Another runner talked about the
health beneﬁts and stress relief from running, “I could easily probably just as easily go
out and sit at a Starbucks and drink a crazy whatever and read a book. But I’ve chosen to
do this instead cause I can do two things at once.”

Run to stay healthy for family. Three participants brought up speciﬁcally how

running helps them to stay healthy for their families. An example from one runner Was,
“[Staying healthy], but not only for me, for my family, knowing that I’m healthy, I’m

doing the best I can for myself and for my family. That carries me a long ways.”

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Run to meet ﬁtness needs. Participants also distinguished the importance of
meeting their need to be ﬁt. One runner talked about how great a workout running is. She
said, “I think my, the easiest thing for me to say is because it’s a great way to work out, I
get a wonderful workout.” Another runner discussed how she was surprised at how her
ﬁtness level improved from outdoor winter running training. She stated,

It was amazing, I didn’t try to improve my ﬁtness, I was trying to have consistent

runs, but my ﬁtness in the spring is so much, so much improved its incredible. I

ran [marathon] again and improved my time by a half an hour.

Run to participate in a physical activity. Women interviewed for the study were
very interested in ﬁnding a physical activity that they could participate in and be
successful. Running proved to be an activity that one could begin at the novice level and
pursue to. any degree desired. One participant talked about needing to get back into shape
after years of inactivity and having children. She stated, “that’s why I got into it was just
kind of to, I needed to do something to get back into the physical realm.” Another runner
discussed how other physical activities do not provide the same beneﬁts that running
does. She noted, “I mean I really do have a need to be physically active. And when I do
bike, it does not meet that feeling that running does. The Pilates and yoga I really can’t
compare because that’s not cardio.”

Maintaining ﬁtness momentum. A few runners discussed how motivated they feel

following races because they are at a high ﬁtness level. For example,

That’s easy. After a race is the easiest time in the world, you are already in great

shape, you’ve already done a tough one, and you just have to do real easy, get to it

easy and get rid of the soreness. So, that’s easy, I love sticking with it. It’s a

momentum issue, you’ve got that momentum, you’ve already done something that
you’re really proud of yourself for and then it’s a piece of cake.

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Other racers felt more pressure to continue training in order to not lose the ﬁtness they

worked so hard to gain. One runner said,

I don’t want to totally lose all my ﬁtness. I mean I do take breaks after like a big
race and stuff. But yeah, just not wanting to lose everything that I worked for.
Like we were saying before, you trained for this, you keep running. So why
would you just sit on the coach for like a year after and then you have to start

again?
This runner felt as though taking an extended amount of time off between races would be
like starting over in her training as a runner.

Enjoy the physical nature of running. Rurmers also discussed how enjoyable
doing something physically challenging felt. One runner said, “Because it feels, it makes

me feel good, physically.” Another runner explained that the human body was made to

run. From her experiences running marathons she noted,

The more I research as far as reading and looking at runners who just really enjoy
it, the human body was meant to run. I believe that now, because before I heard
people saying things like “well this deﬁnitely damages your knees” and all this
other stuff. Well, I’m seeing runners out there that are in their 605, 703, and 80s,
80s! I met a dude who was in his 805, he ﬁnished before I did! The human body
was meant to run, we were not meant to be eating McDonald’s everyday, we were
not meant to sit all the time, and like all these things that we kind of tend to do in

society today. Those things are unnatural. Running is natural.

The physical nature of running is something enjoyable and what human beings were born
to do in order to be healthy. Others demonstrating running throughout their lifespan
provide evidence of how healthy running can be.

Overcome family health history. Many of the women interviewed discussed
genetic health problems found in their families. One woman shared that overweight and
Obesity was a problem for other females in her family. She said,

My mom and my sister, several of my female relatives actually tend to be
overweight in my family. And I don’t have one of those needs of, oh I have to be

81

a certain size, but just for physically, it’s not that healthy to be that big. And so I
think, yeah deﬁnitely I need to have something to help me not go down that path.

Another woman shared information about her battle with hyperthyroidism. She said,
“probably just to keep myself healthy. I do have hyperthyroidism so it, it’s harder to keep
the weight off because of that.”

Running encourages healthy eating. While running provides a method of weight
management, another component that often surfaces is changing eating habits in order to

feel good while running. One participant noted,

It’s fun to say, “oh I’m a marathon runner, I can eat anything I want”. But you

can’t gorge yourself on ice cream the night before and then think you are going to

feel good on a long run or any run the next day. You are aware of nutrition.
Another runner talked about an increased awareness of how much work it takes to burn

off extra calories. For example,

I know this is not scientiﬁcally correct, but in general, a mile is about a hundred
calories. Going slow, going fast, it’s about a hundred. It’s kind of just the great
equalizer. So I like being able to look at a snickers bar and go that’s three and a
half miles. That sucks! I’m not eating that. So it’s an easy, it’s an easy way for me
to equate, this is what I have to do in order to do that. ‘

Motivated to Run for Physical Appearance

Running is an activity that can help with health and ﬁtness, but also help improve
one’s physical appearance. Many runners in this sample described how great running is to
improve their physical appearance and lose and maintain weight. Other runners were also
preoccupied with a fear of gaining weight.

Running improves physical appearance. One runner discussed how running
helped improve her overall body shape. She said, “I have liked the way it shapes my
body. I mean this is the one thing that I have found that has really worked.” Other runners

Spoke more speciﬁcally about how running gives them great legs. One runner provided

82

an example saying, “Just your legs start looking amazing like right away, like all the
muscle deﬁnition.” Making improvements on their physical appearance was a strong
incentive to keep running.

Motivation to lose and maintain weight. Some runners started running in order to
lose weight. One woman lost an incredible amount of weight by starting a half marathon
training program. She said, “Yeah, that ﬁrst year and then after that I lost about 70
pounds. So yeah, it was a good thing.” Another woman kept a pair of pants from when
she was overweight as a reminder when she needs motivation to run. She shared, “I have
a pair of pants that I kept. I feel like one of those Jenny Craig or Subway, like look, look
at these horrible pants that I used to ﬁt in. I mean that’s part of it.”

Other women either initially got into running or returned to running in order to
lose pregnancy weight. One woman who returned to running after having a daughter said,

When I really made a concerted effort and seriously considered getting back into

running, I think it was to control weight. I had a baby and I wanted to get in

shape. Running is such a great way to get in shape, it trims your hips, gets rid of
your rear end.

Another woman started running after taking a family photo and actually seeing herself on
the photo screen. Although embarrassed that she let herself gain a signiﬁcant amount of

weight, she shared, “it was after I had my son and we went to have our picture taken. He
was about 5 months old and when the picture came up on the screen I went, “oh my

Word, I need to lose weight.”

Fear of gaining weight. Some runners mentioned they were preoccupied with
gaining weight if they stopped running. One runner thought back to a time when she was

not running and said,

83

I’m afraid of being chubby and fat again, after my college career ended and I look
back at those pictures I am like, oh my god, what was I doing? So that’s a huge
motivator for me. I think that’s, although I don’t want to admit it, it’s probably the

biggest factor.
Another runner brought up a similar fear of gaining weight by saying, “Or worse, you

don’t start [running] and then my fears of gaining all this weight and stuff can come

true.”
Motivated to Run for the Social Opportunity

The majority of the runners in the current sample were members of a local
running club. While they each participated with varying frequency and intensity, the
group membership and ﬁiendships built through running became a very important, yet
unexpected beneﬁt. The lower-order themes characterizing running for the social
opportunity include: meeting new people through running, running group acceptance,
running group enjoyment, gaining social opportunity, and spending time with other
female runners.

Meeting new people through running. All participants discussed how in some way
they have met new people through their experiences running. One woman who was
looking to meet new people after moving said,

About six years ago I moved to [city], and one of the things of course you want to

do when you move to a new place is to meet people. And I was kind of thinking

about joining a group, the [running] group, so I would have a group to run with,
so it wouldn’t be as challenging to, rather than run by myself, running with
people , and the social aspect.

Other runners talked about meeting new people during races. One runner in particular

talked about the sense of belonging she gets from just being a runner and talking to others

Out on the course. She explained,

84

I get the sense of bonding, sense of belonging, sense of like I’m doing something
to help others, you know, not just myself. The camaraderie on the course, every
single race I run I always end up talking to somebody for at least a couple miles,
where we exchange names and oh we do you do, what do you do? And there’s
just that camaraderie with a stranger I never see again. It’s like wow, this is how

the world should be.

Finally, participants also talked about being able to meet people from diverse
backgrounds. One runner talked about how interesting it is to learn about what other

runners do in their careers. She said,

It’s always been a big social thing. Here was a birthday party actually for me at a
friend’s home and everybody there was from the running community. And we had
all at some point run together and we became a big social network so that was
always a really fun time. You get to learn about other people, cause you tend to
know them as a runner, but you forget they have careers and lives and other
hobbies and interests. So, [name] is actually a gourmet chef and he’s also a
radiologist and you just see him in shorts and a t-shirt. So its kind of fun to have

that nice core network to ﬁnd things beyond running.

Running provides a vehicle to meet new people in the community that one might not

have the opportunity to meet without running.

Running group acceptance. A few runners talked about initially feeling
intimidated to join a'running group because of a fear that other runners would not be
accepting of beginners. The participants found, however, that the running group was fully
accepting of new members and happy to help in any way. One runner said, “It’s
intimidating, especially when you show up with these people who are crazy ﬁt. And I’m
like, urn not so much. I want to get there, so it was very nice.” Runners discovered

quickly that this particular running group was supportive of any runner no matter what

Speed. One runner explained it as, “I mean with their motto, “Any distance, any pace” it

doesn’t matter how fast you are, how slow you are, you have that camaraderie.”

85

Running group enjoyment. Once part of the running group, all members
discovered that the group camaraderie was very enjoyable. One runner explained her
group involvement as a surprising experience,

And one of the other things that I found that I did not expect to ﬁnd was a group

of people that are just out there who like to do this. I guess I just always thought it

was such a singular sport, you know, just doing it by yourself. But I found kind of
this community that lives right below thesurface of insane people who run long
distances for fun. And I like it.

Social opportunity. Whether a member of a running group or not, all participants
discussed how running became a social opportunity to meet up with friends and spend
quality time together. One runner described the social opportunity as, “The friendship
piece, where you’re just connected to these people. And maybe you only see them in
practice or the people you see on the course but that’s ok.” Runners also talked about
how motivating it was to know that a ﬁiend or group of ﬁiends was going to be running
too. One runner explained it as, “camaraderie with other participants who were doing the
same thing I was doing.” Finally, runners spoke of the interaction of getting a workout in
with ﬁiends. For example, a runner said,

And then you can actually combine the two, and have a wonderful social event,

while you are working out. And that just doesn’t happen with any other activity,

not with cycling when you go out with people, not at the [gym], even though I ran
into ﬁ'iends last night you’re not working out together doing the same thing. So it
comes back to ﬁtness and ﬁiends.

Opportunity for time with other female runners. The runners participating in this

Study also explained the importance of spending time with other female runners. One
runner talked about the importance of “girl-time” as,

Just getting together with the girls that I run with, just being able to have that time

to talk between the two of us, or the three of us. I mean that’s huge. I don’t have
to talk with a nine year old and a six year old. So yeah, the girl time.

86

Motivated to Train with Others

The motivated to train with others theme was characterized more by
accomplishing a goal together than only the social component. Being motivated to train
with others has to do with accomplishing training as part of a group, being accountable to
running partners, and sacriﬁcing pace to run with ﬁiends.

Accomplish training as part of a group. Another motivating factor for these
participants was accomplishing a goal with ﬁ'iends. One woman talked about training for
and ﬁnishing a race together. She said, “then as a group, we ended‘up, we ran the half, we
ran the Bayshore. And it was such an accomplishment for us.” Another participant who
works with the running group discussed how her involvement with the group keeps her
on own training and racing on track. She said, “In my ﬁve years of work with [running
group] I’ve never ever not run for more than a few days. It just keeps me on track.” For
this runner, she was able to keep her own running on track by helping others.

Accountable to running partners. Finding a running partner or partners can also
serve as a motive because if the group makes plans in advance, each member is expected
to stick to the plans. Having someone to be accountable to helped most runners get out
the door and meet up with their partner(s). One runner stated that she was motivated by,
“my training partners, I know that they are waiting for me in the park. Yeah, and I don’t
want to let them down.” She felt as though not upholding her commitment to her running
partners would equate to letting them down.

Sacriﬁce pace to run with friends. Many running group members train at different
paces. Some participants in this sample discussed how on occasion a runner from the

group volunteered to run with them, even though it would mean running at a slower

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speed. One runner talked about how important it was to have a member of the group
volunteer to run with her. She said, “Just thinking about the different moments, where
showing up to practice and then somebody runs with you, even though they can probably
run a lot faster and they can just focus on their own training, but they run with you.”
Because many runners experienced someone else sacriﬁcing pace for them, many chose
to reciprocate to a new runner later. For example, seeing a new member join the group
encouraged one runner to volunteer to slow down and run with her. She said,

I was doing like I think 10 [miles], and there was a bunch of new people and it

was like anybody here running a 10-minute mile pace? Nobody else was, and I

was like I don’t need to run my 9-minute mile. I’ll just run with you and I’m

going to keep going, but I’ll slow it down at the beginning just so you feel, and I

like that. I like that feeling, which I understand is not everywhere [running

groups]. So I’m trying to encourage it.
This runner was intentionally trying to make new runners feel welcome and encouraged
to run, no matter how fast their pace or how far their distance.
Motivated to Run to Give and Receive Support from Others

Another motivating factor for the recreational female marathon runners in this
sample was the support that they received from others. Beyond receiving support, many
runners spoke about giving support back to other runners as well. The lower-order themes
characterizing giving and receiving support included: giving and receiving support from
others, running partners help with motivation, appreciation for race spectators,
recognition from others, family support, and family involvement.

Giving and receiving support from others. Participants discussed how important
the support they received from other runners in the group was to their motivation. One

runner talked about the importance of group support during long runs by saying, “I

remember the ﬁrst time I completed my 20 [mile] with some ﬁiends, who were very

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encouraging, it was just so awesome.” While the support received was a motive, it was
also motivating to provide support to other runners. One participant talked about the give
and take of support by stating, “just the support that we have. I like that, I really like that
support. I mean it’s a give and take, you give it back too. And that’s what I really like
about it.”

Running partners help with motivation. Beyond feeling motivated ﬁom the
support to and from others, many runners talked about how motivating having a running
partner was. According to the women of this sample, part of the motivation from a
running partner comes with having another person to help push them through tough spots

in running. For example, one runner said,

A lot of times when I’ve had tough runs I’ve had somebody with me. So I really
like to run with somebody else and it’s usually my running partners who will say,
“come on we don’t have that far, let’s go!” So that’s a huge part of my motivation

for my run itself.
The other important aspect of running with a partner is the therapeutic nature of talking
out your problems with someone else. One runner described this as,
We also have our own stories. Even to this day, go out running on a Saturday, its
therapy time for us. To go out on the trail running we are solving the world’s
problems. But we made a pact of conﬁdentiality that whatever we say stays out [on
the trail, and then we go about our daily life when we leave the trail. It’s such a
unique ﬁiendship, ﬁiendships that I have built, it’s just really cool.
This participant is really motivated by spending time with her running partners because
of the multiple beneﬁts she receives.
Appreciation for race spectators. Three runners brought up the importance of
spectators during races. Not only do runners really appreciate the time sacriﬁce that the

spectators made just to cheer them on, but some runners found they can push themselves

harder with the spectator support. One runner said,

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I’ve been told it is one of the most fun to do because there are spectators along the

way cheering you on almost the entire time. Which helps too, that helps

tremendously. It’s amazing that your legs are like jello but you run that last half

mile because there are people screaming at you to ﬁnish and you just feel so good.

Recognition from others. Two runners identiﬁed feeling recognized by others for
their efforts as a runner as an important motive. Because running is such a personal
activity that does not get shared with very many people, when someone noticed the
discipline and commitment invested to be a runner, runners were very appreciative to
hear it. One runner said, “But you know there is some, sometimes there is approval from
others. You are doing a’ great job.”

Family support. Family support became apparent for the runners interviewed in
two different ways. The overall support and encouragement that women received from
their families and husbands was extremely important. One runner summarized this
importance as,

My family, they came to my very ﬁrst marathon and they’re holding a sign. And
of course I have that blown up because it worked, because whenever anything else
gets me down in life, I look at that and [in a] marathon every step you take you’re
on your own, this is you doing it, it’s so nice to have that support system.

Other women also shared the importance of having a supportive husband who would
watch the children during training runs. Without this type of support, the training and

racing would not happen. For example one woman talked about the “team effort”

involved in marathon running,

Marathon running, I shouldn’t say its not a team sport because it is, if you have a
family it takes somebody else, and I mean kids particularly when you have
children who require babysitting, it takes a lot of people. My mom has watched
them, the girls across the street were cross country runners know that like I need
to get my run in and my husband is gone so they’ll offer to sit for me. So it takes a

village to run a marathon.

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In order to get her training in, this runner elicits help from her husband, family, and
neighbors to watch their children.

Family involvement in running. The ﬁnal theme of the hi gher—order category
related to involving the whole family in running activities. One runner talked about how
her entire family became involved in running,

My family runs, my son, my daughter, we all trail run. I’ve just got my husband

into trail running, we’re going to go do a race up in the [city]. That keeps me

motivated. Because I love doing physical things. We do a lot of biking, a lot of
bike touring. And it just allows me to spend time with the family.
Another runner shared a story about getting her children interested in running,

She [my daughter] put on every single piece of running gear that I have, including

my Garmin and my shoes and she’s like “look I’m mommy, I’m running!” And

this was when she was much younger, 2 and 1/2 or 3, she would say “run mommy
run, run mommy run!” Which is really good encouragement on the treadmill.
Even though her daughter was young at the time, she was already developing an interest
in running because of her mother’s involvement.
Motivated to Run for Peaceful Time

Many participants were motivated to run for a peaceﬁrl and quiet time. The
majority of the participants had a career and many of them also had a family to take care
of. Going out to run provided women with a sense of peace, an opportunity for
spirituality time, and a time to be alone with their thoughts.

Running provides a sense of peace. Through running many women were
motivated to ﬁnd a sense of peace or calmness. One woman simply said, “I found
something in running that I didn’t expect to ﬁnd, which is kind of the peace I guess with

myself.” Another participant explained how much she enjoyed the silence of a run

because it was one of the only times she could experience silence. She explained,

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I used to be one of these people who had to listen to music when I would run
because I’d, and now it’s just it’s like, it’s too much noise when I listen to music.
And if I’m not chatting with people, I don’t mind just listening to footfalls and my
heartbeat. Um, it’s just kind of, I like this, I run on the roads mostly but it’s that
kind of the feeling, of I like kind of communing, and just kind of hearing the
silence.

This participant enjoyed the silence so much that she would rather listen to the sound of
running than music.

Running provides an opportunity for spiritual time. Another motive participants
had to run was to spend time praying or reﬂecting spiritually. One woman talked about
using her runs as a time to pray. She said, “and if there’s like somebody I want to pray
for, or whatever, I can do it while I’m running.” Another runner talked about using her
runs as spiritual time because she was not able to relax at church with her children. She
explained,

For me running it allows me to have prayer time because like I have a 2 and a half

year old and a 7 month old, its kind of loud in our house and like even if you

bring them to church you’re always watching them. So you know, you don’t
really have that time. But if I’m running, even if I have the baby in the stroller
with me, at least I can kind of have time to self-reﬂect.

Run to have time for thoughts. Runners were also motivated to have a time when
they were alone with their thoughts. One participant discussed how running provided her
with a time to generate thoughts. She claimed to run, “to generate a lot of thoughts. It’s
amazing how many times I ﬁnish my run and I’m like, ah I just thought of this, whether
it’s with my family or something with my job.” Another runner described, “running to me
means serenity. It’s my place, when I’m not running with people, it’s my place I can get

away and think about things and get away with my thoughts, and so I thought that was a

perfect, calm.” The time to think that women runners described occurred on runs was

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something they did not ﬁnd in the busyness of the day working or caring for their
families.
Motivated to Run to Relieve Stress and Work Through Problems

All recreational runners interviewed used physical activity as a stress relief. Many
runners did not quite realize the stress—relieving beneﬁts of running when they started. As
they became more committed to running, they depended more on using their running time
to work through problems. Motivation to run to relieve stress was characterized by: a
means to relieve stress, running is an escape from life stress, and that running is a vehicle
to work through problems.

Running provides stress relief. All women discussed the importance of running to
relieve the stress they experience from work, taking care of their families, and everyday
life hassles. Participants proclaimed running to be a means to, “kind of burn off stress”,
“its my sense of stress relief”, and “I can blow off steam”. These women found a time
that they could consistently utilize for stress relief, which created an important motive to
continue running.

Running is an escape ﬁom life stress. While running provided an opportunity to
relieve stress, it also was an escape ﬁ'om the chaos and stress of life. Many women talked
about running being a time that they can decompress from the stress of raising small

children. One woman said,

I also run because I like to get away from the chaos. And it’s uh one of the few
times I get to be by myself or with a group of people who are not talking about
their children as the only thing that we are doing or watching them play. Um, I
love them but I need some time to decompress.

Another woman used the analogy of looking in the rearview mirror while driving. She

said, “The rearview mirror is just kind of that’s the road, I’m leaving it behind, that’s

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kind of like when I’m going to go run that’s the feeling that I’m leaving all the stuff
behind me.” This woman liked the idea that she was leaving all of her stress behind her
and heading out for a run.

Running provides a vehicle to work through problems. The activity of running
provides an opportunity to relieve stress, but also enables the runner to use that time to
work through problems that are causing them stress. One participant described running as
empowering because she proved her capability to get through the struggle of running and
therefore could get through other life struggles. She said,

Now that I’ve done it, sometimes I think to myself when I’m faced with a hard

situation whether it be at work or at home, I’m like, I ran a marathon, I can handle

this, I ran a marathon. Its kind of silly, but a lot of truth to it I think.
Running also can parallel life in many ways. Another runner described running to be an
analogy for life as having,

Good days and bad days, good runs and bad runs. Just trying to work through

problems, that you can have an outlet to go work out problems in your head or

even talk them out. But that’s life, like you’re going to have to do that in life,
you’re going to have to work on problems.
For this participant, an incredibly motivating factor was to go out and run to have time to
work through problems she may be experiencing.
Motivated to Run to Connect with the Outside World

Runners also were motivated to run in order to experience the outside world.

Many careers are sedentary and conﬁning to an ofﬁce indoors, these runners were excited

to ﬁnd an opportunity to be outside. The lower-order themes characterizing connecting to

the outside world included: run to be outdoors, appreciation of nature, and travel to new

places.

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Run to be outdoors. Most runners identiﬁed running to be a chance to spend time
outside. Whether they are stuck inside at their job or use cold weather as an excuse not to
spend time outdoors, these runners found being outside to be a motivator. One runner
said, “sometimes I may not want to run but it’s a beautiful day outside, so it’s a chance to
get outside.” Another runner talked about how much she disliked running indoors, but
that she put up with it in order to run her long distance runs outside on the weekends. She
explained, “I hate, I do it, I run on the treadmill, with my kids down there, but I do it so
that I can do the long runs on the weekend outside, alone.” One other runner talked about
how much she enjoyed exploring different neighborhoods. She shared,

The minute I got a Garmin I was like, “Oh, I’ve never been in this neighborhood

before”. And if I don’t know where it ends or where it goes to it doesn’t matter,

I’m into it, and it’s somewhere different that I can go and look and see.

For her, she was motivated to ﬁnd new places to run without worrying about how many
miles she had completed.

Run to appreciate nature. Other runners were not only happy to be outdoors, but
they also spent time while running to really appreciate the nature and beauty of their
surroundings. One runner described that running allowed her to appreciate her
surroundings unlike driving a car or riding a bike,

Even running around the neighborhood you see houses or ﬂowers, I like

gardening, so I’ll see ﬂowers that I wouldn’t see on my bike because I wouldn’t

be paying attention and you certainly wouldn’t see in the car. So yeah, I think for
me, I’m sometimes more into my surroundings.
Another runner talked about how appreciating nature was a motivator for her while on a

trip. She said, “there was two days I didn’t want to get up at 5:30am but I’m like, you’re

in Colorado I mean how much cleaner can the air be, how much more beautiful is your

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scenery, and the sun’s out.” Even though it would have been easy to stay in bed and get
more sleep, she was motivated to experience her surroundings.

Run to travel to new places. Several runners talked about using running races as
an opportunity to travel to new places. One runner talked about how she was able to see a
lot of different places through running races. She said, “running really involves a huge
part of my life. Between you know, running, racing, and traveling to different events, met
a lot of people and go to a lot of different areas. It’s a huge impact in my life.” Another
runner discussed how she wanted to run different marathons all over the world. She
explained,

It’s using marathons as an excuse to travel. Because my sights, I went as far as

Canada, but there’s some marathons in Germany, and obviously the London and

the Paris marathon, I have got to do those. And the one in China, over the Great

Wall of China, just to ﬁnish that.
This runner plans on running international races in order to both continue completing
marathons but also to visit exciting cities around the world.

Barriers that Threaten Motivation to Run

While runners taking part in this study identiﬁed numerous motivating factors that
help them to train and run marathons, they also divulged barriers that sometimes inhibit
training and racing. Two types of barriers emerged as higher-order themes of this global
category, internal and external barriers. Barriers did not always cause a runner to miss a
training run or race, but served as another factor to overcome when trying to maintain a

consistency in training and racing.

Internal Barriers to Running Motivation

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Internal barriers were controllable barriers identiﬁed by participants to come from
within themselves. These barriers included lacking motivation to run, running alone, self-
negativity, and doubting ability to run a marathon.

Lacking motivation to run is a barrier. All runners explained that sometimes they
just simply lack motivation to run. There is not necessarily one reason, rather hundreds of
excuses to not run. One woman explained her lack of motivation as, “And sometimes I’m
tired when I get home from work and I just don’t want to put my shoes on and head out
the door.” Another runner described how sometimes that lack of motivation wins and she
does not run. She said, “But believe me there are times when I don’t go out too. When I
look and say “Nah, forget it. I’m not that good”. But, yeah we do try.”

Running alone is a barrier. Four participants identiﬁed running alone to be a
barrier. Finding the motivation to go out for a long run can be tough with a running
partner, but even tougher if no one else is there for accountability. One runner said,

We trained the marathon together and it’s kind of been hard for me not to have

them training for the [city] half and they’re doing stuff completely different, so

we’re not training at all together. And so it’s been hard for me trying to, ok, who
else could I go with? Cause I don’t like doing it by myself. I will, but it’s not my
favorite thing.
Other runners talked about not feeling as safe when they were out for a run alone,
especially in a new place or at night.

Self-negativity is a barrier. The majority of runners talked about sometimes
getting down on themselves as a barrier to running. One runner described self-negativity
as,

Just self-negativity, because if I start saying things like, “why aren’t you faster,

why aren’t you stronger” and kind of pushing myself but in a negative way. Or,

“God I can’t believe you just pigged out at this buffet, all the training you are
doing”, like that’s very negative.

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Another runner talked about her self-negativity barrier was fear of not ﬁnishing a race.
She described pushing through a marathon in pain in order to ﬁnish the race. She said, “I
think if I can do it or will Ibomb and not ﬁnish? I think that’s one of my biggest fears.
What if I can’t ﬁnish? I think it’s that sense of failure.”

Doubt ability to run a marathon. Another form of self-negativity identiﬁed by
participants was the doubt that they could run the marathon. Runners talked about feeling
doubtful in their abilities during some training runs and others during races. One woman
shared her experience by saying, “sometimes during a training run I may think how am I
going to get that far and then I’ll have to go back and I get doubts sometimes about
whether or not I’ll be able to make the distance.”

External Barriers to Running Motivation

While internal barriers to running motivation were within a runner’s control,
external barriers were often factors outside of one’s control. External barriers included
inclement weather, time commitment, pain, lack of post-race support, and other barriers.

Inclement weather is a barrier to running. Most runners identiﬁed inclement
weather to be a barrier to running. Some runners would skip a run or ﬁnd an indoor
workout alternative if the conditions were bad. One runner related by saying, “the
weather, ok I can’t go out because it’s thirty below and its ice.” Other runners however,
ran outdoors in any condition. Another runner explained,

I can’t think of a time ever when I’ve been turned back by the weather and I’ve

been out there in some really, really crummy conditions and you just think what

am I doing? And you look around and you’ve got others with you and then you
talk about it later on. So that’s one of those challenging things.

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For this runner, even though running in inclement weather conditions was tough, it was
enjoyable to be with other runners and talk about how crazy it was to run in that weather
later on.

Time commitment of training is a barrier. Many runners identiﬁed the large time
commitment of training to be a barrier. One runner simply stated, “It’s a chunk of time
you sacriﬁce, there’s just all these elements that goes into it.” Another runner talked
about completing her training by running twice a day. She said,

I ﬁnd with those training runs, like I’ll have to break it up, like if I’m supposed to

do six miles, a lot of times I’ll do three in the morning and three at night because
it just doesn’t work. So yeah sometimes scheduling can be a barrier, but you make

it work.

This runner did not let the time commitment be an excuse to not complete her training,
instead she found a creative way to make it work.

Pain of running is a barrier. All runners talked about experiencing some types of
pain through running, whether it was soreness and minor aches, to more severe injuries
that require time off from running. One runner described her pain as, “I think physically
just if I do have a nagging injury, like my harnstrings, just knowing its going to hurt and
knowing maybe I can’t go as fast.” Other runners compared their pain running with
something more painful. For example, one runner said, “I guess another thing too is like
reﬂecting back to my kids is well, I had both of them through natural childbirth and I
didn’t have any drugs or whatever and I went through that. This is not that bad.” Runners
also discussed overcoming mental pain during running. Another runner talked about
dealing with asthma through her running. She explained,

I can tell you about mental pain with trying to deal with my asthma. And you go
out and you can’t go a quarter mile because you can’t breath. That is mental pain.

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And I worked for months to get back out of that, I mean I have been dealing with
different meds, so now I am feeling better.

Lack of post-race support is a barrier. One runner felt very adamant about the
lack of post-race support that exists following races. Running groups and even race
organizers provide a wealth of information pre-race in terms of how to train, race
information, and nutritional ideas. Yet, one runner experienced a let down following the
race ﬁ'om a lack of support from running groups and race organizers. She explained,
“After the ﬁrst marathon it was really hard because, even with [running group], it’s so
focused on building up to the race and there’s no post-race support. And you get this
great big high and you’re like, well now what?”

Other barriers to motivation. The recreational female marathoners interviewed for
this study also identiﬁed other barriers to their motivation. One runner talked about how
being a runner minimized her social life. She explained,

Sometimes it just messes up my Friday night. My husband and I, we want to go

out with some ﬁiends on a Friday night, maybe you want to have a few cocktails

or whatever it is. But no, you can’t necessarily do that if you’ve got a Saturday
morning 10 mile run. You can’t have cocktails, by all means you can’t stay up
late. I’ve tried that, but I’m going to pay for it the next day, I’m going to feel
crappy, and I feel like I’m running junky miles.
Other barriers included in this category were: raising children is a barrier to running full
marathons, non-runners not understanding tough continuous training, and not being able
to eat unhealthy before a race.
Strategies to Maintain Motivation in Running
While many barriers existed for recreational female marathon runners that

sometimes caused them to skip a run, these women developed strategies to push through

such barriers. Other runners suggested some strategies to them, but for the most part the

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participants developed their own strategies based on trial and error of what worked best
for them. The strategies to maintain motivation in running included, structuring the
running experience, setting goals, and coping with pain.

Maintain Motivation to Run by Structuring the Running Experience

Many runners talked about the importance of having structure in order to keep
accountable to the training needed to achieve race goals. The majority of runners in this
study joined a running group to gain motivation from the collective group and be held
accountable by running friends or partners within the group. Runners also beneﬁtted from
having a structured training calendar to follow.

Joined a running group to stay motivated. The majority of runners in this study
joined a running group to help with their motivation. One woman said the group helped
her motivation to run more so than running alone. She explained, “And I was kind of
thinking about joining a group, the [running] group, so I would have a group to run with,
so it wouldn’t be as challenging to, rather than run by myself, running with people.”
Another one of the participants was a coach for the running group. She talked about how
motivating for her it is to get new people involved in the running group to enjoy the sport
of distance running. She shared, “It keeps me motivated because I’m always wanting to
get people out there to enjoy what I enjoy. And so we’ve got a whole new group every
time, pull them in and get them motivated and be a good example.”

Following the structure of a training program. All runners discussed the
importance of following a training program. Up front runners are given advice that if they
follow the training calendar and complete the mileage, they will ﬁnish the race. Knowing

the importance of the training helped runners ﬁnd motivation to get out the door for each

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run. One woman said, “But honestly, the calendars help me, they keep me focused.” A
wide variety of training programs exist at varying levels and intensities for runners of all
speeds and goals. Another runner talked about trying out different training programs to

keep her training fresh. For her,

There’s so many out there. But you can kind of mix it up, and like I’ve said, I’ve
done the novice, I’m like alright this time I’ll try the intermediate. But after I’m
done ok, I’m going to give that senior one a try. Just to mix it up and make it a

little bit different.

Maintain Motivation to Run by Setting Goals

Another strategy employed by all runners participating in this study was goal
setting. Runners utilized various goal setting strategies including: implementing effective
individual goal setting, setting process and outcome goals, ﬁnishing the run is a goal,
setting the next race goal, signing up for the next race, and working on improving speed.

Implementing eﬂective individual goal setting. Each runner was unique in setting
goals that worked speciﬁcally for them. Runners set high goals like, “it seems so far out
there but I’m so far gone down the one end, I may as well just set my sights high”, while
others set less challenging goals like, “we were going to walk, not even run at that point,
we were going to walk it, that was part of our big goal.”

Other runners set long-term goals including, “I have a sense of a long term goal,
even if it is a year away. Next year I’m going to be doing a marathon in [city], I’ve at
least got that something on my radar, down the road.” While other runners liked having
more short-term goals set a few months ahead, “I started setting a goal of something I

have to do every month or every other month. I guess from June to January okay, I can do

a race once a month so it’s perfect.”

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Finally, runners also discussed having to adjust their goals. One runner talked

about being under-trained for a race and deciding not to run. She said,

And then you kind of have to talk to yourself and when I did pull out, I had some
bad runs and the next day didn’t get better. And I was like, I’m under-trained. I’m
not ready for this. I had lost the respect. And so that’s part of it. Being able to, it’s
over, I can close the chapter on that one, let’s start anew.

Set process and outcome goals. Most runners in this sample were focused on the
process of training and racing marathons. One runner talked about breaking things down

into steps in order to complete the process. She shared,

I break things down into little pieces. But just knowing that yeah I can do this.
Here’s the issue, this is where I need to get to with it, there is very little time Spent
worrying about how I’m going to get there. I know how to switch myself
emotionally to focus on the process rather than worrying how it’s going to get
done.

Other runners also focused on the outcome goal of completing a marathon, winning a
prize, or placing in their age group. One runner talked about the potential to place in her
age group as,
I’m 51, and what’s really cool about this stuff, what we’re catching on to is that
we feel we’re on the cutting edge of our age bracket. Because when we go to
some of these races, there are a lot of women that are our age, more in the
younger. But what is kind of cool about it is that we can place.
This runner thought placing in her age bracket would be an additional bonus to running
races. '
Finishing the run is a goal. All runners talked about the importance of achieving a
short-term goal on each training run and race. That goal was just to ﬁnish the run. One
runner talked about how not ﬁnishing was not an option for her. She said,
I guess I don’t give myself the option of not ﬁnishing it. To me that’s part of the

goal, whether it be a 5K or a marathon, your goal is always just to ﬁnish, and put
the miles in. So, I guess I’ve never given myself the option to stop a race and just

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not run. Although I have told myself that if I have to kind of crawl across the
ﬁnish line I’m going to.

This runner used the strategy of ﬁnish no matter what, even if it means walking or
crawling across the ﬁnish line. Another runner talked about feeling accomplished even if
she did not achieve pace goals. For her, “I mean there were times when oh I wished my
time would have been better, I wish I would have broken 4 hours in that marathon, but
even then its like well I ﬁnished and its ﬁne.”

Motivated by setting the next race goal. Many runners talked about feeling a lack
of motivation following a race. One strategy to combat that lack of motivation was to set
their next race goal. For some runners it took a little time to set the next race goal after
running a marathon. One runner explained,

I just want to get back out there and maybe I can run a six miler and talk to people

about how their race went. And then you realize, ok I don’t hate it as much as I

thought I did at mile 25. And ok, it might be fun to do a half marathon next time.

And then about 2 weeks later I’m like, who am I kidding, I’m going to do another
full one.

Other runners ﬁnish a race and then immediately start setting their next race goal. For one
runner who had a tough experience during a marathon shared,
Yep, as hard as [marathon] was for me, my ﬁiend [name] ran with me during that.
And he ran the ﬁrst half with me, then he took off after that because he’s faster
than I am. I lost my cookies coming over the ﬁnish line; within 20 minutes we
were talking about what we were going to do next. Its like childbirth, all those
memories go away.
Motivated by signing up for the next race. Some runners needed a little more
incentive than just setting their next race goal. For these women, actually signing up for
another race provided motivation to start training. One runner simply stated, “And just

the thought of, races are not cheap so you know I’m like I paid my money already so I

better train.” Another runner talked about signing up for the race as making a

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commitment to that goal. She said, “So I signed up for [race] because I have to make
myself do that. That’s another thing too, its like I signed up for that race, I paid money
for that race, I’m running it.”

Work to improve on speed. Finally, many runners used the strategy of wanting to
improve their time for their next training run or race. One runner stated, “I want to see if I
can do it better. I want to see if I can beat the time that I did the day before.” Another
runner talked about improving her time during races and challenging herself to be better.
She described her goal as, “And then I tried to work on the speed, so you can try to run
those 5K’s and get a [better] time, so just continue to push and see if I could be better,
how much better could I be?”

Coping with Pain to Maintain Motivation

Another strategy to overcome motivational barriers to running was to ﬁnd
different and effective ways to cope with the physical and mental pain of running.
Runners described pushing through pain, dissociating from pain, behavioral coping
mechanisms to continue training and racing, breaking challenges into steps, and
rewarding oneself after a run.

Pushing through pain. The majority of pain that runners experienced through
training and racing was normal soreness and aches. One runner talked about putting up

with her aches and pains as,

This training that I just got done with, I had some IT band trouble on my right
knee, I had some foot pain in my right foot, and I had some hip pain on my left
side. Not to mention the blisters that I was dealing with. It’s funny how much pain
I put up with with my running. It’s one of those things where I don’t want to stop.
Most runners saw a doctor for injury-related pain and took the recommended time

off running to heal. However, some runners did continue running through injury pain and

105

put themselves at risk for a more severe injury. One woman talked about ignoring her

doctor’s advice. She said,

Oh boy, this past year and a half has been horrible with the IT band and it’s like a
hip ﬂexor problem. But I can’t stop. That’s a real issue for me. I’ve been told you
just need to take time off. Well that’s something I just can’t do. That’s just who I
am. I run through it, which I know that’s not good. But if I don’t do it, I’m not a
good, I just can’t handle not doing it.

While this runner would push through any amount of pain, other runners would take a
break or pull out of a race if in pain. One runner described,
I think like these people who run and are like, oh look I have a broken rib. I’m
not, I’ve never experienced that, I will stop at that point...But yeah I have a friend
that did one and they’re like oh yeah I ran the Boston marathon with a broken rib.

You’re crazy! You can re-qualify. I’m a wimp, I’m not going to deal with that
kind of pain.

Although this runner was not willing to push herself through a serious injury to ﬁnish a
training run or a race, she did feel as though many other runners did.

Dissociate from pain during running. Runners came up with a variety of
dissociation strategies to distract themselves from the physical and mental pain of a run.
One runner described using positive self-talk to get herself through a tough run. She said,

I hum the Rocky theme to myself. I say out, see you can talk to yourself on long '

runs, I’m ok with that. I’ll say, “Yeah, you can do this! You see that stop sign

over there, you are going to sprint to that stop sign and then walk for 30 seconds

and then run hard again” so there is a lot of self-conversation going on out there.
This runner was not afraid to encourage herself out loud during her runs. Runners also
talked about focusing on the process of running by taking the run one mile at a time. One
participant explained her strategy as,

You just take it a mile at a time. Anybody can run a mile, just one more mile.

Anybody can run a mile. So, ok I have to do 15 and I’m at 8, I’m like well
anybody can run until 9. We’ll see what 9 looks like.

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Another strategy was to use visualization to push through a tough run. One runner said, “I
try to envision myself crossing the ﬁnish line.” Finally, another runner talked about
breaking the run down into manageable chunks. For example, “I kept thinking just a 5K
home.”

Behavioral coping with pain during running. Runners also used behavioral
strategies to cope with pain. Some participants used medication to help take the edge off
of the pain. One runner explained, “Once in a great while I would take like a Tylenol.
When I would do marathons I would actually bring some with me and pop it at about the
half marathon point or something.” Another runner discussed how the more she runs, the

better her body feels. She said,

But the longer I’m out there and overall when I look at it, I have less pain now
than I had ﬁve or six years ago when I got back into it again. Your running kind
of waxes and wanes over the years, but I got back into it pretty heavily about ﬁve
years ago and I’m feeling great.
Finally, within the behavioral coping strategies some runners would slow their running
down in order to deal with pain. A runner explained her strategy as, “But there are times
when I just stop and I’m like this sucks, I’m just going to sit here and walk in a circle for
you know, 10 minutes until I catch my breath.”

Breaking challenges into steps. Each marathon runner interviewed discussed the
strategy of breaking challenges down into smaller, more manageable pieces. At the onset
of setting the goal to run a marathon, it can seem very overwhelming at ﬁrst. One runner
said it helped her to think about the marathon as, “But you break it down and you break
down the training and I realized that it’s really not too bad.” Another runner talked about

breaking her challenge of losing weight down by focusing on doing something positive

each day. She shared,

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So I really had to change my mental state to focus on ok this is where I’m at. And
everyday that I get up and at that point walk-run, it’s like it’s one more step away
from the negative and toward the positive. At ﬁrst I started getting on the scale
and that was just like it’s too slow that way. I was like, I’m going to follow this
marathon schedule and then before my ﬁrst half I got on the scale and that was

much better because I was down, I lost 50 pounds at that point, 50!

This runner reached an incredible feat through being patient and focusing on her daily
goals.

Reward self after runs. Another strategy to cope with pain and fatigue was for
runners to reward themselves alter a run. Some rewards were a hot shower, “a lot of
times I’ll think about like how nice the shower will feel afterwards” or sleep, “maybe
how well I’ll sleep”. Other runners rewarded themselves with a food or beverage treat. A
runner said, “I’m like alright, I had a really good run today, I’m actually going to go to
Starbucks afterwards. I’m like yeah, I, I deserved, I earned, I ran my extra mileage.”
Another woman put it this way, “Or sometimes like maybe if we have ice cream in the
house or something I’ll say ok I can eat something. So I guess it’s just the thought of
having a little reward at the end.” For her, just the thought of a treat was motivating to get
through a tough run.

' Life Meaning Gained Through Running

For each of the runners interviewed, running became something more to them
than just an exercise or a goal. Running became important to them on a more personal
level, sometimes even integrating into how they deﬁne themselves. Runners gained life
meaning through the process of integrating running into their lives and found several
byproducts that were surprising beneﬁts of running they did not realize would be so

meaningful. Life meaning attained and motives to run were not viewed as mutually

exclusive; rather some characteristics of life meaning could also be motives. The higher-

108

order themes characterizing the life meaning global category were more than something
to help a runner get out the door, these characteristics were why runners loved running.
The higher-order themes included: feeling motivated to run because capable of running,
developing a mastery-oriented approach, ﬁnding a sense of inspiration, developing a
sense of self, experiencing positive feelings, developing social relationships through
running, forming a relationship with running, and factors that impede the development of
meaning.

Discovering the Capability of Running

The marathon goal was a challenging and sometimes seemingly unattainable goal
to each of the runners interviewed. Through a process of understanding and self-
awareness the runners in this sample began to realize their capabilities and potentials.
Lower-order themes included: realizing the capability to run a marathon, learn to push
limits further through running, appreciate ability to run, running sets you apart, and age is
not a limitation.

Realize capability to run a marathon. Many runners had a lifelong goal of
someday running a marathon, but few truly believed at that time they were capable of
achieving such a goal. One woman talked about it being an unreachable goal for a woman
of her age. She said, “And just it seems so like kind of unreachable. Especially me being
37 years old.” Another runner had a realization that regular people can train for and run .
marathons based on seeing a magazine article. She explained,

And women over 40. That really caught my eye. And the picture looks kind of

like me. Not someone that was like really lean, someone that looks like a regular

person. And I thought, that kind of looks like what I do, or how I look. So that
was kind of like the turning point.

109

Another runner realized after becoming a runner that basically anyone can train for and
complete a marathon. She said, “really anybody, anybody can do it. If I can train myself
to do this, anybody can do it.”

Learn to push limits further through running. In addition to realizing their
capability to train for and run marathons, the women interviewed for this study also
realized marathon running could be something they were good at. One runner explained
how pushing herself in running helped her realize she could push her limits in other areas

as well. She said,
It helped me do things that I think I never really imagined that I would do, that I
never really thought about. It’s opened up a different set of things in life and now
I can maybe set my goals higher and I know they are going to be realistic.
Another participant talked about how running is a continuous challenge to push limits as
she ages. She said, “I guess, maybe the element of just proving it to myself that I can do
it. And I’m going to be 60 years old this year and the older I get the harder it gets.” Even
though running continues to get tougher, this participant continues to push herself.
Appreciate ability to run. A couple of women talked about how through the
process of becoming a runner they have gained a deeper appreciation for their ability to
run. One runner explained her switch in perspective as, “I think that’s something that I try
to remind myself everyday that I’m lucky that I have two strong legs and can go out and
do it. I am always thankful that I can just do it everyday, and I need to realize that
sometimes injuries hit.” For this runner, she gained motivation and meaning from

understanding how lucky she was to be able to run. Sometimes this realization was even

clearer when she was injured and not able to run.

110

Running sets you apart. The participants interviewed also shared feeling special in

that running sets them apart from other people. One woman explained,

We need a sense of belonging and I belong to a somewhat elite group. I mean

obviously there are more people doing marathons than there ever has been, but I

know more people that have never done a marathon than that have. So I’m in like

that top percentile of people that have been able to meet the challenge.
Runners know that not everyone out there has accomplished the goal of running a
marathon, and thinking about being part of an exclusive group provides them meaning
that they are doing something special.

Age is not a limitation. Two participants discussed how they initially believed
they were too old to start a new activity like marathon running. Both runners were
pleasantly surprised to ﬁnd many other runners out there of all ages completing
marathons. One such runner explained her new realization of her capability as, “to see the
women who were even older than I was, accomplish this. So that just blew my mind. Just
to see these women, when I went to my ﬁrst meeting, that have already run mini-
marathons.” Another runner talked about what it was like for her to realize that she had

the potential to runa marathon. She shared,

You don’t have to be a certain age in order to accomplish a goal. And I think that
when I ran my ﬁrst marathon, I realized I could do anything. If I could run 26
miles, I could do anything at that point. I mean it was just a huge break through
for me. I ran my ﬁrst marathon when I was 48.
Developing a Mastery-Oriented Approach
Through running, all of the women in this sample discussed developing speciﬁc
mastery-oriented approaches that enhanced their running and their lives as a whole. For

the most part, runners already had mastery-oriented characteristics, but running provided

a vehicle for them to utilize such approaches on a regular basis. The lower-order themes

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included: focus on personal improvement, importance of effort, developing discipline,
mental strength needed to push through tough times, ﬁll a competitive need, and
competing with self.

Focus on personal improvement. Runners talked about focusing on improving
from the last training run or race, whether that improvement was in running faster or
feeling better. One runner talked about improving her runs in general. She said,

Knowing that I can do a lot better, I’ve done it before so I know that I can do it

again. And when I actually go out and do that I will feel a lot better, I’ll get the

satisfaction and just being able to overcome the bad feelings that I had.
Another runner talked about how focusing on personal improvement helps her to ﬁnd
meaning in why she runs. She explained,

I think its created meaning in wanting me to always do something more, like

always what more can I do, can I now run to raise money for a charity, can I run

one more marathon, maybe pull someone along who wants to run a marathon?

And I think that’s something that you do with your life too, what more can I do?

Can I go down and hit extra ground balls for another hour before practice? Can I

maybe go give more clothes to a shelter or Volunteers of America? So I think that

a huge two parallels with running and to my work life and personal life.

This runner views running as a metaphor for life. She sees the value in striving for
personal improvement in running, but also in other areas of life such as helping others.
Striving for improvement gives her a sense of meaning that is very important in her life.

Importance of effort. The runners in this sample also discussed how important it
was to give 100 percent effort. One runner talked about how she was not necessarily
competitive with others, but she always wanted to give her best personal effort. She

shared, “I’m not super competitive, I know I’m not going to win my age group or

anything, but just I want to try my best.”

112

Running helps develop discipline. Many participants identiﬁed discipline and
commitment as important characteristics that running helps to enhance and, in turn,
provides meaning to them. One participant in particular was emphatic about the
importance of being disciplined in both her running and life as a whole. She discussed,

I think that running is just being disciplined and a metaphor for my entire life.
Because I think I am disciplined in how I eat and how I run and how I take care of
my kids and how I take care of my family or relate to them. And I think that just
inspires me each and everyday because I think discipline was instilled in me since
I was born, I mean my mom and dad are very disciplined people. I think that just
inspires me.

Another runner talked about how being committed to her training program helps her to
maintain her commitment to other areas of her life. She shared,

Basically making a commitment. Ok, I planned on running beginning at 7am and
I planned on doing, say 6 miles or whatever, and I’m trying to stick to those self—
commitments that I make. Because if I don’t stick to those then it’s more likely in
the ﬁrture that I may not you know comply with other, I guess plans that I have
made, that I don’t want to get lax in those commitments. So I try to as much as I
can to fulﬁll the commitments I make.

Mental strength to push through tough times. When discussing how running
provides meaning in their lives all these recreational marathon runners spoke of ﬁnding
an inner strength to help them push through tough runs, as well as push through life
struggles. One runner shared her experience of pushing through a marathon when she hit
the wall early. She shared,

I’ve some inner strength in there, that’s got to be it. Because I know anybody who

does long distance running you are always in a situation where you think I cannot

take one more step. And it’s happened to me in a marathon before where I really,

I looked down at the ﬁnish line and thought there’s not a chance that I can make

that. I was so hurt. But you pull it together and that’s what I like about running.

It’s one of the things that I like. I said I was going to do it, it doesn’t matter what
you have to go through to get there, you’re going to get there.

113

Mental strength is also required to get through the training for a marathon. One runner

talked about feeling overwhelmed out on a training run. She said,

I think there is a little bit of mental pain when you’re ten miles from home and

you’ve got to turn around and come back and things are just not quite right.

You’re way out in the middle of nowhere, it might be getting dark, you might be

feeling a little intimidated in your surroundings and you are there alone and

you’re tired. So it just, mentally, you’ve got to be mentally tough to be a runner.
The mental toughness developed through running was an important characteristic that
runners identiﬁed as what deﬁnes them as a runner.

Fill competitive need. Several runners interviewed spoke of how running ﬁlls a
competitive need that is not filled elsewhere. One runner noted, “Especially that, I’ve
been an athlete all my life and that when you’re done with your college athletics there’s
nothing to really get those competitive juices running again.” Running for this participant
gave her the opportunity to be competitive like she was in college athletics, whereas other
activities to get involved with are more recreational and exercise oriented.

T o compete with self. Beyond just ﬁlling a need for competition, participants
identiﬁed that marathon running offered an area to compete with oneself. One runner
shared how for her she runs to compete and better herself. She said,

I’m not competitive against anyone else. I’m very competitive just to myself,

trying to better myself. And I compete horribly against myself. And why I run,

just for that, just for the competition, to see if I can improve myself, improve my
times.
This runner is constantly striving to improve on her running pace, and more importantly
constantly striving to better herself as a person.
InSpiration Gained Through Others

The recreational marathon runners interviewed in this sample all discussed the

Importance of inspiring others and being inspired themselves through running. Runners

114

indicated that such inspiration provided a deeper meaning in their lives because they are
inﬂuencing others to make improvements in their lives or they are making positive
changes in their own lives from the inﬂuence of others. The lower-order themes relating
to inspiration included: to inspire family, to inspire others, family provides running
inspiration, others provide running inspiration, inspired self by setting marathon goal,
others suggested setting marathon goal, running for a good cause, and objects important
to running.

Run to inspire family. Other runners wanted to inspire members of their family to
run or be physically active. For example, one runner talked about how she inspired her
brother and cousin to start running marathons. She shared,

This is the [city] marathon when I supported him running the race. And I picked

this picture out because part of running means inspiring other people to run. And

ever since I ran my marathon in ’98, my brother and my cousin speciﬁcally have

gotten into running and gotten into races, and so [brother] has actually run like 6

or 7. But those are two people that I think I’ve inspired to run and so it’s cool to

share it with them.
Another runner talked about how her six-year-old daughter became interested in running.
She said, “And my daughter has gotten the bug and she has done Girls on the Run and
she is training now for her second 5K. So I see like it’s like the ripple effect.”

Runners also wanted to be a role model for both their children and all young
Children to demonstrate the importance of being involved in physical activity. One runner
described, “And I like the fact that my kids see me putting on my shoes and see me going
by m3’self and enjoying myself and coming back. Yeah I hope I’m being a good role

InOdel for them.” Being a role model for children is a way to help give back to family and

the community by sharing the enjoyment of doing something healthy.

115

Run to inspire others. While inspiring family was important to the runners
interviewed, it was equally important to inspire other people. A couple runners talked
about inspiring friends and co-workers. One runner stated,

I have motivated some of my younger colleagues to run themselves. They’re in

their 205, early 205, and that’s a huge factor. If I can motivate young people to

run, that makes me feel really good that they look at me as a role model, that they
want to do that. That I motivated two girls at work, they have participated in their
ﬁrst marathons, because they saw what I could accomplish. So I guess they
looked at, if [I] can do this, we can do this.
Another runner talked about how she wants to inspire other people in general to take up
running. For her,

It’s just a very cool thing to do. And I would encourage anybody that you do it.

Anytime we see somebody that’s new to the group, or always invite them to be

part of my group because I know what its like when you ﬁrst start out.

Many participants also discussed being a role model for their colleagues, students, or
athletes with whom they work. One runner said, “And being an example for not only my
family, but my players and hopefully other people.” Being a role model to others was
very important to runners because they had the opportunity to help someone else to better
their lives.

Family provides running inspiration. While it was meaningﬁrl for runners to
iIISpire others to run and be physically active, they also found themselves inspired by
their families and others. One runner choked back tears as she recalled ﬁnishing her ﬁrst
marathon. She shared,

I’m going to tell you this part and I’m not going to cry cause I’ve already told this

a hundred times but, ﬁnishing in [stadium] for my ﬁrst marathon, my mother, my

husband, and’my brother popped up along the way at various points that we
agreed where they would be.

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She was inspired to keep running because of the support her family gave by coming to

her marathon.

Others provide running inspiration. One runner was incredibly inspired by co-

workers who set and completed physical ﬁtness goals. She explained,
Like [co-worker’s daughter] did a mile race one time last year before one of our
games. And she proudly wore that medal all day. So just, I think trying to impact,
and the biggest impact is just impacting other people and motivating them to set
goals for themselves and accomplish something, and they won’t know until they
do it. And to hear [co-worker] say that she was crying as she crossed the ﬁnish
line because she knew that she set herself a goal, she trained for six months, and
she did it. So, hopeﬁrlly impacting other people to be like, ok you can do this.
This runner was inspired by the impact that accomplishing a goal had on her co-workers.
She gained meaning from knowing that in a way she inspired them to set their ﬁtness
goal and have such a great experience.
Inspired self with setting a marathon goal. Most participants decided on their own
to set the goal of running a marathon. One runner explained how she set her goal as, “I’m
a very goal-oriented person and I was like I’ve got to stick something out there that’s nice
and high to reach for and that’s how I got started.” Another runner wanted to complete
the pinnacle of running. For her, “I didn’t know that ultras existed when I ﬁrst did it. And
I thought what is the pinnacle of running? It’s the marathon. Ok, well then my goal is [to
run and ﬁnish a marathon, without walking at anytime.”
Others suggested setting marathon goal. A few participants decided to run a full
marathon because someone else suggested they set the goal. One runner had her brother
Suggest she do a full marathon. She said, “My brother was the one that kind of I don’t

Want to say pushed, but he helped, oh you’ve got two halves under your belt you can

Certainly do a full.” Another participant got involved in marathon running with a couple

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of friends. She remembered, “It was a collection of someone suggesting it and then it was
like suggested to somebody else and I’m like ok, let’s do it.”

Run for a good cause. Many runners also started racing to raise money for various
charities. One runner talked about the positive feelings she gains from raising money to
help others. She shared, “Some of the races that I do are for charity. I raise money and do
it for charity. It’s just that overall feeling of doing something good. So it has impacted me
in, oh gosh, so many positive ways.” Another runner talked about running the sMe race
each year to make a positive impact on the ﬁght against breast cancer. She said,

This is actually just this past years’ Race for a Cure. We do Race for a Cure every

year since my daughter who is now 20 was six, because a really, really good
ﬁiend of ours had breast cancer. And she got us started with Race for a Cure in

[city]. And so it’s continued.

This runner wanted to continuously contribute to the charity in memory of a ﬁiend who
fought the battle of breast cancer.

Objects important to running. For the most part people provided inspiration to the
runners in this study. However occasionally objects such as books, pictures, or running
clothes were the source of inspiration. One runner reminisced, “Just looking at these
pictures which I said I have hanging up on my wall from the ﬁrst marathon. It’s like I
Want to go back there again.” She was inspired to continue running just by looking at
photos of her ﬁrst marathon and this provided meaning for her.

Developing a Sense of Self

Another theme that emerged from this study was the important sense of self that
deVCIOPed through running. For the majority of participants, running was one of the only
things they did just for themselves. Life meaning emerged through this category because

mnners became empowered by taking this time for themselves and enhancing their

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identity as a runner. The lower-order themes characterizing this theme included: run for
self, sense of fulﬁllment, enhance self-conﬁdence, and shape ones identity.

Run for self. Runners described how part of why they run is just for themselves.
Runners said, “I run for myself. Yeah, no one else”, “But for me, this is my time.
Whether it’s selﬁsh or not, I don’t think it is”, and “I can get up at 5am, before work and
do this run before anything else. And it’s my, it’s a sacred time. It’s my sacred time.”
Another runner discussed how she learned that by taking care of herself, she actually was

more effective with helping others. She said,

And I’ve really come to realize that taking care of myself, if I do put myself ﬁrst
then I am able to take care of others. If I’m killing myself helping someone else,
in the end who does that beneﬁt? I work myself so hard I drop dead, who

beneﬁted from that, nobody.

Runners found meaning in taking time out of their days just for themselves.

Run for a sense of fulfillment. Participants also described how running created a .
sense of ﬁrlﬁllment in them. One runner talked about how much more self-aware she is
from running. She said, “It just I’m almost talking about a religion, aren’t I? I needed a
purpose and the running gave it to me, only I really didn’t have to join anything, just
become self-aware.” Another runner tried to describe how she gained a sense of
fulﬁllment or purpose by saying, “I guess meaning in and of itself to me means that it
serves a purpose, it serves multiple purposes.”

Running enhances self-conﬁdence. Another surprising beneﬁt that participants
Shared came from running was enhanced feelings of self-conﬁdence. Many of the runners
reported being surprised at how much running improved their views of themselves. One
I'llnner shared how running, “made me feel better overall about myself because I am

diSCiPlined and because I am in shape. So it makes me feel better about my own persona,

119

 

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my own body, since us women we always think about that perspective.” Another runner
described feeling better about herself, as she gets older. She explained, “I think that does
a lot for your self-image, especially now that I’m older to say, well, I’m 59, I really don’t
have friends that run. So they all think I’m nuts.” Runners gained life meaning because
through their involvement in running, inadvertently they also were participating in an

activity that made them feel better about themselves.

Running shapes one ’3 identity. Women described how over time running became
part of who they are. One runner said, “I think overall in a nutshell, whether good or bad
I think it deﬁnes me.” Another runner shared just how important running was to her
identity. She said,

It has consumed my life. It’s just because I love it so much. If you ask my

husband or my kids, they will tell you it is kind of my number one focus, after

them. But other than that, it fully consumes who I am. Between magazines that I

have, articles I have, if anyone looked in my closet I have more running clothes

than I do clothes. It’s just who I am. I just love it.
For many of these women, running is much more than an activity they do or a goal they
strive for. Running is part of what deﬁnes who they are.
Positive Feelings Created Through Running

While the runners interviewed for this study had plenty of tough, challenging, and
frustrating stories to share about their experiences as a runner, all runners overall gain
very positive feelings from being runners. The positive feelings gained through running
were another surprising byproduct that many runners were not expecting to achieve. The
loWet-order themes characterizing the positive feelings category were: running for the
feeling after a run, enjoying how running feels, enjoying the endorphin rush, feeling

Positive with running, becoming more accepting of self and others through running,

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running is an emotional experience, race enjoyment, and running provides perspective
and balance.

Run for the feeling after a run. Part of the positive feelings from running come
immediately following a run. One runner described this feeling as,

I think just everything. It surrounds me in all areas. So I really, there are days

when I don’t want to, but I know that if I do I will feel so much better. So just

knowing that you will feel so much better when you get home.

Another runner discussed how she feels after a run by saying,
Sometimes when I’m running I don’t like it, I’m like why am I doing this? And
my training partners and I just we’ll complain the entire time. But then when I’m
done there is nothing like, it’s the best feeling in the whole world is when you are
done with a good hard run. I love that feeling, its wonderful.
Runners who enjoy the feeling after a run gain meaning that they just pushed through
something that they may not have wanted to, but feel great when their task is complete.
Enjoys how running feels. Participants also discussed that they enjoy the overall
feeling of running. One runner described this feeling as, “I swear every time I go it’s just
like, you just feel so much better. Even if it’s 20, 25, 30 minutes.” Another runner simply
stated, “It makes me feel good. I don’t feel great obviously every step of the way.” For
these participants, running was an activity that they did to feel good during and alter.
Enjoys running endorphin rush. Runners also talked more speciﬁcally about
enjoying the endorphin rush they receive from running. One participant said, “Well you
can’t beat the runners high. I mean the endorphins afterwards are awesome.” Another
participant explained how she felt running was like an anti-depressant. She said, “I do

think when you’re out running and you are doing something so beneﬁcial for your

system, you secrete different things in your brain. It just mellows me out. It’s like an anti-

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depressant.” Again running provides participants with added beneﬁts that were
unexpected for women when they initially took up the activity.

F eel positive with running. Participants also talked about how running made them
feel more positive about life in general. One woman was surprised in how much running
has affected her attitude. She shared, “It’s kind of fun to observe. Fun, astounding, and a
little scary to observe just how much impact, how profound the impact has been in my
attitude toward other things.” Another runner shared how running is uplifting for her
when she is down. She explained,

Just the positive feelings that I get, those times when I feel rotten or um just

feeling tired and how a relatively short run I can get rid of that. I mean I can go

past that and enjoy things rather than being down-hearted. So I think that’s the
aspect of it, the reward that I think I like that the best.
Some participants also experienced a noticeable change in their outlook after becoming a
runner. One woman noted, “But yeah, I think since I’ve become a runner it’s made me a
lot more positive.” 1

Become more accepting of self and others through running. Many of the runners
interviewed indicated they became more accepting because of running. One runner
shared an inspiring quote, “there’ll always be neighborhoods you can’t move into,
schools that won’t have you, people that won’t be your ﬁiends because of cliques, but the
roads will always be open. That’s just very cool, I like that.” Another runner talked about
how she does not worry about other people judging her as a runner. She commented, “I
don’t particularly care if other people think I’m nuts for running.”

Running is an emotional experience. A few of the runners interviewed described

how running is an emotional experience for them. One runner became emotional during

the interview by recalling her experiences during races. She shared,

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Oh my gosh, and when you are out there running a long time you start getting

emotional. So you’re running by the Team in Training, the purple shirts, gosh, I

just see lavender purple and I’ll start crying. But you’re out there and you’re on

mile 15 and you see somebody running by with “In Memory of” on their back
shirt. I’m running a marathon and if I want to cry, I’m going to cry.
Another runner talked about how running has helped her to be more in touch with her
emotions. She said, “I’m more in touch with my emotions and in a way I’m more ok with
my emotions. Life doesn’t bother me nearly as much. And if it does, I know how to
switch myself emotionally to deal with it.” This runner has learned to regulate her
emotions better because she has an outlet to process her emotions.

Race enjoyment. Participants talked excitedly about running races. One runner
spoke of the start-line excitement as, “just the high and the buzz of the beginning, right
before that gun even goes off.” Another runner mentioned how much she enjoys racing in
general by saying, “I love running events. I really do, I love events.” Finally a runner
talked about enjoying a race, even though it was a tough challenge. She said, “Well you
run one marathon I guess you think, well that was miserable, let’s do another one!” The
runners participating in this study truly enjoyed completing races and found meaning in
such enjoyment.

Running provides perspective and balance. All of the runners interviewed spoke
about how running helped them to keep their lives in balance. One runner talked about
balancing raising children and still having time for herself. She said,

I guess it keeps my life in balance, like going back to like the me time because a

lot of times I feel with my kids I feel like I’m doing so much for them, which of

course they are so little. So I guess it’s a way to take care of myself too, so I don’t
feel like oh it’s all about them.

Other runners talked more about how running gives their life a deeper perspective. One

woman talked about feeling fortunate for everything that she has. She shared, “and keep

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things in perspective and remember how lucky I am to live here and not have to struggle
with a lot of things that other people in the world have to deal with.”
Developing Social Relationships Through Running

Another unexpected beneﬁt all of the runners noted they gained through running
was a new social network. This particular higher-order theme was double-coded with a
motivation higher-order theme. The social aspect served as both a motivation to go
running, as well as providing life meaning through sharing such a personal experience
with others. The lower-order themes characterizing the development of social
relationships included: meeting new people through running, running group enjoyment,
gaining social opportunity, and spending time with other female runners.

Meeting new people through running. All participants were surprised about how
many new and interesting people they had met through running. One woman who was
noted how she met some of her best ﬁiends through running,

It’s so many things. I have the people that I have met when I became a runner,

have been so supportive. I’ve made like the best friends in the world that would

do anything for me. So that’s probably part of the reason that I stick to it.
Other runners talked about the camaraderie among runners and more speciﬁcally how a
running group offers a sense of belonging. She explained,

I get the sense of bonding, sense of belonging, sense of like I’m doing something

to help others, you know, not just myself. The camaraderie on the course, every

single race I run I always end up talking to somebody for at least a couple miles,
where we exchange names and oh we do you do, what do you do? And there’s
just that camaraderie with a stranger I never see again. It’s like wow, this is how

the world should be.

Running provided women with an opportunity to meet new people and feel like they were

part of something special.

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Running group enjoyment. All of the running group members interviewed
described feeling a great enjoyment through their experience with the running group. One
runner had completed marathons both with a group and on her own. She talked about
training for her next marathon as,

But the other part like I said I wasn’t really expecting to ﬁnd was the community,

the group of people. Cause I trained for one with a group of people and I trained

for my second marathon without the group of people, and I just started in on the

third one with a group and I’m like, why am I not doing this more regularly?
Being part of a group seemed to enhance the running experience for some of the runners.
While the act of running was enjoyable in and of itself, the camaraderie of a group of
runners made the experience even more enjoyable.

Social Opportunity. Whether a member of a running group or not, all participants
discussed how running became a social opportunity to meet up with ﬁiends and spend
quality time together. One runner described the social opportunity as, “The ﬁiendship
piece, where you’re just connected to these people. And maybe you only see them in
practice or the people you see on the course but that’s ok.” For many runners, the time
they spent running was a small window of opportunity to work out and also spend some
time interacting with ﬁiends outside of their immediate family. Many women were able
to gain a sense of meaning through their opportunity to have some individual social time.

Opportunity for time with other female runners. The runners participating in this
study also explained the importance of spending time with other female runners. One
runner talked about the importance of “girl-time” as,

I have a whole new, a lot of new ﬁiends, that like the same things that I do and

that go through the same things that I go through. That’s what I love. And the
girlfriend type ﬁiendships. I really enjoy that.

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This aspect offered many women an opportunity to connect with other women of similar
ages and interests, which was viewed as an immense beneﬁt for some who did not have
many ﬁiends outside of their families.

Form a Relationship with Running

After spending so much time training and racing, all of the runners interviewed
formed a relationship with running. This relationship ﬁrrther suggests running creates life
meaning for runners because they give to running and running gives back to them.
Lower-order themes included developing a love-hate relationship with running, positive
relationship, relationship with running has evolved, and running becomes an addiction.

Love-hate relationship with running. The majority of runners described having a
love-hate relationship with running and this variance in emotions is what provided life
meaning. One runner described her relationship with running as, “Maybe in a word my
relationship would be love-hate. I feel like it’s something I have to do. Sometimes I enjoy
it, sometimes I don’t. But I’m trying to enjoy it every tMe, that’s why I went to the
trails.” Another runner shared her experience as, “You have good days and bad days and
you love every horrible minute of it. You love when you’re done, but you love every
horrible minute of it. It may be 6 am and cold, but you’re still doing something.” Runners
loved all of the beneﬁts and good runs they experienced, but hated the times when
running was tough.

Positive relationship with running. Other runners explained that running was for
the most part positive for them. One runner said, “I think it is overall, its positive...yeah I
would say its positive overall.” Another runner talked about her positive relationship with

running as, “Even though there are times where I wonder if I should be doing this today.

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On those days where I just don’t feel like I’ll have fun and then I go do it and I do have
fun, so it’s just overall a good thing all the time.” The runners that described a positive
relatiOnship with running realized sometimes running was tough, but saw the positive
beneﬁts during those challenges. Meaning was enhanced because running was an area of
life that these runners could count on to be positive.

Relationship with running has evolved. A couple of runners noted that their
relationship with rumring evolved over time. Simply put, one runner said, “my
relationship with running, it changed probably, it kind of evolved.” Another runner
shared more Speciﬁcally that her relationship started out as just trying to accomplish the
goal of 26.2 miles once and evolved into multiple marathons. She shared,

When I ﬁrst started training, I said I didn’t care if I only ran 26.2 on the back

roads to the middle of nowhere. I just wanted to be able to say that I did it once.

And then I thought I would move on to the next thing. Five years and an extra kid
later, here I am.

Many runners started running for more extrinsic reasons like losing weight and becoming
more ﬁt, but then continued running for intrinsic reasons such as the sense of self,
inspiration, and positive feelings. Runners developed meaning, as the activity of running
became a more integral part of who they are and what they do. This evolution occurred
over time, but through it running became an incredibly important and meaningﬁrl part of
their lives.

Running becomes an addiction. While the majority of information yielded from
the participants was positive, one potentially negative component was the addictive
nature of running. One participant called running a, “Even though a tad of it is an
addiction, but it’s a good one.” Another runner talked about how addicting marathons are.

She said, “It’s such a high to be able to, I think it’s terribly addicting. Marathon running

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is addicting.” Finally, a runner talked about registering for races as being an obsession.
She said, “So I might be getting to the obsession addiction phase by trying to schedule
something for each month, but I don’t know what it is that I need a goal to do

something.” This runner used racing once a month to ﬁll her need for accomplishing a

goal on a regular basis.
Factors that Impede Developing Meaning

While running was overall a very positive experience for all of the participants,
several factors existed that took meaning away from runners. Runners did not experience
such factors frequently, but became very frustrated when they did. Factors impeding the
development of life meaning in runners included: frustration when not improving, feeling
negative without running, and experiencing disappointment following races.

Experience frustration when not improving. A couple runners mentioned the
ﬁ'ustration of not improving in their training and racing. One of the participants shared

her ﬁ'ustration as,

I get frustrated with myself when my endurance level is not where I think it
should be. My times are not fast, but I’m following the book. I’m doing exactly
what the book is telling me to do. Following my nutrition guide, my nutritional,
but its just not clicking. That’s kind of frustrates me.
For this runner, even though she was doing all of the right things to follow her training
program her running was not improving. The frustration experienced was taking meaning
away from this runner, because she was not accomplishing her goals.
Feel negative without running. All women participants spoke of receiving
positive feelings ﬁom running, but when they were not able to run participants felt very

negative. One participant discussed how she felt depressed without running. She

explained, “I think the emotional thing is that sometimes when you can’t run that you feel

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like somebody is taking something away from you. I think that it puts you in a little
depression.” This runner truly felt that her emotional well-being was balanced by
running.

Disappointment following race. A couple runners described feeling let down after
a race because of all the anticipation and build-up. One runner replied, “its also kind of
anticlirnactic, I feel like it’s a little bit of a let down. I have trained and trained and then
now what?” Another runner who felt similar said, “Maybe that’s just the way anything is,
after the big thing is the let down. Cause really after that ﬁrst one I felt like holy crap, I
feel like I’m like adrift at sea here.” After such a structured and amazing experience,

runners were looking for what is next.

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Chapter V

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to understand why women train for and run
marathons recreationally, and how their involvement in running provides personal
meaning and life satisfaction. Quantitative data on both males and females were collected
in order to understand whether or not life meaning was a motive to run for both males
and females. Based on the results and consistent with previous research (Curtis &
McTeer, 1981; Summers, Sargent, Levey, & Murry, 1982), health orientation, goal
achievement, and self-esteem were identiﬁed as the most important motives from this
sample. Furthermore, competition and recognition were the lowest two motives
representing the current sample, which was also supported by previous research Gt/lasters
& Lambert, 1989; Masters & Ogles, 2003). Runners are much more likely to train and
race marathons for health and psychological beneﬁts than for outcome-based rewards.
Life meaning was the seventh out of nine possible motives to be identiﬁed as important.
No research has previously been conducted on life meaning in marathon runners for a
comparison.

Gender differences among marathon runners have also been neglected in previous
research. Based on the calculated means of the life meaning subscale, males and females
both identiﬁed life meaning as an important motive. Although the hypothesis that females
would score higher on the life meaning subscale than males was not supported, females
were chosen for the study based on a variety of reasons including increased recreational

participation in marathons, advent of the women’s marathon (Nike womens in San

130

Francisco and MORE marathon in New York), and women’s many other life roles (e. g.,
employee, wife, mother, friend). Future studies should be done on male marathoners to
understand how men speciﬁcally develop life meaning through running and compare
such ﬁndings to female runners.

During phase two of the study, 12 interviews were conducted with recreational
female marathon runners. In order to truly understand how females gain meaning through
marathon running, runners who highly identiﬁed life meaning as a motive were selected
for the interview. Four global themes emerged from the inductive content analysis, which
included motives to run, barriers that threaten motivation to run, coping strategies to
overcome barriers, and life meaning gained through running.

Motivation to Run Marathons

Motives identiﬁed by the current sample of female recreational runners were
consistent with previously identiﬁed motives (Barrell, Chamberlain, Evans, Holt, &
Mackean, 1989; Curtis & McTeer, 1981; Johnsgard, 1985b; Masters, Ogles, & Jolton,
1993). The most representative motives from previous research included health and
ﬁtness, developing cognitive strategies to overcome barriers to motivation, goal
achievement, and social opportunity. Speciﬁcally comparing the emergent themes with
the Master’s et al., (1993) motives, a high rate of consistency was evident. Paralleling the
MOMS sub-scales, identiﬁed motives included: psychological (i.e., life meaning, positive
feelings, self-conﬁdence), achievement (i.e., pride of accomplishment, accomplish future
goals, setting goals), social (social opportunity, give and receive support ﬁom others,

inspiration), and physical (health and ﬁtness, physical appearance, coping with pain).

131

Therefore the current results replicate previous ﬁndings on why runners participate in the
marathon distance.

Unique motives emerging from the present study included running because one
discovered their capability to run, training and racing characteristics, developing a sense
of self, seeking peaceful time, connecting with the outdoors, and relieving stress. These
motives may have been overshadowed in past research, not weighing as heavily as
motives of competence, health, and afﬁliation. Furthermore, a previous lack of qualitative
research in the area of motivation among marathon runners may have also kept such
motives hidden. Finally, because interview questions were framed ﬁom a life meaning
approach, new motives may have emerged. Such unique motives to run are important
because most often when deciding on an exercise activity to take up, exercisers are
interested in relieving stress and ﬁnding a peaceful time to relax. More people may
becoming interested in the activity of running if they were aware of the stress relieving
beneﬁts, peaceful time away, and opportunity for introspection. Based on societal norms
and ﬁnancial recession, most people today experience signiﬁcant stress and are
constantly multi-tasking. Based on the results presented from this study, running offers
individuals a healthy option to multitask by getting a workout in, relieving stress, taking
some time for oneself, and connecting with the outdoors all within a short period of time.

Investigating literature outside of motives to run, more similarities emerged
between previous research and the current study. The relationship between distance
running and mood has been well-documented (Gondola & Tuckrnan, 1982; Lane, 2001;
Lane, Lane, & Firth, 2002). The current research provided additional conﬁrmation

indicating the role of marathon running on creating a more positive mood. Runners in the

132

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current sample identiﬁed a hi gher—order theme of positive feelings that was composed of
10 lower-order characteristics, during which runners speciﬁcally emphasized the
endorphin rush and therapeutic potential of running. From a practical standpoint, the
activity of running can help people who struggle to maintain a positive mood through the
general stressors of everyday life. Furthermore, practical applications of this ﬁnding can
be applied in clinical settings with individuals experiencing depression, anxiety, and
stress.

Another parallel between previous research (Conboy, 1994) to the current study
was discovered. Runners in the current study reported feeling withdrawn and depressed
when they were unable to run. Not only did distance running reduce depression for the
current sample, but also runners who needed time off from running felt more depressed
when they were not able to run. One of the many reasons that marathon runners exhibited
a decrease in depression was the stress relieving beneﬁt that running provided (Conboy,
1994). When runners were unable to run due to injury or needed time off, they
experienced a double effect of not receiving the positive beneﬁts they craved (i.e., feeling
alter a run, endorphin rush, positive feelings, and enjoyment), as well as not having a
vehicle to let go of negativity upon which they consistently relied (i.e., relieve stress, time
alone, and feeling negative without running). This ﬁnding stimulates the need for further
research on avid exercisers who need to take time off to heal an injury.

Furthermore, feeling states have been positively related to successﬁrl performance
(Berger & Molt, 2000; Terry, Lane, Lane, & Keohane, 1999), indicating that positive
feelings and overall enjoyment of the activity have the potential to improve marathon

race performance. All of the runners in the current sample spoke about how running

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created positive feelings for them, both during and after running. Some of the positive
feelings were related to pride in accomplishment, while other positive feelings were more
general positive affect. In short, long distance runners typically had a positive life
outlook. For most runners, the act of running itself was enjoyable, as well as the positive
feelings and endorphins produced through running. In a recent study by Boecker et al.,
(2008), researchers found both an actual and perceived effect from endorphins. Based on
in vivo evidence, endogenous opioids were released in the prefrontal and limbic brain
centers of long distance runners, inducing a physiologically stimulated “runner’s high”.
Furthermore, researchers collected self-report measures of happiness and mood, which
indicated that runners perceived themselves to be happier and more positive following
long bouts of running. This ﬁnding provides evidence for the therapeutic utility of
exercise-based intervention programs for clinically depressed and anxious patients.
While for the most part participants shared the positive aspects of their running
experiences, runners also identiﬁed times when they perceived themselves to not be
successful (i.e., not improving, not able to run because of injury, being undertrained for a
race). During times of struggle, runners were very tough on themselves. Many runners
spoke about feeling disappointed in their race performance, pushing through pain so they
did not have to stop running, and being hard on themselves for skipping a run. Boecker et
al., (2008) also indicated the possible relationship of endorphin release with running and
exercise addiction. Because the brain is actually producing good-feeling opioids, distance
runners can become addicted the “runner’s high”. Therefore, the current research
provides ﬁrrther support that feeling states are linked to performance outcomes of

marathon running.

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Barriers that Threaten Motivation to Run L

Unique to the current study was the emergence of speciﬁc barriers that threatened
a runner’s motivation to train and race marathons. Some runners identiﬁed internal
barriers (i.e., lacking motivation, running alone, doubting ability) that were motivational
barriers from within a runner’s control. It was found that when internal barriers occurred,
runners sometimes talked themselves out of doing their training runs and let negative
thoughts overwhelm their thinking. Such negative thinking created doubt and the doubt
led to participants making excuses to not run. External barriers (i.e., inclement weather,
lack of time, pain) were also found to supply participants with excuses not to run.
External barriers were often more situation-speciﬁc. For example, a runner could have
felt very motivated to go outside to train, but after checking the weather may have
decided it was too cold and stayed home instead.

The barriers that threaten motivation were an interesting ﬁnding due to the
inconsistency and ambiguity amongst runners. Three runners discussed how they never
experienced barriers to their motivation to run. Each day they had a training run or
wanted to run they were excited to lace up their running shoes. Other runners were more
middle of the road with their motivation, experiencing times when running came easily
and other times when they struggled to be motivated. These runners most accurately
describe the majority of runners out there. There are going to be ups and downs
depending on the weather, injuries, race goals, and personal life stress. Finally, a third
group of runners pushed themselves beyond what was healthy by running through pain

and injury. Only two runners admitted to continuing past what was recommended by a

135

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doctor, but these runners ran the risk of more serious injury or even permanent damage to
their bodies.

While it is not understood why some runners are motivated all the time, other
runners struggle at times with motivation, and others yet push themselves to unhealthy
levels, a case study methodology would help ﬁrture researchers to identify personality
traits and characteristics consistent with each runner group. Such results would yield
important practical applications for current runners to understand their own motivational
tendencies, as well as practitioners helping beginner runners to get involved in the sport.
While the barriers themselves are interesting, it is more important to understand how
runners who struggle with motivation are able to push through and continue running.
Coping Strategies to Overcome Barriers

While there is a lack of previous research outlining speciﬁc barriers to motivation
for marathon runners, coping strategies to deal with internal and external demands have
been identiﬁed speciﬁc to long distance running. The recreational marathon runners in
this sample also developed speciﬁc coping strategies to overcome the motivational
barriers that threaten their success in training and racing. Morgan and Pollock (1977)
suggested that distance athletes utilize two primary cognitive coping strategies including
association and dissociation. Dissociation strategies emerged as an important coping
mechanism for the current sample of runners. Speciﬁc dissociation techniques included
visualization, positive self-talk, mental tricks, and distracting thoughts. Furthermore,
runners in this study also used behavioral coping strategies (i.e., medication, good
hydration and nutrition, and running injury-free) to cope with the internal and external

demands of running, consistent with the ﬁndings of Capen and Roberts (2001).

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Association strategies were not utilized by these participants, as consistent with
previous research on recreational athletes (Brewer & Buman, 2006; Masters & Ogles,
1998). Previous researchers also suggested that non-elite athletes using dissociation
coping strategies might be more susceptible to injury because they became good at
zoning out the pain (Morgan & Pollock, 1977; Schomer, 1987). Repetitive use of
dissociation with chronic pain could lead to overuse injuries and subsequently time off
from running. Many runners in the current sample admitted to running through pain and
injury. One runner even discussed how she used dissociation to remove herself ﬁ‘om the
pain by shifting her thoughts to other aspects of her life during her run. While consistent
support for the notion that dissociation in recreational marathoners could lead to overuse
injuries has not been found, the results of this study suggest future research is needed.

Further investigation regarding the concern about recreational female runners
pushing themselves to continue mnning through injury was also warranted. The majority
of participants were not interested in putting themselves at risk for a serious injury;
however, some participants gave speciﬁc examples of continuing to run despite doctor’s
recommendations to rest during an injury. Although overuse injuries have been well
documented in competitive sports (N adler, Wu, Galski, & Feinberg, 1998), evidence has
not linked overuse injuries with recreational exercise participants. Future research on
recreational marathoners might investigate overuse injuries and self-prescribed
rehabilitation strategies of this growing population. Perhaps those who chose to run
marathons tend to be more achievement-oriented, and thus are more susceptible to over

training then other exercisers.

137

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Another consistency between the previous and current research involved
understanding the addictive nature of long distance running. Previous researchers (Horton
& Mack, 2000; Pierce, McGowan, & Lynn, 1993) have found addiction to running to be
related to distance raced (i.e., ultra-marathoners and marathoners with the greatest
addiction to running). Some participants in the present study described their addiction to
running as a positive habit, consistent with previous researchers. Leedy (2000) found that
positive addiction had the potential to relieve stress and promote adherence to training
programs. However, other runners shared stories of obsessing over mileage and persistent
training and racing through injury, which aligned with negative addiction characteristics.
Further research should be conducted to focus on whether recreational runners are
blurring the line between a positive habit and a negative addiction to marathon training
and racing.

Life Meaning Gained through Marathon Running

From a theoretical standpoint, marathon running has the potential to be a vehicle
for individuals to create meaning in their lives. Based on Snyder’s (1997) postulation that
individuals seek to manage and control their lives in order to achieve goals, marathon
runners in the present study managed their training programs and maintained control in
order to accomplish their race goals. Training became one area of a female runner’s life
that she had complete control over. The runner needed to push through the motivational
barriers and develop effective coping strategies to maintain motivation. Frankl (1972,
1984) suggested through logotherapy that individuals are constantly in search of
meaning, even during times of suffering. These marathoners understood that they would

suffer both physically and mentally through the training process and race, yet that was

138

 

speciﬁcally where the majority of these runners found meaning. Runners talked about the
mental strength needed to be a runner and how pushing through struggles as a runner
helped them to push through struggles in life. Both theoretical perspectives were
supported by the current research indicating that marathon running was an appropriate
activity to seek out life meaning.

While previous researchers have found signiﬁcant relationships to be the most
important source of life meaning (Debats, 1996; F eldman & Snyder, 2005), other
signiﬁcant sources of meaning may come from health, self-actualization, the achievement
of tangible goals, and development of talents. Because marathon running was found to
serve as an outlet to improve health, achieve tangible goals, and develop talent, running
could indeed be a signiﬁcant source of life meaning for future practitioners to consider.
Throughout the interviews conducted with recreational marathon runners, evidence that
running was a source of life meaning for the participants in this sample included the
higher-order themes including discovering the capability of running, developing a
mastery-oriented approach, seeking inspiration, developing a sense of self, experiencing
positive feelings, and forming a relationship with running.

Exercise has been identiﬁed as a source of meaning by previous researchers
(Maslow, 1965; Metheny, 1968). Through exercise, individuals have the Opportunity to
test their capabilities, set and achieve challenging goals, and enhance their feelings of
self-worth. Furthermore, consistent with Metheny’s (1968) postulates on attaining
meaning from goal-oriented movement, the recreational marathon runners in the current
sample gained meaning from realizing their capability to run a marathon. While three of

the women were runners in high school, the majority of women in this sample had never

139

 

previously viewed themselves as runners. To ﬁnd that they possessed the potential to run
for 26.2 miles was a life-altering discovery and appreciation for their abilities. Through
this realization, runners were able to push their physical limits further than ever imagined
before. The discovery of pushing limits was one that transferred to other areas of life for
these women. Participants spoke about how running taught them they could handle the
stress of work, family, and traumatic life events. Running became a very empowering
activity for these women, as after completing a marathon or multiple marathons they
realized they were capable of anything they set their minds to.

Another important characteristic of exercise that enhances meaning was that
movement in and of itself produced positive physical and psychological effects
(Metheny, 1968). Runners described positive physical effects such as, enjoying the
feeling of running, enjoying the feeling after a run, and enjoying racing. Numerous
positive psychological effects also emerged, which included feeling positive with
running, gaining acceptance of self and others, and ﬁnding balance and perspective.
However, along with all of the positive effects of exercise many individuals viewed
exercise, particularly distance running, as boring, hard work, and not much fun. Based on
Metheny’s suggestions then, individuals interested in marathon running must ﬁnd
meaning in the positive effects, rather than allowing negative thoughts to be distracting.
Those individuals who push through the motivational barriers receive self-gratifying
beneﬁts such as self-conﬁdence, pride, and satisfaction of accomplishments.

Metheny (1968) voiced concern that some beginner exercisers may be
demotivated to continue the activity because of a new awareness of just how far they

have to go in order to achieve their goals. One example given by a participant to

140

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counteract Metheny’s concern was a beginner runner who took up running for weight
loss. At the start of her half marathon training program her weight was ﬂuctuating slowly
and she became extremely frustrated. Instead of feeling inadequate and quitting the
activity, she stopped closely monitoring her weight. After the sixteen week training
program and the completion of the race, the woman discovered she had lost 50 pounds.
For this runner, she had to focus her energy on the big goal ahead, instead of the daily
grind of running and nutrition. In the end, she was able to maintain motivation,
accomplish her race goal, and lose the weight she had hoped for.

Battista and Almond (1973) suggested four guiding characteristics of meaning
including individual’s commitment to seeking meaning, i.e., framing life goals,
developing a life mission to ﬁrlﬁlling meaning, and ﬁrlﬁlhnent reached during the strive
for meaning. Marathon runners in the present investigation behaved very similarly,
demonstrating commitment to their training, through which marathon running became
part of their identity, and subsequently pushed them to strive for race goals. All of the
runners stated multiple times throughout the interview that running was part of who they
are now. This identity relation was a positive association for runners because it gave them
a unique and powerﬁrl characteristic to identify with. Runners also gained satisfaction
through striving for overall success. Marathon running was an ideal avenue for these
individuals to strive for and ﬁnd meaning in their lives. Because very few people in the
general population become involved in the activity of marathon running, it is furthermore
important to better understand the characteristics of those who seek out such this

challenging activity.

141

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The act of running itself is not inherently meaningful, but rather the individual
must assign meaning to that action (Metheny, 1968). Running can be meaningless, as it is
a constant motion repeated over and over again. Furthermore, running for exercise
typically does not share the purpose of locomotion from one place to another. Also
seemingly meaningless is the fatigue and pain the body feels as the duration of running
increases. Meaning then comes ﬁ'om the participant assigning meaning to the
meaningless task. Like Sysiphys, marathon runners must ﬁnd meaning in the absurdity of
their task. For example, the current participants assigned more meaning to running as
they became more immersed in the sport. Through the process of becoming and
identifying as a marathon runner, participants discussed developing and reﬁning a
mastery-approach, including a focus on improvement, effort, discipline, mental strength,
and competitive drive. All of the runners interviewed continued running after their ﬁrst
marathons. The initial goal may have been to train for and run a marathon, but each
woman in the present study found more than they expected in running. Their continued
involvement in running gave them an avenue to improve physically, work hard at an
activity, demonstrate commitment and discipline, model mental toughness to others, and
activate a healthy competitive ﬁre. Furthermore, running facilitated endorphin release,
potentially making one feel better without really understanding why.

While little research has been done regarding gender differences in developing
life meaning, Metheny (1968) suggested that females have the potential to gain meaning
from both work and sport sources. Females taking part in this study gained signiﬁcant
meaning from the activity of marathon running because of their personal investment.

Despite a slow start for females in the marathon race, the female marathon movement has

142

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blossomed. One participant in the current study organized races and noted that females
outnumbered males in most of the races she chairs, as well as the races she ran.
Furthermore, women only races have emerged across the country such as the Nike
women’s marathon in San Francisco and the MORE women’s marathon in New York
City. Women in the current study also talked about how much they enjoyed the “girl
time” while they were running. Marathon running became an empowering activity to the
runners involved in this study, where they could accomplish great success because of
their femininity. As they became more consistent runners they began to realize their
potential to accomplish any goals they had in any domain.

While support for marathon runners striving to achieve peak experiences did not
explicitly emerge from. the current study, several consistencies existed between the
female runners interviewed and their striving for peak experiences. Runners talked about
focusing on personal improvement, satisfaction of achievement, and how running feels.
Running has potential to be an ideal avenue for recreational exercisers to attain peak
experiences because runners typically view the activity as positive, experience emotions
of humility, are intrinsically motivated, and receive self-validation ﬁ'om running
(Maslow, 1968). Future research should assess marathoners’ ability to attain peak
experiences, as little research has been conducted on peak experience for exercisers.

Conceptually, life satisfaction is a very similar construct to life meaning.
Marathon running also appeared to be an apprOpriate vehicle to provide individuals with
life satisfaction as well as life meaning. Self-satisfaction was an overall understanding
that life was as it should be (Ventegodt, Merrick, & Andersen, 2003). Marathon running

provided a context for ﬁnding life balance and perspective, satisfaction with

143

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accomplishments, and positive feelings. Furthermore, runners shared that even when they
set their goals high and do not accomplish them, ﬁnishing the race or the run was
satisfying. Running proved to be one thing that the participants could be sure to complete
on each training day, which allowed women to be proud of accomplishing something.

The runners interviewed also discussed how marathon running ﬁlled multiple
needs. Based on Maslow’s (1959, 1968, 1971) hierarchy of needs, marathon running was
found to have the potential to ﬁll needs of acceptance and afﬁliation (i.e., social
opportunity, inspiration, give and receive support), competence and self-esteem (i.e.,
accomplishment, self-conﬁdence, capability), cognitiVe (i.e., time to think), and aesthetic
(i.e., connection with the outside world). Furthermore, marathon running offered an
opportunity to reach self-actualization because all other needs could be satisﬁed and self-
actualized individuals seek personal growth. The ﬁnal level of Maslow’s model is self-
transcendence, which many runners exempliﬁed through inspiring others, striving to be a
role model, and raising money for charities.

Transcendence in the case of marathon runners was seen in the female
participants who became more than a wife, mother, and ﬁiend. These women found
another way to be fulﬁlled personally, as well as help others in the process. All of the
women interviewed for the current study described how helping others was very
important to their life having meaning, which may be consistent with the sample, but also
may be characteristic among females. Beyond the meaning female runners gain from
helping others, marathons offer another unique aspect in that they are able to take time

for themselves as well. All of the participants typically put themselves second or even

third to their husbands, children, jobs, and friends. Running was one area where they took

144

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the time for themselves that was needed, which was sometimes lost in the hustle of taking
care of everyone else. Therefore, marathon running is an activity that has great potential
to provide women with a unique and meaningﬁﬂ source of life meaning. -

In summary, running provided a vehicle for participants to attain life meaning and
life satisfaction. Exercisers must ﬁnd meaning in the absurdity of running, and then have
the mental toughness to persist in the activity through challenges. Running also provided
an avenue for people to feel satisﬁed with their performance and with their lives in
general. Based on the ﬁndings of the current study, marathon running provides
individuals with the opportunity to fulﬁll their higher level needs of self-actualization and
self-transcendence.

Grounded Theory Approach

Existing theories on achievement motivation including Eccles’ expectancy-value
theory (Eccles, et al., 1983) and self-determination theory (Deci, 1971; Deci & Ryan,
2000) partially explained participant motives toward marathon running. Eccles
expectancy-values theory contends that choice, persistence, and performance can be
explained by perceived value of the activity and perceptions of success in that activity.
Participants in the current study highly valued the activity of running as indicated by race
enjoyment, developing a relationship with running, and the idea that running sets them
apart from others. Runners also believed they had the ability to be successful in races,
both ﬁom personal improvement as well as sometimes placing in races. Runners also
spoke of their capability to run marathons and focused on improvement of race and

training run pace.

145

 

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Looking to self-determination theory, runners in the current study identiﬁed
numerous themes fulﬁlling the three basic needs of competence, autonomy, and
relatedness. Runners spoke of accomplishing goals (competence), developing a sense of
self (autonomy), and experiencing social opportunities (relatedness). Furthermore,

’ participants discussed various degrees of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to train and
complete marathons. While participants mostly ran for intrinsic motives (i.e., sense of
self, mastery-oriented approach, and to connect with the outside world), runners also
enjoyed the extrinsic beneﬁts of improving their physical appearance, winning awards,
and collecting race t-shirts and jackets. Marathon running proved to be an avenue to
pursue an activity that offered the opportunity to ﬁll the needs of competence, autonomy,
and relatedness.

From a grounded theory approach, self-determination theory (Deci, 1971; Deci &
Ryan, 2000) provides a signiﬁcant theoretical ﬁ'amework for understanding motivation
and life meaning among recreational female marathon runners. Furthermore, including
the perceived value of the activity from Eccles’ and colleagues (1983) model helps to
explain why runners choose the marathon distance over other shorter distances. The
combination of the two theories provides an acceptable ﬁ'amework to understand what
motivates recreational individuals to train for and run marathons.

Limitations and Future Research Recommendations

While the present study ﬁlled a gap in the literature and provided a starting point
to understanding how marathon running helps build life meaning, several limitations to
the study did exist. Participants completed a range of marathons from one to ﬁve, at

signiﬁcantly different paces. Some runners were much more competitive qualifying for

146

 

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Boston, while others were run-walkers who were not focused on speed. Furthermore, all
of the runners except for two were members of a local running club; Finally, all runners
planned on completing additional marathons except for one participant who suffered an
injury and had a possible career-ending surgery. A more homogonous sample may have
improved the trustworthiness of results.

Another limitation of the study had to do with data collection. All participants
were interviewed face to face except for two interviews conducted over the phone. While
the same interview guide was utilized, a face-to-face connection was not established
during the phone interviews. Participants interviewed over the phone may not have felt as
comfortable divulging personal information about their running experiences.

Future studies on life meaning in marathon running should focus on the
experiences of male marathon runners, allowing for gender comparison. Additionally,
more probing questions relating to peak experiences and ﬂow states achieved during
running should be asked to gain insight into areas with little empirical support for the
exerciser p0pulation. Also a series of questions asking participants about other sources of
life meaning would provide hierarchical organization of sources of meaning. Finally,
other levels of marathon runners (Boston qualiﬁers, elite, and professional) should be
interviewed to understand the similarities and differences of life meaning across
competitive level. It would also be interesting to speak with other endurance athletes of
various sports (cycling, triathlon, swimming) to understand their experiences in relation
to the development of meaning.

In sum, while running is a healthy physical activity to improve ﬁtness, lose

weight, and attain a goal, commitment to marathon running has the potential to provide a

147

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greater sense of life meaning. Even after becoming aware of the importance and impact
running had for participants, all runners sometimes struggled to overcome motivational
barriers. Runners developed effective coping strategies to push themselves through such
barriers. With persistence, discipline, and commitment, running long distances can be an

enjoyable experience throughout ones entire life.

148

 

1f,-

Appendix A

DEMOGRAPHICS AND RUNNING HISTORY QUESTIONAIRES

 

Age: Occupation:

Circle one: Single Married Divorced

Do you have children: Yes (how many? ) No
Did you play any sports in high school or college? Yes No

If yes in high school list sports:

 

If yes in college list sports:

 

How long have you been running (months or years)?
How many and what type of races have you completed?

5K 10K Half Marathon Marathon Other

What are your personal best race ﬁnishing time(s)?
5K 10K Half Marathon Marathon Other

How many days per week do you train? On average how many miles/run?

What is your approximate training pace?

 

Do you train with partners, a group, or alone?
Do you participate in other sports and activities? YES NO

If yes, what activities?

 

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Appendix B l

MOMS

Motivations of Marathoners Scales (MOMS; Masters, Ogles, & Jolton, 1993)

Please rate each of the following items according to the scale below in terms of how
important it is as a reason for why you trained and ran a marathon. A score of 1 would
indicate that the item was “not a reason” for training and running the marathon; a score of
7 indicates that the item was “a most important reason” for your training for and running
the marathon; and scores in between represent relative degrees of each reason.

Not Most
A Important

Reason Reason
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. To help control my weight.

2. To compete with others.

3. To earn respect of peers.

4. To reduce my weight.

5. To improve my running speed.

6. To earn the respect of people in general.

7. To socialize with other runners.

8. To improve my health.

9. To compete with myself.

10. To become less anxious.

1 1. To improve my self-esteem.

12. To have something in common with other people.

13. To add a sense of meaning to life.

14. To prolong my life.

150

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15.

16.______
17.___
18.___
19.__

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

3 4 5
To become less depressed.
To meet people.
To become more physically ﬁt.
To distract myself from daily worries.
To make my family or friends proud of me.
To make my life more purposeful.
To look leaner.
To try to run faster.
To feel more conﬁdent about myself.
To participate with my family or ﬁiends.

To make myself feel whole.

To reduce my chance of having a heart attack.

To make my life more complete.

To improve my mood.

To improve my sense of self-worth.

To share a group identity with other runners.
It is a positive emotional experience.

To feel proud of myself.

To visit with friends.

To feel a sense of achievement.

To push myself beyond my current limits.

151

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Reason

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

3 4 5 '
To have time alone to sort things out.
To stay in physical condition.
To concentrate on my thoughts.
To solve problems.
To see how high I can place.
To feel a sense of belonging with nature.
To stay physically attractive.
To get a faster time than my ﬁiends.
To prevent illness.
People look up to me.
To see if I can beat a certain time.
To blow off steam.
Brings me recognition.
To have time alone with the world.

To get away from it all.

To make my body perform better than before.

To beat someone I’ve never beaten before.
To feel mentally in control of my body.
To get complements from others.

To feel at peace with the world.

To feel like a winner.

152

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Appendix C

INFORMED CONSENTS

UNDERSTANDING MEANING AND LIFE SATISFACTION IN
RECREATIONAL FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS
INFORMED CONSENT

You are being asked to participate in a research study conducted by Angela F ifer ﬁ'om
the Michigan State University for her dissertation research. The purpose of this study is
to understand the motivations of recreational marathon runners. In this study you are
asked to complete the following survey, which will take approximately 20-30 minutes to
complete. Your responses will remain conﬁdential; no one except the primary
investigator will have acCess to these responses. While, your name will be asked, no
individual names will appear in the results and only group-based ﬁndings will be made
available to those who are interested. Your conﬁdentiality will be protected to the
maximum extent allowable by law. There are no known risks associated with
participation in this study and you will not beneﬁt from your participation in this study.
All data, including demographic questionnaires, running histories, and surveys will be
stored in a locked ﬁle cabinet and maintained by the primary investigator for a period of
- three years after the ﬁnal report is submitted. All data will be accessible only by the
primary investigator, dissertation committee, and Internal Review Board.

Your participation in this study would be greatly appreciated. Our hope is that the
information gathered ﬁ'om the project will be used to help motivate other exercisers to
maintain their exercise program or begin a new exercise program. Please know that your
participation is voluntary and assumed by your completion of the online survey. You
must be 18 years of age or older to participate. Your participation in the study will enter
you into a drawing to receive a $25 gift certiﬁcate from Playrnakers. You may withdraw
from participation at any time without penalty. Furthermore, you may reﬁrse to answer
speciﬁc questions that you feel uncomfortable answering and can still be a part of the
study. If you have any concerns or questions about this research study, such as scientiﬁc
issues, how to do any part of it, or to report an injury, please contact the primary
investigator Dr. Daniel Gould at (517) 432-0175 or drgould@msu.edu or Angela F ifer at
(517)353-9691 or ﬁferang@msu.edu. If you have questions or concerns about your role
and rights as a research participant, would like to obtain information or offer input, or
would like to register a complaint about this study, you may contact, anonymously if you
wish, the Michigan State University's Human Research Protection Program at 517-355-
2180, Fax 517-432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail at 202 Olds Hall, MSU,
East Lansing, MI 48824.

I agree to participate in this research study.
Yes _
No

153

if”. "1‘ “""“‘ ““4

F‘m 7. Sr: ‘L- ”CEJ

UNDERSTANDING MEANING AND LIFE SATISFACTION IN
RECREATIONAL FEMALE MARATHON RUNNERS
INFORMED CONSENT

Purpose
The purpose of this study is to understand how marathon running provides personal

meaning and life satisfaction to recreational female runners. Additionally, to understand
why these runners participate in marathons despite knowing the physical pain and
psychological anguish associated with running long distances.

Procedures

If you volunteer to take part in this study, ﬁrst you will be given a disposable camera to
take pictures of what running means to you. You will drop off the camera to the running
store and the pictures will be developed for the interview. During the interview, you will
be asked questions regarding demographics, your running history, and why you run
marathons. The interview should take approximately 60-90 minutes. You are welcome to
stop the interview at any time and can also ask that the tape recorder be turned off for any

reason.

Conﬁdentiality
All of your responses in this study are conﬁdential. Your conﬁdentiality will be protected

to the maximum extent allowable by law. At no time will your name be associated with
any statements made during the interview. Following the interview, your transcript will
‘be assigned a number to protect your identity. All data, including photographs and
transcriptions will be stored in a locked ﬁle cabinet and maintained by the primary
investigator for a period of three years after the ﬁnal report is submitted. Digital audio
ﬁles of the interview will be password protected. All data will be accessible only by the
primary investigator, dissertation committee, and Internal Review Board.

Voluntary Participation

Please know that you may withdraw from participation at any time without penalty.
Furthermore, you may refuse to answer speciﬁc questions in the interview that you feel
uncomfortable answering and can still be a part of the study. You may also request the
audio tape to be stopped at any point. Refusal to participate will involve no penalty or
loss of beneﬁts.

Risk and Beneﬁts

There is minimal risk for emotional or psychological harm should you choose to
participate because of the sensitive nature of the interview questions. You may, but it is
unlikely that you will, experience some embarrassment, upset, or discomfort while
completing the interview.

This research might provide you with a better understanding of your experience and the
knowledge that you are not alone in your feelings.

154

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"x7 rut ’ Izgrvuﬁ “.4—

\

Compensation
For your participation in this study, you will receive a $10 gift certiﬁcate to Playmakers
immediately following the interview.

Contact Persons

If you have any concerns or questions about this research study, such as scientiﬁc issues,
how to do any part of it, or to report an injury, please contact the primary investigator,
Dr. Dan Gould in the Department of Kinesiology at (517) 432-0175 or by email at
drgould@msu.edu. You may also contact Angela Fifer at (517) 353-9691, or by email at
ﬁferang@msu.edu. If you have questions or concerns about your role and rights as a
research participant, would like to obtain information or offer input, or would like to
register a complaint about this study, you may contact, anonymously if you wish, the
Michigan State University's Human Research Protection Program at 517-355-2180, Fax
517-432-4503, or e-mail irb@msu.edu or regular mail at 202 Olds Hall, MSU, East
Lansing, MI 48824.

 

Consent
I have read this consent form and have been given the opportunity to ask questions. I give

my consent to participate in this study.

Please retain this document concerning your rights for your records.
Participant’s Signature 7 Date
Consent to Audio Tape

Consent to use Audio clips for Educational Purposes

 

155

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‘.
‘

Appendix D

INTERVIEW GUIDE

Part 1: Photo Interpretation

1.

2.

DJ

4.

Tell me about these photos. How do they describe your experience running?

What does running means to you?

. Which photo best describes why you run? Why?

For what other reasons do you run, that maybe were not captured in the photos?

Part II: Interview Questions

1.

What motivates you to run?

a.

b.

C.

What motives you to start a run when you might not want to run?
What motivates you to keep running during a tough run?

What motivates you after a really tough run?

2. Why do you run?

a.

b.

What do you get ﬁom running?

In what ways do you feel running satisﬁes or fulﬁlls you?

How does the activity of running effect you? (e.g., provides a tremendous
sense of accomplishment, allows me time to be by myself and self reﬂect,
gives me conﬁdence).

Does running meet any needs for you?

How much pain do you experience while training (in races)? How do you

cope with the pain you experience?

3. Why did you choose the marathon distance?

156

 

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Pan!

Describe your relationship with running?
a. Is running always positive for you? Why or why not?
How has running impacted your life?
What motivational barriers do you face when running and training for marathons?
a. Physical?
b. Emotional?
c. Environmental?
What motivates you to continue running after completing a marathon?

a. What motivational barriers have you experienced?

Part III: Conclusions and Thank You

1.

Is there anything else that you would like to discuss regarding your experiences as
a runner?

What are your future goals as a runner?

Thank you for your participation in this research!

157

 

 

 

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